Flexible Pavement Design Using The Asphalt Institute Method [The following pages, describing the Asphalt Institute Method, are excerpts from Traffic and Highway Engineering by Nicolas J. Garber and Lester A. Hoel, West Publishers, 1988]792 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN In the design of flexible pavements, the pavement. structure is usually considered as a multilayeted elastic system, with the material in each layer characterized by certain physical properties that may include the modulus of elasticity, the resilient modulus, and the Poisson ratio. It is usually assumed that the subgrade layer is infinite in both the horizontal and vertical directions, whereas the other layers are finite in the vertical direction and infinite in the horizontal direction. The applica- tion of a wheel load causes, a stress distribution, which can be represented as shown in Figure 18.2. The maximum vertical stresses are compressive and occur directly under the wheel load. These decrease with increase in depth from the surface. The maximum horizontal stresses also occur directly under the wheel “load but can be either tensile or compressive as shown in Figure 18.2(c). When the load and pavement thickness are within certain ranges, horizontal compressive stresses will occur above the neutral axis, whereas horizontal tensile stresses will occur below the neutral axis. The temperature distribution within the pave- ment structure, as shown in Figure 18.2(d), will also have an effect on the magnitude of the stresses. The design of the pavement is therefore generally Figure 18.2 Typical Stress and Temperature Distributions in a Flexible Pavement Under a Wheel Load ‘Wheel load, W c Compression Tension =— = [esas ] ee ) (2) Pavement layers (b) Distribution of (c) Distribution of (d) Temperature Vertical stress” horizontal stress distribution Under eenterine Under centerline of whet oad of wheel load P= wheel pressure applied on pavement surface a= radius of circular area over which whee load is spread = compressive horizontal stress 1 tensile horizontal stress -DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 793 Figure 18.3 Spread of Wheel Load Pressure Through Pavement Structure Wheel load, W or onan TOsEALE (a) Stress distribution within different (b) General form components of the pavement of stress reduction Source: Reproduced from Thickness Design—Asphalt Pavements for Highways and Streets, Manual Series No. 1, The Asphalt Institute, College Park, Md., September 1981. based on strain criteria that limit both the horizontal and vertical strains below those that will cause excessive cracking and excessive permanent deformation. These criteria are considered in terms of repeated load applications since it is known that the accumulated repetitions of the traffic loads are of significant, importance to the development of cracks and permanent deformation of the pavement. Figure 18.4 Schematic of Tensile and Compressive Stresses in Pavement Structure Wheel load; W » or Raw pavenent wee o—COlNERESSION — —om TENSION Source: Reproduced from Thickitess Design—Asphalt Pavemiénts for Highways and Streets, Manual Series No. 1, The Asphalt Institute, College Park, Md., September 1981794 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS The availability of highly sophisticated computerized sohitions for multi- layered systems, coupled with recent advances in materials evaluation, has led to the development of several design methods that are based wholely or partly on theoretical analysis.*“" The more commonly used design methods are the Asphalt Institute method, the AmericanAssociation of State Highway and Trans- portation Officials (AASHTO) method, and the California method. These are presented in the following sections. Asphalt Institute Design Method In the Asphalt Institute design method, the pavement is represented as a multi- layered elastic system. The wheel load Wis assumed to be applied through the tire as a uniform vertical pressure po, which is then spread by the different compo- nents of tlie pavement structure and eventually applied on the subgrade as a much lower stress p,. This is shown in Figure 18.3. Experience, established theory, and test data are then used to evaluate two specific stress-strain conditions. The first, shown in Figure 18.3(b), is the general way in which the stress py is reduced to p, within the depth of the pavement structure and the second, shown in Figure 18.4, is the tensile and compressive stresses and strains imposed on the asphalt due to the deflection caused by the wheel load. Thickness design charts were -.developed, based on criteria for maximum tensile strains at the bottom of the asphalt layer and maximum vertical compressive strains at the top of the sub- grade layer. The procedure originally involved the use of a computer program, but the charts presented here can be used without computers. A detailed descrip- tion of the method is given in Thickness Design—Asphalt Pavements for High- ways and Streets.’ Design Procedure The principle adopted in the design procedure is to determine the minimum thickness of the asphalt layer that will adequately withstand the stresses that develop for the two strain criteria discussed earlier—that is, the vertical compres- sive strain at the surface of the subgrade and the horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer. Design charts have been prepared for a range of traffic loads. This range is usually adequate for normal traffic volumes encoun- tered in practice. However, when this range is exceeded, the computer version should be used. The procedure consists of five main steps. 1. Select or determine input data. 2. Select surface and base materials. 3. Determine minimum thickness required for input data. : 4. Evaluate feasibility of staged construction and prepare stage construction plan, if necessary. 5. Carry out economic analyses of alternative designs and select the best design.DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 795 Step 1: Design Inputs. The design inputs in this method are traffic charac- teristics, subgrade engineering properties, and subbase and base engineering properties. Traffic Characteristics. The traffic characteristics are determined in terms of the number of repetitions of an 18,000 Ib (80 kilonewtons (KN)) single-axle load applied to the pavement on two sets of dual tires, This is usually referred to as the equivalent single-axle load (ESAL). The dual tites are represented as two circular plates each 4.52 in. in diameter, spaced 13.57 in. apart. This representation corre- sponds to a contact pressure of 70 lb/in.?. The use of an 18,000 1b axle load is based on the results of experiments that have shown that the effect of any load on the performance of a pavement can be represented in terms of the number of single applications of an 18,000 Ib single axle. A series of equivalency factors used in this method for axle loads are given in Table 18.3. To determine the ESAL, the number of different types of vehicles such as cars, bises, single-unit trucks, and multiple-unit trucks expected to use the facility _ during its lifetime must be known. The distribution ‘of the different types of vehicles expected to use the proposed highway can be obtained from results of classification counts that are taken by state highway agencies at regular intervals. In cases where these data are not available, estimates can be made from Table 18.4, which gives representative values for the United States. When the axle load of each vehicle type is known, these can then be converted to equivalent 18,000 Ib loads using the equivalency factors given in Table 18.3. The equivalent 18,000 lb load can also be determined from the vehicle type, if the axle load is unknown, by using a truck factor for that vehicle type. The truck factor is defined as the number of 18,000 Ib sirigle-load applications caused by a single passage of a ~-vehicle, These have been determined for each class of vehicle from the expression truck factor = 2_(tumber of axles x load equivalency factor) number of vehicles Table 18.5 gives values of truck factors for different classes of vehicles; however, these factors are based on data collected prior to the deregulation of the trucking industry. Recent-analysis of limited data has shown that truck factors can be as high as 5.0, even though the maximum value given in-Table 18.5 is only 1.99. Therefore, itis advisable, when truck factors are to be used, to collect data on axle j loads for the different types of vehicles expected to use the proposed highway and to determine realistic values of truck factors from that data. The total ESAL applied on the highway during its design period can be determined only after the design period and traffic growth factors aré known. The design period is the number of years the pavement will effectively continue to carry the traffic load without requiring an overlay. Flexible highway pavements are usually designed for a 20-year period. Since traffic volume does not remain constant over the design period of the pavement, it is essential that the rate of growth be determined and applied when calculating the total ESAL. Annual growth rates can be obtained from regional planning agencies or from state796 ° DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS Tablé 18.3. Load Equivalency Factors Load Equivateney Load Equivalency Gross Axle Load oe Gross Axle Load ae Single Tandem Single | Tandem “a ® Axles Axles 2 ® Axles | Axles 445 | 1,000 | 0.00002 1825 | 41,000 | 2327 2.2 89 2.000 | 0.00018 170 | 42000 | 2564 251 1335 | 3,000 | o.oga7e 191.3 | ° 43000 -| 2022 275 178 4,000) 0.00209 195.7 | 44000 | 31.00 3.00 2225 | 5000 | 0.00500 200.0 | 45,000 | 34.00 327 26.7 600 | ‘o.01043 204.5 | 46000 | 37.24 3.55 316 | 7000 | o.0196 200.0 | 47000 | 40.78 | 3.85 35.6 8000 | 0.0343 2135 | 48000 | 44.50 an 400 9000 | ‘0.0502 2180 | 49000 | 4854 451 445 | 10,000 | 0.0877 | oooss | 2224 | 50,000 | s2ee 4.96 48.9 | 11,000 | 0.1311 | ootooa | 2268 | 51,000 523 saa | 12000 | ~-o11@9 corse | 231.3 | 52,000 563 57.8 | 13000 | 0.264 0.019 | 2357 | 53,000 6.04 623 | 14000 | » 0.360 0.0270 | 240.2 | 54,000 6.47 65.7 | 15000 | 07a 0.0360 | 244.6 | 55,000 6.93 71.2 | 16000 | 0.623 0.0472 | 249.0 | 56,000 7at 756 | 17000 | 0.796 0060s | 2535 | 57,000 798 00 | 18000 } 1.000 0.073 | 2580 | 58,000 845 ss | 19000 | 1.28 0.0971 | 2625 | 59,000 901 820 | 20000 | 1.61 0.1208 | 267.0 | 60,000 959 934 | 21,000 | 1.03 o1a8 271.3. | 61,000 10.20 978 | 22000 | 218 0.180 2758 | 62000 10.84 1023 | 23000 | 258 0217 280.2 | 63,000 1182 106.8- | 24,000 | 303 0.260 28.5 | 64,000 1222 11.2 | 25000 | 3.63 0.308 209.0 | 65,000 1296 1156 | 26,000 | 409 0.364 293.6 | 66,000 1373 1200 | 27,000 | 4.71 0.426 208.0 | 67,000 1454 1245 | 28000 | 5.29 0.495 3028 | 68,000 15.38 1200 | 29000 | 6.14 0572 307.0 | 69,000 16.26 133.5 | 30000 | 697 0.658 3116 | 70,000 17.19 1380 | 31,000 |} 7.68 0.753 3160 | 71,000 18.15 1423 | 32000 | 8.98 0.887 3200 | 72,000 19.16 1468 | 33,000 | 9.98 og7t 326.0 | 73,000 20.22 151.2 | 34000 | 1138 1.095 32,0 | 74,000 21.32 1657 | 35000 | 1260° | 123 333.8 | 75,000 22.47 160.0 | 36000 | 13.03 138 338.0 | 76,000 23.66 1645 | 37,000 | 1680 153 312.8 | 77,000 2ao1 162.0 | 38000 | 17.20 170 347.0 | 78,000 26.22 173.5 | 39,000 | 19.06 1.89 351.5 .| 79,000 22.58 1780 | 40,000 | 21.08 2.08 358.0 "| 80,000 2899 Note: KN converted to Ib are within 0.1 percent of Ib shown. Source: Reproduced from Thickness Design—Asphalt Pavements for Highways and Streets, ‘Manual Series No. 1, The Asphalt Institute, College Park, Md., September 1981DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 797 — Table 18.4 Distribution of Trucks on Different Classes of U.S. Highways Percent Trucks Truck Class | interstate Rural | Other. Rurat Al Rural All Urban | All Systems Average | Range | Average | Range | Average | Range | Average | Range | Averege| Range Single-unit trucks 2axle, d-tire 39 |17-64| 58 |40-80) 47 j2366/ 61 |33-04| 49 | 26-67 axle, 6-tire to | 55) 11 [4-18] 10 | 416] 19 | 426] 11 | 6-20 Seaxle or more 2 fra} 4a fre] 2 [ra] 3 far] 3 fas Allsingle-units | 81 [30-71] 73 |so-08] so [36-77] 77 |55-04/ 63 |a6-e1 Multiple-unit trucks Seale a fenz | oor fers 1 | 3 1 fea} oa Jere 4-axle s |r] 3 fre} 4 | to] 4 fars} 4 | vt0 S-axle ormore’ | 43 |24-59/ 23 | e40| 36 |16-87| 18 | 5-37] 32 |15-56 All multiple-units] 49 |31-71] 27 |13-50] 41 |23-66] 23 | 644 37 | 20-67 All trucks 100 100 100 100 100 ‘Note: Compiled from data supplied by the Highway Statistics Division, Federal Highway Administration, ‘Including full-trailer combinations in some states. Souree: Reproduced from Thickness Design—Asphalt Pavements for Highways and Streets, Manual Series No. 1, The Asphalt Institute, College Park, Md,, September 1981. * highway departments. These are usually based on traffic volume counts over several years. It is also advisable to determine annual growth rates separately for trucks and passenger vehicles since these may be significantly different in some cases. The overall growth rate in the United States is between 3 percent and 5 percent per year, although growth rates of up to 10 percent per year.have been suggested for some interstate highways. Table 18.6 shows growth factors for different growth rates and design periods, which can be used to determine the total ESAL over the design period. The portion of the total ESAL acting on the design lane is used in the determination of pavement thickness. Either lane of a 2-lane highway can be considered as the design lane, whereas for multilane highways, the outside lane is considered. The identification of the design lane is important because in some cases more trucks will travel in one direction than in the other or trucks may travel heavily loaded in one direction and empty in the other direction. Thus, it is necessary to determine the relevant proportion of trucks oni the design lane.798 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVENIENTS Table 18.5 Distribution of Truck Factors on Different Classes of U.S. Highways Truck Factors Rural Systems Urban Systeme A Systems T Interstate Rural Other Rural ‘All Rural Al Urban ‘Average | Range | Average | Range Range | Averoge ‘Average | Range Single-unit trucks Zarle Ate | 0.02 001-006 | 002 |0.01-009] a03" |0.02-0.08 | 0.03" | 001-005 | 002 | 001-007 Pante,tire | 0.19 J0.13-030] 021 |or4038]020 fo-oa1}o2s |ose-042| 021 |015-0:32 sonigormore | 086 |o0e-155] 073 Jastrsr|osr foz1s0|103 |oszrs0| 072 |aze150 Asing-wnis | 007 [002-016] aor [oo2ns7] oor {o00-018]002 | o0¢021 | o07 |ao2037 a _ ast foaonee | 047 Jozoe|oa [oss-aso loa forsio2| oe |ose-a76 dante 0.62 | 0.40-1.07 | 0.83 | 0.44-1.55 | 0.70 0.37-1.34 | 0.89 0.60-1.64 | 0.73 043-132" ‘S-axle or more” 0.94 Jaert.16 0.98 | 0.58-1.70 | 0.95 0.58-1.64 | 1.02 0.69-1,69 | 0.95 | 0.63-1.53 All muttipleunits | 0.93 |0.67-198} 0.97 |0.67-1.80}09% |as6-1.43 {1.00 [0.721.588 | 0.96 | 0.71-1.30 All trucks 049 }0:38-077| 031 Jo200s2}042 |o20-067}030 | 015-059] 0.40 | 027-069 ‘Note: Compiled from data supplied by the Highway Stati Administration. "Including full-trailer combinations in some states. ‘**For values to be used when the number of heavy trucks is low, see original source. Source: Reproduced from Thickness Design—Asphalt Pavements for Highways and Streets, Manual Series No. 1, The Asphalt Institute, College Park, Md., September 1981 Division, Federal Highway When data are not available to make this determination, percentages given in Table 18.7 can be used. The procedure for determining thé design ESAL is demonstrated in Examples 18-1 and 18-2, a Example 18-1 Computing Accumulated Equivalent Single-Axle Load for a : Proposed 8-Lane Highway Using Load Equivalency Factors An 8-lane divided highway is to be constructed on a new alignment. Traffic volume forecasts indicate that the average annual daily traffic (AADT) in both directions during the first year of operation will be 12,000, with the following vehicle mix and axle loads. . Passenger cars (1000 Ib/axle) = 50 percent 2-axle single-unit trucks (5000 Ib/axle) = 33 percent 3-axle single-unit trucks (7000 Ib/axle) = 17 percentDESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 799 — Table 18.6 Growth Factors _ 3! i ‘Anoual Growth Rate, Percent) Period, ; No : yeast) | gi, | 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 1 10 | 10 | 10 | 1 | 1 | so | 10 2 20 | 202 | 204 | 205 | 200 | 207 | 208 3 30 | 306 | ai | ais | 313 | a2 | 325 4 40} a2 | 425 | ast | aay | ae | ar 5 80 | s20 | saz | sss | see | 7s | 587 6 so | 631 | 66s | 60 | os] 715 | 724 7 70 | 743 | 790°} a1 | aso | aes | ase 8 go | ase | 21 | oss | 900 | 1025 | 1064 9 90 | 975 | 1088 | 1103 | 1140 | 1198 | 1240 10 yoo | 1095 | 1201 | 1288 | sate | i282 | 1449 n 110 | 1217 | 1349 | rear | 97 | 1578 | 1065 2 120 | 1941 | 1503 | 1502 | 1687 | 1709 | 1098 8 130 | ta6e | 1663 | 1771 | 1988 | 2014 | 21.80 14 140 | 1597 | 1223 | 1916 | 2101 | 2255 | 2421 15 150 | 17.29 | 2002 | 2188 | 2za2e | 2519 | 2715 16 160 | 1864 | 2162. | 2366 | 2567 | 2709 | 2032 7 120 | 2001 | 2370 | 2584 | 2021 | soe | 2375 18 sao | 2a1|. 2565 |. 2813 | sao | a400 | 3745 19 190 | ze4 | 267 | 3058 | 3376 | 2738 2 zo | 2430 | 2078 | 3308.| 3670 | 21.00 25 260 | 3203, | 4165 | 4773°| S96 | 0325 20 soo | 4057 | 608 | coca | 7906 | e446 18449 35 | 350 | 4a90 | 73.65 | 9032 | unnaa | 13024 zn02 Note: Factor = [(1 +1)"— I]/r, where r = and is not zero. If annual growth is zero, growth factor = design period. Source: Reproduced from Thickness Design—Asphalt Pavements for Highways and Streets, Manual Series No. 1, The Asphalt Institute, College Park, Md., September 1981. The vehicle mix is expected to remain the same throughout the design life of the pavement. If the expected annual traffic growth rate is 4 percent for all vehicles, determine the design ESAL, given a design period of 20 years. ~ A general equation for the accumulated ESAL for cach category of axle load is obtained as ESAL, = fy x Gy x AADT, x 365 N, x Fei where ESAL, = equivalent accumulated 18,000 Ib (80 KN) single-axle load for the “axle category i Su = design lane factor G;, = growth factor for a given growth rate j and design period ¢ AADT, = first year annual average daily traffic for axle category N, = number of axles on each vehicle in category i Fe, = load equivalency factor for axle category i800 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS — oe Table 18.7 Percentage of Total Trick Traffit’ oh Design Lane Number of Percentage of Traffic Lanes Tracks in (Two Directions) Design Lane 2 30 4 45 (35-48)* 6 or more 40 (25-48)* *Probable range: Source: Adapted from Thickness Design—Asphalt Pavements for Highways and Streets, Manual Series No. 1, The Asphalt Institute, College Park, Md., September 1981 The following data apply. Growth factor = 29.78 (from Table 18.6) Oe Percent truck volume on design lan: (assumed, from Table 18.7) Load equivalency factors (from Table 18.3) Passenger cars (1000 Ib/axle) = 0.00002: 2-axle single-unit trucks (5000 Ib/axle) 3-axle single-unit trucks (7000 Ib/axle) Number of equivalent accumulated axle loads in the design lane Passenger cars = 0.45 x 29.78 x 12,000 x 0.5 x 365 x 2 x 0.00002 = 0.001 x 10° 2-axle single-unit trucks = 0.45 x 29.78 x 12,000 x 0.33 x 365 x 2 x 0.00500 = 0.1937 x 10° 3-axle single-unit trucks = 0.45,x 29.78 x 12,000 x 0.17 x 365 x 3 x 0.0196 = 0.5867 x 108” Thus, total ESAL = 0.781 x 10° It can be seen that the contribution of passenger cars to the ESAL is negligible. Passenger cars are therefore omitted when computing ESAL values. This example illustrates the conversion of axle loads to ESAL, using axle load equivalency factors. Example 18-2 Computing Accumulated Equivalent Single-Axle Load for a Proposed 2-Lane Highway Using Truck Factors This projected vehicle mix for a proposed 2-lane rural highway during its first year of operation is given below. If the first-year AADT will be 3000, the annualDESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 801 growth rate is 5 percent, and the design period is 20 yr, determine the accumu- lated ESAL, using the truck factors given in Table 18.5. Passenger cars = 66 percent Single-unit trucks 2-axle, 4-tire = 18 percent 2-axle, 6-tire = 8 percent 3-axle or more = 4 percent Tractor semitrailers and combination 3 axle = 3 percent 4 axle = 1 percent Since the axle loads are not given, the truck factor is used to compute the respec- tive ESALs. A general equation for accumulated ESAL for each category of truck is obtained as ESAL, = AADT, x 365 x f; x Gs x fa and the accumulated ESAL for all categories of axle loads is ESAL = 3 [ESAL] a where ESAL, = equivalent accumulated 18,000 Ib axle load for truck category i AADT, = first year annual average daily traffic for vehicles in, truck category i fr= truck factor for vehicles in truck category i G, = growth factor for a given growth rate j and design period ¢ fy = design lane factor ESAL = equivalent accumulated 18,000 Ib axle loads for all vehicles n = number of truck categories The solution of this problem is given in Table 18.8, which also demonstrates a tabular format for determining ESAL. Passenger vehicles are not considered in the calculations since their contribution to the ESAL is negligible. The use of load equivalency factors for facilities such as residential streets, parkways, and parking lots, where the traffic is primarily automobiles with only occasional trucks, will result in low ESALs and therefore thin pavements that may not be capable of withstanding the occasional heavy traffic or environmental802 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS Table 18.8 Tabular Solution of Examplé 18-2 Growth Factor for 5% Number of Truck Annual Growth Vehicles Factor Rate During (trom (from ESAL ist year Table 18.5) Table 18.6) (1*2x3) Vehicle Type 1 2 3 4 Single Unit Trucks - 2axle, 4 tire 98,550 0.02 33.06 65,161 2axle, 6 tire * 43,800 0.21 33.06 304,086 3 axle or more 21,900 0.73 33.06 528,530 Tractor Semitrailers and Combinations 3axle 16,425 0.47 33.06 255,215 4axle 5,475 0.83 33.06 150,233 Total 1,303,225 Note: Passenger vehicles are not considered here because their effect is negligible. Values under column | are obtained from the first year AADT and the design lane factor of 0.5. For example, for 2 axle, 6 tire single-unit trucks, the number of vehicles during first year = 3000 x 365 x 0.08 x 0.5 = 43,800. effects. Thus, a reasonably accurate estimate of the occasional truck traffic for residential streets and parking lots should be made and included in the determina- tion of the design ESAL. In cases where this is not possible, the minimum pave- ment thickness recommended by the Asphalt Institute should be used.'? When it can’be ascertained that the heavy truck representation on parkways restricted to automobiles and buses is less than 2 percent of the total traffic, Asphalt Institute suggests that the design ESAL may be obtained by ‘multiplying the total traffic by the truck factor of 0.06.'* ‘Subgrade Engineering Properties. As stated earlier, the subgrade consists of either the natural soil or soil that has been imported to form an embankment. This borrowed soil may be in its natural state or may be improved by stabiliza- tion. Stabilization of the natural soil existing on the alignment is not usually done, except when it is found that the material in its natural state cannot support heavy construction equipment. Stabilization of in situ subgrade material is therefore usually carried out to provide an adequate support platform for heavy construc- tion equipment and is not considered in the design of the pavement. ‘The main engincering property required for the subgrade is its resilient mod- ulus, which gives the resilient characteristic of the soil when it is repeatedly loaded with an axial load. It is determined in the laboratory by loading specially pre- pared samples of the soil with a deviator stress of fixed magnitude, frequency, and load duration while the specimen is triaxially loaded in a triaxial chamber. The method of conducting this test is described in detail in the Asphalt Institute’s SoilsDESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 803 Manual for the Design of Asphalt Pavement Structures.'* To facilitate the use of the more direct CBR and Hveem Stabilometer tests described in Chapter 15, the Asphalt Institute has determined conversion factors that can be used ~ to convert the CBR and R values to the resilient modulus values. These are given. as M,(MP,) = 10.342 CBR M,(\bjin.2) = 1500 CBR or M,(MP,) = 7.963 + 3.826 (R value) M,(Ib/in.2) = 1155 + 555 (R value) where M, is the equivalent resilient modulus. The above conversion factors should be used only for materials that can be classified under the unified classification system as CL, CH, ML, SC, SM, and SP or when the resilient modulus is less than 30,000 Ib/in, For materials with higher values, direct measurement is recommended. '* ‘Subbase and Base Engineering Properties. The material used for subbase or base courses must meet certain requirements, which are given in terms of the CBR, liquid limit, PI, particle size distribution (maximum percentage passing the No. 200 sieve), and minimum sand equivalent. The sand equivalent test is a rapid field test that shows the relative proportions of fine dust or claylike material in soils-or graded aggregates. A detailed description of this test is given in Soils Manual for the Design of Asphalt Pavement Structures.” Table 18.9 gives the requirements for those engineering properties for soils that can be used as base or subbase in this method. Table 18.9 Untreated Aggregate Base and Subbase Quality Requirements Test Requirements Test Subbase Base CBR, minimum 20 80 or R value, minimum 35 B Liquid limit, maximum 25 25 Plasticity index, maximum, or 6 NP Sand equivalent, minimum 25 35 Passing No. 200 sieve, maximum 12 7 Source: Adapted from Thickness Design—Asphalt Pavements for Highways and Streets, Manual Series No. 1, The Asphalt Institute, College Park, Md., September 1981804 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS Step 2: Surface and Base Materials. The designer is free to select either an asphalt concrete surface or an emillsified asphalt surface, along with an asphalt concrete base, an emulsified asphalt base, or an untreated aggregate base and subbase for the underlying layers. This, of course, will depend on the material that is economically available. . However, the Asphalt Institute recommends certain grades of asphalt cement that should be used for different temperature conditions, as shown in Table 18.10. The grade of asphalt used should be selected primarily on the basis of its ability to satisfactorily coat the aggregates at the given temperatures. Step 3: Minimum Thickness Requirements. The minimum thickness required for the design ESAL and the type of surface, base, and subbase selected is ob- tained by using the computer program DAMA or by entering the appropriate table or chart with the design ESAL and M, of the subgrade and selecting the required minimum thickness, as demonstrated for different types of pavements in the following sections. Full-Depth Asphalt Concrete. Pavements of this type use asphalt mixtures for all courses above the subgrade. The minimum thickness is determined from Figure 18.5 by extracting the pavement thickness for the design ESAL and subgrade M, both of which were determined in step 1. The procedure for deter- mining the minimum depth required for this type of pavement is illustrated in Example 18-3. Table 18.10 «Recommended Asphalt Grades for Different Temperature Conditions Temperature Condition Asphalt Grades* Cold, mean annual air temperature ACS, » AC-10 10" 130 5 ‘Asphalt concrete, or Type I emulsified asphalt mix with a surface treatment, may be used over Type II or Type III emulsified asphalt base courses. Source: Adapted from Thickness Design—Asphalt Pavements for Highways and Streets, Manual Series No. 1, The Asphalt Institute, College Park, Md., September 1981.“1861 Joquiadas “py “sed 289]]0D ‘aumansuy aeqdsy oy “I “ON saLi9g renuey ‘Siang pun sXomysizy sof siuawonng yoydsy—uBpsaq ssouyory., Woy poonposdoy :29mog, eon a}xy-aI6u!s Qi Q00'at. auaJeAInb3 ieee es + DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS (21/0) ‘W‘seinpow wway)sey epesqns weydsy yrdeq-|in4 40) weyD uBIseq gg, aunBiy — 806 ©807 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS: . “1861 soquiadas “py “yzeq o89][0D ‘amnsuy yeudsy oy, ‘I “ON soLrag yenueyy ‘siaaug pun sdoaySipy sof smuowaavg soydsy—uBisoq ssaeporyy wo paonpordoy. :9aa0g PeOT alxWy-216UIS qi OGO'BL IUa}eANby, Wiseee s + ee Oiesiss + ee ise r és y co eos ¢ see Oee es ey eg o, oh eo (24a) “W ‘srinpow iuaipsay apesbang ee HedAL xIW deudsy payyisinwig 40} ueYD uBIseq g'g1 ainBig. 1861 2aquiadas “PW “red 2891]0D ‘ouansuy yeydsy ayy “1 “ON souag TenUEYY ‘Saag pun stomySiE Jof srusuoang noydsy—uBisacr sseunjoIYT WO} poonporday :303N0g eo" a1xy-9}6u1s 41 000'e| aualeAINby * os eG Oleoees y ey Oiseeos + ce eee inves s ye DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS (2:¥yai “a ‘srinpoyy weisey apeséqng " Poo 11 dA XIW YeYdsy payisinwy 105 WeYyD UBIseg Z°gL eanBIy 808809 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS > ie Be “1861 s9quiadas “py eg of THN EGESY Diy. “LON stag TenUUYY ‘N20US pew SKoaySiy sof simuoang ioydsy—uSisaq seovpr4y, Wel} ONTOLdeAL aeLey e07 oixy-I5UIS 4} 000" nba _ leseas > aoc ee ee One ee o, ob ® (2:¥yan “W ‘srinpoyy wo1ysoy opestang eo IL eddy xIW deYdsy payisinwy 40) ueYS UBIseq g’gt euNBLy —810 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS. obtained from Table 18.11. This depth should not be less than the recommended minimum. Figures 18.6 through 18.8 give design charts for minimum depths of types I, II, and IH emulsified asphalt bases. These charts were developed based on a 6 month curing period. The procedure for the design of this type of pavement is illustrated in Example 18-4. Example 18-4 Designing a Pavement Consisting of Asphalt Concrete Surface and Emulsified Asphalt Base Design a suitable pavement to carry a design ESAL of 1,303,225 on a subgrade havin SS resiJient modulus of 15,000 Ib/in.?. a. Determine the thicknesses for the surface and base courses for a pavement consisting of-an asphaltic concrete surface and type II emulsified asphalt base. b. Repeat (a) for type III emulsified asphalt base. Solution for a, ESAL = 1,303,225 M, = 15,000 Ibjin2 Minimum asphalt concrete surface depth = 3 in. (from Table 18.11) Total thickness (surface and base) = 10 in. (from Figure 18.7) Base thickness = (10 — 3) in. = 7 in. Solution for b, Minimum asphalt concrete surface depth = 3 in. (from Table 18.11) Total pavement thickness = 13 in. (from Figure 18.8) : Base thickness = 10 in. Asphalt Concrete Surface and Untreated Aggregate Base. These pavements consist of a layer of asphalt concrete over untreated aggregate base and subbase courses. As stated earlier, it is not always necessary to use a subbase course. Figures 18.9 through 18.14 give design charts for determining the thicknesses of asphalt concrete surfaces for different pavements constructed of asphalt concrete and untreated aggregates. These charts are given for different base thicknesses and are based on the quality requirements for base and subbase materials given in Table 18.9. The Asphalt Institute also recommends that the base course be not less than 6 in. Table 18.12 also gives the minimum recommended thicknesses for the asphalt concrete surface over the untreated aggregate base. These values depend on the design ESAL. In using the design charts, minimum thicknesses should not be extrapolated into higher traffic regions. The procedure for carrying out this design is illustrated in Example 18-5,811 “1861 Jaquiadas “py “peg eBaI[oD, ‘smansur weudsy YL “| “ON, sous yerUeyy ‘x22. pu stom Sixy of stuauioang syoydsy—udysoq ssouyoryy, Woy peonpoidoy :aoanog P07 orx¥-2I6uls q) O00'eL 1wa}eNNb3 Wleerss + es Wiese sre Woes sy cg Oleeca sy (28/90 “1 sminpow 2uo1)s9y apesBqng eon PHL “uly 988 e1260/68y peteanun pue eoeyng sieiouoy yeydsy YUM siueWONeY 40} WEY UBISG EBL eanbiy — DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS.T861 Jequiades “pA Axed 9891109 ‘aimansuy yeudsy aU, “1 “oN souag jenuE ‘sxAaMg pun stomydizy 40f sruawonng oydsy —uBisaq ssyeny, wos} poonporday :2am0g eO? aixy-2/5uIs ql O00'BL ajenRINbg Wiseres + ¢ lees s 5 6g Wise eas yee os yc lero sy ce DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS (LAN) “HW 'srinpoW way}sey epeBqng pore >PIUL "UL 9 eseq e1e60168y pareanun pu soeying aje:uoD yeydsy YIM slueweneY 405 UeYD UBISaG OL'BL aunBig — 812813 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 1861 raquiades “py [Ted BBoq10D ‘oammnsuy ayeydsy ou ‘1 “ON saliag jenueyy ‘sr2aNg pun skomy Siz 40f stuswoang yoydsy—uBisaq ssourjoryy Woy poonporday, :2IN0S PEO a}xy-2}BuIS 41 00O'EL worenInba Wlgoiss + © 2 Oleeses y ce toss ce SS tebe te WO a sy ge (4a) “W ‘srinpow wuaqussy apessang eon PIU “Ul eseg e1eBa/6By paleenun pue aoeyNg areioUoD YeYdsy YUM siUeUIOReY 10} YD UBISEG LL'@L eanBiyZz ‘oamnsuy apeydsy ogy, “1861 sequiadas “pA 41ed 28210 “ON saliag fenueyy ‘siaeUS pun skomySiEy sof sruswodng 1mylsy—uB}saq ssauyoYT WO; poonpoxday ‘saanog eo” a/xy'2/5uIs a} 000'8| ers sy ce Oisseas ye ot DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 2" (4a) “i ‘sninpow suey )s0u opesbang ue q PIL “U! OL eseg aLeBe1BBy pareanun pue soepNg erei0U0D yeYdsy YIM siUBWiaAed 10} YWeYD UBISEG ZL'BL eINBLy —— 814815 se 861 soquindas “py 42eq 98aI10D, ‘omansuy aeqdsy oy, “| ON souag TenUEYY ‘saaUIg pun sKomySixy 40f siuouloang yoydsy—uBtsaq ssauporyy wos] poonpoIday :9a2N0g e0 apx¥-9}0uIS 4) 000'RL 3 Doace s yc 2 Oleneas » cs sleet co ce ee Ones cc Ey ob {Ua ‘w'sninpow auatis0y apestans eo SOIUL “Ul ZL eseg e1eBe1BBy pareanun pue aoepNS e1ei0U0D YeYdsy YUM siUeWened 10) WeYD UBIseg E1'BL e;NBIY DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS.“1861 Jaquierdas “py We 239109 ‘aamipsuy aeydsy ay ‘| “ON sou9g fenuRyy ‘SH20Ug pun skomysizy sof stuowoang poydsy—ustsaq ssouyoryy, wos paonporday :30IN0S 07 a1xy-=I641S a) 0O0'BL wajeRInb3* Oisorss yc eG lewis s » ce 101 © ss Dloeras + 2 a leo ss sy DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS eee (UY) “Hv ‘srnpow auelusey @pesBqng eon WML “UI BL eseg a1eBeIBBy payeorUn pue sdeyng asi9U0D YeYdsy YIM sjUaWeRed 405 UeYD UBISEC HL'SL eunbYy 816DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 817 Table 18.12 Minimum Thickness of Asphalt Concrete over Untreated Aggregate Base Minimum Thickness of Traffic ESAL Traffic Condition Asphalt Concrete 10" Light traffic parking 75 mm (3.0 in.) * lots, driveways, and light traffic rural roads 10* but less than 10° Medium truck traffic 100 mm (4.0 in.) 10 Medium to heavy truck traffic 125 mm (5.0 in.) or greater “For full-depth asphalt concrete or emulsified asphalt pavements, a minimum thickness of 100 mm (4 in.) applies in this traffic region, as shown on the design charts. | Source: Adapted from Thickness Design—Asphalt Pavements for Highways and Streets, Manual | Series No. 1, The Asphalt Institute, College Park, Md., September 1981 Example 18-5 Designing a Pavement Consisting of Asphalt Concrete Surface and Untreated Aggregate Base Design a suitable pavement to carry the design ESAL of Example 18-4 on a subgrade having a resilient modulus of 15,000 Ib/in.2, with the pavement con- structed of an asphalt concrete surface and a 6 in. untreated granular base course. The minimum depth of the asphalt concrete surface is obtained from Figure 18.10 as 6in. The design will therefore consist of 6 in. of asphalt concrete surface plus 6 in. of untreated granular base course Analternative design can be made with a 12 in. base. The depth of the asphalt concrete surface required for this is 5 in. as obtained from Figure 18.13. Since the minimum requirement for the depth of the base material is 6 in., the pavement may consist of 5 in. of asphalt concrete surface, 6 in. of untreated aggregate base course, and 6 in. of untreated aggregate subbase course.