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Alloxan Induced Diabetes Mechanisms and Effects PDF
Alloxan Induced Diabetes Mechanisms and Effects PDF
__________________________________________Review Article
group, that is called alloxantin.16 The drug has been necrotic cell death of pancreatic islets. The last and
noted to exert its diabetogenic action when the 4th phase of the blood glucose response is the
administered parenterally, i.e., intravenously, final permanent diabetic hyperglycemic phase
intraperitoneally or subcutaneously. Furthermore, during which complete degranulation and loss of
the dose of alloxan required for inducing diabetes the integrity of the beta cells within 24-48 h after
depends on the animal species, route of administration of the alloxan takes place.12,22-24,29
administration and nutritional status.17 Moreover, Surprisingly, the non-beta cells and other endocrine
alloxan has been demonstrated to be non-toxic to and non-endocrine islet cell types alongwith
the human beta-cells, even in very high doses, the extrapancreatic parenchyma remain intact,
reason of which may be attributed to the differing providing the evidence of selective toxic action of
glucose uptake mechanisms in humans and alloxan.28,30 Thus, alloxan injection has been noted
rodents.18-19 to induce an insulin-dependent type I like diabetes
syndrome and all the morphological features of
PHASES OF DIABETES INDUCTION beta cell destruction are characteristic for a necrotic
Alloxan has been used to induce experimental cell death.12,28,31
diabetes due to the selective destruction of the
insulin-producing pancreatic beta-islets. Alloxan MECHANISM OF ACTION
induces a multiphasic blood glucose response when Alloxan-induced diabetes has been commonly
injected into to an experimental animal, which is employed as an experimental model of insulin
accompanied by corresponding inverse changes in dependent diabetes mellitus. The mechanism of
the plasma insulin concentration followed by alloxan action has been thoroughly studied which
sequential ultrastructural beta cell changes currently can be characterized quite well. Several
ultimately leading to necrotic cell death. The first experimental studies have demonstrated that
phase that comes into view within the first minutes alloxan evokes a sudden rise in insulin secretion in
after alloxan injection is transient hypoglycemic the presence or absence of glucose which appeared
phase that lasts maximally for 30 minutes.12,20 This just after alloxan treatment.32-33 This particular
little hypoglycemic response has been noted to be alloxan-induced insulin release occurs for short
the result of a transient stimulation of insulin duration followed by the complete suppression of
secretion that was confirmed by an increase of the the islet response to glucose even when high
plasma insulin concentration.21 The underlying concentrations of glucose were used.21 Further, the
mechanism of this transient hyperinsulinemia may alloxan action in the pancreas is preceded by its
be attributed to a temporary increase in ATP rapid uptake by pancreatic beta cells that have been
availability due to inhibition of glucose proposed to be one of the important features
phosphorylation through glucokinase inhibition. determining alloxan diabetogenicity. Moreover, in
The 2nd phase appearing one hour after pancreatic beta cells, the reduction process occurs
administration of alloxan leads to rise in blood in the presence of different reducing agents like
glucose concentration. Moreover, the plasma reduced glutathione (GSH), cysteine, ascorbate and
insulin concentration has been noted to decrease at protein-bound sulfhydryl (-SH) groups.34-35 Alloxan
the same time. This is the first hyperglycemic reacts with two -SH groups in the sugar binding
phase after the first contact of the pancreatic beta site of glucokinase resulting in the formation of the
cells with the toxin.12,22-24 This hyperglycemic disulfide bond and inactivation of the enzyme. As a
phase lasts for 2-4 hours which is accompanied by result of alloxan reduction, dialuric acid is formed
decreased plasma insulin concentrations. These which is then re-oxidized back to alloxan
changes are a result of inhibition of insulin establishing a redox cycle for the generation of
secretion from the pancreatic beta cells that is reactive oxygen species (ROS) and superoxide
attributed to the induction due to their beta cell radicals.36-37 The superoxide radicals liberate ferric
toxicity. ions from ferritin and reduce them to ferrous and
The 3rd phase is again a hypoglycemic phase that ferric ions.38 In addition, superoxide radicals
is noted 4-8 hours after the alloxan injection, which undergo dismutation to yield hydrogen peroxide
lasts for several hours.12,23-25 The flooding of (H2O2) in the presence of superoxide dismutase. As
circulation with insulin occurs as a result of the a result, highly reactive hydroxyl radicals are
alloxan-induced secretory granule and cell formed according to the Fenton reaction in the
membrane rupture resulting in severe transitional presence of ferrous and H2O2.
hypoglycemia.26-27 In addition, other subcellular Another mechanism that has been reported is the
organelles are also ruptured that include cisternae effect of ROS on the DNA of pancreatic islets. The
of rough endoplasmic reticulum and the golgi fragmentation of DNA takes place in the beta cells
complex. Moreover, the outer and inner exposed to alloxan that causes DNA damage,
membranes of the mitochondria loose structural which stimulates poly ADP-ribosylation, a process
integrity in this particular phase.28-29 These changes participating in DNA repair. Antioxidants like
are irreversible and highly characteristic for a superoxide dismutase, catalase and the non-
enzymatic scavengers of hydroxyl radicals have of diabetes in the laboratory animals by alloxan
been found to protect against alloxan toxicity. 39 In injection is the result of selective uptake of alloxan
addition, the disturbance in intracellular calcium via GLUT2 into a pancreatic beta cell.42,48 The
homeostasis has also been reported to constitute an effective prevention of redox cycling and
important step in the diabetogenic action of generation of ROS can prevent pancreatic beta cell
alloxan. It has been noted that alloxan elevates death and counteract the development of alloxan
cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration in the beta cells of diabetes in vivo.12,46,49-50 Hence, it can be
pancreatic islets.40 The calcium influx is resulted summarized that the alloxan-induced pancreatic
from the ability of alloxan to depolarize pancreatic beta cell toxicity and the resultant diabetogenicity
beta cells that further opens voltage dependent is due to the redox cycling and the toxic ROS
calcium channels and enhances calcium entry into generation in combination with the hydrophilicity
pancreatic cells. The increased concentration of and the glucose similarity of the molecular shape of
Ca2+ ion further contributes to supraphysiological alloxan.
insulin release that alongwith ROS has been noted
to ultimately cause damage of beta cells of CONCLUSION
pancreatic islets.6,10,12 The chemical induction of diabetes appears to be
the most popularly used procedure in inducing
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS diabetes mellitus in experimental animals. The
Alloxan is a hydrophilic and unstable chemical foremost drug-induced diabetic model is the
compound which has similar shape as that of alloxan diabetes that is capable of inducing type I
glucose, which is responsible for its selective diabetes mellitus in experimental animals. The
uptake and accumulation by the pancreatic beta surgical and genetic methods of diabetes induction
cell.41 Similarity in the shape allows it to transports are associated with a high percentage of animal
into the cytosol by the glucose transporter morbidity and mortality. Hence, alloxan induced
(GLUT2) in the plasma membrane of beta cell.41-42 diabetes model appears to be the most reliable and
Another biological effect of alloxan has been easily reproducible method of inducing diabetes
attributed to the thiol group reactivity that allows mellitus in experimental animals. So, efforts should
selective inhibition of glucose-induced insulin be made towards upbringing and uplifting the
secretion through inhibition of glucokinase. This model of alloxan induced diabetes mellitus in the
inhibition of glucose-induced insulin secretion has experimental animals.
been regarded as the major pathophysiological
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