THEORY and PROBLEMS of MATRICES by FRANK AYRES, JR. including 340 solwed problems Completely Solved in Detail SCHAUM PUBLISHING CO. NEW YORKS OUTLINE OF THEORY AND PROBLEMS oF MATRICES oy FRANK AYRES, JR., Ph.D. Formerly Professor and Head, Department of Mathematics Dickinson College sw? SCHAUM’S OUTLINE SERIES ‘McCRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY New York, St. Louis, San Francisco, Toronto, SydneyCopsright @ 1982 by MeGraw-HUll, Inc, AIL Rights Reserved, Printed ia the United States of Amerien, No part of this publication may be reproduce stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any mean electronic, mechanteal, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 656 T8910 SHSH 7543210Preface Elementary matrix algebra has now become an integral part of the mathematical background necessary for such diverse fields as electrical engineering and education, chemistry and sociology, ‘as well as for statistics and pure mathematics. This book, in presenting the more essential mate~ rial, is designed primarily to serve as a useful supplement to current texts and as a handy refer- tence book for those working in the several fields which require some knowledge of matrix theory. Moreover, the statements of theory and principle are sufficiently complete that the book could be used as a text by itself. The material has been divided into twenty-six chapters, since the logical arrangement is thereby not disturbed while the usefulness as a reference book is increased. This also permits 4 separation of the treatment of real matrices, with which the majority of readers will be con- cerned, from that of matrices with complex elements. Each chapter contains a statement of perti- nent definitions, principles, and theorems, fully illustrated by examples. These, in turn, are followed by a carefully selected set of solved problems and a considerable number of supple- mentary exercises. ‘The beginning student in matrix algebra soon finds that the solutions of numerical exercises are disarmingly simple. Difficulties are likely to arise from the constant round of definition, the- orem, proof. The trouble here is essentially a matter of lack of mathematical maturity, and normally to be expected, since usually the student’s previous work in mathematics has been concerned with the solution of numerical problems while precise statements of principles and proofs of theorems have in large part been deferred for later courses. The aim of the present book is to enable the readcr, if he persists through the introductory paragraphs and solved prob- Jems in any chapter, to develop a reasonable degrce of self-assurance about the material. The solved problems, in addition to giving more variety to the examples illustrating the theorems, contain most of the proofs of any considerable length together with representative shorter proofs. The supplementary problems call both for the solution of numerical exercises and for proofs. Some of the latter require only proper modifications of proofs given earlier: more important, however, are the many theorems whose proofs require but a few lines. Some are of the type frequently misnamed “obvious” while others will be found to call for considerable ingenuity. None should be treated lightly, however, for it is due precisely to the abundance of such theorems that elementary matrix algebra becomes a natural first course for those seeking to attain a degree of mathematical maturity. While the large number of these problems in any chapter makes it impractical to solve all of them before moving to the next, special attention is directed to the supplementary problems of the first (wo chapters. A mastery of these will do much to give the reader confidence to stand on his own fect thereafter. The author wishes to take this opportunity to express his gratitude to the staff of the Schaum Publishing Company for their splendid cooperation. FRANK AYRES, JR, Carlisle, Pa, October, 1962CONTENTS Page Chapter MATRICES cecteetetstctttteteeeees Matrices. Equal matrices. Sums of matrices. Products of matrices Products by partitioning. Chapter SOME TYPES OF MATRICES wee : we 10 ‘Triangular matrices. Sealar matrices, Diagonal matrices. The identity matrix. Tnverse of a matrix. Transpose of a matrix. Symmetric matrices. Skew-symmetrie matrices. Conjugate of a matrix. Hermitian matrices, Skew-Hermitian matrices. Direct sums. Chapter DETERMINANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX : 20 Determinants of orders 2 and 3. Properties of determinants. Minors and cofactors, Algebraic complements, Chapter EVALUATION OF DETERMINANTS 32. Expansion along @ row or column. The Laplace expansion. Expansion along the first row and colurmm, Determinant of a produet. Derivative of determinant, Chapter EQUIVALENCE ... eee ee eee i SO) Rank of a matrix, Non-tingular and singular matrices. Elementary transformations. Inverse of an elementary transformation. Equivalent matrices. Row canonical form. Normal form. Elementary matrices Canonieal sets under equivalence. Rank of a product. Chapter THE ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATRIX 49 ‘The adjoint. The adjoint of a product. Minor of an adjoint. Chapter THE INVERSE OF A MATRIX... 55 Inverse of @ diagonal matrix. Inverse from the adjoint. Inverse from clementary matrices, Inverse by partitioning. Inverse of symmetric matrices. Right and left inverses of mn matrices Chapter FIELDS . 64 General fields, Sub-ficlds, Matrices over a field Number fieCONTENTS Page Chapter. 9 LINEAR DEPENDENCE OF VECTORS AND FORMS........ 67 Vectors. Linear dependence of vectors, linear forms, polynomials, and matrices Chapter J0 LINEAR EQUATIONS % System of non-homogeneous equations. Solution using matrices. Cramer's ule, Systems of homogeneous equations. Chapter 17 = VECTOR SPACES 85 Vector spaces. Sub-spaces. Basis and dimension. Sum space. Inter- section space, Null space of a matrix, Sylvester's laws of nllity Bases and coordinates. Chapter [2 LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS oy Singular and non-singular transformstions, Change of basis, Invariant space, Permutation matrix Chapter 13 © VECTORS OVER THE REAL FIELD 100 Imer product. Length. Schwarz inequality Triangle inequality. Orthogonal vectors and’ spaces. Orthonormal basis. _Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process, ‘The Gramian. Orthogonal matrices, “Osthog- onal transformations. Veetor product. Chapter 14 VECTORS OVER THE COMPLEX FIELD 110 Complex numbers. Inner product, Length. Schwarz inequality, ‘Tei angle inequality. Orthogonal vectors and paces. Orthonormal basis, Gram-Schmidt orthoyonalization process. ‘The Gramian, Unitary mat- ices. Unitary transformations. Chapter 15 CONGRUENCE . ee 15 Congruent matrices, Congruent symmetric matrices. Canonical forms of real symmetric, skew-symmetric, Hermitian, skew-Hlermitian matrices under congruence, chapter 16 BILINEAR FORMS 125 Matrix form. Transformations. Canonical forms. Cogredient. trans: formations. Contragredient transformations, Factorable forms. QUADRATIC FORMS IL Matrix form. Transformations. Canonical forms. Lagrange reduction, Sylvester's law of inertia. Definite and semi-definite forms. Principal minors. Regular form. Kronecker’s reduction, Factorable forma,Chapter 18 CONTENTS Page HERMITIAN FORMS 6 Matrix form. ‘Transformations, Canonical forms, Definite and semi- definite forms, Chapter 19 THE CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION OF A MATRIX. 9 Characteristic equation and roots. Invariant veetors and spaces Chapter 20 SIMILARITY cee : 156 Similar matrices. Reduction to triangular form. Diagonable matrices, Chapter 21 SIMILARITY TO A DIAGONAL MATRIX........... 163 Real symmetric matrices. Orthogonal similarity. Pairs of real quadratic forms. Hermitian matrices. Unitary similarity. Normal matrices, Spectral decomposition. Field of values. Chapter 22 POLYNOMIALS OVER A FIELD.......... - - 2 Sum, product, quotient of polynomials. Remainder theorem. Greatest common divisor. Least common multiple. Relatively prime polynomials. Unique factorization, Chapter 23 LAMBDA MATRICES . cecseeeseees 179 ‘The Amatrix or matrix polynomial. Sums, products, and quotients Remainder theorem. Cayley-Hamilton theorem. Derivative of a matrix. Chapter 24 SMITH NORMAL FORM ....... cevteeeeeeee - 188 Smith normal form. Invariant factors, Elementary divisors. Chapter 25 THE MINIMUM POLYNOMIAL OF A MATRIX. . A 196 Similarity invariants. Minimum polynomial. Derogatory and non- Gerogatory matrices, Companion matrix. Chapter 26 CANONICAL FORMS UNDER SIMILARITY. .... cee 208 Rational canonical form. A second canonieal form, Hypercompanion matrix. Jacobson eanonical form. Classical canonical form. A reduction to rational esnonical Zorm, 11) >, 215 INDEX OF SYMBOLS.............. 219Chapter 1 Matrices A RECTANGULAR ARRAY OF NUMBERS enclosed by « pair of brackets, such as 2037 ae @) and (6) J21 4 A 5. AT 6, and subject to certain rules of operations given below is called a matrix. ‘The matrix (a) could be ° x- y+52=0 considered as the coetictent marx ofthe system of homogeneous Hiner eauations 25°97 2 of 2 the augmented natix of the system of nom-honogeneous neat equations {267% °7 Later, we shall see how the mats nay be used to obtain solutions of these systems. ‘The ma- trix (5) eobld be given similar Snterprettion or We might consider ies rows as simply the eoor dinates of the points (1,31), (2.1,4), and (7,6) In ordinary space. ‘The matrix will be used later to Sette such questions as whether or notte thee points Le in the same plane withthe otigin or on the sane line through the ogi, In the matrix aa the numbers of functions a,, are called its elements, In the double subscript notation, the first subscript indicates the row and the second subscript indicates the column in which the element stands. Thus, all elements in the second row have 2 as first subscript and all the elements in the fifth column have 5 as second subscript. A matrix of m rows and n columns is said to be of order "m by n" ot mxn. (Un indicating a matrix pairs of parentheses, ( ), and double bars, || |, are sometimes used, We shall use the double bracket notation throughout. ) At times the matrix (1.1) will be called "the mon matrix (a;]" or "the mxn matrix 4 = {aij". When the order bas been established, we shall write simply "the matrix A" SQUARE MATRICES. When m =n, (1.1) is square and will be called a square matrix of order n or an aesquare matrix. Ina square matrix, the elements @,;, a22,.-. @y,, 8f@ called its diagonal elements. ‘The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix 4 is called the trace of A2 MATRICES. [oHaP.1 EQUAL MATRICES. Two matrices 4 = [aj] and B= [ij] are said to be equal (A=B) if and only if they have the same order and each element of one is equal to the corresponding element of the other, that is, if and only if 1g = Bag AQyeeeemi f= Lee) ‘Thus, two matrices ar equal if and only if one is a duplicate of the other ZERO MATRIX, A matrix, every element of which is zero, is called a zero matrix. When A is a zero matrix and there can be no confusion as to its order, we shall write 4 = 0 instead of the mxn atray of zero elements. SUMS OF MATRICES. If 4 = [a;;] and B ~ [b;;] are two mxn matrices, their sum (difference), 4 +B, is defined as the mxn matrix C= (e;;], where each element of C is the sum (difference) of the coresponding elements of A and B. Thus, 4B = [ays + bij] 125 230 Example 1, It A = and 8 then ‘ F 1 J i 2 ‘| isn 249 el iE 5 ‘| Aan = : orca is2 acs} La ao. ap PR BB HOP Ga ‘| O-(-1) 1-2 4-8 ana a ‘Two matrices of the same order are said to be conformable for addition or subtraction. Two matrices of different orders cannot be added or subtracted. For example, the matrices (a) and (b) above are non-conformable for addition and subtraction, and ‘The sum of k matrices 4 is a matrix of the same order as A and each of its elements is k times the corresponding element of A. We define: If F is any scalar (we call k a sealar to dis tinguish it from [] which 1s a 1x1 matrix) then by £4 = Ak is meant the matrix obtained from A by multiplying each of its elements by k. Example 2. If 4 2) then mien, = [ >]. Ataea [i aE hE q : {i “] = = ae 2 al’ al*b al |e o. and cya [2° al . [ “5 ) 512) 86) 10-18 In particular, by ~A, called the negative of 4, is meant the matrix obtained from A by mul- tiplying euch of its elements by -1 or by simply changing the sign of all of its elements. For every A, we have 4 +(—A) = 0, where 0 indicates the zero matrix of the same order as A. Assuming that the mateices 4,8,C are conformable for addition, we state: (a) A+B= Bea (commutative law) () 44 Bs) = sRy4C (associative law) (c) k(A+B) = kA + RB = (A+B)k, ka scalar (d) There exists a matrix D such that 4+D = B. ‘These laws are a result of the laws of elementary algebra governing the addition of numbers and polynomials. ‘They show, moreover, 1. Conformable matrices obey the same laws of addition as the elements of these matrices.CHAP. 1] MATRICES. 3 MULTIPLICATION. By the product 4B in that order of the 1xm matrix A= (as; a2 @o -.. ayy) and bas bas the mat matrix B= || 4s meant the 131 mattix C = [ass bya # robs * ++ aaq bes) as ae bot Phat 8, (as ea --s tae) -| 2 | = [eicbes bare bea tot aebes) = abn] bes, Note that the operation is row by column; each element of the row is multiplied into the cor- responding element of the column and then the products are summed. ’ branole a.) (2 34] EJ + Baaeneae) ~ 1 2, = ote Le] ce-con 2 By the product AB in that order of the mxxp matrix A= [aj] and the pxn matrix B= (6 {is meant the mn matrix C = (cj;] where PVD. ccems F912. cag = Gigbyj + aesbaj 4+" + aipbos = Eanes. ¢ ‘Think of A as consisting of m rows and B as consisting of m columns. In forming C = AB exch row of 4 4s multiplied once and only once into each column of 8. The element cg; of C is then ‘the product of the ith row of A and the jth column of B. Example 4. ma 2) rg an Osa F Oreb2s @asbio + aay bye AB = las, a2 = Jacsbar tavcbos aasbre + azcboe box boo orbia tanzbex a1 bre + ean boo, ‘The product 4B is defined or A is conformable to B for multiplication only when the number of columns of 4 is equal to the number of rows of B. If A is conformable to B for multiplication (AB is defined), B is not necessarily conformable to A for multiplication (BA may or may not be defined). See Problems 3-4 Assuming that 4, B,C are conformable for the indicated sums and products, we have (©) A(R +0) = ARE AC (first distributive Law) (f) ABC = AC+BC (second distributive law) (@) ABC) = (ABYC (associative law) However, (A) AB + BA, generally, (i) AB = 0 does not necessarily imply A =0 or B = (i) AB ~ AC does not necessarily imply B = C. See Problems 3-8,4 MATRICES (CHAP. 1 PRODUCTS BY PARTITIONING, Let A= [a;;] be of order mxp and B= [b;;] be of order pxn. In forming the product 4B, the matrix A is in effect partitioned into m matrices of order 1xp and B into n matrices of order px1, Other partitions may be used. For example, let A and B be parti- tioned into matrices of indicated orders by drawing in the dotted lines as prem) | (Paxne) eae eo nee ‘ms xpe) | (maxpe) | (mxps) a= [pees yet A B = |opoxm) | oxn) {imgxpx) | (mp xpo) | (mexPa), <4 =a (poxn) | (Paxne), Bia | Bio Bea | By or B= | Boy | Boo Bas | Bao In any such partitioning, it is necessary that the columns of A and the rows of B be partitioned in exactly the same way; however my, mz,na,nz may be any non-negative (including 0) integers such that m,* m= m and ny+ny =n. Then ArsBea + AroBor + AsoBos AaiBaz + ArzBoo + Ais Bso Ca Cre AB = eile a AorBia + doaBor + AzoBos A21Ba2 + Apo Bao + Ao Bi Cor Coo 210 aa Example 5. Compute 48, given 4 =|3 2 0| and B=|2 1 104 23 Partitioning so that 4 - [4s Ae © [Aas doo] © AesBis ¢AseBos Aya Byo + AroBor we have AB AorBs3 +AaeBox AasBio + Aas Eee} ]-Be so Bag: 8 fo aft }ecne en nal * He] - (bs d-bo9 GG . en | fhigd+paq [o]+(2] {94 2)(2) B42? See also Problem 9. 2 5 2 Let 4,B,C,... be n-square matrices. Let 4 be partitioned into matrices of the indicated axes (Pax Ass Goxpd expe | eo see pes (ps P1) | (Psx Po) 1 (Ps Ps). Ass, and Iet B,C, ... be partitioned in exactly the same mannet. Then sums, differences, and products may be formed using the matrices Ais, Aya, «i Bass Buoy 1 Crus CronCHAP. 1] MATRICES SOLVED PROBLEMS 2 143 26(-4) -141 042 4-1 3]. fet See ae J ; 54-2) 148 a+ ao 24 -1-1 0-9 26 ~2 -2 o-5 2-0 1-3] = | 3-5 2-2 “542 1-9 244, 0-3-2 4 43. Po, 1-3-p 2-2-9] foa-p 9 00 we a+B—D = |aeicr 4-5-5] =| 4-7 -1e] = fo of, -2-p=0 and p=—2, 4 12 3 -2 b |] 2. A=|3 4] and B=] 1-5], tind D=|r s| such that A+B-D = 0. 5 6. Seder 6+ 3—u, ot on 00, 2 0 men D=| 4 -1|2 448 88 eeu 3. (@) (a5 6] LI = (4ay+5@+ee-n) »fi7) 1 a 24) 2) 2067 8 10 17 @) | a} [456] = | 3) 36) 306) 12:15 18 1 @) -16) 16), 4-5 6. 4-6 9 6 wy (12a) }o-7 10 7 5B 8-11 ~8 [aca + 2¢0) + 3(5) 1(-6) + 2(—7) + 3¢8)1(9) + 210) #811) 146) + 27) + 3-8) [is 4 -4 -4] A + + w P24] - forse seen) _ pr re AE] ~ Lassa sec] ~ |» 3-4 ofedias Ake 2, 2 ott ance a =[6 2], oem 104 » [2-2 gp e117 pear @ alo rallo 12)-|2 14] one 1 ogh oi} Ls -re, ‘The reader will show that 4° 1@) +2412) 1-H ¥26)+10)] _ fs 8 4() 400) +22) 4(-4) +05) +2} ~ Ls -12 4 8-3} -1 a) fu ao 4.4 =|2 14]]o 12)-| 3-18 sah o4 8-43 a8, AA? and APA?6 MATRICES. [cHAP. 1 5. Show that: A F @ 2 aadysten) = 3, einbey +3 avers. aanbandeng- Babyy teas) * 2elbog taj) = Past Aiohs) + Cintas taints) = Seary + Jeane (era + ain + a19) + (sa + 000 + @20) (213 +402) + (2 + 420) + (O39 * 30) Rb ‘This is simply the statement that in summing all of the elements of a sratrix, one may sum first the elements of each row or the elements of each column © Jeacd = Zein arey * bactag * Pant es? = aintbraces + braeost baacaj) + ialboxeas + beats + bootsj) + isha Haiabodery + Ciabie + tibasdens + Gtabie + aizbradeos (Eertines +6 aumbeadeaj + (E ainbyade inberders + (E aiebys) = Ed eaters 6, Prove: If A = [ag] Is of order mm and if B = [b;,] and C~ {e,4] are of order nxp, then A(B + C) AB+ AC. “ ‘The elements of the ith row of A ate ais, ajo, -:+ iq and the elements of the jth column of B+C are Bajtenss bast 603 ‘vonj- Then the element standing In the ith row and jth column of A(8 + C) 1s efbaj ea) ¥ bes eap) Fon tugs tog = E aay tea; E ondas+,E,euens. the sum ot the elements standing inthe th row and jth coluan of 40 and AC, 1. Prove: it A= [ai] is of on then A(BC) = (AB)C. 2 ‘The elements ofthe throw of atewis,ais,...94y andthe elenents ofthe th column of BC are E. bineyy. t mxn, it B= (4s5] 18 of order np, and if C = [cy] 18 of order peg, 2 Ejbentaj o> tunengi hence the element standing inthe ith row and th column of 4 (BHC) is 7 t zo a2 nay tie B bonny to + aig Zany = Foch taney : (2 embmrens 5 2 ambaney + CZ, aiebeadeng + + (2 emebaphens ‘This is the element standing in the ith row and jth column of (48)C; hence, A(BC) = (AB)C. 8. Assuming A,B, C,D conformable, show in two ways that (A +B)(C+D) = AC + AD + BC +BD. Using (e) and then (f), (A +B)(C+D) = (A+B)C +(A+B)D = AC + BC +40 + BD. Using (7) and then (e), (A+8)(C+D) = A(C+D)+B(C+D) = AC +AD +BC + BD AC +BC +4 + BD.CHAP. 1] MATRICES 7 hoo Hoo] fo] fodfiog i oo] faa] fang] 9.c@ fo 10, 2\\5 6 9 = or olfo 1 of+|2|(a 121 = for ole 2 a] - Joa 4 oor fe 2"} Joo allo oa] |p oor) issal [sar 12, 1 0 3 |? 0 0 i hh 213 4516 1fi2) fiapas) fi gy 2 2 alas Git eis) babsad b Wh. wl? pais e7lal _ |e 1 Af 4] 1 Ale 6 a fa ate lo 45/67 8\9 12 1} ]4 5] ft 2 1] Je 7 8] fa 2 ho 0 jo site sia] fot als al lox bo sf lox le 0 pte 5 411 UMe7) (es4) Oy Elbe see] 35 1 9M13 4 TU0 13: 16) L 19, 4 7 10 13 16 19 _ |fpr 93]f35 37 soqfaty] _ fat a3 a5 a7 99 41 20 z2{[24 26 28l|s0|| ~ }20 22 24 26 28 30 13 saflis 13 aallia|} [is 13 13 13 13 13 fe Me s alti] L?7 65 #1 eyeter ery snes 10. Let |e = assy. asoye be three linear forms in ys and nat { : Xo = Geaya + Oo2yo Yinear transformation of the coordinates (y.,y2) into new coordinates (=, =2). The result of applying the transformation to the given forms is the set of forms B= (arabia t @yoboaden + (Brrbay + droboo) 0 % at aooberder + (derbs2 + teaboa) % + eaabosd22 + (aidis + Aaoboo) 22 Using matrix notation, we have the three forms |x2] = ass a22 fees (] and the transformation [e]-[E SE] merem ron te tana EES ae) ‘Thus, when a set of m linear forms in n variables with matrix d is subjected to a linear trans- formation of the variables with matrix B, there results set of m linear forms with matrix C = AB. ation Is the set of three forms8 MATRICES (CHAP. 1 SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS 12-9 fs i civen 4={5 0 af. 8 2 5), and s-1 4 2-4 @j ) Compute: -24 = |-10 0-4], 0-8 = 0 -2 2-2 (©) Verify: 4+(B—C) = (4¥B)-6 (d) Find the matelx D such that A+D =. Verity that D = B—A = ~(A~R), 23] um 6-1 12, Given 4 = 4 6], compute 48 =0 and BA =|~22 12 —2]. Hence, AByR4 23 <1 6-1 generally. 1-3 J 1 4a0 2 1-1-3] 13. Given A= [2 1-3), B= [2 114), and C=|3 2 ~1 1), show that 4B = AC. Thus, AB =AC 4-3-1 a -21 2 2-5-1 9 does not necessarily imply B = C. 1 14. civen 4 =|2 3 {]- show nat Bye = Be, 15, Using the matrices of Problem 11, show that A(B+C) = AB +4C and (A+8)C = AC +BC. 16. Explain why, in general, (A+R) = 4°4 248 + B? and A? — + AA ByA+B), 2-3-5] “13 9 2-2-4 aawen 4 =|-1 4 5), B=! 1-3-5], and c=|-1 3 al. 1-3-4] Pipiates 1-2-3 (@) show that AB = BA =0, AC» 4, CA (®) use the results of (a) to show that ACB=CBA, 4 i = (A-BY(A+B), (A+ BY © A? + BP 18. Given 4 -[ I]. whee = 1, derive oma for he postive inte powers ot & Ans. AT 21, A, 04 Dw that the product of any two or more matrices of the set {1 ° ede wep 2 OL fE 9) Fe sso at oummaattiorrmnemtionctoens fs LLL EEL I.E 9G) [: 4}: [ 4 is a matrix of the set. 20, Given the matrices 4 of order mxn, B of order nxp, and C of order rxq, under what conditions on p. 4, ‘and r would the mairices be conformable for finding the products and what is the order of each: (a) ABC’ (ACB, (e) ABHCN? Ans. (a) p A according as m= 4p, 4p+1, 4p+2, 4p+3, where J = [3 | mxq (b)r=m =a; mx (er =n, p=9: megcHAP. 1] MATRICES. 9 21. Compute 4B, given: a ww 9 0 coat 22, Prove: (a) trace (4+B) = trace A + trace B, (b) trace (kA) = k trace A = tye ty ya = ent Oey p 1-2 i)" itty, ae le saath. sot [2] ‘fe By tye 899 ME YT 2) ~ [2 1-3)? nay tte ~224 ~ 62 24.164 Lay] and & = [645] ato of onder mn and i C= [egg] fe of order np, show that (L4B)C = AC + BC 2. Let A (oy) and = [ogy], where (f= 1,2,.c0omi7 = As2eve spi k= 1,2).0sm). Denote by Bi; the sum of Bs Bo Ma ‘he elements of the jth row of that is, let j= 2 bjy. Show that the element in the ith row of A> Pe 4s the sum of the elements lying in the ith row of AB. Use this procedure to check the products formed in Problems 12 end 13, 26, A elation (such as parallelism, congruency) between mathematical ontities possessing the following popertios: (4) Determinative Either « is in the relation to 6 or a is not in the relation to b. Gi) Reflexive «is in the relation to a, for all a (it) Symmetric Ifa is in tho relation to b then & is in the relation to a. (iv) Transitive Ifa 4s in the relation to & and bis in the relation to ¢ then a is in the relation ta e. 4s called an equivalence relation. Show that the parallelism of lines, similarity of trlangles, and equality of matrices are equivalence relations. Show that perpendicularity of lines is not an equlvalence relation 21. Show that conformability for addition of matrices 1s an equivalence relation while conformability for multi- plication is not, 28. Prove: If A,B,C are matrices such that AC = C4 and BC =CB, then (AB 4 BA)C = C(AB 4 BA),Chapter 2 Some Types of Matrices ‘THE IDENTITY MATRIX, A square matrix 4 whose cloments aj; 0 for i> is called upper triangu- Jar; a square matrix A whose elements aj;~0 for i 3] is 4'-]2 5). note that the element o,, in the ith row 458 ete i and jth column of A stands in the jth row and ith column of A If A’and Mare transposes respectively df 4 and B, and if k is a scalar, we have immediately @ y= 4 land (b) (kay = ka In Problems 10 and 11, we prove: | HL. The transpose of the sum of two matrices is the sum of their transposes, ive (Asby| = ao12 SOME TYPES OF MATRICES (CHAP. 2 and MIL The transpose of the product of two matrices is the product in reverse onder of their transposes, i.e., ABy = Ba See Problems 10-12. SYMMETRIC MATRICES. A square matrix 4 such that A’= 4 is called symmetric, Thus, 2 square matrix 4 = [a5] is symmetric provided o;; - aj;, for all values of i andj, For example 12 8 2 4 -8| is symmetric and s0 also is ka for any scalar k. 3-5 6 4 1n Problem 13, we prove IV. If A is an n-square matrix, then +4 is symmetric A square matrix A such that 4° —A is called skew-symmetric. ‘Thus, a square matrix d is skew-symmetric provided a; for all values of i and j. Clearly, the diagonal elements are 0-29 zeroes. For example, A=| 2 0 4] is skew-symmetric and so also is £4 for any scalar k. -3-40 With only minor changes in Problem 13, we can prove V. If A ts any n-square matrix, then 4-4" Is skew-symmetric. From Theorems IV and V follows MI. Every square matrix A can be written as the sum of a symmetric matrix B= 4(4+4’) and a skew-symmetric matrix C= $(4~4’) See Problems 14-15. ‘THE CONJUGATE OF A MATRIX. Let « and b be real numbers and let i= V=1; then, ¢= a+bi is called a complex number. The complex numbers a+bi and a~ bi are called conjugates, each being the conjugate of the other. If z = a+ bi, Its conjugate is denoted by 2 = a+! If 2,=a4bi and 2, ,-@~bi, then x the conjugate of a complex number z is = Itself. If zy a+bi and = @=Fi=asbi, that is, the conjugate of =erdi, then (i) at ee = (ate) + (bed and PF (are) = (bedi = (abi) + (endiy = that is, the conjugate of the sum of two complex numbers is the sum of their conjugates, (ii) Ze = (ac-bd) + (adsbeyi and 20% = (ae-bd) ~ (adsbeyi = (a-biKe-di) = H-%, that is, the conjugate of the product of two complex numbers is the product of their conjugates. When 4 is a matrix having complex numbers as elements, the mattix obtained from A by re- placing each element by its conjugate is called the conjugate of 4 and is denoted by A (A conjugate). eee — fica Example?. When 4 = then 7 = 7 3 2-3 3 3e8i if A and B are the conjugates of the matrices A and B and if k is any scalar, we have readily © =A and () A - BA Using (i) and (ii) above, we may provecHaP. 2) SOME TYPES OF MATRICES 13 VIL. The conjugate of the sum of two matrices is the sum of theit conjugates, i.¢. (AvB) = A+B. ‘VIM. The conjugate of the product of two matrices is the product, in the same order, of ‘their conjugates, i.e., (1B) = The transpose of J is denoted by A’(A conjugate transpose), It is sometimes written as A* We have IX, The transpose of the conjugate of A is equal to the conjugate of the transpose of Ate, (Ay = (A). Example 3. From Example 2 ye ATF 8 wnite are JAF are bo HERMITIAN MATRICES. A square matrix A=[a;j] such that =A is calied Hemnitian, Thus, A Js Hermitian provided oj; » aj; for all values of i and j. Clearly, the diagonel elements of an Hermitian matrix are real numbers. roast al Example, The matrix 4= {142 3 | 4s Hemitian. Is kA Hermitian if k is eny real number? any complex number? A square matrix A = (a;;] such that 7=-A Is called skew-Hermitian. Thus, 4 is skew- Hermitian provided a;; = dy for all values of i and j. Clearly, the diagonal elements of a skew-Hermitian matrix are either zeroes ot pure imaginaries, Example 5. The matrix A = é] 1s skew-Hermitian. ts £4 skew-Hemitian if k 1s any real ‘number? any complex number? any pure imaginary? ‘By making minor changes in Problem 13, we may prove X. If A is an n-square matrix then A+ is Hermitian and A~ is skew-Hermitian, From Theorem X follons Al. Every square matrix A with complex elements can be written as the sum of an Hermitian matrix B =4(A+4) anda skew-Hermitlan matrix C= 5(4- 4) DIRECT SUM. Let 4;, 4p,..., 4s be square matrices of respective orders my, mp, ...ms. ‘The general- ization of the diagonal matrix is called the direct sum of the 4;14 SOME TYPES OF MATRICES (CHAP. 2 ; Laat Examples, Let z= [2], Ae [ he e-[2 8 a1 20000 6 oi2009 024000) 6 Aieet Sm Of Aas Ay 8 dg (Ay Aon eee oooz0 3 poosina Problem 9(b), Chapter, illustrates MIL If A= diag(Ay, Ay, Ag) and B = diag(B,, By, ...,B,), where A; and By have the same order for (= 1,2,...,8), then AB = diag(AB,, AgBy. «... AsBy. SOLVED PROBLEMS yy, 0 0 | [br Bap oe Ban Aibis adie 1b Gog 0 | [bor boo +. ban| Aebey daoben aban | 1. Sine {the product AB of oo un} [bas bao «+++ Ban] Ganbar San bao on ban| fan m-square diagonal mattix A = diag(a1, d2, nq) and any mxn matrix B is obtained by multi- plying the first row of B by as, the second row of B by azo, and 80 on. Epo) een (ere 2 stow that she matrices [7 | and [5.4] commute for att vatues of 0, sed a lfc ad] fact advte] _ fo df 8 ros coors con [FI] fest ce] - GIG 2-a-d a.snow tat ]-1 3 4] ss idempotent, 1-2-3 2-2 -i][ 2-2-4 22-4 a -1 3 4] = [-1 a 4 4 1-2-5 1-2-3, 4. Show that if AB=4 and BA~=B, then A and B are idempotent ABA «(AB)A = AvA =A" and ABA = A(BA)= AB =A; then A? =A and 4 ts dempotent, Use BAB to show that B is idempotent.Hap, 2} SOME TYPES OF MATRICES 15 rag 5. Show that A=] 5 2 6| is nilpotent of order 3. -2 -1 -3 ra sffaa gs ooo oo fii a #=|5 2 6] 5 2 6|-| 3 3 9} and 4° = aA 3 3 a{f5 2 6-0 2-1-3] [-2-1-3) [1-1 3 1-1-3] [2-1-3 6. If d is nilpotent of index 2, show that A(I+4)"= A for n any positive integer. since # Then AU tAJ'= AUlindy = Ata? =A 7. Let A,B,C be squate matrices such that AB=1 and CA=1. Then (CA)B = C(AB) 80 that B = C. Thus, B= C= A” is the unique inverse of A. (What is B~*?) 8. Prove: (ABy? = B.A By definition (ABY"(AB) = (AB)(ABY* = I. Now Ban 2 aes ks BRB eT and ABBA) = ABBA 2 Adt 2 By Problem 7, (ABj" is unique: hence, (4B)* - B*. 9, Prove: A matrix d is involutory if and only if (J—A)(I+ A) = 0 Suppose (J-A)(I+4) = 1-# = 0; then 4? = 1 and A is involutory ‘Suppose 4 is involutory; then 4° =I and (-A)(I+A) = I=A? = 1-1 « 0 10. Prove: (A+ By = A’ B Let 4 =ajj] and B= [bij]. We need only check that the element in the ith row and jth column of 4B. and (A+ RY are respectively og, by, and aj: + bj UL. Prove: (ABY = BA’ Let A (4) be of onermen, B = [Bij] be of order mp; then C= AB cap] 18 of oner mp. The stoment standing in the throw and th otunn of 48 $8 6; = oe by and this isso the element sand. ‘ing in the jth row and ith column of (4B). ‘The elements of the jth row of are by, bnj nd the elements of the ith column of A’ate aig 2%, .-jq: Then the element in the jth row and ith column of B/A’is Eien = Zewdy = ay Thus, (ABy = BA 12. Prove: (ABCY = CBA Write ABC = (4B)C. ‘Then, by Problem 11, (ABCY liaBycl = ciaBy = CB.16 SOME TYPES OF MATRICES [cHAP. 2 13. Show that if A=(aj;] is n-square, then B First Proof, byl= 44a is symmetric, ‘The element inthe /h row and jth column of 4 is a4; and the corresponding element of A's aj; hence big = 045+ 0:4. Tho element in the jth row and th column of 4s ay; andthe corresponding element of A's gyi hence. By = aj, +a;;. Thus, by; « bss and B is symmetric Second Proof, By Problem 10, (44 = A'¢ (4 = ded = A 4A and (4444) Is symm 14. Prove: If A and B are n-square symmetric matrices then AB is symmetric if and only if 4 and B commute, Suppose A and B commute so that AB 1A, ‘Then (ABY= BA"= BA = AB and AB is symmetric. Suppose AB is symmetric so that (48Y tices 4 and B commute. B. Now (ABY = BA’ = BA; hence, AB = BA and the ma- 15. Prove: If the m-square matrix 4 is symmetric (skew-symmetric) and if P is of ordet mxn then B = PAP ts symmetric (skew-symmetric), IfA is symmetric then (seo Problem 12) B= (PAPY = PA‘P'Y = PA'P » PAP and R is symmetric If Ie skew-symmetric then B’ = (PAPY = -PAP and B is skew-aymmettic. 16. Prove: If 4 and B are n-square matrices then A and B commute if and only if 441 and B~kI ‘commute for every scalar k. Suppose 4 and B commute; then AB - B4 and ASRB =H) = AB ~ RAB) + PT = RA RAED = (B= RICA -Kt) Thus, 4 and B—&1 commute Suppose 41 and B-KI commute; then AHEM) = AB WAR) + ET BAW WASB)+ ET = (B—RIA—Kh AB A. and A and B commute.CHAP. 2] SOME TYPES OF MATRICES 17 SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS 17, Show that the product of two upper (Lower) trungular mattices is upper (lower) triangular. Derive a rule for forming the product BA of anmxn matrix Band A = diagiess, azo, Hint. See Problem 1 nn 19, Show that the scalar matrix with diagonal element & can be written as kl and that kA where the order of fis the row order of 4. TA = diagth, ky k) A, 20. IFA is n-square, show that 4°47 49.4 where p and 4 ate positive intesers. 2-3-5 “18 8 21, (@) Show that A= J-1 4 5] and 9 =| 1-2 -5| are idempotent. 1-3 4, -1 3 5) () Using 4 and A, show that the converse of Problem 4 does not hold. 22. If is idempotent, show that B =A te sdempetent and that 4B = BA = 0, 23. (a) If A ota i Pi-1-if? fou oP ro zi. srow that [0 1 of = [-r-1-if = | o 00 4 oo a1) a 25. show that A= |-s 2 9] is pertodic, of period 2. 2 0-3. 44-51 =o. oe 1 2 1-3-4 26. snow that |-1 3 4 is nilpotent. 13 124) 2-1 = 21. show that @) 4 =| 3 2 of ang B=] 3 2 9) commute, 1-1-1 1-1 - 11d 2/3 0-1/3] 4 =| 231] and 8 =|-3/5 2/5 1/5] commute, 124 a8 -1/5 1/15] tet = [2 1} anttcommite anc + = AP + BP, 80. Prove: The only matrices which commute With every n-square matrix are the n-square sealar matrices. 31. (a) Find all matrices whick commute with diag(t, 2,2) (8) Pind all matrices which commute with diaa(azs, aoe, Ans. (a) diag(a,6,c) where a,b,¢ are arbit an18 32, a 34 35, 36, at. 38, 39. 40. 2. 43, 44, 45, a. 48. o 1-1 5. Show that 4 = ]4-3 4] and 8 p34 SOME TYPES OF MATRICES (CHAP. 2 a 7] is the inverse of “5 As the inverse of wm JL J-[b Jremmimeerls am [5k te] ‘Show that the inverse of a diagonal matrix 4, all of whose diagonal elements ate different from zero, 1s & diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are the inverses of those of A and in the same order. ‘Thus, the inverse of 48 Jy. sag =1 0-1] ate invotutory =4 4-3. sport [ ® Prove: (ABCY? = C™B"TAS, Hint, Write ABC = (ABYC. 6) (kay? = Eat, ce) dP? Prove: (a) (d"ty# FF 4°)? tor p a positive integer Show that every real symmetric matrix is Hermitian, Prove: (a) y= 4, (6) A¥B)= A+B, (0) GA)= EA, @) GB)= 4B. 1 ase 2eai Show: (a) A= |i-i 2 i | is Hermitian, a-3i G0 base geal (B= Jars: 211 | ts skew-Hermitian, -2-a8 -1 0 (©) iB ts Hermitian, (@) A ts Hermitian and B ts skew-Hermitian, If A is n-sauate, show that (a) 44” and A’A are symmetric, (b) A+’, Ad’, and 4A are Hermitian Prove: It is Hermitian and 4 is any conformable matrix then (AY HA is Hermitian. Prove: Every Hermitian matrix 4 can be written as B+iC where B is real and symmetric and C is real and ‘skew-symmetric Prove: (a) Every skew-Hermitian matrix A can be written as A= B+iC where B is real and skew-symmetric fand C is real and symmetric. (b) A°A is real if and only if B and C anti-commute, Prove: if A and B commute so also do * and B°*, 4’ and &’, and A’ and 8 Show that for m and n positive integers, A” and B” commute if A and B commute.CHAP. 2] SOME TYPES OF MATRICES 19 aa fet a aot of x" na” saan) 49. stow ca) | tf [A (Om | OPN er |e) (Operate oN fe 8 oo al jo o x 50. Prove: If 4 is symmetric or skew-symmetric then 4d’ 4 and # are symmetric. 51, Prove: If is symmetric s0 also is a4? +64?+...+4f where .5,....g ate scalars and p is a positive integer ‘52, Prove: Every square matrix 4 can be written as 4 = 8+C where B is Hemitian and C is skew-Hemnitian, 59, Prove: If Is real and skew-symmetiic or If 4 1s complex and skew Hermitian then #14 are Temmitian ‘54. Show that the theorem of Problem 52 can be stated: Every square matrix 4 can be written as 4=B+iC where B and C are Hermitian 35, Prove: If A and B are such that AB=A and BA=B then (a) BA’ 4’ and A'B’< A’, (b) A’and B’are Idempotent, (c) 4 = B= if A has an inverse. ‘36. If 4 ts involutory, show that 3(/+4) and 3(/-A) are idempotent and j(/+4)- 3(I-A) = 0. 51. If the a-square matrix 4 has an inverse 4*. show: cay VST 0) (ATS AM fey (Yt Hint. (2) From the transpose of 447 =, obtain (AY as the inverse of 4”. ‘58. Find all matrices which commute with (a) diag(1, 1.2.2), (8) dlag(1.1.2.2, Ans, (a) ding(A.b. ©), (6) diag(4.2) where 4 and 8 are 2-square matrices with arbitrary elements and 6, ¢ are scalats, 39.16 Ay dp. .u.dy ate Scalar matrices of respective orders m;,mo,....my. find all matrices which commute with diag(Ay, A... A3) Ans. diag(B,.B,...Bs) where By, By, Ry are of respective orders my,m. ....me with arbitrary elements, 60. If 4H = 0, where 4 and B are non-zero n-square matrices. then 4 and & are called divisors of zero. Show that the matrices 4 and B of Problem 21 are divisors of zero. GLI A= dag (Ay. Ao. nrg) and B = ding(B,,Bo.....B) where A, and By ate of the same order, (i= 1.2 8), show that (0) AB = GlaK(Ay+By. Ag $B, Ag+ Be) (8) AB = diag (ds Bs. AeB. AQ) (©) ttace AB = trace A,B; + trace AoBy + ... + thace Ay By 62, Prove: If 4 and # are n-squate skew-symmetric matrices then 4B 1s symmetric if and only if A and # commute. 63. Prove: If 4 is m-square and B rA+sl, where rand s fe sealers, then 4 and B commute, 64. Let A and B be n-square matrices and let 1,72. ss. 69 De Scalars such that nse 4 ros:. Prove that C: = nAts.8, Co=rg4+seB commute if and only if A and & commute, 465. Show that the n-square matrix A will not have an Inverse when (a) A has a row (column) of zero elements oF (8) A has two identical rows (colunns)or (c) 4 basa tow (column) whieh isthe sum of two other roves (columns). 66. If A and B are a-squate matrices and A has an inverse, show that ASB)AMA-By © (A~ByAA +BYChapter 3 Determinant of a Square Matrix PERMUTATIONS. Consider the 3! = 6 permutations of the integers 1,2,3 taken together ay 123 192 213 291 912 32 and eight of the 4! = 24 permutations of the integers 1,2,3,4 taken together aa toed aise 3124 4129 : 1324 2314 3214 4213 If in a given permutation a larger integer precedes a smaller one, we say that there is an inversion. If in a given permutation the number of inversions is even (odd), the permutation is called even (odd). Fot example, in (3.1) the permutation 123 is even since there is no inver~ sion, the permutation 132 is odd since in it 3 precedes 2, the permutation 312 is even since in it 3 precedes 1 and 3 precedes 2. In (3-2) the permutation 4219 is even since in it 4 precedes 2, 4 precedes I, 4 precedes 3, and 2 precedes 1. eTERMINANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX. Consider the n-square matrix an 4 Ap digg 29 --on fins Bye na Bm and a product (3) 53,904, 49i,-~ Oni of n of its elements, selected so that one and only one element comes from any row and one and only one element comes from any column. In (3.4), as a matter of convenience, the factors have been arranged so that the sequence of first subscripts is the natural order 1,2,,...ni the sequence jy, js. -.jq of Second subscripts is then some one of the n! permutations of the tnte~ gers 1,2,..,n. Pacility will be gained ifthe reader will parallel the work of this section be~ inning with a product arranged so that the sequence of second subscripts is in natural order.) For a given permutation jy, ja. of the second subscripts, define € according as the permutation is even of odd and form the signed product, (3.5) sojy = Hor © faded Mla C2 Oi By the determinant of A, denoted by |], is meant the sum of all the different signed prod- ucts of the form (3.5), called terms of |4], which can be formed from the elements of 4; thus 6) VAL = Bib and Ooh taf oe Orie where the summation extends over pn! permutations j.jp...j_ of the integers 1, 2,...m ‘The determinant of a square matrix of order n is called a determinant of order n. 20CHAP. 3] DETERM! NANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX 21 DETERMINANTS OF ORDER TWO AND THREE. From (3.6) we have for n=2 and n=3 GB ue = &19 @yxdon + £2 MaoGoy 11092 — Gy0Goq (3.8) 4g; Boo Mog 129 1200 + Gop Mx Gzaan + Grn 22% dog “Jag. daa a Jay Oe " © [2B] ~ 20-cm = ors o © fies] jy artang- ed in order of magnitude, be m of the column indices. Let the remaining row and column indi- es, arranged in order of magnitude, be respectively ines, fyeg, nriy M4 fae, fe ons fy. BUCH ‘8 separation of the row and column indices determines uniquely two matrices et Mite Fide or gieiocns in onde orto ebony Bight Bde SideDETERMINANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX [cHaP. 3 and sariewn Gineorigar Mnezinee Mn aotn ey ARSE = " Genin Bin daar — Minden called sub-matrices of A. ‘The determinant of each of these sub-matrices is called a minor of and the pair of minors futavdaborceesde forbs dn Agar tqiae 4a ovens be and are called complementary minors of 4, each being the complement of the other ses) fe Soe and hayes are a pair of complementary minors. Let (3.13) Poe tite tig thth tor tix and (3.14) q gay tigant ot in ties tineot tin pgs The signed minor (-0" | dies Ineiieen ‘| Huarhgear so fy is called the algebrate complement of soa cat| alee | ete he alge complenent of |e sdeeeodn taetpety xample4, For the minors of Examples, (-1y"*9\ 28) = [45 | is the atgetrie complement or A888] ana cout] 288 | 2 | ARSEL as ne algebraic complement of [AES]. Note tut the sign elven to the two complementary minors is the same. Is this alnars true? When m=t1, (8.11) becomes Ai. = [as,] and | Ai, | = oj,5.. am element of A. The fordoronbn complementary minor | Az. 3... 3, algebraic complement is the cofactor as, 5, ss [s,s | im the notation ofthe section above, andthe ‘A minor of 4, whose diagonal elements are also diagonal elements of 4, is called a principal minor of 4. The complement of @ principal minor of 4 is also a principal minor of 4; the alge- braic complement of @ principal minor is its complement.CHAP. 3] DETERMINANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX 25 xamples. Porto ssaunre satis 4 = for] BY} ana [6:05 ) = Joss ce tas fare a pair of complementary principal minors of 4. What is the algebraic complement of each ? ‘The terms minor. complementary minor. algebraic complement, and principal minor as de- fined above for a square matrix 4 will also be used without change in connection with [4] See Problems 12-12, SOLVED PROBLEMS os Ms 6) ib al (ya7 — 56) - 0 + 2196-45) (d |23 5) = 3-3-5) 4 4 radia oririg bara os rad fia oO 1-t ad ° raat Cueieaenl padi O11 a6 by Theorem 1 3. Adding the second column to the thitd, removing the common factor from this third column, and using Theorem Vit La bte Le esbee red Abeta] = |i d asbee (arbse)f1 ba} = 0 Le ass Le asbee ted 4, Adding to the third row the first and second rows, then removing the common factor 2; subtracting the second row from the third; subtracting the third row from the first: subtracting the first row from the second; finally carrying the third row over the other rows26 DETERMINANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX (CHAP, 3 tytby ast be ato] ath, mathe agtby Jab; apt be a+b bytes betes bgtea] = 2| biter Baten bat ea 2]brver betes bared ext) cota est asl Jay byse, apt bytey aatbot ca ty bh by Be 4 as oy = afbyser bates bated afer co eo a}bs be ba ma Jar to a ee oa ea 5. Without expanding, show that [4] = 2 a, 1) = ~(a,~ a2) (a2 ~ aq) (ao ~ a ay Yt ‘Subtract the second row from the first; then aad qa 0 aytae 1 ol lat a = 0; hence, | is a real number. 123 8. For the matrix 4 = |2 3 2], 22, aa = cote |8 fea ae = coef? f= ns cur? fe oy = care]? tan = | 3] = tg = |! 3] = 0 am = cael? 3 = tae evel fen = ene! 3cua. 3 DETERMINANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX 27 Note that the signs given to the minors of the elements in forming the cofactors follow the pattem ‘where each sien occupies the same position in the display as the element, whose cofactor is required, oc- cupies in 4, Write the display of signs for a S-square matrix. 9. Prove: The value ofthe determinant || of an n-square matrix A is the sum of the products obtained by multiplying each element of a row (column) of A by Its cofactor. We shall prove this for a row. ‘The toms of (3.6) having a:3 as @ factor are @ 212 idan MO On NOW Sf i..0jq = Sedseedy Since In a permutation 1. j.dy.ody. the 1 49 in natural order. ‘Then (a) may be written as o 8: BE fan fy Meho ey Anjy where the summation extends over the = (#1)! permutations of the integer 2.8,.00m, and hence, as 20 Ag. on © ayy] 98 ee on | Me Bee Bea Consider the matrix B obteined from 4 by moving its sth column over the first s—1 columns. By Theorem Mi IB| = (-1)" “lA, Moreover, the element standing in the first row and first column of B is ays and the minor of a5 in B is precisely the minor |Mys| of azs in 4. By the argument leading to (c), the tems of 13 lMfs5| are all the terms of |2/ having a15 88 a factor and, thus, all the terms of (—1)°*!4| having ais as factor, ‘Then the terms of axs{(—1)* ‘lifysiI are al the terme of || having a.5 as a factor. ‘Thus. (3.15) Al ana taal + ayel 19"? |My ol tet agalen isl) +o + ox" anll Martha + aoe +o + aynlin since (-1)° "= 1)". We have (3.9) with ¢=1, We shall call (3.18) the expansion of [A along its first ‘The expansion of [4] along sts rth row (that {s, (9.9) for ¢=r) is obtained by repeating the above argu- ments. Let 8 be the matrtx obtained from 4 by moving its rth row over the first rt rows and then ite, sth cols lumn over the frst s—1 columns. Then B| ey cay la] aya ‘The element standing in the first row and the first column of B is a,, and the minor of ay, in B is precisely the minor of a, in A. Thus, the terms of arty” “lM elt are atl te toms of || having ory a8 factor. “Then Val = Boater lial! = 2 opaaey and we have (3.9) for