First what is LAN means Local Area Network?

This type of network is mostly used in one building and in which the connected
computers are not more than 256.
A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office
building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building
will contain a few small LANs, and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby
buildings. In IP networking, one can conceive of a LAN as a single IP subnet (though this
is not necessarily true in practice).
Besides operating in a limited space, LANs include several other distinctive features.
LANs are typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or organization.
They also use certain specific connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token
Ring.
The distinction between a LAN and a WAN involves the physical distance that the
network spans. A third category, the MAN, also fit into this scheme as it too is centered
on a distance-based concept.

What the topology is:- the way in which connections are made and arrangement of
computer is referred as topology.
Two kinds of Topologies are: Physical and Logical.
Physical topologies are bus, star , ring and physical mesh topology.
Bus:- in this type of topology the computers are connected by a single cable and we use
terminator at the end of the cable that is used to bounce back the signal. In which we
have the logical topology Ethernet 10 Base 2. Repeaters are used in the place of Hubs.

Star:- the computers are arranged in the form of star and in which we have a central
hub . the logical topology that works here is Ethernet 10 Base 5. trouble shooting is easy
in star just bcoz of Hub.

Ring:- when we need high performance network we use ring topology in which
computers are arranged in form of ring . it is an expensive one . we use token passing
method in this topology . logical topology is FDDI(Fiber Distributed Data Interface).

Physical Mesh Topology: combination of different topologies. Most expensive topology

provides

MAN: A Metropolitan Area Network connects an area larger than a LAN but smaller than
a WAN, such as a city, with dedicated or high-performance hardware.
For example: if we have network b/w Rawalpindi and Islamabad or Karachi and
Hyderabad then it is dubbed as MAN.

WAN(Wide Area Network): A wide-area network spans a large physical distance. A

WAN like the Internet spans most of the world!
A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a router
connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and
a WAN address.
WANs differ from LANs in several important ways. Like the Internet, most WANs are not
owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership
and management. WANs use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for
connectivity. WAN requires special media , which are provided by telephone companies.
WAN also requires special hardware.
Physical media for WAN: WANs use special purpose telephone wires, fiber optic cables,
microwaves or satellites for communication. The simplest WANs use dedicated lines,
which are special conditioned telephone lines that directly and permanently connects two
computers.
Microwaves are radio waves that have a very high frequency .the disadvantage of using
them is that they depend on line of sight transmission. No obstruction can get in the
way, and they can travel only about 50 miles.
Communication satellites are placed in geosynchronous orbit thousands of miles above
the earth. In this orbit, the satellite rotates with the earth so that it is always above a
given spot. The latest WANs use long distance fiber optic cables.
WAN uses some special hardware items and these are multiplexor(combines input
signals from several computers and sends the combines signal along the communication
channel) routers(they receive packets of data and examine their address, they decide
where to send each packet) , front-end processors(handle all the communications tasks
for large computers, and also provide security to prevent unauthorized access).
This is what the WAN , I discussed WAN in detail as compare to MAN, bcoz if you have
good understanding of LAN and WAN , you can easily understand MAN as it is stuck
between LAN and WAN.. the only difference is of distance.

Entity Relationship model is a logical representation of data of an organization or a

business area.As visible from its name, it's about the relationship between certain
entities which are logically related.What is an entity?Entity is about(the description of) a
person, an object, place or an event or even concept in the user environment about
which an organization may wish to organize data.Where there is a name of
"Relationship", it is obvious that this is a term belongs to the RDBMS(Relational
Database Management System).And as we know that in this kind of DBMS we develop
relations between two similar kind of entitiy instances which may posses
(conditionally)different attributes('Charecteristics of an entity type which may be an
interest of an organization') but must represent a common objective.Attributes have
three primary types;Simple,Multivalued and Derived.Another term used quite fluently in
E-R model is Instance or Entity Instance.
Instance is the occurance of an entity type.And is necessary to bring into notice before
creating any sort of E-relationship is made.That was a brief introduction to Entity and
terms linked to it.

Now what is a relationship?It is a binding factor which associates two or more (instances
of)entity types together to form a smart Database which will be helpful for user(easily
modified or updated) as well as for the MIS and DSS (to get information whenever
needed in a detailed fashion).What happens when a relationship is created?Relationship
acts like a glue to the entities to join them together.Or should I illustrate it more
meaningfully as:"Relationship is an association among the instances of one or more than
one entity types".
Here Part-I "introduction to Entity, Relationship and E-R Model" finishes here.In the next
part I will describe how an E-R model is developed and what are different kinds of E-R
models.

Part-II "Constructs of an E-R model and Types of relationships "

While constructing an E-R Model one should have good acquaintance with the cardinal
constraints.
A constraint which specifies the number of the instances of an entity type for example B
which may associate with another called A.It specifies minimum and maximum no of
instances of an entity type.Possible constraints are Mandatory one,Mandatory
many,optional one ,optional many and a specific no.A minimum cardinality of 0 specifies
optional participation while 1 represents mandatory.
Relationships are of three types in general.Unary(relationship between the single entity
type's instances);Binary(relationship between the instances of two entity
types);Ternary(relationship between the instances of three entity types).
Degree is the number of entity types which participate in a
relationship.(Unary;1,Binary;2 and Ternary;3).
In unary type of relationship there may be one-to-one or one-to-many relations.
In Binary type there may all the three major kinds involved;one-to-one,one-to-many
and many-to-many(instances of entity type).
In ternary a simultaneous relationship between three different entity types('s
instances)takes place.
Another thing which I want to mention here is the two types of entities.1.Strong
Entity,2.Weak Entity.The independent entity which posseses its own identifier and
doesn't need another entity to work is a strong entity.On contrary, the entity whose
function depends upon the other entities and it may only posses a partial identifier is
known as weak entity.
Part-III is another kind of E-R which is known as E-E-R(Enhanced Entity Relationship).

Computer languages are divided into two major classes. (1).Procedural Programming
Languages and (2).Object Oriented programming Languages. Today we got to discuss
the second class so let's start with it.

To understand Object Oriented Programming(Language) well, one should have good

acquanitance with fundamental Programming techniques.
The Programming Languages have divided the world into two parts. *Data and
*Operations on Data. Data is static and is immutable unless affected by the certain
operations which could certainly bring about a mutation in the structure of it(data). The
operations which operate Data are called as procedures or functions. A point to
understand here is that these functions or procedures which we pronounce as operations
on data have no lasting state, they are only useful when they affect data in a desired
fashion as that is the purpose of their life.
Now being succinct I come straight to the main topic and will depict why to use OOPL?
How much distinct it is intrinsically from the PPLs?
answering first query; OOPLs provide the programmer with the following advantages
which are not provided by the former class as it makes programs:
1. more intuitive to design
2. faster to develop
3. amenable to modifications
4. easier to understand
5. conceiving program tasks in a better way
6. more secure and easy to restrict
7. inherit from classes and to overload methods which could be run recursively and need
to be defined once
8. get merged with other programs in such a way that no fear of data loss remains likely

Second query is answered as so; Same functions and procedures used in PPLs are
extended and re-organized in a novel way. Making it closer to the nature but yet has a
drawback of the lack of elucidation which makes it harder to understand. It means that
the OOPL(s) have the same state and behavior and a real high level unit called object to
make the programming dynamic and faster.

Now to define OOP, firstly one should learn what an object stands for?
Object is everything and just a black box. This statement means that everything present
on the suface of the planet is an object, while taking OOP as an ad hoc it is merely a box
which has a function to receive and transmit data according to the signals or commands.
Making it easier to understand I will put it this way. OOP is something which groups Data
and Operations into modular units called Object. This object will receive signals in the
form of command syntax will operate the data the way, it(code) is directing and then
finally to bring the result back to the programmer alongwith the command control.
Here we reach a conclusion and in a better postition to define OOP.
"The insight of object-oriented programming is to combine state and behavior, data and
operations on data, in a high-level unit, an object, and to give it the language support"

Now a curt description of the Object Oriented Development Environment

Basically this environment is comprised of three parts.

1. A library of objects, software frameworks and kits(for building GUI and other graphical
applications).
2. A set of Development tools(Merging and modifying more than one programs etc)
3. An Object-Oriented Programming Language(Enabling a programmer to encode a
program into the specified fashion, and making the system understand to work according
the user needs and commands)
Now some brief notation of the most important and frequently used OOP terms.
1. Object(defined earlier)
2. Message(Software objects communicate with each other via messages)
3. Class(A prototyped that defines the variables and methods common to all objects of
the similar kind, thereby making program re-useable and extensible)
4. Inheritance(Provides a natural and powerful mechanism for organizing software
programs, usually a class inherits state and behavior from its super-class)
5. Overloading(multiple declaration or assignment of a method)

That was a brief introduction to the OOP(L). Any kind of supplementation has got full
scope and will surely get a decent response.

wo of the more common data objects found in computer algorithms are stacks and
queues.
Stacks are data structures, which maintain the order of last-in, first-out (LIFO)
Queues are data structures, which maintain the order of first-in, first-out (FIFO)

***Stack: A stack is a storage device that stores information in such a way that the
item stored last is the first item retrieved. A stack is an ordered list in which all
insertions and deletions are made at one end, called the top.

Stack Pointer: the register that holds the address for the stack is called a stack pointer
(SP)coz its value always points at the top item in the stack.

Operations of a Stack
The operations of a stack can be matched to the stack of trays. The last tray placed on
top of the stack is the first to be taken off. The two operations; performed on a stack are
insertion and deletion of items.Insertion and deletion, both acted upon at one end of the
list (called the top).
Push(X)
Insert element with value X at top of stack.
Pop()
Remove top element of stack
These operations are simulated by incrementing or decrementing the stack pointer
register.

The PUSH operation is implemented with the following sequence of micro operations:
SP SP+1 (increment stack pointer)
M [SP]DR (write item on top of the stack)
If (SP=0) then (FULL1) (check if stack is full)
EMPTY0 (Mark the stack not empty)

The POP operation is implemented with the following sequence of micro operations:
DR M [SP] (Read item from the top of stack)
SPSP-1 (Decrement stack pointer)
If (SP=0) then (EMPTY1) (check if stack is empty)
FULL0 (Mark the stack is not full)

Stack as an Abstract Data Type

Here is a more formal definition of the stack ADT: A stack is a data structure containing
zero or more elements, on which the following operations can be performed:
create
Create a new, empty stack object.
empty
Determine whether the stack is empty; return true if it is and false if it is not.
Push and Pop I have defined earlier
top
Return the element at the top of the stack (without removing it from the stack). (This
operation, too, can be performed only if the stack is not empty.)
This abstract data type definition says nothing about how we will program the various
stack operations; rather, it tells us how stacks can be used. We can infer some
limitations on how we can use the data. A stack organization is very effective for
evaluating arithmetic expressions.

***Queue: A queue is an ordered list in which all insertions take place at one end, the
rear, while all deletions take place at the other end, the front. Like a line of people
waiting for some service, a queue acquires new elements at one end (the rear of the
queue) and releases old elements at the other (the front). Queues are more difficult to
implement than stacks, because action happens at both ends.
Queue as an Abstract Data Type
Following is the abstract data type definition for queues, with the conventional names for
the operations:
create
Create a new, empty queue object.
empty
Determine whether the queue is empty; return true if it is and false if it is not.
enqueue
Add a new element at the rear of a queue.
dequeue
Remove an element from the front of the queue and return it. (This operation cannot be
performed if the queue is empty.)
front
Return the element at the front of the queue (without removing it from the queue).
(Again, this operation cannot be performed if the queue is empty.)
Types of Queues : some of them are given below:
Circular Queues :Circular queues let us reuse empty space.
Double-ended queues - These are data structures which support both push and pop and
enqueue/dequeue operations.
Priority Queues(heaps) - Supports insertions and ``remove minimum'' operations which
useful in simulations to maintain a queue of time events.
this is what the brief account in context of stack and queries

"Polish Notation and Stack Evaluation".

There are some terminologies could help us a lot while writing down an essay over
Stacks and Ques in exams like; infix, Polish or Parenthesis-free notation.
Infix is the ordinary notation for writing expressions, where operators separate
arguments.
for example,
3+7
while in the case of Polish notation which is really useful for stack oriented evaluation
operater comes after the arguments. for example,
3, 5, +(Polish notation) => 3+5 (infix notation) and
10 , 6, 9, *, + (Polish notation) => 10+(6*9) (infix notation)etc
A polish expression could better be evaluated by such algorithm using two stacks. A
polish stack will contain polish expression and the evaluation stack stores the
intemediate values during execution.
Lets evaluate the polish expressions now. We will use A, B and C to hold data. What will
happen when the program will execute. The following actions will be done:
1. If the polish stack is empty, halt with the top e. stack as the answer.
2. If stack is not empty, pop the polish stack into A.
3. If A is a value then push A onto the e. stack.
4. If A is an operator then pop the e. stack twice, first into C and then into B. Then do
the computation of B and C and then operate them on by A and push the result into e.
stack. Go to step 1.
That was a curt introduction to the evaluation of Stacks and what are polish notations