Unit 1 What Are Hydrocarbons? How Do They Act?What Are Hydrocarbons—How Do They Act? is about what goes (on in the units. It begins by explaining the nature of oil, how itis ‘made up and what happens to its structure when it is cracked or reformed. Next it discusses the different properties of oil, giving special attention to those properties often referred to or measured in the refining process. The final sections are devoted to explanations of se latent heat, vapor pressure and partial pressure. Thes form a review of the basic principles which underlie the di lation process, and are presented as background for future sections Of the program which will explain the actual practical operation of distillation units, How Distillation Works is about the process of distillation and how it works. The unit is designed to develop, logically, the knowledge of the distillation process from the elementary ‘hell still through to the mechanisms of reflux, reboiling, and side stream drawing of the sophisticsted fractionator. ‘An important section describes the temperature profile of the tower in distillation, showing the nature of the flow of liquid and vapors in the tower, and the reasons for the flow. ‘The final section is a review and summary of the entire distillation process.HERE ARE SOME SAMPLE ITEMS TO GIVE YOU PRACTICE WITH “PROGRAMED LEARNING.’ First, we say something, like thie: “A program may look very much like a test, or exami- nation, but it is not a test.” ‘Neat, we ask you for an interpretation, or we say more about what we have just said but leave something out for you to fll in, like this: “A program is not a___” Nest, you ft in the blank, and thea move down the mask at the right to see if your ansiwer is correct. If your ansiver is wrong, review wntil you can see why it ie wrong, and then go on to the nest item. If your answer is rright, go on at once. Instead of a blank to fll in, we may give ‘you a choice of tivo answers. Cirele or underline the right one, “No one grades you on the answers you give in studying ‘program. However, filling in all the answers is impor- tant for your own learning and remembering. “It (is/is not) important to fill in all the answers as you study a program.” Here is one more example: “A program permits you to study at your own rate of speed. Take time to read each item carefully, because skimming and guessing make for poor learning. “In studying a program, itis (helpful/‘wasteful) to give each item close attention.” Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside down, The program és designed 20 that you will go ‘through all the right-hand pages first, and then turn the book upside down and go through the other pages. Now, go on to Page 2 and begin. mi Before beginning, cover this column with the mas, test is helpfulTHE NATURE OF OIL Exhibite 1 through 12 are placed in the center of the book 80 that they may be removed easily for reference. Please remove them now so that you will have them available when needed. 1. All substances are made up of atoms. Atoms are so ssmall that they eannot be seen by the most powerful mieroseopes. oi is made up of 2 There are many different Kinds of atoms. Some of the ‘more commonly known ones are hydrogen atoms, earhon atoms, oxygen atoms, iran atoms and aluminam atoms, A piece of carbon is made up of _____ atoms. 8, Most atoms can combine or unite with other atoms in a chemical reaction, ‘The combined groups of atoms are called molecuter, ‘Molecules are groups of ___which are com- bined as a result of a chemieal reaction, When 2 hydrogen atoms combine with 1 oxygen atom, in a process called a chemical , they form a water molecule, 5, ‘The attraction which holds atoms together in molecules is called a chemical bond, Chemical bonds hold the hydrogen atoms and the oxygen atom together in a water 6. The attractions which prevent molecules from breaking: apart are called 7. The process in which atoms are joined by chemical bonds to form molecules is called a 8 The process by which molecules break apart into atoms or rearrange into other molecules is also called a chemi- ‘eal reaction. ‘A chemical reuetion is a process in which chemical ——____are formed, are broken, or are both formed and broken. t2q atoms carbon atoms reaction moleeale chemical bonds chemical reaction bonds10, nL. 12, Th When 1 carbon stom and 4 hydrogen atoms combine, ‘8 methane molecule is formed. Each H represents 1 hydrogen atom Each C represents 1 carbon atom Each — represents 1 chemical bond ‘Methane contains (2/4/5) bonds. 4 jethane molecules may be represented in another way: CH, ‘The number 4 in the formula CH indicates that there are 4 atoms in methane. hydrogen Recherche fi wht ni As the diagram shows, ethane has Fa carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms, and bonds. Because methane sind ethane are made up of hydrogen atoms and carbon atoms, and nothing else, they are called hydrocarbons. Propane is a hydrocarbon. It (eontains/does not con- tain) oxygen, does not contain Exhibit 1 shows some of the hydrocarbons which are formed from carbon and hydrogen. Propane contains —______earbon atoms and 8 hhydrogen atoms. 8 Ethylene has 2 carbon atoms and 4 hydrogen atoms. ‘The double line drawn between the carbon atoms shows that there are 2 bonds, or a double bond, between the carbon atoms, Hose ha Ethylene Hc=c-H Acetylene ‘Acetylene has a (double/triple) bond. triple (8)15. 16, m 18, 19, 20, a. Im hydrocarbon molecules, even those with double or triple bonds, a carbon atom always has exactly 4 bonds. Each carbon atom in the hydrocarbon molecules shown in Exhibit 1 has bonds, Each hydrogen atom has | ___bond. In forming molecules, each carbon atom must have 4 bonds and each hydrogen atom must have 1 bond, ut wotin oe toms im thls cagram ar/de,nt-nee) he Tenia ea Hy whl, ‘ ‘The atoms in this dlagram (have/do not have) the right number of bonds. As crude oil comes from the ground, it is « mixture of many kinds of molecules, In this form it is not very useful, However, through refining it is separated into various products, or fractions. Each fraetion has a specific luse and can be sold for that use, ‘The fraction which is sold for use as car fuel is One method of separating erude oil into is called distillation or fractionation, Since distillation or fractionation does not involve the breaking or forming of molecules, the separation of erude oil into fractions by distillation (is/is not) chemical reaction, Very large hydrocarbon molecules have limited use- fulness, By means of a chemical reaction called eracking they can be broken down into molecules, which are more useful Breaking large, complex hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules is called tay do not have gasoline fractions Is not smaller cracking.22, 23. 24, 25. 26. 27. Hydrocarbon molecules in the naphtha range can be reformed and changed into more useful molecules of roughly the same size. ‘Through a series of chemical reactions, atoms or groups of atoms are added, removed, or rearranged, resulting in different hydrocarbon molecules with higher octane properties. In oil refining, the name for this restructuring of hydro- carbon _____ is reforming. Although some operators use cracking and reforming to mean about the same thing, it is increasingly im- portant to distinguish between them as new, more- specialized refining processes are developed. ‘The term referring to molecular restructuring is The term reforming refers to the rearrangement of = structure, ‘The term cracking refers to breaking large into smaller ‘The term fractionation refers to the separation of mixtures of hydrocarbons without affecting their structure. Mixtures of different hydrocarbons may be separated by distillation or_/ 1 — this separation of molecules (is/is not) a chemical reaction. Hydrocarbon molecules may be changed into different, more useful molecules by either oF s these changes (are/are not) chemical reactions, Another way to make hydrocarbons more useful and valuable is to combine them with other atoms, such as oxygen or nitrogen, For example, it is possible to take ethylene and water 4-0-4 and combine their atoms to form ethyl alcohol. yo H-¢-C-o# ha Combining atoms in this way (requires/does not re- quire) a chemical reaction. [6] molecules reforming molecular molecules molecules cracking reforming, are requiresPROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 28. Every substance has properties which distinguish it ‘rom other substances, ina given situation, Some prop- erties by which petroleum substances may differ from each other in processing are: temperature pressure density gravity viscosity: miscibility (ability to mix with other substances). ‘Temperature, pressure, density, gravity, viscosity, and miscibility are by which petroleum properties substances may differ from each other. For frames 29 through 40, refer to Exhibit 2, 29, The familiar Fahrenheit temperature scale is referred to in terms of degrees Fahrenheit, abbreviated °F. Other scales sometimes used in associated indust the Centigrade scale degrees Centigrade “C. the Kelvin scale dogrees Kelvin °K. the Rankine scale degrees Rankine -R. ‘The 4 scales used to measure temperature are Rankine, Kelvin, aie, Centigrade, Fahrenheit 30. At 100°C, water (boils/freczes), bolls ‘At 492°R, water (boils /freezes). freeres Sf AL BIZ, water (boils /freezes) boils ‘At 878 °K, water (holla/freezes). boils 51. To convert a specific temperature of °F (degrees Fahr- enheit) to °C (degrees Centigrade), a simple caleula- tion is used: given so many °F, first subtract 32. Then ‘multiply the remainder by 5, and divide the result by 9. ‘Thus, 212 °F converts to 100°C as follows: 212 °F — 82 = 180 Then, 180% % = 100 Now, convert 77°F to °C. TE = aa 45 Then, eg Re ee 45, 25 82. 113-°F is equal to eG, 45 rel38. 34, 85. 36, 37. 38, ‘To convert a specific temperature which you know in terms of *C to ", a simple ealeulation is used: given 50 many °C, first multiply °C by 9, and divide the result by 5. Then add 82 to the remainder. Thus, 100°C converts to 212 °F as follows: 100°C x % = 180° Then, 180°} 82°= 212°F Convert 25°C to 25x ‘Then, + 82 50°C is equal tose, To convert °F to °C, subtract" _, multi ply the remainder by and divide that See ys = To convert °C to °F, multiply by _"_, divide by and then add ‘The Rankine and Kelvin sesles are absolute scales. On an absolute seale, 0” is the lowe: there is, temperature ‘The lowest possible temperature is > on an absolute scale, It is easy to change Rankine readings to Fahrenheit readings. The number to remember is 460. To convert “R to °F, subtract 460 from °R, Thus, 530 °R becomes 70°F, as follows: 530°R — 460 = 70°F To convert “F to °R, add 460 to °F. Thus, 0 °F be- comes 460 °R, as follows: O°F + 460 = 460°R 82°F converts to______-R, It is also easy to change Kelvin readings to Centi- grade readings. The number to remember is 279. ‘To convert from *K to °C, subtract 278 from °K. Thus, 828 *K becomes 50 °C, as follows: 828 °K ~ 278 = 50°C To convert °C to °K, add 278 to °C. Thus, 273° below zero Centigrade (273 °C) hecomes 0 °K, as follows: “273°C + 278 = 0°K, 100 °C converts to. t7d % 45 45 77 m8 8 492 87339, 40, 41. 42. 43. 4 45. 4, ‘To convert “F to °R, add ‘To convert °C to "K, add If an operator reports a temperature of 300°, what ‘more would you need to know ahout that temperature? For frames 41 through 58 refer to Exhibit 8, Another property of substances is pressure, Pressure in often measured in pounds per square inch. ‘This fig- lure refers to the weight or force exerted on 1 square inch of area. ‘The weight of the atmosphere (at sea level) is 14.7 Pounds per aguare inch. Thus, atmosphere pressure pounds per square inch. ‘The pressure in a tank is usually indicated on a gage which shovrs the difference between the pressure in the tank and the pressure of the atmosphere, The pressure indieated on such a gage is called the gage pressure and is abbreviated PSIG, ‘The abbreviation PSIG means Pounds per Gage. Although PSIG is a useful measure, it isnot the “true,” ‘total. pressure. ‘The true pressure in a tank is called the absolute pres- sure, Absolute pressure is abbreviated PSIA. ‘The abbreviation PSTA stands for per ‘The true or absolute pressure in a tank is the gage pressure plus the atmospheric pressure, That is: PSIA = PSIG + 14.7. If the gage pressure is 10 PSIG, the absolute pressure in the tank is PSIA. Atmospheric pressure = 0 PSIG Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 PSIA PSIA is always 14.7 greater than PSIG PSIA = PSIG + _1 FAG = Pera Pe 3. Tf gage pressure is 100 PSIG, absolute pressure is ‘When PSIA is less than 14.7, we have a partial vacuum in the tank, and PSIG is less than 0, If PSIA is 82, there (is/is not) a partial vacuum in the tank. PSIG is (more/less) than 0. [8] 460 8 ‘The scale used ua Square Inch Pounds Squate Inch Absolute 24.7, or 10 +147 = 24.7 uaa 7 114.7, or 100 + 14.7 = 114.743, 49, 50. Bi. 52, 53, 56. When PSIG is 5 less than 0, it is often called 5 PSI At 5 PSI vacuum, PSIA is 5 less than 14.7. At 9 PSI vacuum, PSTA is 9 less than 14.7. 12 PSI vacuum is equal to_____ SIA. If all the air could be removed from a closed tank there would be no pressure in the tank, and a perfect vacuum would exist. For a perfect vacuum to exist, the gage pressure must be 14.7 PSIG less than atmospheric pressure, or 14.7 PSI vacuum, ‘The absolute pressure is PSIA, Another method of indicating pressure is in atmos- pheres. One atmosphere is equal to 14.7 PSI. Thus, 2 atmospheres are equal to 2 x 14.7, or 294 PSI. ‘Ten atmospheres are equal to___PSI. A third common method of indicating pressure is in inches of merewry. 14.7 PSI is equal to 28.9 inches of mercury. ‘Thus, 1 PSI is equal to approximately 2.03 5 PSI vacuum (5 PSI less than atmospheric pressure) ig equivalent to 5 x 2.03, or 10.15 inches of mereury vacuum (10.15 inches of mercury below atmospheric pressure). 10 PSI vacuum is equivalent to____° __ inches of mereury vacuum. Another property of a substance, gravity, is the heavi ness of the substance. ‘The heaviness of oils is custom- arily measured in terms of API gravity. ‘The heaviness of a substance is its API gravity is a measure of the of oils. API gravity is an arbitrary scale on which 10 °APT is as heavy as water, An oil that is exactly the same weight as water would be measured at______°API. Kerosine is measured at about 42“API. Gasoline, which is lighter than kerosine, is measured at about 60 °API. ‘The lighter the oil, the (higher/lower) its API gravity. ce] a7 0, or 14.7 — 14.7 aT, or 10 x 14.7 inches of mereury 2030 gravity heaviness 10 higherEXHIBIT 1 cH, ‘Methane Cae Ethane CsHs Propane CuHLe Normal Butane CiHhse Isobutane ‘ =-0-= 5 8 Normal Pentane CoB: Tsopentane or “e s a a H-c=c—H CH, Acetylene CoHis CyclohexaneEXHIBIT 2 TEMPERATURE SCALES ects otcness ects crs asenerr caNTIGHADE rauvin tannin 7 “e *e *e = | . [ oo © ss E Ps 300 150 | | E10 wares sous ane wo elas 10 E | 5 @ » | ‘0 | _eaet te ae a a i 2 = 40 = -10 E : Seas = 20 : a = 200 = 20 FE : > 00 = 400Inches Mercury 30 EXHIBIT 3 ee I Ile 147 {T Fevnis pe Sayin Abe YocumEXHIBIT 4 R 2 2 Ey = LMTOSAY “NI ‘OS/S81 “SUNSSI¥d_YOAVA 16 170 210 BO ‘TEMPERATURE, °FEXHIBIT 5 aco oo odo oo }} oo | es ga ae — om fey el S (s} c =) ol a —) sls laan} a 1 SSS 5 ca — SS lc FURNACE CONDENSER EARLY BATCH STILL 5 CONDENSED VAPORS LIQUID MIXTURE 50% HEXANE — 50% PENTANEsa Bi ATSNONNILNOD AYatt ino ainon ANVINGd %05 ANVIGH %05 0334 ANVIGH “Le SNONNILNOD NVAINGd 469 AISNONNILNOD LN ‘SYO4VA 3SNIGNOD wasNgaNOD 9 LISIHXaANVIGH %os aNVGH ss8 ANYYGH %St aNWIGH 369 ANVANGE %05 ANVANAd %S1 aNVINGd Sez BNVINGE 1 0334 aInol ‘ainon anon anon SNOANILNOD |) san sya } Cc D c c D ane T foal ae eaent 4. et 4.561 41 € Tus z Tus mus aNWIGH %59 aNVIaH ss ANVIGH Ze SNVINGE 5 ANVANAA Sot ANVANG 6 ‘SNOdVA ‘SiodvA ‘SNOdVA ‘aaSN30NOD aaSN30NOD aSN3QNOD WaSNIGNOD ‘YaSN3GNOD ‘WISNIGNOD ‘ 2 AIgIHXaANVX3H %0S ai Ge nyay as ivan ainon ‘inom emus z nus aNVIGH %99 ANVLNAd Se ANWGH %ce ‘SUOSVA ANVINAd 489 ‘BLVSNIQNOD 8 LISIHXaEXHIBIT 9. VAPOR FROM STRIFPING SECTION 8% PENTANE 37% HEXANE neue ILING LIQUID = FEED Re 50% PENTANE 7 30%, HEXANE RISING VAPORS ok vi REBOILER BOTTOM PRODUCT 15% PENTANE 85% HEXANEEXHIBIT 11 COOLING WATER OVERHEAD aS ee | CONDENSER | WATER ‘ACCUMULATOR \ RECTIFYING SECTION ‘i we J (aw we ) PRODUCT 99% PENTANE FEED 1% HEXANE S09, PENTANE i Es ee 50% HEXANE STRIPPING. SECTION REBOILER, BOTTOMS 1% PENTANE | =e 99% HEXANE |EXHIBIT 12 OVERHEAD VAPORS ‘CONDENSER. REFLUX =~ GASOLINE Lvaros RECTIFYING: i 4 r= ee NAPHTHA 5 __sTRInING re COLUMNS 4 8 ral + SEE GAS ONL ‘A pSTRIPPING CRUDE on LOG ay cre) "STEAM FEED FURNACE sae CRUDE81. 59, 60. 61. 62, Specific gravity velates the heaviness of one substance to the heaviness of another. Oil is usually related to water, and gases are usually related to air. The relative heaviness of an oil to water is its The relative heaviness of a gas to air is its A property similar to gravity is density. Density is normally expressed in pounds per cubie foot. One cubie foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds. ‘The density of water is pounds per ceubie foot. One cubie foot of liquid hexane weighs 41.2 pounds. Hexane's density is ______pounds per cubie foot. Viscosity is a measure of the “thickness” or fluidity of liquid. For instance, molasses is very thick and vis- cous. Therefore, we say that molasses has a very high viscosity. Water flows very easily and has a (high/low) viscosity. In order to pump a fluid of high viscosity, such as heavy fuel oil or asphalt, a high pumping pressure (pressure arop) is required, To pump a fluid of low viscosity such as water, a ___ pressure drop is required. When two liquids mix without separating, they are said to be miscible. When two liquids do not mix, and the lighter liquid floats on top of the heavier liquid, they are immiscible. GASOLINE WATER ‘The gasoline in the beaker is floating on top of the water. The two liquids are Alcohol and water mix. ‘They are [10] specific gravity specific gravity 624 412 low immiscible miscible64, ‘This section has described such properties of substances, as temperature, pressure, gravity, density, viscosity, and miscibility. If we measure the heaviness of a substance in relation ‘to another substance, we are measuring its specific If we measure a substance in pounds per cubic foot, ‘we are measuring its If we measure thickness or fluidity, we are measuring Lf we test to see whether two liquids mix, we are testing to see if they are —__ HEAT 65. er. 10. n. Heat is a form of energy. Specifically, heat is thermal energy. Adding heat to ‘a substance is the same thing as adding. to the substance, ‘The amount of thermal energy in a material depends on its temperature. At high temperatures substances have a large amount of thermal energy. At low temperatures substances have only a amount of thermal energy. ‘The thermal energy of material can be increased by increasing its temperature. In order to increase its temperature we must (add/ remove) heat, In order to increase the temperature of a material, ‘must be added. In order to decrease its temperature, thermal energy mina eae el, Water at 200 °F has (more/less) thermal energy than water at 70°F, ‘Tho tomporature of water ean be increased from 70°F to 100 °F by adding. ‘When heat that is added to » material increases the temperature of the material, this heat is ealled sensible ‘eat, because it is possible to “sense” or feel this change in temperature. Sensible heat is heat added to____the tom- perature of a substance. tay gravity density viscosity miscible ‘thermal energy ‘small add heat, or thermal energy removed ‘more heat, or thermal energy increase2. 74. B. 76. 11. 8. 79. 80. 81. ‘Sometimes heat is added to a material without changing its temperature. For instance, when heat is added to water at 212 °F in an open container, the water boils and its tempera- ture does not rise above" _°F, Heat which is applied to boil or vaporize a material is called latent heat. Heat added to boil water already at 212 °F is (atent/ sensible) heat. To condense steam at 212°F to water at 212 °F, the heat (added/removed) is latent heat. ‘The heat added to vaporize a liquid which is already at boiling temperature is ——_ ‘The heat removed to condense a vapor is —__ Amounts of heat or thermal energy are measured in British Thermal Units, abbreviated BTU. a is a unit of heat. To raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 °F, 1 BTU of sensible heat is added to the water. To raise the temperature of 1 pound of water from 70°F to 71°F requires _____ BTU. ‘To raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 2°F requires 2 BTU. ‘To raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 25 °F requires _____ BTU. One BTU is the amount of sensible heat required to raise the temperature of _______ pound of water ‘The amount of sensible heat required to raise the tem- perature of a material can be calculated as follows: BTU required = heat capacity x pounds of material x increase in temperature, Heat capacity is a factor which depends on the kind of material. The heat capacity of water = 1. ‘The number of BTU required to raise the temperature of & pounds of water by 1°F is __ BTU. ‘The number of BTU required to raise the temperature of 10 pounds of water by 5 °F is BTU. 121 212 latent removed latent heat: Intent heat BrU 25 Bor 1x 5x1 50, or 1 x 10 x 582, When 970 BTU of latent hest are added to water at 212°F, 1 pound of water boils off or vaporizes. If 4940 BTU are added, 2 pounds vaporize. The amount of latent heat required can be ealeulated as follows: BTU required = heat of vaporization X pounds of material ‘The approximate heats of vaporization for some mate- rials are listed below with their boiling points. Heat of Vaporization Bolling Point Water 970 BTU per pound 212 °F (approx. Gasoline 140 BTU per pound 240°F average) Butane 165 BTU per pound 81°F ‘To vaporize 1 pound of water req BIW of latent heat. ‘To vaporize 1 pound of gasoline requires BTV of latent hest. ‘To vaporize 1 pound of butane requires. BTU of latent heat. 83. The heat of vaporization of gasoline is BTU per pound. ‘4, ‘The heat of vaporization of butane ts BTU per pound. 85. The heat of vaporization of water is BTU per pound. 86, To boil or evaporate 100 pounds of gasoline requires [BTU of latent heat. 81, If sensible heat is removed from a substance, the teme perature of the substance decreases. The amount of sensible heat that must be removed to decrease the temperature ean be calculated as follows (by almost exactly the same method a8 the amount that must be ‘added to ineresse the temperature) : BTU removed = heat capacity x pounds of ‘material x decrease in temperature ‘To decrease the temperature of 10 pounds of water by 10°F, remove ____BTU, 88 The heat capacity of gasoline is approximately 0.5. ‘To raite the temperature of 2 pounds of gasoline by 5°P requires 0.5 x 2 x 5, which is: 05 "2 So x6 5 BTU ‘To raise the temperature of 12 pounds of gasoline by 5°F requires ____ BTU. 03] 970 0 165, 0 165 970 14,000, or 140 x 100 100, or 4 x 10 x10 80, of 05 X 12 x 589, The way to find how much sensible heat is required to raise the temperature of a material is: [BTU required = __ capacity x —___ of material x_n temperature. 90, ‘The way to find how much sensible heat must be re- moved to decrease the temperature of a material is BTU removed of material % in tom- perature, 91, ‘To decrease the temperature of 7 pounds of gasoline from 1 to 65°F, romove__ BTU. PROBLEMS. (The problems in items 92 through 97 re- ‘quire the use of much of the material already covered {mn this section, Try to work them out from memory fiet, but feel free to review if you need to.) 92, If 10 pounds of water st 70 °F is placed in a kettle and hheuted until it is completely vaporize, BTU of sensible heat is required. BTU of latent heat is required. 94, ‘The total heat (sensible and latent) that is required Garo pr, 95, When water evaporates and becomes steam, it is then possible to heat the steam to higher temperatures. ‘The heat capacity of steam is 0.45. ‘To change 1 pound of steam at 212 °F to 1 pound of steam at 240 °F requires ___ BTU. 96. The heat eapacity of water is 1 "The heat capacity of steam 97. To change 1 pound of water at 70°F to 1 pound of steam at 00 °F roquires: ‘Sensible heat to raise to boiling point = BTU. ‘Heat to vaporize 1 pound at 212 °F = BTU. Heat to raise temperature of stesm to 80°F = BTU. ‘Total heat required = _____BTU. may heat, pounds | Treat capacity ‘pounds, decrease 35, or 5x 7x 10 1420, or 1 x 10 x (212 —70) 9700, or 970 x 10 azo 126 045 M2, or 1x 1 x 102 970, or 1 x 970 398, or 045 x 1 x (800 ~212) approximately 1152, or 142 + 970 + 396VAPOR PRESSURE 98. ‘The words gas and vapor mean the same thing. Another word for gas is 99. A gas or vapor consists of molecules in random and ‘chaotic motion. ‘Think of millions of small partieles moving in all diree- tions in the air in the room, They (collide/do not collide) with each other repeatedly. 100, ‘There are many a gas. between molecules in 101. The molecules of a vapor in a container repeatedly have e —with the walls of the container. 102, When many gas molecules collide repeatedly with the walls of a container, these collisions add up to a pres- sure exerted on the walls. Gas molecules in random motion exert a on the walls of a container. 108. ‘The pressure which causes a balloon to remain inflated is caused by colliding with the wall of the balloon, 104. If the tomperature of a gas is increased, the molecules {in the gas move faster. At a higher temperature, the vapor molecules move At a lower temperature, the vapor molecules move 105. ‘The more rapid motion at higher temperatures results {in (more/less) violent collisions of the molecules. 106. As the molecules move faster and the collisions become ‘more violent, molecules in a closed container strike the ‘walls with more force. ‘The pressure, therefore, (Increases/decreases) 107. If the temperature of a gas in a closed container Is Inereased, the molecular collisions become more violent, ‘and the of the was is increased. 108. The pressure of a gas in an open container cannot he inereased, sinee some of the gas would eseape to equal- ize the pressure with the surroundings. If the temperature of a gas in an open container is inereased, the _____ remains the same. [15] vapor collide collisions collisions pressure ‘molecules faster more increases, pressure pressure109. 110. a. m2. 13, au. 118, 6. ut. us. 19. ‘The pressure of a gas in (an open/a closed) container ean be increased by increasing the temperature, ‘The pressure of a gas in (an open/a closed) container cannot be inereased by Increasing the temperature. Like the molecules of gases, the ___of liquid are constantly in motion. Unlike the molecules of gases, the molecules of a are held close together by natural at- ‘traction between the molecules. In a liquid, the attraction between molecules tends to ‘keep each molecule confined to a small space. Within this space « molecule is usually in violent motion. ‘The violent_______of the molecules at the surface of # liquid eauses many of these molecules to escape from the liquid. If the temperature of a liquid Is (increased /decrensed) , ‘the motion of the moleeules becomes more violent. ‘When the motion of the molecules in a liquid becomes more violent, more ‘escape from the surface, ‘As the temperature of a liquid is incressed, the mole- cules from the liquid surface more rapidly. If an empty container is partially filled with liquid, _______eaeape from the surface of the liquid, Forming a vapor in the space above the surface. Gas molecules which strike the surface of a liquid tend to stick to the liquid. ‘Thus, molecules may be escaping the liquid and return- ing to the from the gas at the same time, When vessel contains both a liquid and a vapor, molecules are continually going from the liquid to the ‘and from the vapor to the —____. When the number of molecules leaving the liquid equals the number entering the liquid, the gas and the liquid are said to be in equilibrium with each other. ‘At equilibrium, equal numbers of molecules pass be- ‘tween the, sand ther [187 a closed ‘an open ‘molecules guid motion increased molecules escape relecules liguia vapor, or gas; liquid ligula; vapor, or gas120. 1a. 124, 135, 126. wat. 1238. When more molecules are escaping the liquid than re- turning, the liquid is said to be evaporating. ‘The process in which a greater number of moleeules Teaves the liquid than enters it is ealled ‘When more molecules are entering the liquid from the vapor than are escaping the liquid, the vapor is con- densing. ‘The process in which a greater number of molecules ‘enter the liquid than leave itis called —____. ‘When the temperature of a liquid is increased, the pressure of the vapor in equilibrium with it increases ‘and maintains equilibrium, On the other hand, when the temperature of a Tiquid fs decreased, the pressure of the vapor decreases and ‘maintains When a liquid and a vapor are at equilibrium, the pres- sure of the vapor is called the vapor pressure of the liquid. ‘The pressure of the vapor in equilibrium with a liquid is called the of the liquid. ‘The pressure of a gas or vapor above the surface of liquid in a closed container is not necessarily the same as the vapor pressure of the liquid. In order for the pressure of the gas to be equal to the vapor pressure of the liguld, the gas and the liq ‘must be in_____with each other. ‘When the temperature of a liquid in a closed container is increased, the pressure of the vapor increases until the vapor and the liquid are at equilibrium with each other. ‘Therefore, if the temperature of a liquid its vapor pressure is (increased decreased). increased, ‘When the temperature of a liquid is decreased, its pres- sure fs ‘When a liquid is placed in an open container and heated, both its vapor pressure and its rate of evaporation ‘When a liquid is placed in an open container and heated, its increases. tu evaporation condensation equilibrium ‘vapor pressure equilibrium inereased decreased snerease ‘vapor pressure128. 181, 182, 183, 134, 135, 136, When liguid in an open container is heated until the vapor pressure equals the pressure of the atmosphere, evaporation becomes very rapid, and the liquid boils. A. liquid boils when its vapor pressure becomes to the pressure of the surroundings. If the pressure over a bolling liquid is inereased, the boiling: temperature is increased. If the pressure over a boiling liquid is decreased, the boiling temperature is ‘The boiling point of a liquid may be increased by the pressure on the liquid, ‘The boiling point of a liquid may be decreased by —— the pressure on the liquid. Since the pressure of the atmosphere on the top of & ‘mountain is lower than at sea level, liquids boil at (higher /lower) temperatures on top of « mountain. ‘The vapor pressures for different liquids at the same ‘temperature are not the same. ‘Therefore, water and pentane have (the same/differ- ent) vapor pressures For frames 184 to 186, refer to Exhibit 4, which shows graph of vapor pressure plotted against temperature for pentane and water. At 100 °F the vapor pressure of pentane is pounds per square inch. Water has a vapor pressure of 5 pounds per square neh at a temperature of Recall that the vapor pressure of the liquid must be ‘equal to the pressure of the surroundings for a liquid to boll. If the pressure of the atmosphere is 14.7 pounds per square inch, water boils at i ‘A pressure cooker cooks food faster than an open con- tainer, because the temperature inside is increased by the increase in [18] equal decreased decreasing lower different 18 (approximately) 162 a2PARTIAL PRESSURE 188. ‘The pressure that a sus exerts on the walls of a eon- tainer depends on the number of eolisions between the molecules and the container wall, 1f more molecules are present, there are more eolisions and a (greater/smaller) pressure. 189. If two containers of the seme volume are filled sas to the same pressure and temperature, each con- tains the same number of gas molecules. If two containers with the same temperature and vol- ‘ume contain an equal number of molecules, their is the same. ‘MO. For the same volume and temperature, the greater the number of molecules in a gas, the greater the of the gas must be. M1. For the same volume and temperature, the higher the pressure of the gas, the (greater/smaller) must be the ‘number of molecules in the gas. 142, When two or more gases aro mixed, each gas exerts ‘8 pressure on the walls of the container “Although these separate pressures cannot be measured, the total "ean be mensured 143. The totol pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the of the different. guses in the mixture 1. When two or more gases are mixed, the separate pres- sures of the gases are called partial pressures, ‘The total pressure of a gaseous mixture is equal to ‘the sum of the pressures. 145. ‘The sum of the partial pressures of a gas mixture is equal to the —____ pressure, Mé. For a mixture of two gases, ifthe partial pressure of ach gas is the seme, there must be equal numbers of each kind of molecule Tf a tank contains an equal number of ethane and propane molecule, the partial pressures of ethane and ropane are (equal/unequal). 193 greater pressure pressure seater pressure pressures partial equalut, as, 49. 150, 151, 152, 188, [fa tank contains a mixture of two gasee (A and B), and there are twice as many A molecules as B molecules, ‘then the partial pressure of A is twice that of B. If tank containe 5 times as many ethane molecules, as propane molecules, the partial pressure of ethane is times as great as propane. ‘A gas which containa more molecules of A than B is ‘said to he richer in A. If a gas contains 5 times as many ethane molecules as ‘propane, the gas is said tobe richer in, When two or more pure liquids (or gases) sre mixed, the components of the mixture are the original pure Enrichment is a process by which a mixture (for example, a mixture of several gases) becomes more in one of its components, Ifa closed container is partially filled with a mixture ‘of two liquids, molecules of both liquids escape to the 25 from the liquid and return to the liguid from the When the number of molecules escaping equals the ‘number returning for both components, the gas and the liquid are said to be at equilibrium with each other. At equilibrium, the number of molecules escaping from the liquid Is (equal to/greater than/less than) the number returning to the liquid for exch component ‘The drawing shows a tank containing a mixture of two components, one heavy and one light. An example of ‘such a system would be butane-hexane, where butane ‘would be the light molecules and hexane the heavy molecules. At equilibrium the number of light molecules escaping from the liquid is equal to the number to the ligui [20] thane liquids, oF substances pure, enriched, or rich equal to154, 165. 156. 167. 158, 159, 160. 161. Also, st equilibrium the number of heavy molecules —____from the liquid is equal to the number ‘of heavy molecules returning to the liquid. ‘However, at equilibrium the number of light molecules escaping and returning to the liquid is not equal to fe numberof henry molecule etcping and returning to the Light molecules are able to escape the liquid more rapidly than the heavy ones. ‘Therefore, at equilibrium, there are more —___ ‘molecules escaping and returning to the liquid Because the light molecules are able to escape the liquid faster than the heavy ones, the light molecules tend to concentrate or to be enriched in the vapor. ‘For example, if the liquid contains half light and half heavy molecules at equilibrium, the gas contains more ight molecules than ______ molecules. ‘When the gas and the liquid are at equilibrium, the gas is richer in the light component and the liguid is in the heavy component. ‘Therefore, If a liquid mixture is partially vaporized, the light component in the vapor becomes more con- ‘centrated than the light component in the liquid. In other words, the vapors are enriched in the (lighter/ heavier) component. If part of the gas is removed from a tank such as the ‘one deseribed above and condensed in a separate tank, ‘the liquid in the second tank is richer in the (Light/ heavy) molecules, ‘Thus, it is possible to start with a liquid mixture, vaporize part of the liquid, and condense this vapor in a separate tank, ‘This condensed liguid is richer in the light eomponents, and the liquid in the original container is in the heavy components. [21] escaping liquid light heavy richer lighter light richer