TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Know Your Separators. 2. How Pressure Affects Oil and Gas Separation. 3. How Temperature Affects Separation... 4. How Well-Stream Composition Affects Degree of Separation. 5. Handling of Separator Liquid—Stage Separation. 6. Stabilization of Separator Liquid... 7. How to Sample Separator Fluids... 8. How Liquid Type Dust Scrubbers Clean Gat... 9, Mist Extraction—An Art, or a Science?.... 10. Vane-Type Impingement Mist Extractors. 11, Knitted-Wire Mist Extractors—and How They Work. 12, Centrifugal Mist Extractor... 13, How Dust Filters Function. 14, Oil-Fielé Instrumentation—Definition of Terms... Oil-Field Instrumentation—How Controllers Work... 16, How Field Controllers Work. 7 17, How to Select Liquid-Level-Control Instruments. 18, Back-Pressure and Pressure-Reduction Control—I sack-Pressure and Pressure-Reduction Control—7 20, What You Ought to Know About Separation of Oil and Water. 21, Temperature Control—| 22, Temperature Control—2. 23, Control of Low-Temperature Systems. 24. Control of Field Booster Compressors. 25, Relief and Venting Equipment. 26, Sizing of Relief Equipment. 21. Derivation of Flow Equation for Liquids nm 28. Calculating Pressure Drop... 29, How to Calculate Pipe Diameter Needed. 30, How to Calculate Liquid Line Capacity... 31. How to Design Loop Systems... 32. Complex Liquid Gathering Systems... 33, Natural-Gas P-V-T Relationships. 34, Calculation of the Compressibility Factor Z. 35, Principles of Gas Flow... 36. How Compressibility Affects Gas Flow..... 37, How to Calculate Complex-System Gas Flow. 38, Examples Showing Application of Gas-Flow Equations.1 ELEMENTS OF FIELD PROCESSING ... Part 1 of a Series Know Your Separators If separators are properly sized and operated, the loss of oil ‘and rich vopors will be held to @ minimum. More oil and higher gravity mean more money for the producer. The series that starts with this article is intended to show the operator how to choose cond operate his separators and other field-processing equipment for maximum profit. The next few articles will show the effect of pressure ond temperature on separation, application of stage separation, and how to get top efficiency from other operations. GEPARATION of cil and gus is the ‘most critical of the field-processing. ‘operations although it is still the most common. As producing pressures have risen and lighter condensates are pro- duced, ef ‘more critical than ever, Moreover, some of the new con ve been a} to advantage on old leases producing oil at moderate pressures. ‘As gas-trensmission lines raise their standards, separation becomes a part of the over-all field processing necessary properly to condition the gas. Consumer Specifications are becoming more rig- orous; it is only a matter of time, ably, until most gas contracts. will specify dust and liquid content in ad- dition to the present requirements, 1. A primary separation section to remove the bulk of the Hid. fom the ge. 2. Sufficient fiquid capacity to han- ‘le surges of liquid from the fine. 3. Sufficient length oF height to al- low the small droplets to setie out by gravity, to prevent undve eotrainment. 4A. means of reducing turbulence in the main body of the separator 20 that proper seting may take place, 5. A-sptay condenser to capluce ep. 4 ar by John M. Campbell trained droplets or those 00 small to or lobar back di 5 Proper backpressure and liquid- level contin "Al separtion may be divided into two clases—serubbers and separators ‘This classification is loose, is only {o distinguish. that equipment having tithe above features fom that which does not. In ths nomenclature rab ber is any device. Ceigued fot wpe: fation of liquid from ges tbat does not have features (2) and’, and poss bly (6). Its «vessel, then, deigned to handle relatively amall quaniies, of Tiquid wih no lunge degree of surging “Cholce of the sepurtion device ob- viously binges on economics. By vitoe of its. smaller size and simplicity, Scrubber is cheaper in inital cont and favier to instal Use of scrubbers Should ‘be carefully examined to see Such an examination often reveals that the slight additional cost of a separator is indeed very cheap insurance. is poor practice to use a scrubber as the primary separation means at the well. Production of liquid is often uo- steady and thre isa defivite need for figuid surge capacity. Even. dry-gas rls wil often sar producing tig, including salt water, ducing their later file. Consequently, ‘serubbers ire rec- ‘ommended only for: ‘ vigsds Secondary yeparation. 10. Femove idee Aisids fromm. process equi ‘ment such as absorbers and Tiquid dust scrubbers. 2. Gas-line separation downstream from a separator and where flow lines ‘re not long. 3. Miscellaneous separation where the gas-liquid ratio is extremely large. “Types of separators «»« The separators fof various manufacturers differ aight. ut all may be subdivided ical, @) borizontal, and (@) spherical. The spherical type is fair Ty recent addition, having Been effered ‘by some manufacturers for competitive reasons. Although it embodies all fea tures of conventional separators, it has limited liquid surge capacity and_ep- aration space. According to the nomen lature used here, it would fall on the Tine between a scrubber and a sepa. ator. Its use appears limited to amall leases, operating at moderate pressure, where intial favesiment is consigered importent. : able 1 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of each type. Oper- sting data 00. the spherical type are Timited so a final evaluation di cult “Fable 1 shows that the vertical separator is the mon versatile but the most expens went, tmust be josfied by actual requirements or by that intang trating. insurance” On the sve Tee, the extra cost of « Veriical avalor, particulary in the allenFe I-A dosblebarrel hortzntal separator sbove ‘s wagie-berrel below. The maa ad abaayer of tis Gpe are low cont and ene of mounting ad pile, is negligible when compared {0 the total well cost, Where the gas-oil ratio is Tow, the vertical type is always rec- ‘ommended. ‘Separator components . « . Figs. 1 and 2 are typical eutaway views showing the ‘various separator parts. is rai — fore Eihr 9 ane {ernai piping is used fo cause 8 spinning oa She incoming gan The at fer B preferred by most ince it per- ‘mits in-line piping. With this approach, the. large quid droplets are thrown against the walls, which limits the up- ‘ward flow and reduces entrainment. "All standard separators have capact- ties based on nonsurging of fluids. However, experience has dictated that ‘such surge capacity be built in. There is no way of determining the necessary surge capacity as the degree of surg ing can never be known in advance. Consequently, the amount of capacity hhas 10 be 2 compromise between cost and the average process requirements TABLE 1-SUMMARY OF SEPARATOR OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS a x ‘avancages Disadvantages VERMICAL Liquid evel “contre ‘not quite 40 Mont expensive tical vat oS “aid acerblies more difficult 10 ‘will nen larger quantis of sand tnd without fain. TE taper diameter for a piven srr fo clean out. ‘pe capac. Fis preter bguid surge cacy a Talay manufetured Leg tendeney for revaporition of oid. HORIZONTAL, than vere ‘Liguid level contol more critical than Mp or std assembles wih verveal pe Easel 10 pipe op. il de ot ead, mand and “ima thas verical bre tet avaiable for seiog when two Tigud| phases ae presen SPHERICAL Cheaper then either horizontal or Has limited separation apace and 9: veteal a ores cpa compact. sul eel contol crite Fie. 2A vertical separtor. Is advantages Sa Ses hen oid ‘nae te ry . rues ad Sohume of sad = ‘Standard-size separators, produced by reputable manufacturers, have very similar dimensions; and ail have, in ef- feet, incorporated an arbitrary amount fof surge capacity. In many cases, par ticularly with the vertical type, shorter FIELD PROCESSINGeof. uncino rect cass cesT ‘Gaui a ck sata capncrry= seca, ‘Orem Fig. 3—These cares leter seperntor may be EARLY OF VERTICAL SEARTORS wor GAS 8 GR. = 8.70 9 Rae AML fear. "TRE length of e horizontal separator bas a prester effect on capacity than Bef ot veil pet te horizontal vss, the pth of any drop. tet ideally has a trefectory siet to tht ofa abl fom gun, Therefor, the length necessary depends on: eae ee es SS S05 80 Gd pecan P31” fare based on 2 0 length, bat at higher presmres ‘bearer. aoty Mawuracrunens wana 4 FaNNP dSep oman ow Lom Ga ane emue"O wats 45. Degree of turbulence. Tin the ideal case, turbulence may be neglected and effect of gravity assumed constant. Droplet velocity affects length for as it increases, the droplets will travel farther before setting out, “Ak though corrections have to be made for the nonideal con analysis shows that the capaci horizontal separator of a given diam- feter_may be increased by” increasing Jength. : ‘Application ofthe same pringiples to vertical separators shows slightly ferent results. There, the droplet ve- locity is working against gravity, which makes separation “more difficult. In order to Keep separator height reason- able, velocities must be smaller Suffi- cient length is needed only for the velocity to become zero and for the roplet to start falling. Increasing the Jeng above this pint accomplishes Af too much Liquid is carried into the separation section, the falling of the small droplets is hindered and e0- frainment becomes more prevalent. ‘This is one reason internal desigo is critical. Theory does not give the de- signer sufficient tools, 0 design is best accomplished by actual test. ‘The spray condenser is designed to trap those droplets that have for any Tesion een ead Beyond the seps- ration section proper. This subject will be explored more thoroughly at a later Stage ma dose br. The hor om ‘a Fig i is known 03 the doutle-barrel ype and consis of fn upper separation section and a lower liquid! chamber. "The tngle-bare! combines both into a single chamber. Avditfernce of opinion exis as 10 which is the best as each has its in- erent advantages, Either should work sasfactorly if properly designed and Used within dts itatons, a tany cases, nial cont the prime’ consid tration, "Table 2 summarizes the a8 ‘Vantage advanced foreach "To prevent undue higuid Vrbulence and retirainment of liquid, most tan- Ufacurers provige some sort of baffle Pate above the gud level on the soe Darrel type. To have 2 gat capaci Etiveat © tat of a double bere ‘pe. the diameter must be larger to for the volume occupie ae pied Sizing of Separators Since theory does not take some im- ortant factors into account, published separator capacities have been obtained by test and the application of rather arbitrary standards, Gas capacity . . . For many years de- signers bave used variations of the em- pirical formule: Q = 67,824 CD (1/2) PD X (o-eVeol® to determine the gas capacity of sep- ‘arators, where: = gu capacity, standard ex ft. per day © = proportionality constant D= oe diameter ‘ofT conmadon meron Gon waren ‘ove arcane eur ores cae Fly. S—The Cy factor corrects for ofl gravity. Z = compressibility factor, dimen- sionless P = operating pressure, psi P, = pressure base, psi pL = density of liquid, Ib./tt a, = density of gas, Ib./ft Use of Equation 1 in a vertical sep- arator stems from analogy with allow- able vapor velocity in fractionation col- lumns and absorbers. Consequently, value of C = 0.16 to 0.18 is often used. For horizontal separators the same equation has been used with C = 0.40 to 0.42. In absence of detailed capacity charts, Equation 1 may be used for e5- timating separator size requirements. Many caleulators assume ideat gases @ = 1.0) for sizing calculations, par- ticularly at pressures below 1,000 psig. ‘An additional temperature cotrection ‘could be shown; but in most separation Drocesses, itis not significant except for fis effect’ on liquid and gas gravities. ‘At least one reputable manufacturer bases sizing curves on the following conditions: 1. Smallest liquid perticles separ ble are spheres 10 (0.0004 farger in diameter. "D. The specific gravity of the liquid particles in the gas stream is 45° AP. oF less. 3. No liquid foaming is present and there is no undue surging. “4. The oil is at a temperature above its cloud point. '5. The gat is above the hydrate form- ing temperature. %6. The gas has a specific gravity of 047 and the separated oil is 35° A.PLL ‘Using these assumptions, the entrain- ‘ment of liquid through the separator is guaranteed not to exceed 0.1 gal. per 1,000 standard cubic feet. ‘A means of estimating separator gas capacity is provided by Figs. 3-6. Figs. 3 and 4 are actually conservative com- posite of various manufacturers’ curves anolcommection racTOR cy) fron vamiarion in a3 \Setcine i aS caarith connteron ETON Cy Fy it the the Ce factor from this sas erary le not 8 ‘Shark wl Kelp to fd capacty of separator, ‘and check Equation 1 rather closely. In these figures, internal diameter is ‘sed as a parameter. Many manufac turers base separator sizes on the out side diameter so that a correction for ‘all thickness would be necessary. This is easily done for from Equation 1 it may be seen that Q is proportional to D® for a given well stream, at given separation conditions. Consequently, @ Q = Q yD 'Qy = capacity desired for a separator a wih i Dy i 2 = Koown capacity for a separ with id. ae ‘The vertical separator capacities ‘TABLE 2—SUMMARY OF ADVANTAGES ‘CLAIMED FOR SINGLE, AND DOU- ‘SLE BARREL HORIZONTAL ‘SEPARATORS Lower first cont 2 Easier to inslate for cold weather op- 53, Gas and liquid remain in contact, keep- fog the liquid warmer end rinimizing fitezing and paralin deposition. Doobie ae T Gnaer surging conditions arg capacity hie pet By aveing ‘Ba ot tie Galo lower chamber at inlet. The sepa inion ction fs semi-aalted from the et solution gas is ob- ltined ite quent lower chatbe 5 Better separation when gas. and guid hive scar densities ad at igh pres Tes chance for ree More sable tioid evel convol as the Tout i tocated‘away Tom the turbulent acseparnion secon. Level control is Sore o erica shown in Fig. 4 are based on the use ff a tangential inlet (or the equivalent) tnd at least 2 ft. difference in height between the oil outlet and inlet. Many designers feel that a minimum of 2 ft {s requited to. prevent undue entrain- iment as a resull of turbulent effects, ‘The ‘horizontal separator capacities shown in Fig. 3 are based on separa- tors TO ft, Jong withthe equivalent meter shown being entirely available fore flow. For singlbarrel sepera tors, that portion occ ti Soa te abeaced Kom ‘he al fre to find an equivalent diameter. "At high pressure it is Jess expensive to build longer separators because of the saving in the thickness of shell plate ted, which in turn reduces, fabrics tion ‘costs. Published data show that the following equation may be used for estimating the capacity at any length ‘once the capacity for some other length is kaowe: a Q (Lyte where api of separator of tength tcpacity of separator of length TP Sinem ae ‘When using Fig. 3, Qp would equal the copay tend from the paph and Ly Sion. For those cases where the gus and Tiguidgravities are different from 0.70 and. 39" AA. respectively, itis nec- tusary to we Figs $ and 6. Fig, 5 i plot of correction facior versus oil yin CAPA, while Fig 6 fesponding correction factor for fas FIELD PROCESSING= ‘when processing a wel stream contain- _ ig O8Dsp. gr. gas and 50" APL. lige separating at 800 psig. i Solution: { (@) From Fig, 4 gas capacity = 16.6 tft MMe. From Fig. $C, = 0952 From Fig. 6 C, = 0.90 1200] @r = 166) 10952) (09) = cost estnaahion cowvest fon sro aureus | VERTICAL SeparaTons. OT 142 MM. (from Equa- tion 4) The total capacity of a separator is thea found from the equation G=OQGQM 4 where Qe = capacity at actual conditions ‘Q = capacity read from Fig. 3 or 4 C,= gas correction factor from Fig. 6 Cy, = liquid correction factor from Fig. 5 Example: Determine the gas capac- ity oft (a) 30%, i vertical separator () 30:n. 1.4. horizontal separator, 10 ft. tong (© 304n. id he 20 ft ong tal separator, (b) From Fig. 3 gas capecity = 39.0 MMciae OPS From Fig. 5 C, = 0952 From Fig. 6 Cy = 0,90 Qe, = 69.0) 0952) 90) = 334 MM.ctd. © Q = 334 MMofd. and Ly = 10 fe. Li = 208 From Equation 3 Q = (63.4) 20/1099 = (33.4) (147) = 49.1 MiMie£d, Liquid capacity... Ligud capri is wed by two factors—liqui capac Of the dovacome aad other liga handling portions of the vessel, and/or capacity ‘of the liguiglevel control valve, Since there are infinite combi ations of these, ao general correlation of liquid capacity is feasible. AAS the pressure increates, the capac- ity will do 50 correspondingly because more driving force is available to force the liquid through the vessel and across the va: Howere- no elective change in capacity is usually specified after the Presure exceeds 1,000 pip, One method of inerdasing separator capacity is the use of a larger stem and seat in the dump valve. This should be one with caution, though, for many control complications may’ arise. This aspect will be discussed in detail in & future installment. A large majority of those separations, where the liquid capacity fovernng, ‘on low-pressure eruse-oil wils. AS 44 guide the following capacities are given by one manufacturer for 125 sig. working pressure. vertical sepa Fats. Dump valve Capacity Diameter (a): fay 2 2 oo x i 1880 Fd 4 tho “a 4 ‘300 oo 6 iso ‘The capacities shown are also ‘based fon the liquid properties previously as- sumed. Separator costs. Figs. 7 and 8 give curves forest Standard il Srurves are never ently accurate be. aise the. variation of fiting and cone {Gol cos has a marked effect on ‘otal ox, partcuary ‘with smalldameter wesclt HF it were not fortis all cost aves should converge fo a singe pont i some small Gamer because «ine imum wallthickness vessel would suf fice forall presses “The curves generally give investment cows within 5! per sett of the aver published prices for API-ASME. Eade presure veel, Where noneode 125 ptig. vertical separators are wed, the pres ahown ‘should be reduced bout © per cent ©ELEMENTS OF FIELD PROCESSING . Part 2 How Pressure Affects Oil and Gas Separation The author says... 1. When selling gas from high-pressure gus-condensate systems, itis seldom possible to justify operating the separator below sales ‘sure. This is especially true when the sales line is below 1,000 pei. Aine pres 2, When compressing the gas Is necessary to sell it, compression above the highest pressure of the sales line can seldor ‘Both initial and operating cost of extra compression will usually be more ‘than the additional liquid revense. ‘3. In cycling operations wit high-pressure reservoirs it fs seldom ‘good fo separate at pressures less than 1,200 psig. because of the extra ‘compression costs. M4. On low-gas-oll ratio crude-oll wells, amount of the Bquid and its ‘are the most important factors. "5, Water dem point, heating value, and other such gas specifications, ‘can seldom be met by controlling pressure alone. ‘6. At high separator pressures, the percenty ge of methane and ethane {in the liquid goes up. To prevent undue losses, handle the separator Biquid ‘between that separator and the stock tank with care. Multistage separe tion is needed, and very often, so Is some form of liquid stabilization. by John M. Campbell TTHESE are things that fx the rela: tive smounts of vapor and liquid leaving a separator: 1, Separator pressure. 2 Separator temperature. 3, Wellstream composition. First two are the only ones that may be controlled directly in field operation, bat all must be considered in finding these the best conditions. Yn. gett conditions economics is, of course, the first consideration. Many times’ the problem is simply to get the greatest Emount of stock-tank product to sell. ‘Other times, the gas ies are con- ‘rolling. Although the conditions vary with the field, all these things must bbe considered in an over-all evaluation: 1. Amount and value of liquid pro- duced, 2 Amount and value of gas pro- duced. ‘Sales specifications on residue gas including: (a) Pressure. {(®) Temperature. { Amount of liquefiable compo- ‘eats preseot. (2) Heating vatoe. & Effect of separator pressure and temperature on the quantity and cost ff oy auriliary equipment needed. Oa many leases the gas may not be important beeause it is not sold or the sales specifications may mot be too ‘exacting. However, this is becoming less frequent as more gas is marketed and transmission lines increased their speci fications. fem 4 is of particular importance where large amounts of gas are avail- able at_moderate to high pressures. ‘This auxiliary equipment includes com- pressors, dehydrators, liquid-extraction Equipment, and the like. Inasmuch as its cost is high compared with separa- tion equipment, the auxiliary equip- ment is often of major importance. ‘Therefore, over-all economics, rather ‘than liquid recovery alone is often the critical factor. ‘On pumping wells Item 1 is nor- ‘mally the only significant factor. How to get the relation . . . The rele- tion between pressure, temperature, and ‘composition may be obtained by Writ- ing, material balance around © sep atsior. Doing so results inthe equation Fr, L wo K,(V/L) + 1 or KF w= ® WN) + Ke ‘mole fraction of any compo- nent (methane, ethane, etc.) in the well stream to the sep- arator. L, = mole fraction of any compo- nent in the separator liquid. mole fraction of any com, the separator residue total moles residue gas. F total moles of entering well stream. K = equilibrium vaporization ratio le The use of this and other related quantities will be discussed in detail Tater in the series. ‘The equilibrium vaporization ratio K actually a function of all three vari- bles discussed above, while F, is a composition term proper. These two terms are the independent variables and the final values of L, and L/V are de- on them. ‘The effect of composition on “K” less at pressures below 1,200 psia. the region in which most field separation takes place. For simplicity then, it wil ‘be assumed that “k” is dependent only fon temperature and pressure. Further more, for convenience, each of the ‘TABLE {SUMMARY OF PROCESS CALCULATIONS Aa 400 900 P1300 1,500 gee ewin ge anise art Bo ana amet pete cae a er Soli edt Bo Hy ee Eehat eta Sinn oie WeLsTazA ANALYSS oe vse if us ta ‘2 5 iis FIELD PROCESSINGai = ! soe a | £ ‘Prorat a ee a i = : a ee 7 i or al h. oe pranaume Pain “hoo a L_Regwten ofthe chart wad, plot of Kv. pears for 8 Fig, Bf of premre oe Ghelonce at's goes caper et Seve st peat TEE ie ie Get ast Foo ioe taree variables will be discussed sep- occur inthe vicinity of these presures, plex; and the presture al which the artsy. when separating at 80" Fe eon, Hquid is formed. is not ean found. Not only does the composition tect of Presare on Equi —Msdane Avene Vary but the lowest valve of Re ailer : poate ea pues 20 From the several components a most analyses the following com- Eoktane ‘Bo pega ome oe EE BT necopns Connon Pare, isobutane, n-butane, fopentane, mopenaoe 190 Fig. 2 8 typical phase curve for a mpentane, Hexane, and heptanes plus. fyisn™ $80 multicomponent’ hydrocarbon. mixture ‘The latier includes all portions of the liquid heavier than heptane and varies eae ee cer enret Mebane nn $26 1018 Ethane we 8B Trobutane 4d 26 frou 1634 aoa ou a jue 220 Henne ido 7473 Hepuanes pis Bu Tout 70000 “To000 Separton pes oer Oe *F. .. st ° oO tJ VMMed | 4923 2193 4 ‘Fferane plus two in that it contains relatively Tittle fof the components ethane through pen- fane, by comparison with the ‘two analyses. Effect of Intermediate stage pressure fom recovery « «« Fig. 2 summarizes the fock-tank recoveries to be expected ‘when subjecting the three liquid anal- Yes in Table 2 to two additional stages Of separation. (AS eh be expected, Anwtyst A gives the highest total recovery because frore liquid was present in the first Sane spurt pt millon cubis fet fvell” stream processed. Althouj Seat met Fccne i ait they all pass through « maximum, i... the intermediate at which ‘maximum Tiquid is obtained. Tt is obvious though that che inter- mediate pee, Hoot critical in the ease of Analysis C, & pressure any- Shee betwees 40 sad 100 pie. ole ing 2 practical solution. the more pronounced _ variations shown by Analyses A and B are typi- fal of analyses exhibiting relatively Targe quantities of pentanes, Pentane i normally a stocK-ank component, is relatively easy to vaporize. The Feduction in recovery at lower pres- FIELD PROCESSING5 ures is largely due tothe loss of this Pesan. "This phenomenon is partic: Uinty pronounced when farge quan tes of ethane and ethane te Belo 30. pans the recovery drops ott rapidy. Etimination of the inte tmedate sage inthe ease of Analysis B, for example, reduces tbe recovery to M05 al per Mibtc As the (curves show, the practical maximum occurs throughout smal Tange instead of single pressre Rffect of composition and pressure on efficiency of recovery . . . Fig. 3 shows the fraction of the first-stage liq recovered in the stock tank. Here it is readily seen that Analysis A, al- ‘though showing the highest recovery (Fig. 2), has the greatest loss. On the orher hands stage separation of Anal ysis C is very efficient. Several conclusions ‘may be drawn from these results, which have been borne out by ficld experience. First, stage separation of liquids containing ge quantities of methane. through peolane usually show large losses when od by stage separation. ‘Typical Sf this is the fud” produced. When processing gutcondensate wells by {means of low-temperature separation ‘Second, firststage liquid in which the potent soca id com. posed largely of the hexanes plus may tually be efficiently procesed by stage separation, Most erbde-oil wells pro- ducing 45° APL. erude, or les, in the Sock tank {ail into this eategory. “The type of plot represented By Fig. 3 is not only valuable in estimating the ‘efficiency of stage separation but ‘also convenient to use fa, determin ing. the optimum pressure since fue. tuations im recovery awe more pro Inasmach ap there are no correlae tons at present that necustly give the number of stages needed, as. ell as the ‘optimum operating. pressures, the above resulls may ont Be weds 8 general guide. Pretcal considerations Fequire that these anawers may only be Accurately obtained by flash vapoic- thon calculations, verfed by field tet ‘he curent widespread se Of elec: tronic eaeulators makes this a reson: thle hd economic approach. ‘The economics of Using various oum- bers of sages may be etermined by employing the coat estimation curves fa Pan 1 The foal cos ebuinee by Simply" adding up the individual wp. trait cons shows, I a prepped shoe tmounted unit dese about 10 pet ent should be added tothe above wim. ee, Befereace 1, Wate, maton Mea, Un oe Mis Shes, Uneiy