SURVEY Tl \\ Cee. Dr. B.C. PUNMIA ASHOK K. JAIN ARUN K. JAINPublished by : LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD. 22, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002. Phones ; | 011-232623 68 * | 011-23 2623 70 Faxes ; | 011-28252572 | 011-2326 2279 Branches : © 129/1, IIrd Main Road, IX Cross, Chamrajpet. Bangalore (Phone : 080-26 61 15 62) © 26, Damodaran Street, T. Nagar, Chennai (Phone : 044-24 34 47 26) © St, Benedict's Road, Cochin (Phone : 0484-239 70 04) © Pan Bazar, Rani Bari, Guwahati (Phones : 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81) 4-2-453, Ist Floor, Ramkote, Hyderabad (Phone : 040-24 75 02.47) © Adda Tanda Chowk, N.D. 365, Jalandhar City (Phone : 0181-222 12 72) © 106/A, Ist Floor, S.N, Banerjee Road, Kolkata (Phones : 033-22 27 37 73, 22 27 52 47) 18, Madan Mohan Malviya Marg, Lucknow (Phone - 0522-220 95 78) 142-C, Victor House, Ground Floor, N.M. Joshi Marg, Lower Parel (W), Mumbai {Phones : 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69) e Radha Govind Street, Tharpagna, Ranchi (Phone : 0651-230 77 64) EMAIL : colaxmi@hotmail.com WEBSITE : www.laxmipublications.com First Edition 2 (1966, Second Edition : 1970 Third Edition 2 1975, Fourth Edition : 1977 Fifth Edition > 1980, Sixth Edition 1981 Seventh Edition : 1983, Eighth Edition 1985 Ninth Edition > 1987, Tenth Edition 1989 Eleventh Edition = 1991, REPRINT 1985 Twelfth Edition 1994 REPRINT : 1995, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2002, August 2003 July 2004, June 2005 © 1966, 1987, 1994 B.C. PUNMIA © 1987, 1994 ASHOK K. JAIN, ARUN K. JAIN All Rights Reserved by the Authors. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or translated without the written permission of the Authors. ISBN : 81-7008-080-0 ESU-0604-140-SURVEYING II (E) Price : Rs. 140.00 Only. C—-10832/05/07 DTP Composed by : Arihant Consultants, Jodhpur. Printed at: Mehra Offset Press, DelhiContents CHAPTER 1, TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING Page LL_General 1 1.2__ Instruments i 13. Different Systems of Tacheometric Measurement .. 3 1.4. Principle of Stadia Method = 4 1S. Distance and Elevation Formulae for Staff Vertical : Inclined Sight a 8 1L6._Di Elevation FE: ‘Staff Normal 2 L2_The Anallactic Lens |||. 1.8. Principle of Subtense Method : Vertical 1.9, Horizontal Base Subtense Measurements _. _34 1.10. Holding the Staff ooo 39 LU, Methods of Reading the Staff os 41 1.12. | Stadia Field Work ‘ 42 113. |The Tangential Method a 47 1.14. Reduction of Stadia Notes 2... 5 1,15. Special Instruments ~ 57 1.16. ‘The Auto-reductian Tacneometer {Hammer-Fennel) os 61 L12_Wild’s RDS Reduction Tacheometer __..._63 1.18. The Ewing Stadi-Altimeter (Watts) we 67 1.19._Electronic Tacheometers ..._._..._____.._68 1.20. Errors in Stadia Surveying “ n 1.21. Effect of Errors in Stadia _Tacheometry, due to Manipulation and Sighting* a 73 PROBLEMS CHAPTER 2. CURVE SURVEYING 21.__General 85 23. Designation of Curve = 87 24. Elements of Simple Curve 89 25. Setting out Simple Curves , o 26. By Ordinates’from the Lorig Chord - 93 27. By Successive Bisection of Arcs or Chords oe 95 2.8. By Offsets from:the Tangents. * wn 95 29. . By Deflection Distances . a 98 2.10. Rankine’s "Method of Tangential AngleS ~ 101ai) 2.11. Two Theodolite Method «108 2.12, Tatheometric Method 109 2.13. Obstacles to the Location of Curves » 4 2.14. Special Problems in Simple Curves 122, 2.15. Elements of a Compound Curve ” 144 2.16. Relationship Between the Parts of a Compound Curve -~ 145 2.17. Setting out Compound Curve «149 2.18. Elements of a Reverse Curve SS 2.19. General Requirements «166 2.20. Length of Transition ‘Curve 171 2.23. Computations and Setting out ~ 191 2.24. Spiraling Compound Curves . 197 2.25. Spiralling Reverse Curves 199 226._Bi i's Lemni C 200 227 Genera) 2.28. Length of Vertical Curve 222 2.29. Computations and Setting out a Vertical Curve ... 223 230. Sight Distance 236 2.31. Sight Distance at Underpass Structures «239 PROBLEMS CHAPTER 3. TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING 3.1.__Introduction 2. AT 3.2. Base of the Object Accessible on 248 3.3. Base of the Object Inaccessible : Instrument Stations id the S Vertical Pi = Elevated Object. wo _ 254 3.4. Base of the Object Inaccessible : Instrument Stations not in the Same Vertical Plane as the Elevated Object «= 256 3.5. Terrestrial Refraction 4S. 265. 3.6.__ Axis Signal Correction on. 766 3.7. Determination of Difference in Elevation ~ 269 PROBLEMS, RG CHAPTER 4. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING 4.2. Shore Line Survey 43. Soundi 4.4. _Méthods of Locating Soundings 4.5. Reduction of Soundings . 4,6. Plotting of Soundings ~~ 307 47 The Tides 98(uiti) 48. Prediction of Tides 322 49. Tide Gauges | 328 4.10. Mean Sea Level as Datum ~ 330 PROBLEMS ~~ 330 CHAPTER 5, MINE SURVEYING SL Genet 5.2, Equipment for Mine Surveys : The Transit te 333 5.3, The Stations and Station Markers ~ 338 5.4. Measurement of Distance and Difference in Elevation ~~ 339 5.5 Tunnel Alignment and Setting Out ~ 341 5.6. Suspension Mining Compass ~~ 346 5.7. Brunton Universal Pocket Transit ~ 346 CHAPTER 6. TRIANGULATION 6.1. Geodetic Surveying a 451 6.2. Classification of Triangulation System w= 352 6.3. Triangulation Figures or Systems wo 354 6.4, The Strength of Figure ~ 356 6.5. Reconnaissance = = 364 6.6. Signals and Towers 374 6.7, Base Line Measurement = — 380 6.8. Calculations of Length of Base : tape Corrections ~- 388 6.9, Measurement of Horizontal Angles ww 402, 6.10. Satellite Station : Reduction to Centre ~ 411 6.11. Extension of Base : Base Net - 419 PROBLEMS ~~ 419. CHAPTER 7. SURVEY ADJUSTMENTS AND THEORY OF ERRORS Lt jon = Ki iE i 12 Definiti 2 7.3._The_Laws_of Accidental Errors __.._428 7.4. General Principies of Least Squares ow = 431 15.__Laws of Weights w- __ 433 16D ination of Probable Ey 35 L7.__Distributi LE f th Field_Measurements 24.0... 78. Norma! Equations 444 1.9.__Determination_of the Most Probable Values... __448 110. Method of Correlates 0 sO 711. Triangulation Adjustments 470 7.12. Figure Adjustment wn 475 7.13, Adjustment of a Geodetic Triangle 478 7,14. Adjustment of Chain of Triangles w 485(av) 7.15. Adjustment of Two Connected Triangles we 486 7.16._Adjustment of a Geodetic Quadrilateral oe 490 7.17. Adjustment of a Quadrilateral with a Central Station Method of Least Squares wv _ 502 7.18, Adjustments of Geodetic Triangles with Central Station Method of Least_Squares 506 7.19. Method of Equal Shifts 514 PROBLEMS CHAPTER 8. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING 8.1 Introduction SD 8.2. Methods of Representing Relief aw 519 85. Procedure in Topographic Surveying 523 8.6. Methods of Locating Contours . 524 8.7. Interpolation of Contours 529 CHAPTER 9. ROUTE SURVEYING 9.1.__Introduction 533 9.2. Reconnaissance Survey 533 93. Preliminary Survey 536 9.4, Location Survey 539 9.5. Construction Survey ~ 539 CHAPTER 10. SPECIAL INSTRUMENTS 10.2. Jig Telescope and Jig Transit a. S41 10.3. Collimators 4... SAT 10.4, Cross-table » 550 10.5. Instrument for Checking Movement of Dams 551 10.6. Telemeter a 552 10.7._Altimeter J, SS 11.4. Wild T 2000 S ‘Theomat* - 564 11.5. Wild TC 2000 Tachymat - 565 APPENDIX 1 : S.[. Units 569 APPENDIX 2 : Questions from _A.M.LE. Section BOO ST APPENDIX 3 : Stadia Tables « 595Tacheometric Surveying 1.1. GENERAL Tacheometry (or Tachemetry or Telemetry) is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances of points are obtained by optical means as opposed to the ordinary slower process of measurements by tape or chain. The method is very rapid and convenient. Although the accuracy of Tachcometry in general compares unfavourably with that of chaining, it is best adapted in obstacles such as steep and broken ground, deep ravines, stretches of water or swamp and so on, which make chaining difficult or impossible. The accuracy attained is such that under favourable conditions the -erfor will not exceed ita and if the purpose of a survey does not require greater accuracy, the method is unexcelled. The primary object of tacheometry is the preparation of contoured maps or plans requiring both the horizontal as well as vertical control. Also, on surveys of higher accuracy, it provides a check on distances measured with the tape. 1.2, INSTRUMENTS An ordinary transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is generally uscd for tacheometric survey. The stadia diaphragm es- sentially consists of one ‘stadia hair above and the other an equal distance below the horizontal cross-hair, the stadia hairs being mounted in the same ring and in the same vertical plane as the horizontal and vertical cross-hairs. Fig. 1.1 shows the different forms of stadia diaphragm commonly used. The telescope used in stadia surveying are of three kinds (i) the simple external-focusing telescope. (2) theexternal-focusing anallactic telescope (Porro’s telescope) (3) the internal-focusing telescope, ~ qa)2 SURVEYING (a) (b) (ce) (a) (e) (rt) FIG. 1.1. VARIOUS PATTERNS OF STADIA DIAPHRAGM. The first type is known as stadia theodolite, while the second type is known as ‘tacheometer’. The ‘tacheometer’ (as such) has the advantage over the first and the third type due to the fact that the additive constant of the instrument is zero. However, the internal focus- ing telescope is becoming more popular, though it has a very small additive constant. Some of the latest patterns of internal focusing tele- scope may be regarded as strictly anallactic (see § 1.7). A tacheometer must essentially incor- porate the following features : (®) The multiplying constant should have a nominal value of 100 and the error contained in this value should not exceed 1 in 1000. (i) The axial horizontal line should be exactly midway between the other two lines. (di) The telescope should be truly, anal- lactic. FIG. 1.2, STADIA RODS (iv) The telescope should be powerful having a magnification of 20 to 30 diameters. The aperture of the objective should be 35 to 45 mm in diameter in order to have a sufficiently bright image.TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING 3 For small distances (say upto 100 metres), ordinary levelling staff may be used, For greater distances a stadia rod may be used, A stadia rod is usually of one piece, having 3 to 5 meters length. The pattern of graduations should be bold and simple. For stadia work done, the finer graduations are usually omitted. Fig. 1.2 shows two typical patterns of graduations. For smaller distances, a stadia rod graduated in 5 mm (ie. 0.005 m) may be used, while for longer distances, the rod may be graduated in 1 cm (ie. 0.01 m). 13, DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF TACHEOMETRIC MEASUREMENT The various systems of tacheometric survey may be classified as follows : (1) The stadia system (@) Fixed Hair method (6) Movable Hair method, or Subtense method. (2) The tangential system. (3) Measurements by means of special instruments. The principle common to all the systems is to calculate the horizontal distances between two points A and B and their difference in elevation, by observing (i) the angle at the instrument at A subtended by a known short distance along a staff kept at B, and (ii) the vertical angle to B from A. (a) Fixed hair method. In this method, observation (7). men- tioned above is made with the help of a stadia diaphragm having stadia wires at fixed or constant distance apart. The readings on the staff corresponding to all the three wires are taken. The staff intercept, ie. the difference of the readings corresponding to top and bottom stadia wires will therfore, depend on the distance of the staff from the instrument. When the staff intercept is more than the length of the staff, only half intercept is read. For inclined sights, readings may be taken by keeping the staff either vertical or normal to the line of sight. This is the most common method in tacheometry and the name ‘stadia method’ generally bears reference to this method. (6) Subtense method. This method is-similar to the fixed hair method except that the stadia interval is variable. Suitable ar- Tangement is made to vary the distance between the stadia hair so as to set them against the two targets on the staff kept at the point under observation. Thus, in this case, the staff intercept, ie, the distance between the two targets is kept fixed while the stadia interval, ie., the distance between the stadia hairs is variable. As in the case of fixed hair method, inclined sights may also be taken. °4 SURVEYING The tangential method. In this method, the stadia hairs are not used, the readings being taken against the horizontal cross-hair. To measure the staff intercept, two pointings of the instruments are, therefore, necessary. This necessitates measurement of vertical angles twice for one single observation. THE STADIA METHOD 1.4. PRINCIPLE OF STADIA METHOD The stadia method is based on the principle that the ratio of the perpendicular to the base is constant in similar isosceles triangles. In Fig. 1.3 (a), let two rays OA and OB be equally inclined to the central ray OC, Let A; B2, Ai B, and AB be the staff intercepts. Evidently, Or OC = oth. = constant k = 5 cot 7 FIG. 13. PRINCIPLE OF STADIA METHOD. This constant k entirely depends upon the magnitude of the angle B. If f is made equal to 34’ 22", the constant k= yout 17°11" = 100. In this case, the distance between the staff and the point O will be 100 times the staff intercept. In actual practice, observationsTACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING “5 may be made with either horizontal line of sight or with inclined line of sight. In the latter case, the staff may be kept either vertically Or normal to the line of sight. We shall first derive the distance-elevation formulae for the horizontal sights. Horizontal Sight. Consider Fig. 1.3 (6) in which O is the optical centre of the objective of an external focusing telesope. . Let A, Cand B= The points cut by the three lines of sight corres- ponding to the three wires. b,canda = Top, axial and bottom hairs of the diaphragm. ab =i = interval between the stadia hairs (stadia interval) AB = = staff intercept. \f = focal length of the objective fi = Horizontal distance of the staff from the optical centre of the objective. f: = Horizontal distance of the cross-wires from O. d = Distance of the vertical axis of the instrument from O. D =Horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical axis of the instrument. M=Centre of the instrument, corresponding to the vertical axis. Since the rays BOb and AOa pass through the optical centre, they are straight so that AsAOB and aOb are similar. Hence fos i foi ani) Again, since f, and f; are conjugate focal distances, we have from lens formula, . 11,1 - sests el TR ® Multiplying throughout by ffi, we get f ==ft A=Eree Substituting the values ot f= in the above, we get6 SURVEYING hatsts iy The horizontal distance between the axis and the staff is D=fitd or DeaLs+ gta w-{Ll (a)} D=k.st+C Equation 1.1 is known as the distance equation. In order to get the horizontal distance, therefore, the staff intercept s is to be found by subtracting the staff readings corresponding to the top and bottom stadia hairs. The constant ko£ is known as the multiplying constant or Stadia interval factor and the constant (f + d) = C is known as the additive constant of the instrument. Alternative Method. Equation 1.1 can also be derived al- ternatively, with reference to Fig. 1.4 in which the rays Bb’ and Aa’ passing through the exterior principal focus F, become parallel to the optical axis. The rays Aa and Bb pass through O and remain urdeviated. FIG, 1.4, PRINCIPLE OF STADIA METHOD. Since the stadia interval ab is fixed in magnitude, the points @’andb’ are fixed. Again, since F is also fixed, being the exterior principal focus of the objective, the angle AFB is fixed in magnitude. From similar triangles AFB and a'Fb' we have FC_OF _f AB a’) ii or ro=LapafsTACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING 7 Distance from the axis to the staff is given by D=FC+(f{ta) =Ls+ (sta =ks+C (1.1) Note. Since point F is the vertex of the measuring triangle, it is also sometimes called the anallactic point. Elevation of the Staff Station. Since the line of sight is horizontal, the elevation of the staff station can be found out exactly in the same manner as the levelling. Thus, Elevation of staff station = Elevation of instrument zxis — Central hair reading Determination of constants k and C . The values of the multiplying constant k and the additive. constant C can be computed by the following methods if Ist Method. \n this method, the additive constant C=(f'+ d) is measured from the instrument while the multiplying constant k is computed from field observations : 1, Focus the intrument to a distant object and measure along the telescope the distance between the objective and cross-hairs. 1_1,1 we salts frh Since f is very large in this case, f is approximately equal to fr,ie., equal to the distance of the diaphragm from the objective. 2. The distance d between the instrument axis and the objective is variable in the case of external focusing telescope, being greater for short sights and smaller for long sights. It should, therefore be measured. for average sight. Thus, the additive constant (f+ 4) is known. 3. To calculate the multiplying constant k, measure a known. distance D, and take the intercept s; on the staff kept at that point, the line of sight being horizontal. Using equation 1:1, Di =k, +C c D-C St w For average value, staff intercepts, 52, s; etc., can bé measured corresponding to distance D; , D;etc., and meaa value can be calculated. or k=8 SURVEYING. ” Note. In the case of some external ‘focusing instruments, the eye-piece-diaphragm unit moves during focusing. For such instruments d is constant and does not vary while focusing. : 2nd Method. In this method, both the constants are determined by field observations as under : 1. Measure a line, about 200 m long, on fairly level ground and_drive pegs at some interval, say 50 metres. . 2. Keep the staff on the pegs and observe the corresponding staff intercepts with horizontal sight. 3, Knowing the values of D and s for different points, a number of simultaneous equations can be formed by substituting the values of D and s in equation 1.1, The simultancous solution of successive \pairs of equations will give the values of k and C, and the average Of these can be found. For example, ifs, is the staff intercept corresponding to distance Dy and sz corresponding to D; we have Dak +e (i) and Dy = ksy + C ww (ii) Subtracting (i) from (i), we get _2D-D - 3 a (2) Substituting the values of k in (i), we get c=p,- 22), 2-H or c = Dis = Dis — Dri + Dis $251 = Disz— Drs or c w(L3) S27 Sh Thus; equations 1.2 and 1.3 give the values of k and C. 1.5. DISTANCE AND ELEVATION FORMULAE FOR STAFF VERTICAL : INCLINED SIGHT Lei P = Instrument station @ = Staff station M4 = Position of instruments axisTACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING 9 O = Optical centre of the objective- A,C,B = Points corresponding to the readings of the three hairs s = AB= Staff intercept i = Stadia interval FIG, 1.5. ELEVATED SIGHT : VERTICAL HOLDING, 6 = Inclination of the line of sight from the horizontal L =Length MC measured along the line of sight D = MQ' = Horizontal distance between the instrument and the staff V = Vertical intercept, at Q, between the line of sight and the horizontal line. A =Height of the instrument r =Central hair reading " B = Angle between the twoextreme rays corresponding to stadia hairs. Draw a line A'’CB’ (Fig. 1.5) normal to the line of sight OC.10 SURVEYING oi. , LAA'C = 90° + g being the exterior angle of the ACOA’. Similarly, from A COB’, ZOB'C = Z2BB'C = 90° — g Since g is very small (its value being equal to 17’ 11" for k= 100), 2.AA’C and 2 BB’C may be approximately taken equal to 90° ws LAA‘C = LBB'C = 90° From AACA’, A'C = AC cos@ or A'B! = AB cos 6 = 5 cos (i) Since the line A’ B' is perpendicular to the line of sight OC, equation 1.1 is directly applicable. Hence, we have MC =L=k.A'B'+C=ks cos@+C (ti) Now, the horizontal distance D=Lcos6 = (ks cos @ + C) cos 8. or D=ks cos'9+Ccoso ~~ (1.4) Similarly, V = Lsin@ = (ks cos 6 + C) sind = ks cos@.sin@ + Csin@ or Vsks sin? + Csiné (1.5) Thus, equations, 1.4 and 1.5 are the distance and elevation sormulae for inclined line of sight. ‘(@ Elevation of the staff station for angle of elevation. If the line of sight has an angle of elevation 6, as shown n Fig, 1.5, we have Elev. of staff station=Elev. of instrument station + h+V —r. (6) Elevation of the staff station for the angle of depression From Fig. 1.6, : Elevation of Q = Blevation of P+h-V~=r.TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING 1 FIG. 1.6. DEPRESSED SIGHT : VERTICAL HOLDING. 1.6. DISTANCE AND ELEVATION FORMULAE FOR STAFF NORMAL Fig. 1.7 shows the case when the staff is held normal to the line of sight. Case (a) Line of sight at an angle of elevation @ Py Leos © A po Do FIG. 1.7. ELEVATED SIGHT : NORMAL HOLDING. Let AB =s = Staff intercept CQ =r= Axial hair reading With the same notations as in the previous case, we have12 SURVEYING McC =L=ks+C The horizontal distance between P and Q is given by D=MC'+C'Q'=Lcos6 +r sind = (ks + C)cosé +r sine (1.6) Similarly, V = L sin@ = (ks + C) sin@ (1.7) Elev. of @ = Elev. of P+h+V-—rcosé . Case (6) Line of sight at an angle of depression @ FIG, 1.8. DEPRESSED SIGHT : NORMAL HOLDING, When the line of sight is depressed downwards, MC =L=ks+C D=MQ' =MC'-Q'C’=Lcos@-r sin? = (ks +C)cos6 — sing wn (1.8) V =Lsin@ = (ks + C) sin@ wn(1-9) Elev. of Q = Elev. of P+h-V—rcosé 1.7, THE ANALLACTIC LENS In the distance formula D= ks+ C, the staff intercept s is proportional to (D — C) which is the distance between the staff and the exterior principal focus of the objective (see Fig. 1.4). This is because the vertex of the measuring triangle (or anallactic point) falls at the exterior principal focus of the objective and nor at the vertical axis of the instrument. In 1840, Porro devised the external focusing anallactic telescope, the special feature of which is an additional (convex) lens, called an anailactic lens (or anallatic lens), placed between the diaphragm and the objective at a fixed distance from the latter. Fig. 1.9 (@) shows the lines of sight with an ordinary - telescope, and Fig. 1.9 (b) shows the lines of sight with an anallactic lens. .TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING 13 INCLINATION Ik (b) LINES OF SIGHT WITH ANALLACTIC LENS FIG, 1,9, The word ‘anallactic’ means ‘unalterable’ or ‘invariable’; by the provision of anallactic fens, the vertex is formed at the vertical axis and its position is always fixed irrespective of the staff position. The anallactic lens is generally provided in external focusing telescope only and not in internal focusing telescope since the latter is virtually anallactic due to very small additive constant. Theory of Anallactic Lens : Horizontal Sights Fig. 1.10 shows the optical diagram of an external focusing anallactic telescope. FIG. 1.10. THEORY OF ANALLACTIC LENS. s14 SURVEYING Let O = Optical centre of the objective N = Optical centre of the anallactic lens M = Position of the vertical axis of the instrument F‘ = Exterior principal focus of the anallactic lens A,B = Points on the staff corresponding to the stadia wires 4,6; = corresponding points on objective @3,b3 = Corresponding points on anallatic lens a,b = Position of stadia wires @,,b2 = Corresponding points if there were no anallactic lens fi and fs = The conjugate focal length of the objective D = distance of the staff from the vertical axis d =distance of the vertical axis from the objective m = distance of the diaphragm from the objective n = distance of the anallactic lens fromthe objective f = focal length of object glass J' = focal length of the anallactic lens i = Stadia interval s = AB =staff intercept. The rays emanating from A and B (corresponding to stadia wires) along AM and 2M are refracted by the object glass and meet at-a point F’. The distance between the anallactic lens and the objective glass is so fixed that the point F' happens to be the exterior principal focus of the anallactic lens, Hence, the rays passing through F’ will emerge in a direction parallel to the axis of the telescope after being refracted by the anallactic lens. Then ab is the inverted image of the length AB of the staff ; the points a and b correspond to the stadia wires. If the anallactic lens was not interposed, the rays would have formed a virtual image 6) a2 at a distance f2 from the object glass. From the conjugate relationship for the objective 1_1,1 saat wl fi o Since the length of AB and a26, are proportional to their distance from O, afi (2) pute’TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING 1s For the anallactic lens, ab and a; bz are conjugate, and their distances (f: —) and (m — 1) from N are connected by the conjugate relationship : 1 1 (i-n) tia ~@) The minus sign with ( —) has been used since both ab and azb2 are to the same side of N. Since the length of ab and a;b, are proportional to their distances from N, we get foh-1 i man A) In order to obtain an expression for D, let useliminate/,, m and i’ from the above equations. Multiplying (2) and (4), we get sift f-n i fii mon But fe f—S ana fe 75 , from (1) and hon fh-ntf’ m-n f' Hence a oo ae i segs)" at . ~fith- fan Tr’ afG tf’ -") , fm-f) i’ i . jet. - 10. iftfi-n ftf'-n The distance between the intsrument axis and the staff is given by D=(itd)= at -f0=D) +4. (1.10) G+fi-aji sts skstC where k=-—C_ waf110 (a)] GF+f'-a)i and cad-Le-f) wfL10 @)) ftfi-a16 SURVEYING In order that D should be proportional to s, the additive constant C should vanish. Hence fe=f) =d f[tfi-n which is secured by placing the anallactic lens, such that nas +—[4_ sa(Led) Gta) Thus, if equation 1.11 is satisfied, the apex of the tacheometric angle will be situated at the centre of the trunnion axis. The value of f' and i must be so arranged that the multiplier , —_—r is a suitable number, say 100. If all these conditions Fi 'y G+f'—n)i are fulfilled, equation 1.10 reduces to D=ks = 100s. va (1-12) Anallactic Telescope : Inclined Sight Tt has been shown in Fig. 1.10 that if the conditions of equation 1.11 are satisfied, the vertex of the anallactic angle will be formed at the centre of instrument (M). Fig. 1.11 shows the case of an inclined sight, from which the distance-elevation formulae can be directly derived, FIG. 1.11. ANALLACTIC LENS : INCLINED SIGHT. With the same notations as that of Fig. 1.5, we have MC = L =k.A'B' = ks cos wn(i) D=L cos@ = ks cos’ 3) and V = L sin = ks cos@ sin 6 = sin 26 (ii) RL. of Q=RL of Ptat+V-rTACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING 17 Comparative Merits of Anallactic’ Telescope and the Simple External Focusing Telescope The following are the merits of a telescope fitted with an anallactic lens : (J) In the ordinary external focusing telescope, the additive constant is a nuisance since it increases the labour of reduction and necessitates the use of special computation tables or charts. Due to anallactic lens, the additive constant vanishes and the com- putations are made quicker. (2) As a rule, the anallactic lens is sealed against moisture or dust. (3) The loss of light may be compensated by the use of slightly larger object glass. The following are the arguments in favour of simple external focusing telescope : (1) It is simple and reliable. (2) The anallactic lens absorbs much of the incident light. (3) The anallactic lens cannot be easily cleaned. (4) Ifthe anallactic lens is adjustable, it is a potential source of error unless proper field check is made from time to time. The Internal Focusing Telescope We have seen in the principle of stadia method that the staff intercept s is not directly proportional to D, because the additive constant C comes in picture. By the introduction of an anallactic lens in an external focusing telescope, however, this additive constant can be reduced to zero. It should be remembered that an anallactic lens is fitted 10 external focusing telescope only and nor in internal focusing telescope since the additive constant in the latter is extremely small (varying between 5 cm to 15 cm only). In some of the modern theodolites, the internal focusing telescopes have zero additive constant. Thus, an internal focusing telescope is virtually anallactic. Since the focal length of the ‘objective system’ (ie., object Jens and sliding lens) varies with the distance of the object focused, the theory of internal focusing stadia telescope is rather complicated. In general, the standard formulae developed for an anallactic telescope may be used in reducing the readings taken with an internal focusing telescope. Example 1.1. A facheometer was set up at a station A and the readings on a vertically held staff at B were 2.255, 2.605 and 2.955, the line of sight being at an inclination of + 8° 24’. Another18 SURVEYING observation on the vertically held staff at B.M. gave the readings 1.640, 1.920.and 2.200, the inclination of the line of sight being +1°6'. Calculate the horizontal distance between A and B , and the elevation of B if the R.L. of B.M. is 418.685 metres. The constants of the instruments were 100 and 0.3. Solution. (@) Observation to B.M. : v= 4358 + csing Here, k = 100; s = 2.200 — 1.640 = 0.560 m ; c=03 m Ve } x 100 x 0.56 sin 2° 12’ + 0.3 sin 1°6' = 1.075 + 0.006 = 1.081 m Elevation of collimation at the instrument = 418.685 + 1.920 — 1.081 = 419.524m (6) Observation to B : § = 2.955 — 2.255 = 0.700m; 6 = 8° 24’ D = ks cos’ + C cos @ = 100 x 0.7 cos* 8° 24' + 0.3 x cos 8° 24 = 68.506 + 0.2968 = 68.80 m V =ks5sin20 + Csin8 = 3 x 100 x 0.7 sin 16°48’ + 0.3 sin 8° 24’ = 10.116 + 0.044 = 10.160 RL. of B= 419.524 + 10.160 — 2.605 = 427.079 m Example 1.2. The elevation of a point P is to be determined by observations from two adjacent stations of a tacheometric survey. The staff was held vertically upon the point, and the instrument is fitted within an anallactic lens, the constant of the instrument being 100, Compute the elevation of the point P from the following data, taking both the observations as equally trustworthy : Inst. Height Staff Vertical —_Staff readings Elevation Station ofaxis point angle of station A 1.42 P +2°24' 1.230, 2.055,2.880 77.750m B 1.40 P —3°36' 0.785, 1.800, 2.815 97.135m Also, calculate the distance of A and B from P.TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING 19 Solution. (a) Observation from A to P : 5S = 2.880 — 1.230 = 1.65 m D=kscos'@ = 100 X 1.65 cos" 2° 24’ = 164.7 m Vans 8 2 = 7X 100 x 1.65 sin 4° 48’ = 6.903 RL. of P =77.750 + 1.420 + 6.903 — 2.055 = 84.018 m (i) Observation from B to P: S = 2.815 — 0.785 = 2.03 m D = ks cos"@ = 100 x 2.03 cos’ 3° 36' = 202.2 m. V = ks }sin 29 = 5 x 100 x 2.03sin 7° 12’ = 12.721 m RL. of P= 97.135 + 1.40 - 12.721 - 1,800 = 84.014 Average elevation of P - = 5 (64.018 + 84.014) = 84.016 m Example 1.3. Determine the gradient from a point A to a point B from the following observations made with a tacheometer fitted with an anallactic lens. The constant of the instrument was 100 and the staff was eld vertically : . Inst. Staff Bearing Vertical Staff readings station point angle . - P A 134° +10°32' 1.360, 1.915, 2.470 B 224° +5°6' 1.065, 1.885, 2.705 ° Solution. (a) Observation from P to A: s = 2.470 = 1.360 =1.11 m D = ks cos6 = 100 x 1.11 cos’ 10°32’ = 1073 m . a V sks sin 26 = 5 x 100 x 1.11 sin 21° 4’ = 19.95 m Difference in elevation. between A and instrument, axis = 19,95 ~ 1.915 = 18.035 m (A being higher) (6) Observation from P to B: 5s =2.705 = 1.065 = 1.64 m D =ks cos?@ = 100 x 1.64 x cos’ 5° 6' = 162.7 m V sks $sin 26 = } x 100 x 1.64 sin 10° 12" = 14.521m2 SURVEYING Difference in elevation between @ and instrument axis = 14.521 — 1.885 = 12.636 m (B being higher) (c) Gradient from A to B: Distance AP = 107.3 m Distance BP = 162.7 m 2 APB = 224° — 134° = AB = VAP? + BP? = V (1073) + (162.7) = 1949 m Difference in elevation between A and B = 18.035 — 12.636 = 5.399 (A being higher) Gradient from A to B — 5399 =Tor9 71 in 36.1 (falling). Example 1.4. Following observations were taken from two araverse stations by means of a tacheometer fitted with an anallactic Jens. The constant of the instruments is 100. inst. ‘Staff Height Bearing Vertical Staff readings station station of ints, angle A Cc 138 226°36' + 10°12' 0.765, 1.595, 2.425 B D 142 84°45’ —12°30' 0, 820, 1.840, 2860 ‘Co-ordinates of station A 2123 N 186.8 W Co-ordinates of station B 102.8 N, 96.4 W ‘Compute the length and gradient of the line CD, if B is 6.50 im higher than A. Solution. (a) Observation from A to C: 5 = 2.425 — 0.765 = 1.66 m Distance AC = k.s cos'?=100% 1.66 cas? 10° 12’=160.8m v= k-ssin 20 = 100% 1.66 sin 20° 24’ = 28,931 m Let the elevation of A= 100.00 m o RL. of C = 100+1.38+28,931—-1.595=128.716 m. (6) Observation from B to D: Ss = 2.860 — 0.820 = 2.040 m Distance BD =k.s.cos’@ = 100 x 2.04 cos” 12°30’ = 194.4 m Vs sin? 100%62:040 in 25°=43.107m R.L. of B = 100 + 6.50 = 106.50 m RL. of D = 106.50+1.42—43.107-1.84=62.973 mTACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING _ 2b (c) Length and gradient of CD : Length of AC le 160.8 m RB. of AC “= $46°30'W Hence AC is in the third quadrant. Latitude of AC 160.8 cos 46° 30’ 110.7 Departure of AC =— 160.8 sin 46°30’ = — 116.6 Length of BD = 194.4 m RB. of BD = N84°45'E Hence BD is in the first quadrant. Latitude of BD = 194.4 cos 84° 45’ = + 17.8 Departure of BD = 194.4 sin 84° 45’ = -+-193.6 Now, total latitude of A = +2123 Add iu of AC = - 1107 Total latitude of C = +1016 Total departure of A = — 1868 Add departure of AC = - 1166 Total departure of C = — 3034 Similarly, Total latitude of B = + 102.8 Add latitude of BD +178 Total latitude of D 120.6 Total departure of B = - 96.4 Add departure of BD = + 193.6 Total departure of D = +972 Thus, the total co-ordinates of the points C and D are known. Latitude of line CD = Total latitude of D — Total latitude of C = 120.6 — 1016= + 19.0 and Departure of line CD = Total. departure of D = Total departure of C = 97.2 — (~ 303.4) = + 4006 The line CD is, therefore, in the fourth quadrant. Length CD = V (19.0)* + (400.6) = 40L.1 . Gradient of CD = (128.716 — 62.973)+401.1 =1 in 6.1 [falling]. Example 1.5. A tacheometer is set up at an intermediate point on a traverse course PQ and the following observations are made on a vertically held staff :SURVEYING: 2 ‘Staff station Vertical angle Staff intercept Axial hair readings P + 8°36’ 2350 2105 Q +6°6 2055 1.895 The instrument is fitted with an anallactic lens and the constant is 100. Compute the length of PQ and reduced level of Q, that of P being 321.50 meters. Solution. (a) Observation from the instrument to P: Ss = 2.350; 0 = 8°36" Distance to P =k.s cos’ = 100 x 2.350 x cos*8° 36’ = 229,75 m Vek.s sn? 100 oat sin 17° 12° = 34.745 Difference in elevation between P and the instrument axis = 34.745—2.105=32.640 m (P being higher). (6) Observation from the instrument to Q : 5 = 2.05550 =6°6' Distance to Q = k.s cos’ @ = 100 x 2.055 cos” 6° 6’ = 203.18m V =k B28 = 100% 2.055 on 12612" = 21 73° m Difference in elevation between Q and the instrument axis = 21.713 — 1.895 = 19.818 (Q being higher) Since the tacheometer is set up at an intermediate point on the line PQ, the distance PQ = 229.75 + 203.18 = 432.93 m. Difference in elevation. of P and Q = 32.640—19.818=12.822 (P being higher) RL. of @= R.L. of P— 12.822 = 321.50 — 12.822 = 308.678 m. Example 1.6. To determine the muitiplying constant of a tacheo- meter, the following observations were taken on a siaff held vertically at distance, measured from the instrument : Observation Horizontal Vertical angle Staff intercept distance in metres 1 50 + 3°48" 0.500m 2 100 + 1°06" 1000m 3 150 + 0°36" 1500m