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(U2':1,/1 )/. #" +#:1,/1, 9%*1,/1 "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 /'" 1"/%06 cd +-*,$ %*,5#/# (.# "#
19.5/*BQ1/1 415# 5/%" 9*%5-9.3) 5#$ 3#/40%(%)

1.6 D#."441'#.#8 D;+.(@(.$#8 /"& :&'&;1/(,8 0&" 7"&*.(C8

D$($B/2#2 (&B 8"$?-)4B

E0'3/*%0%(65/1 9*8/# cd (.# "# 19.5/*BQ1/1 5/%" 9*%5-9.3) 5#$ 3#/40%(%, 3#. B91./#:

% ls unixstuff

(.# "# &1,/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# /%2 3#/#0)(%2 unixstuff

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E0'3/*%0%(65/1 /8*#:

% ls backups

U# &1,/1 B"# 6"2# )9-$ /% 9#*#34/-:

backups: No such file or directory

7 0)(%$ 9%2 <0B91/1 #2/) /% 6"2#, 1,"#. )/. /% backups &1" <*,531/#. 5/%" /*B+%" 3#/40%(%
5#$. T.# "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 .# 1"/%06 51 B"# #*+1,% (6 3#/40%(%) 9%2 &1" <*,531/#. 5/%"
/*B+%"/# 3#/40%(% (51 #2/)" 9%2 1,5/1 B5#), :# 9*B91. 1,/1 "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 /'" 1"/%06 cd (.#
"# 1/#3."':1,/1 5/% 5-5/) 3#/40%(%, 6 "# 3#:%*,51/1 /'" 906*' &.#&*%6 /%2. T.# "# &1,/1 /#
91*.1+)1"# /%2 3#/#0)(%2 backups, :# 9*B91. "# (*4Q1/1:

% ls unixstuff/backups

~ () <-)#&<"./C #$C .$(6E)%)C)

F9%*1,/1 "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 /%" +#*#3/6*# ~ (.# "# #"#D1*:1,/1 5/%" 9*%5-9.3) 5#$ 3#/40%(%.
F9%*1,/1 "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 #2/) /% +#*#3/6*# (.# "# 9*%5&.%*,51/1 &.#&*%B$ 9%2 H13."%;"
#9) /%" 3#/40%(% 5#$. >" 90'3/*%0%(651/1:

% ls ~/unixstuff

:# &1,/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# /%2 3#/#0)(%2 5#$ unixstuff, 45+1/% 1 /% 9%2 <*,5315/1 /' &1&%B"'
5/.(6 B5# 5/% 5;5/'# #*+1,-".

=. 9.5/1;1/1 )/. :# &1,H1. ' 1"/%06:

% ls ~

=. 9.5/1;1/1 )/. :# &1,H1. ' 1"/%06:

% ls ~/..

D#.$;+E+

!"#$%& '()*+)

ls !"#$%"& '($"#' )'& )'*'+,-./0

ls -a !"#$%"& ,+' *' '($"#' )'& *./0 )'*'+,-./0

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mkdir !1&./(-"# 2%' )'*3+.-.

cd directory 4'0 "*'52("& 6*.% )'*3+.-. 7./ '%'-(35"*'&

cd 4'0 "*'52("& '7"/8"#'0 6*.% 7(.697&), 6'0 )'*3+.-.

cd ~ 4'0 "*'52("& 6*.% 7(.697&), 6'0 )'*3+.-.

cd .. 4'0 "*'52("& 6*.% 7(.1-.:"%. 6*1% &"('($#' )'*3+.-. (-.%&),)

pwd !"#$%"& *1% 7+;(1 <&'<(.; *./ *(2$.%*.0 )'*'+,-./

UNIX: 567%6), !+#4"

2.1 5%'"/.&@9 5.6#$<%

cp (copy)

N 1"/%06 cp file1 file2 &'.%2*(1, B"# #"/,(*#D% /%2 file1 5/%" /*B+%"/# 3#/40%(% 3#. /%
%"%4G1. file2.

=8*#, :# #"/.(*4Q%21 B"# #*+1,% 9%2 294*+1. 51 349%.% 5'1,% /%2 525/6#/%$ #*+1,-" (3#.
5/% %9%,% B+%21 9*)5<#5') B5# 5/%" 3#/40%(% unixstuff 9%2 B+%21 &'.%2*(651.,
+*'5.%9%.8"/#$ /'" 1"/%06 cp.

>*+.34 +*'5.%9%.65/1 /'" 1"/%06 cd (.# "# 1/#3."':1,/1 5/%" 3#/40%(% unixstuff.

% cd ~/unixstuff

!91./# 90'3/*%0%(65/1 5/'" 9*%/*%96:

% cp /vol/examples/tutorial/science.txt .

I'1,-5': F'" H1+451/1 /'" /101,# . 5/% /B0%$. U2':1,/1 )/. ' /101,# 5/% UNIX 52<%0,G1. /%"
/*B+%"/# 3#/40%(%.

N 9#*#94"- 1"/%06 5'#,"1. "#"/B(*#Q1 /% #*+1,% science.txt 5/%" /*B+%"/# 3#/40%(%,

&.#/'*8"/#$ /% ,&.% )"%#".

G#.2#2 2a

?'.%2*(65/1 B"# #"/,(*#D% #5D#01,#$ /%2 #*+1,%2 science.txt, #"/.(*4D%"/#$ /% 51 B"# #*+1,%
1 )"%# science.bak

2.2 F#'&@(.A 5.6#$<%

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mv (move)

N 1"/%06 mv file1 file2 1/#DB*1. (6 1/%"%4G1.) /% file1 5/% file2.

T.# "# 1/#3."651/1 B"# #*+1,% #9) .# :B5' 51 .# 400', +*'5.%9%.65/1 /'" 1"/%06 mv. >2/) B+1.
-$ #9%/B015# /'" 1/#3,"'5' #"/, (.# /'" #"/.(*#D6 /%2 #*+1,%2, B/5. 5/% /B0%$ :# B+1/1 B"#
#"/,(*#D% /%2 #*+1,%2 #"/, (.# &;%.

F9%*1,/1 19,5'$ "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 /'" 1"/%06 mv (.# "# 1/%"%451/1 B"# #*+1,%. >2/) (,"1/#.
#" /% 1/#3."651/1 5/%" ,&.% 3#/40%(% #004 1 &.#D%*1/.3) )"%#.

U# 1/#3."65%21 /8*# /% #*+1,% science.bak 5/%" 3#/40%(% backup 9%2 &'.%2*(65#1

9*%'(%2B"-$.

>*+.34 1/#3."':1,/1 5/%" 3#/40%(% unixstuff (109,G%21 "# :2)5#5/1 9-$ (,"1/#.). !91./#, 3#:8$
1,5/1 B5# 5/%" 3#/40%(% unixstuff, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% mv science.bak backups/.

E0'3/*%0%(65/1 ls 3#. ls backups (.# "# &1,/1 #" ' 1"/%06 01./%;*('51 3#"%".34.

2.3 7"&/.&@9 5.6#$<% 0&" :&'&;1/<%

rm (remove), rmdir (remove directory)

T.# "# &.#(*4Q1/1 B"# #*+1,%, +*'5.%9%.65/1 /'" 1"/%06 rm. O$ 9#*4&1.(#, :# &'.%2*(65%21
B"# #"/,(*#D% /%2 #*+1,%2 science.txt 3#. B91./# :# /% &.#(*4Q%21.

FB5# 5/%" 3#/40%(% unixstuff, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% cp science.txt tempfile.txt
% ls
% rm tempfile.txt
% ls

F9%*1,/1 "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 /'" 1"/%06 rmdir (.# "# &.#(*4Q1/1 B"# 3#/40%(% (<1<#.-:1,/1
9*8/# )/. 1,"#. 4&1.%$). E*%59#:65/1 "# &.#(*4Q1/1 /%" 3#/40%(% backups. ?1" :# 9%*B51/1 "#
/% 34"1/1, 3#:8$ /% UNIX &1" :# 5#$ #D651. "# &.#(*4Q1/1 B"# 3#/40%(% 9%2 &1" 1,"#. 4&1.%$.

G#.2#2 2b

?'.%2*(65/1 B"# 3#/40%(% 1 /% )"%# tempstuff +*'5.%9%.8"/#$ /'" 1"/%06 mkdir, 3#. B91./#
&.#(*4Q/1 /%" +*'5.%9%.8"/#$ /'" 1"/%06 rmdir.

2.4 )@A%"4+ D#."#6(C%<% 5.6#$(, 4'+% BG1%+

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clear (.$7$-"#/C )7/B2C)

E*." H13."651/1 1 /'" 19)1"' 1")/'/#, ,5-$ :B01/1 "# 3#:#*,51/1 /% 9#*4:2*% /%2 /1*#/.3%;
#9) /.$ 9*%'(%;1"1$ 1"/%0B$, 85/1 ' BH%&%$ /-" 1"/%08" 9%2 #3%0%2:%;" "# 1,"#. H134:#*'.

I/'" 9*%/*%96, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% clear

>2/) :# 3#:#*,51. /% 9#*4:2*% 3#. :# 5#$ #D651. )"% 1 /'" 9*%/*%96 $ 5/% 94"- B*%$.

cat (concatenate)

F9%*1,/1 "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 /'" 1"/%06 cat (.# "# &1,/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# 1")$ #*+1,%2 5/'" %:)"'
5#$. E0'3/*%0%(65/1:

% cat science.txt

R9-$ 9%*1,/1 "# &1,/1, /% #*+1,% 1,"#. 1(#0;/1*% #9) /% B(1:%$ /%2 9#*#:;*%2 3#. B/5.
5;"/%# 32041. 9*%$ /# 94"- 1 #9%/B015# "# '" 9%*%;1 "# /% &%;1 %0)30'*%.

less

N 1"/%06$ less (*4D1. /# 91*.1+)1"# 1")$ #*+1,%2 5/'" %:)"', .# 510,&# 34:1 D%*4.
E0'3/*%0%(65/1:

% less science.txt

I/% /B0%$ 34:1 510,&#$ 9.B5/1 /% [space-bar] #" :B01/1 "# &1,/1 /'" 19)1"' 510,&#, 6 /% [q] (.# "#
/1*#/,51/1 /'" #"4("-5'. R9-$ 3#/#0#<#,"1/1, ' less 1,"#. 9*%/.)/1*' #9) /'" cat (.# 1(40#
#*+1,#.

head

N 1"/%06 head (*4D1. /.$ &B3# 9*8/1$ (*#B$ 1")$ #*+1,%2 5/'" %:)"'.

@#:#*,5/1 9*8/# /'" %:)"' 3#. 1/4 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% head science.txt

!91./# 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

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% head -5 science.txt

=. &.#D%*4 9*%340151 /% -5 5/'" 1"/%06 head;

tail

N 1"/%06 tail 1D#",G1. /.$ &B3# /1012/#,1$ (*#B$ 1")$ #*+1,%2 5/'" %:)"'.

@#:#*,5/1 /'" %:)"' 3#. 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% tail science.txt

C*8/'5': E-$ 9%*1,/1 "# &1,/1 /.$ 15 /1012/#,1$ (*#B$ 1")$ #*+1,%2;

2.5 5%&H9'+4+ 4'& D#."#61#%& )%18 5.6#$(,

J<E' JB$K'(2#2 + (2 L-'#2 (2C less

J*'5.%9%.8"/#$ /'" 1"/%06 less, 9%*1,/1 "# Q4H1/1 /% #*+1,% (.# .# 0BH' 301.&,. T.#
9#*4&1.(#, (.# "# Q4H1/1 /% #*+1,% science.txt (.# /' 0BH' 'science', 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% less science.txt

3#. 3#:8$ 13/101,/#. ' less, 90'3/*%0%(65/1 .# 34:1/% [/] #3%0%2:%;1"' #9) /' 0BH' 9%2
Q4+"1/1

/science

R9-$ 9%*1,/1 "# &1,/1 ', less <*,531. 3#. D-/,G1. /' 0BH'. E0'3/*%0%(65/1 [n] (.# "# <*1,/1 /%
19)1"% 5'1,% 9%2 1D#",G1/#. ' 0BH'.

grep (2 -&('#+(+ %"$(: (2 E;B+ ;(#")

N 1"/%06 grep #9%/101, B"# #9) /# /29%9%.'B"# <%':'/.34 1*(#01,# /%2 UNIX X4+"1. #*+1,# (.#
3#:%*.5B"1$ 0BH1.$ 6 patterns. >*+.34 3#:#*,5/1 /'" %:)"' 3#. B91./# 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% grep science science.txt

R9-$ 9%*1,/1 "# &1,/1, ' grep 1D4".51 34:1 (*#6 9%2 91*.B+1. /'" 0BH' science.

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N 69-$ )+.;

?%3.45/1 /% 9#*#34/-:

% grep Science science.txt

N 1"/%06 grep &.#+-*,G1. .3*4-31D#0#,#. !/5. /% Science 1,"#. &.#D%*1/.3) #9) /% science.

T.# "# '" (,"1/#. &.#+-*.5)$ .3*8"-31D#0#,-", +*'5.%9%.65/1 /'" 19.0%(6 -i, &'0.
90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% grep -i science science.txt

T.# "# Q4H1/1 (.# .# D*45' 6 B"# pattern, :# 9*B91. "# /% 91*.301,51/1 51 %"4 1.5#(-(.34. T.#
9#*4&1.(#, (.# "# Q4H1/1 (.# /' D*45' spinning top, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% grep -i 'spinning top' science.txt

@49%.1$ #3)# 19.0%(B$ /'$ grep 1,"#.:

-v &1,+"1. /.$ (*#B$ 9%2 ?CY /#.*.4G%2"

-n &1,+"1. /%" #*.:) (*#6$ 9*%5/4 #9) 34:1 (*#6
-c /298"1. )"% /%" #*.:) /-" (*#8" 9%2 /#,*.#H#"

?%3.45/1 349%.1$ #9) #2/B$ /.$ 19.0%(B$ 3#. &1,/1 /# &.#D%*1/.34 #9%/10B5#/#. F'" H1+"4/1 )/.
9%*1,/1 "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 91*.55)/1*1$ #9) .# 19.0%(B$ 34:1 D%*4. T.# 9#*4&1.(#, <*1,/1
/%" #*.:) /-" (*#8" 9%2 &1" 91*.B+%2" /.$ 0BH1.$ science 6 Science.

% grep -ivc science science.txt

wc (word count)

!"# .&.#,/1*# <%':'/.3) .3*) 9*)(*## 1,"#. /% wc /% %9%,% 1/*41. 0BH1.$. T.# "# 1/*651/1 /.$
0BH1.$ 5/% #*+1,% science.txt, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% wc -w science.txt

T.# "# <*1,/1 9)51$ (*#B$ B+1. /% #*+1,%, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% wc -l science.txt

D#.$;+E+

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!"#$%& '()*+)

cp file1 file2 =%*2-('>" *. file1 )'& .%,'6" *. '%*#-('5. file2

mv file1 file2 ?"*')#%16" ; "*.%,'6" *. file1 6" file2

rm file !&2-('>" 2%' '($"#.

rmdir directory !&2-('>" 2%' )'*3+.-.

cat file @53%&6" 2%' '($"#.

less file @53%&6" 2%' '($"#. &' 6"+#<' )38" 5.(3

head file @53%&6" *&0 7(A*"0 -('20 "%,0 '($"#./

tail file @53%&6" *&0 *"+"/*'#"0 -('20 "%,0 '($"#./

grep 'keyword' file B3C" 2%' '($"#. -&' &' 6/-)")(&2%1 +2C1

wc file ?2*(161 -('A%/+2C"9%/$'(')*;(9% "%,0 '($"#.

UNIX: 8)9%, !+#4"

3.1 5%&0&'#3G,%4+
7. 91*.55)/1*1$ &.1*(#5,1$ 9%2 H13."%;" B5- 1"/%08" /%2 UNIX (*4D%2" 5/'" /29%9%.'B"'
BH%&% (&'0. 5/'" %:)"' 6 9#*4:2*% /%2 /1*#/.3%;). E%00B$ #9) #2/B$ /.$ 1"/%0B$ 9#,*"%2" /'"
1,5%&% /%2$ #9) /'" /29%9%.'B"' 1,5%&% (&'0, &.#<4G%2" #9) /% 90'3/*%0)(.%). C3/)$ #9) /'"
/29%9%.'B"' 1,5%&% 3#. BH%&% 294*+1. 19,5'$ 3#. ' /29%9%.'B"' BH%&%$ 5D40#/%$ )9%2 %.
&.1*(#5,1$ 1D#",G%2" /# '";#/# 04:%2$ /%2$. >9) 9*%19.0%(6 ' BH%&%$ 5D40#/%$
3#/12:;"1/#. 5/'" %:)"' ' 9#*4:2*% /%2 /1*#/.3%;.

!+%21 6&' &1. /' +*65' /'$ 1"/%06$ cat 1 /'" %9%,# 9%*%;1 "# 1D#",5%21 /# 91*.1+)1"#
1")$ #*+1,%2 5/'" %:)"'.

T*4Q/1 /8*# /'" 1"/%06 cat +-*,$ "# 9*%5&.%*,51/1 349%.% #*+1,% 9%2 "# &.#<451.:

% cat

T*4Q/1 B91./# 349%.1$ 0BH1.$ 5/% 90'3/*%0)(.% 3#. 9.B5/1 /% 9063/*% [Return.

=B0%$, 9.B5/1 /% 9063/*% [Ctrl] 3#. 3#:8$ /% 3*#/4/1, 9.B5/1 /% [d] (#2/) 1"' 52"/%,# (*4D1/#. ^D)
(.# "# /1*#/,51/1 /'" 1,5%&%.

=. 52"B<';

>" 13/10B51/1 /'" 1"/%06 cat +-*,$ "# 3#:%*,51/1 349%.% #*+1,% (.# "# &.#<451., &.#<4G1. /'"

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/29%9%.'B"' 1,5%&% (/% 90'3/*%0)(.%) 3#. )0.$ 04<1. /% +#*#3/6*# /B0%2$ #*+1,%2 (/% ^D),
#"/.(*4D1. /'" 1,5%&% 5/'" /29%9%.'B"' BH%&% (/'" %:)"').

I/% UNIX B+%21 /' &2"#/)/'/# "# #"#3#/12:;"%21 /)5% /'" 1,5%&% )5% 3#. /'" BH%&% /-"
1"/%08".

3.2 5%&0&'#3G,%4+ '+8 )I1*(,

J*'5.%9%.%;1 /% 5;<%0% > (.# "# #"#3#/12:;"%21 /'" BH%&% .#$ 1"/%06$. T.# 9#*4&1.(#, (.#
"# &'.%2*(65%21 B"# #*+1,% 1 )"%# list1 /% %9%,% "# 91*.B+1. .# 0,5/# #9) D*%;/#,
90'3/*%0%(%;1:

% cat > list1

T*4Q/1 B91./# /# %")#/# 1*.38" D*%;/-". E.B5/1 [Return] 1/4 #9) 34:1 )"%#.

pear
banana
apple
^D {!"#$ %&'()*+ [Ctrl] ,'+ [d] -+' #./01}

>2/) 9%2 52<#,"1., 1,"#. )/. ' 1"/%06 cat &.#<4G1. /'" /29%9%.'B"' 1,5%&% (/% 90'3/*%0)(.%) 3#.
/% > #"#3#/12:;"1. /'" BH%&% - 9%2 D25.%0%(.34 1,"#. ' %:)"' - 51 B"# #*+1,% 1 /% )"%# list1

T.# "# &.#<451/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# /%2 #*+1,%2, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% cat list1

G#.2#2 3a

J*'5.%9%.8"/#$ /'" 9#*#94"- B:%&%, &'.%2*(65/1 B"# #*+1,% 1 /% )"%# list2 9%2 "#
91*.B+1. /# 9#*#34/- D*%;/#: 9%*/%340., #"/#*,"., 4"(3%, (3*B.9D*%2/. J*'5.%9%.65/1 /'"
3#/400'0' 1"/%06 (.# "# &.#<451/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# /%2 list2

3.2.1 3-)#7'.2 3+-"+H);B&B #+ =B$ J-H+:)

J*'5.%9%.8"/#$ /' %*D6 >> 9%*1,/1 "# 9*%5:B51/1 /'" /29%9%.'B"' BH%&% 5/% /B0%$ 1")$
6&' 294*+%"/%$ #*+1,%2, +-*,$ "# &.#(*4Q1/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# 9%2 B+1. 6&'. !/5., (.# "#
9*%5:B51/1 91*.55)/1*1$ 3#/#+-*,51.$ 5/% #*+1,% list1, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% cat >> list1

@#. B91./# 90'3/*%0%(65/1 /# %")#/# 91*.55)/1*-" D*%;/-" :)

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peach
grape
orange
^D (Control D -+' #./01 *+%$20")

T.# "# &.#<451/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# /%2 #*+1,%2, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% cat list1

U# 9*B91. "# B+1/1 /8*# &;% #*+1,#. =% B"# 91*.B+1. BH. D*%;/#, /% 400% 91*.B+1. /B551*# D*%;/#.

U# +*'5.%9%.65%21 /8*# /'" 1"/%06 cat (.# "# 1"85%21 (concatenate) /# &;% #*+1,#, /% list1
3#. /% list2 51 B"# "B% #*+1,% 1 /% )"%# biglist. E0'3/*%0%(65/1:

% cat list1 list2 > biglist

N 1"/%06 #2/6 &.#<4G1. /# 91*.1+)1"# /-" #*+1,-" list1 3#. list2 1 /' 51.*4 9%2 D#,"%"/#. 3#.
(*4D1. /'" BH%&% 5/% #*+1,% biglist

T.# "# &.#<451/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# /%2 "B%2 #*+1,%2, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% cat biglist

3.3 5%&0&'#3G,%4+ '+8 )"41*(,

U# +*'5.%9%.65%21 /% 5;<%0% < (.# "# #"#3#/12:;"%21 /'" 1,5%&% /'$ 1"/%06$.

N 1"/%06 sort /#H."%1, #0D#<'/.34 6 #*.:'/.34 .# 0,5/#. E0'3/*%0%(65/1:

% sort

T*4Q/1 B91./# /# %")#/# 1*.38" G8-". E.B5/1 [Return] 1/4 #9) 34:1 )"%#.

dog
cat
bird
ape
^D (control d -+' )' %#''#3%*#*)

N BH%&%$ :# %.4G1. 1 /'" 9#*#34/-:

ape
bird
cat

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dog

F9%*1,/1 "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 /% < (.# "# #"#3#/12:;"1/1 /'" 1,5%&% 85/1 "# 9*%B*+1/#. #9) B"#
#*+1,% #"/, (.# /% 90'3/*%0)(.%. T.# 9#*4&1.(#, (.# "# /#H."%651/1 /' 0,5/# 1 /# D*%;/#,
90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% sort < biglist

3#. :# &1,/1 /'" /#H."%'B"' 0,5/# 5/'" %:)"' 5#$.

T.# "# (*4Q1/1 /'" /#H."%'B"' 0,5/# 51 B"# #*+1,%, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% sort < biglist > slist

J*'5.%9%.65/1 /'" 1"/%06 cat (.# "# &.#<451/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# /%2 #*+1,%2 slist

3.4 2<;+%>4#"8
T.# "# &1,/1 9%.%$ 400%$ 1,"#. 52"&1&1B"%$ 5/% 5;5/'# #G, 1 154$, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% who

F.# B:%&%$ (.# "# &1,/1 #2/6 /' 0,5/# %"%4/-" /#H."%'B"', 1,"#. "# 90'3/*%0%(651/1:

% who > names.txt

% sort < names.txt

>2/) 1,"#. 349-$ #*(), 3#. :# 9*B91. 19,5'$ "# :2':1,/1 "# &.#(*4Q1/1 /% 9*%5-*.") #*+1,%
names.txt )/#" /101.851/1. >2/) 9%2 5/'" 9*#(#/.3)/'/# :B01/1 "# 34"1/1, 1,"#. "# 1"851/1 1
349%.% /*)9% /'" BH%&% /'$ 1"/%06$ who 1 /'" 1,5%&% /'$ 1"/%06$ sort. >2/) #3*.<8$ 34"%2" %.
5-0'"851.$. =% 5;<%0% /'$ 5-06"-5'$ 1,"#. ' 34:1/' 94*# |

T.# 9#*4&1.(#, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% who | sort

3#. :# 94*1/1 /% ,&.% #9%/B015# 1 /% 9#*#94"-, #004 9.% (*6(%*# 3#. 3#:#*4.

T.# "# <*1,/1 9)5%. +*65/1$ <*,53%"/#. #2/6 /' 5/.(6 5/% 5;5/'#, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% who | wc -l

G#.2#2 3b

J*'5.%9%.8"/#$ 5-0'"851.$, &1,H/1 )01$ /.$ (*#B$ /-" #*+1,-" list1 3#. list2 9%2 91*.B+%2" /%

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(*4# 'p' 3#. /#H."%65/1 /% #9%/B015#.

D#.$;+E+

!"#$%& '()*+)

command > file =%')'*":8/%61 */7.7.&12%10 "C,<./ 6" '($"#.

command >> file D(.68;)1 */7.7.&12%10 "C,<./ 6*. *2+.0 /73($.%*.0 '($"#./

command < file =%')'*":8/%61 */7.7.&12%10 "&6,<./ '7, '($"#./

49+;%961 *10 "C,<./ *10 command1 6*1% "#6.<. *10

command1 | command2
command2

cat file1 file2 >

4/%2%961 *9% '($"#9% file1 )'& file2 6*. file0
file0

sort E'C&%,161 <"<.2%9%

F#6*' $(16*A% 7./ "#%'& 6/%<"<"2%.& 6*. 6:6*1' *1 <"<.2%1

who
6*&-;

UNIX: 8:%")%, !+#4"

4.1 J&.&0'9.#8 FK&;&%'C.

A L$-$.('-$C *

7 +#*#3/6*#$ * %"%4G1/#. 9#0#"/B*, 3#. /#.*.4G1. 1 %9%.%&69%/1 906:%$ +#*#3/6*-" (#9)

'&B") 51 B"# )"%# #*+1,%2 6 3#/#0)(%2. T.# 9#*4&1.(#, 5/%" 3#/40%(% unixstuff
90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% ls list*

>2/) :# &1,H1. )0# /# #*+1,# /%2 /*B+%"/%$ 3#/40%(%2 9%2 H13."4"1 1 /# (*4#/# list....

?%3.45/1 "# 90'3/*%0%(651/1:

% ls *list

>2/) :# &1,H1. )0# /# #*+1,# /%2 /*B+%"/%$ 3#/40%(%2 9%2 /101.8"%2" 1 /# (*4#/# ....list

A L$-$.('-$C ?

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7 +#*#3/6*#$ ? /#.*.4G1. 1 B"# #3*.<8$ +#*#3/6*#.

!/5. /% ?ouse :# /#.*.4H1. 1 #*+1,# )9-$ /% house 3#. /% mouse, #004 )+. /% grouse.
?%3.45/1 "# 90'3/*%0%(651/1:

% ls ?list

4.2 2,LA4#"8 4'& B%1&'& 5.6#$<%

U# 9*B91. "# 5'1.85%21 1&8 )/. B"#$ 3#/40%(%$ 1,"#. #908$ B"#$ 1.&.3)$ /;9%$ #*+1,%2. !/5. %.
52<451.$ 9%2 .5+;%2" (.# /'" %"%#/%0%(,# /-" #*+1,-", .5+;%2" 3#. (.# /%2$ 3#/#0)(%2$.

R/#" %"%4G%21 #*+1,#, 9*B91. "# #9%D1;(%21 +#*#3/6*1$ 9%2 B+%2" 1.&.36 5'#5,# )9-$ / *
& %. C9,5'$ 3#0) 1,"#. "# #9%D1;(1/1 /# 31"4 &.#5/6#/# 5/# %")#/#. 7 #5D#0B5/1*%$ /*)9%$
"# %"%4G1/1 #*+1,#, 1,"#. 1 (*4#/# 3#. #*.:%;$ /%2 0#/.".3%; #0D4<'/%2, 3#:8$ 3#. 1 /#
5;<%0# _ (34/- 9#;0#) 3#. . (/101,#).

,)%- $".)#) ,)/- $".)#)

project.txt project

my_big_program.c my big program.c

fred_dave.doc fred & dave.doc

@#/4 9#*4&%5', /# %")#/# #*+1,-" H13."%;" 1 B"# .3*) (*4# 3#. 9%*1, "# /101.8"%2" 1
.# /101,# 9%2 #3%0%2:1,/#. #9) .# %4&# (*#4/-" 9%2 +#*#3/'*,G%2" /# 91*.1+)1"# /%2
#*+1,%2. T.# 9#*4&1.(#, )0# /# #*+1,# 9%2 91*.B+%2" 38&.3# 51 (0855# C 9%*1, "# /101.8"%2"
1 /'" 3#/40'H' .c, 9.+. prog1.c. !91./#, (.# "# &1,/1 .# 0,5/# )0-" /-" #*+1,-" 9%2 91*.B+%2"
38&.3# 51 C 5/%" 3#/40%(% 5#$, +*1.4G1/#. #908$ "# (*4Q1/1 ls *.c )/#" <*,5315/1 51 #2/) /%"
3#/40%(%.

4.3 5%&H9'+4+ 4'+ M(9G#"&

!B#&$(&;B+C 0+E:?+C M)'7+"$C

=% 5;5/'4 5#$ 91*.B+1. 1"5-#/-B"1$ 510,&1$ <%6:1.#$ 9%2 9%*%;" "# 5#$ &85%2"
90'*%D%*,1$ (.# /.$ 91*.55)/1*1$ 1"/%0B$. 7. 510,&1$ <%6:1.#$ :# 5#$ 90'*%D%*65%2" 5+1/.34 1
/.$ 19.0%(B$ 9%2 B+1. 34:1 1"/%06 3#. 9-$ #2/B$ 1/#<400%2" /' 5291*.D%*4 /'$. E0'3/*%0%(65/1
man command (.# "# &1,/1 /' 510,&# <%6:1.#$ (manual) .#$ 52(313*.B"'$ 1"/%06$.

T.# 9#*4&1.(#, (.# "# 4:1/1 019/%B*1.1$ (.# /'" 1"/%06 wc (word count), 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% man wc

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C"#00#3/.34, 9%*1,/1 "# (*4Q1/1:

% whatis wc

3#. :# 94*1/1 .# 5;"/%' 91*.(*#D6 (51 .# (*#6) /'$ 1"/%06$, +-*,$ /.$ 019/%B*1.1$ 5+1/.34
1 /.$ 19.0%(B$ 3.0.9.

Apropos

>" &1" ("-*,G1/1 /% #3*.<B$ )"%# .#$ 1"/%06$, &%3.45/1:

% apropos keyword

N 1"/%06 #2/6 :# 5#$ &851. /.$ 1"/%0B$ 9%2 91*.B+%2" /' 0BH' 301.&, (keyword) 5/'" 19.31D#0,&#
/'$ 510,&#$ <%6:1.#$ /%2$. T.# 9#*4&1.(#:

% apropos copy

Summary

!"#$%& '()*+)

* E'#(&'6' " .7.&.<;7.*" 7+;8.0 $'(')*;(9%

? E'#(&'6' " 2%' ,%. $'(')*;('

man command 4"+#<' G.;8"&'0 -&' &' "%*.+;

whatis command 4:%*.1 7"(&-('5; &'0 "%*.+;0

apropos keyword @:("61 *9% "%*.+A% 7./ 7"(&2$./% *. keyword 6*1% 7"(#+1>1 *./0

UNIX: 2:;%, !+#4"

5.1 54@A;#"& 2,4'9&'(8 5.6#$<% (7"0&">&'& D.14L&4+8)
F1 /*B+%"/# 3#/40%(% /%" unixstuff, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% ls -l (l for long listing!)

U# 9#*#/'*651/1 )/. <0B91/1 /8*# 9%00B$ 91*.55)/1*1$ 019/%B*1.1$ 5+1/.34 1 /# 91*.1+)1"#

/%2 3#/#0)(%2 5#$. U# %.4G%2" 1 /% 9#*4&1.(# 9%2 <0B91/1 9#*#34/-:

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@4:1 #*+1,% (3#. 3#/40%(%$) B+1. 349%.# &.3#.8#/# 9*)5<#5'$ 9%2 /%2 #"#0%(%;" 3#. /# %9%,#
9%*1,/1 "# &1,/1 (*4D%"/#$ ls -l. C9,5'$, ' 1"/%06 ls -lg &,"1. 9*)5:1/1$ 90'*%D%*,1$, )9-$
(.# 9#*4&1.(# /% )"%# /'$ %4&#$ 5/'" %9%,# #"631. /% #*+1,% (5/% 9#*4&1.(# #$, beng95):

-rwxrw-r-- 1 ee51ab beng95 2450 Sept29 11:52 file1

I/'" 9.% #*.5/1*6 5/60', 294*+1. .# 51.*4 #9) 10 5;<%0# 5/# %9%,# 1D#",G%"/#. /# (*4#/#
d, r, w, x, - 3#. 91*.5/#5.#34 /% s 6 /% S. >" 294*+1. /% d, :# 1,"#. 1"/108$ #*.5/1*4 3#. 52<%0,G1.
)/. /% )"%# 9%2 <0B9%21 1,"#. 5/'" 9*#(#/.3)/'/# 3#/40%(%$. >" 1,"#. #*+1,%, 5/' :B5' /%2 d
:# 294*+1. .# 9#;0# (-).

=# 9 5;<%0# 9%2 #9%B"%2", &1,+"%2" /.$ 4&1.1$ 6 &.3#.8#/# 9*)5<#5'$ 3#. %#&%9%.%;"/#. 51
/*1.$ %4&1$ 1 /*,# 5;<%0# ' 34:1 ,#

N #*.5/1*6 %4&# /-" /*.8" 52<)0-" &1,+"1. /# &.3#.8#/# (.# /%" +*65/' % %9%,%$ 1,"#.
34/%+%$ /%2 #*+1,%2 6 /%2 3#/#0)(%2 (ee51ab 5/% 9#*#94"- 9#*4&1.(#)

N 15#,# %4&# &1,+"1. /# &.3#.8#/# (.# /'" %4&# #":*89-" 5/'" %9%,# #"631. /% #*+1,% 6
3#/40%(%$ (eebeng95 5/% 9#*#94"- 9#*4&1.(#)

N &1H.4 %4&# &1,+"1. /# &.3#.8#/# (.# )0%2$ /%2$ 29)0%.9%2$ +*65/1$.

=# 5;<%0# r, w, 3.0.9. B+%2" 10#D*4 &.#D%*1/.3) ")'# #"40%(# 1 /% #" #"#DB*%"/#. 51 B"#
#90) #*+1,% 6 51 B"# 3#/40%(%.

8".$"4$($ 3-/#>$#2C #+ J-H+:$

=% r (6 -), &1,+"1. &.3#,-# #"4("-5'$ (6 )+.). F1 0,(# 0)(.#, #" 294*+1. 9%*%;1 "# &.#<45%21
3#. "# #"/.(*4Q%21 /% #*+1,%.

=% w (6 -), &1,+"1. &.3#,-# 1((*#D6$ (6 )+.). F1 0,(# 0)(.# #" 9%*%;1 "# (*4Q%21 6 1
349%.% /*)9% "# #004H%21 /% #*+1,%.

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=% x (6 -), &1,+"1. &.3#,-# 13/B015'$ (6 )+.). F1 0,(# 0)(.# #" 9%*%;1 "# 13/10B5%21 #2/) /%
#*+1,% (>" #2/) D25.34 B+1. ")'#, 9.+. #" /% #*+1,% 1,"#. 349%.% 13/10B5.% 9*)(*##).

8".$"4$($ 3-/#>$#2C #+ D$(6E)%),C

=% r 19./*B91. 51 +*65/1$ "# <0B9%2" /' 0,5/# /-" #*+1,-" 1")$ 3#/#0)(%2.

=% w 19./*B91. 51 +*65/1$ "# &.#(*4D%2" #*+1,# #9) /%" 3#/40%(% 6 "# 1/#3."%;" #*+1,# B5#
51 #2/)".

=% x 19./*B91. /'" 9*)5<#5' 51 #*+1,# /%2 3#/#0)(%2. >2/) 29%"%1, )/. B+1/1 /' &2"#/)/'/# "#
&.#<4G1/1 #*+1,# 5/%" 3#/40%(%, 1 /'" 9*%Z9):15' )/. B+1. &.3#.8#/# 5/# 52(313*.B"#
#*+1,#.

!/5., (.# "# 9%*1,/1 "# &.#<451/1 B"# #*+1,%, :# 9*B91. "# B+1/1 &.3#.8#/# 13/B015'$ 5/%"
3#/40%(% 5/%" %9%,% <*,531/#. 3#. 4*# 3#. 5/%" 3#/40%(% 9%2 /%" 91*.B+1. 3.%.3.

5+-".6 3$-$?+:%$($

-rwxrwxrwx H%' '($"#. *. .7.#. 7.("# )'82%'0 %' <&'G36"&, %' '++3C"& )'& %' <&'-(3>"&.

H%' '($"#. *. .7.#. 7.("# ,%. . &<&.)*;*10 %' -(3>"& )'& %' <&'G36"&, )'& )'%"#0
-rw------- 3++.0 <"% 2$"& .7.&.<;7.*" <&)'#9'. I'%"#0 (.:*" . &<&.)*;*10) 2$"& <&)'#9'
")*2+"610. J&' 7'(3<"&-', 7.("# %' "#%'& *. '($"#. " *' email 6'0.

5.2 5;;&/9 7"0&"<A'<% D.14L&4+8

chmod ($EE$%' .$(6#($#2C +B/C $-H+:),)

F)"% % .&.%3/6/'$ 1")$ #*+1,%2 9%*1, "# +*'5.%9%.651. /'" chmod (.# "# #004H1. /# &.3#.8#/#
1")$ #*+1,%2. 7. 19.0%(B$ /'$ 1"/%06$ chmod 1,"#. %. 9#*#34/-:

'01$%$ '()*+)

u $(;6*10

g .3<'

o /7,+.&7.&

a ,+.&

r '%3-%961

w "--('5; ()'& <&'-('5;)

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x ")*2+"61 ()'& 7(,6G'61 6*.% )'*3+.-.)

+ 7(.68;)1 <&)'&A'*.0

- <&'-('5; <&)'&A'*.0

T.# 9#*4&1.(#, (.# "# #D#.*B51/1 /# &.3#.8#/# 1((*#D6$ 3#. 13/B015'$ 5/% #*+1,% biglist (.# /'"
%4&# 3#. /%2$ 29)0%.9%2$ +*65/1$:

% chmod go-rwx biglist

N 9#*#94"- 1"/%06 &1" :# 91.*4H1. /# 29)0%.9# &.3#.8#/# (9.+. /%2 .&.%3/6/').

T.# "# &851/1 &.3#.8#/# #"4("-5'$ 3#. 1((*#D6$ 5/% #*+1,% biglist 51 )0%2$:

% chmod a+rw biglist

G#.2#2 5a

?%3.45/1 "# #004H1/1 &.3#.8#/# 5/% #*+1,% science.txt 3#. 5/%" 3#/40%(% backups.

J*'5.%9%.65/1 /'" 1"/%06 ls -l (.# "# 10B(H1/1 )/. /# &.3#.8#/# B+%2" 9*#(#/.34 #004H1..

5.3 7"#./&4$#8 0&" Jobs

F.# &.1*(#5,# 1,"#. B"# 9*)(*## 9%2 13/101,/#. 3#. #"#("-*,G1/#. #9) B"# %"#&.3)
#"#("-*.5/.3) &.1*(#5,#$, PID. T.# "# &1,/1 90'*%D%*,1$ (.# /.$ &.1*(#5,1$ 5#$ 3#. /%
#"#("-*.5/.3) /%2$, (*4Q/1:

% ps

F.# &.1*(#5,# 9%*1, "# <*,531/#. 5/% 9*%536".%, 5/% 9#*#536".%, 6 51 9#;5'. I1 (1".3B$
(*#B$ /% 3B02D%$ &1" 19.5/*BD1. /'" 9*%/*%96 1"/%06$ B+*. "# /1*#/.5/1, ' /*B+%25#
&.1*(#5,#.

F1*.3B$ &.1*(#5,1$ +*1.4G%"/#. 9%0; +*)"% (.# "# 13/1015/%;" 3#. 5/% 1/#H; 19%&,G%2" /' +*65'
/%2 /1*#/.3%;. >" 1/#DB*1/1 .# /B/%.# &.1*(#5,# 5/% 9#*#536".%, :# 9%*B51/1 "# B+1/1 415#
&.#:B5.' /'" 9*%/*%96 1"/%08". F9%*1,/1 B/5. "# 52"1+,51/1 "# 13/101,/1 4001$ 1"/%0B$ 3#:8$ '
#*+.36 &.1*(#5,# 52"1+,G1. "# 13/101,/#..

!.(;E+#2 !B()E4B #() 3$-$#.'B")

T.# "# H13."651/1 .# &.1*(#5,# 5/% 9#*#536".%, 9*%5:B5/1 B"# & 5/% /B0%$ /'$ (*#6$ 1"/%06$.
T.# 9#*4&1.(#, ' 1"/%06 sleep 1.54(1. .# #"#%"6, (.# )5# &12/1*)019/# /'$ &85%21.
E0'3/*%0%(65/1:

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% sleep 10

N 9#*#94"- 1"/%06 91*.B"1. 10 &12/1*)019/# 9*." 19.5/*BQ1. ' 9*%/*%96 /%2 310;D%2$. FB+*.
"# &1,/1 H#"4 /'" 9*%/*%96 &1" 9%*1,/1 "# 34"1/1 /,9%/# 13/)$ #9) /% "# 91*.B"1/1.

T.# "# 13/10B51/1 /'" sleep 5/% 9#*#536".%, (*4Q/1:

% sleep 10 &

[1] 6259

F1 /% & ' 1"/%06$ 13/101,/#. 5/% 9#*#536".% 3#. ' 9*%/*%96 19.5/*BD1. #B5-$. F9%*1,/1 "#
13/10B5/1 400# 9*%(*4#/# 3#:8$ 91*.B"1/1 #2/6 /'" 1"/%06 "# /101.851..

N 9*8/' (*#6 5/% 9#*#94"- 9#*4&1.(#, B+1. 90'3/*%0%(':1, #9) /%" +*65/'. N 19)1"'
(*#6 9%2 #"#DB*1. /% #*.:) /'$ &.1*(#5,#$ 3#. /%2 job, 9*%B*+1/#. #9) /% '+4"'#. 7
+*65/'$ 1.&%9%.1,/#. (.# /%" #*.:) /%2 job (H13."41. #9) /%" #*.:) 1) % %9%,%$ 91*.301,1/#. 51
#(3;01$ 3#. (.# /%" #*.:) /'$ &.1*(#5,#$. C9,5'$ 1.&%9%.1,/#. )/#" /101.851. ' 13/B015' .#$
&.1*(#5,#$ 9%2 13/101,/#. 5/% 9#*#536".%. N 13/B015' 5/% 9#*#536".% 1,"#. +*65.' (.# 1*(#5,1$
9%2 34"%2" #*31/) +*)"% "# %0%30'*-:%;".

J<)#()E' #() 3$-$#.'B") "$C 8"+-%$#:$C <), +.(+E+:($" #() 3-)#.'B")

I/'" 9*%/*%96, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% sleep 1000

F9%*1,/1 "# <401/1 /'" &.1*(#5,# 9%2 13/101,/#. 5/% 9*%536".% 51 #"#%"6, 90'3/*%0%(8"/#$ ^Z,
&'0. 3*#/8"/#$ 9.15B"% /% 9063/*% [Ctrl] 3#. 9.BG%"/#$ /% [z]. T.# "# :B51/1 3#/)9." /' &.1*(#5,#
5/% 9#*#536".%, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% bg

I'1,-5': F' 5/B0"1/1 5/% 9#*#536".% &.1*(#5,1$ 9%2 +*1.4G%"/#. 1,5%&% #9) /% +*65/', 9.+.
/% vi

5.4 -$4'& 7"#./&4">% K(, ?6(,% 7"&0(K#$ 9 )0'#;(3%'&" 4'(

D&.&409%"(
R/#" .# &.1*(#5,# 13/101,/#. 5/% 9#*#536".% 6 B+1. &.#3%91,, <*,531/#. 51 .# 0,5/# 1 B"#
#"/,5/%.+% #*.:) job. T.# "# &1,/1 #2/6 /' 0,5/#, (*4Q/1:

% jobs

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U# &1,/1 .# BH%&% )9-$ /'" 9#*#34/-:

[1] Suspended sleep 1000

[2] Running netscape
[3] Running matlab

T.# "# H13."651/1 H#"4 (5/% 9*%536".%) .# &.1*(#5,# 9%2 B+1. &.#3%91,, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% fg %!"#$%& job

T.# 9#*4&1.(#, (.# "# H13."651/1 H#"4 /'" 1"/%06 sleep 1000, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% fg %1

>" (*4Q1/1 fg +-*,$ "# &851/1 #*.:) job, :# 19#"#DB*1/1 5/% 9*%536".% /'" /1012/#,#
&.1*(#5,# 9%2 &.#3)Q#/1.

5.5 !#.&'$H(%'&8 "& 7"#./&4$&

kill ((+-$("#/C ' $<)#()E' #'$()C #+ "$ ?"+-%$#:$)

F1*.3B$ D%*B$ 1,"#. #9#*#,/'/% "# /1*#/,5%21 .# &.1*(#5,# ()/#" (.# 9#*4&1.(# 13/101, B"#
#/B*%"% <*)+%).

T.# "# /1*#/,51/1 .# &.1*(#5,# 9%2 13/101,/#. 5/% 9*%536".%, 9.B5/1 ^C (control c). T.#
9#*4&1.(#, 13/10B5/1:

% sleep 100
^C

T.# "# /1*#/,51/1 .# &.1*(#5,# 9%2 <*,531/#. 5/% 9#*#536".% 6 B+1. &.#3%91,, (*4Q/1:

% kill %!"#$%& job

T.# 9#*4&1.(#, 13/10B5/1:

% sleep 100 &

% jobs

>" (.# 9#*4&1.(# % #*.:)$ /%2 job 1,"#. 4, (*4Q/1:

% kill %4

T.# "# 10B(H1/1 #" /% 9#*#94"- 01./%;*('51, 10B(H/1 H#"4 /' 0,5/# /-" jobs (.# "# &1,/1 #" B+1.
#D#.*1:1, ' &.1*(#5,#.

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ps (.$(6#($#2 ?"+-%$#:$C)

C"#00#3/.34, 9%*1,/1 "# /1*#/,51/1 .# &.1*(#5,# +*'5.%9%.8"/#$ /%" #"#("-*.5/.3) #*.:)

/'$ (PID) 3#. /'" 1"/%06 kill PID_number

% sleep 1000 &

% ps

PID TT S TIME COMMAND

20077 pts/5 S 0:05 sleep 1000
21563 pts/5 T 0:00 netscape
21873 pts/5 S 0:25 nedit

T.# "# /1*#/,51/1 /' &.1*(#5,# sleep 1000, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% kill 20077

3#. B91./# 90'3/*%0%(65/1 ps H#"4 (.# "# &1,/1 #" B+1. &.#(*#D1, #9) /'" 0,5/#.

>" .# &.1*(#5,# #*"1,/#. "# /1*#/,51., +*'5.%9%.65/1 /'" 19.0%(6 -9:

% kill -9 20077

I'1,-5': ?1" 9%*1,/1 "# /1*#/,51/1 /.$ &.1*(#5,1$ 400-" +*'5/8" !!!

D#.$;+E+

!"#$%& '()*+)

ls -lag !"#$%"& *' <&)'&A'*' 7(,6G'610 -&' ,+' *' '($"#'

chmod [options] file =++3K"& *' <&)'&A'*' 7(,6G'610 *./ 6/-)")(&2%./ '($"#./

command & @)*"+"# *1% "%*.+; 6*. 7'('6);%&.

^C E"('*#K"& *1% <&"(-'6#' 7./ ")*"+"#*'& 6*. 7(.6);%&.

^Z !&'),7*"& *1 <&"(-'6#' 7./ ")*"+"#*'& 6*. 7(.6);%&.

bg L2*"& 6*. 7'('6);%&. *1% <&"(-'6#' 7./ 2$"& <&').7"#

jobs !"#$%"& +#6*' " *' *(2$.%*' jobs

fg %1 @7'%'52("& 6*. 7(.6);%&. *. job " '(&8, 1

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kill %1 E"('*#K"& *. job " '(&8, 1

ps F#6*' *9% *("$,%*9% <&"(-'6&A%

kill 26152 E"('*#K"& *1% <&"(-'6#' " '(&8, 26152

UNIX: <=%, !+#4"

N;;#8 J.94"#8 )%'(;C8 '(, UNIX

quota

I1 B"# 91*.<400%" 5+%0.3%; 1*(#5/'*,%2, 52"6:-$ %. 59%2&#5/B$ B+%2" &.#:B5.% 91*.%*.5B"%

+8*% 5/% &,53% (.# /# 9*%5-9.34 /%2$ #*+1,#. =% B(1:%$ 9%.3,01., #004 .# /29.36 104+.5/' /.6
1,"#. /# 100 Mb. >" H191*451/1 /%" 9*%3#:%*.5B"% #2/) +8*% (9%2 %"%4G1/#. quota) B+1/1
&.#:B5.1$ 7 B*1$ (.# "# 5<651/1 /# 91*.//4 #*+1,#.

T.# "# 10B(H1/1 /% B(.5/% &.#:B5.% 5#$ +8*% 3#:8$ 3#. 9)5% B+1/1 3#/#"#0851.,
90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% quota -v

df

N 1"/%06 df /%" 101;:1*% +8*% 9%2 B+1. #9%1,"1. 5/% 5;5/'# #*+1,-". T.# 9#*4&1.(#, (.# "#
&1,/1 9)5%$ &.#:B5.%$ +8*%$ 294*+1. 5/% '+4"'# 5#$ (*4Q/1:

% df -h

du

N 1"/%06 du &1,+"1. 51 kilobytes /% +8*% 9%2 3#/#0#<4"1. 34:1 29%3#/40%(%$. C,"#. +*65.' #"
B+1/1 H191*451. /% &.#:B5.% +8*% 9%2 B+1. 3#:%*.5/1, (.# /% 0%(#*.#5) 5#$ 3#. :B01/1 "# &1,/1
9%.%$ 3#/40%(%$ 1,"#. #2/)$ 9%2 91*.B+1. /# 91*.55)/1*# #*+1,#. I/% 9*%5-9.3) 5#$ 3#/40%(%,
90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% du -s *

N 19.0%(6 -s :# &1,H1. )"% /'" 91*,0'Q' (/% 52"%0.3) B(1:%$) 1"8 /% * 5'#,"1. )/. :# 0'D:%;"
29)Q." )0# /# #*+1,# 3#. %. 3#/40%(%..

gzip

=% 9*)(*## #2/) 529.BG1. #*+1,#, 1.8"%"/#$ B/5. /% +8*% 9%2 3#/#0#<4"%2" 5/% &,53%, 3#.

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#$ 1H%.3%"%1, +8*%. T.# 9#*4&1.(#, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% ls -l science.txt

3#. 5'1.85/1 /% B(1:%$ /%2 #*+1,%2 )9-$ #"#DB*1/#. #9) /'" 1"/%06 ls -l. T.# "# 529.B51/1
B91./# /% science.txt, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% gzip science.txt

>2/) :# /% 529.B51. 3#. :# /% /%9%:1/651. 51 B"# #*+1,% 1 /% )"%# science.txt.gz

T.# "# &1,/1 /'" #00#(6 5/% B(1:%$, +*'5.%9%.65/1 H#"4 /'" 1"/%06 ls -l.

T.# "# #9%529.B51/1 /% #*+1,%, +*'5.%9%.65/1 /'" 1"/%06 gunzip:

% gunzip science.txt.gz

zcat

N 1"/%06 zcat #91.3%",G1. #*+1,# 529.15B"# 1 /% gzip, +-*,$ "# +*1.4G1/#. "# /# #9%529.B51.
9*8/#.

% zcat science.txt.gz

>" /% 31,1"% 9*%+-*41. 9%0; (*6(%*# (.# 5#$, 91*45/1 /'" BH%&% B5- /'$ 1"/%06$ less:

% zcat science.txt.gz | less

file

N 1"/%06 file #"#("-*,G1. /% 1,&%$ /%2 #*+1,%2 #"40%(# 1 /% 91*.1+)1"% /%2, (.# 9#*4&1.(#
31,1"% (ASCII), D-/%(*#D,#, 529.15B"# &1&%B"# 3.#. T.# "# 94*1/1 .# #"#D%*4 (.# )0# /#
1,&' #*+1,-" 9%2 294*+%2" 5/%" 3#/40%(% 5#$, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% file *

diff

N 1"/%06 #2/6 52(3*,"1. /# 91*.1+)1"# &;% #*+1,-" 3#. &1,+"1. /.$ &.#D%*B$ 1/#H; /%2$.
P9%:B5/1 )/. (.# 9#*4&1.(# B+1/1 /% #*+1,% file1, #004G1/1 349%.% /6# /%2, 3#. /% #9%:'31;1/1
-$ file2. T.# "# &1,/1 /.$ &.#D%*B$ 1/#H; /%2$, (*4Q/1:

% diff file1 file2

7. (*#B$ 9%2 H13."4"1 1 < #"#DB*%"/#. 5/% file1, 1"8 #2/B$ 9%2 H13."4"1 1 > &1,+"%2" /% file2.

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find

N 1"/%06 #2/6 Q4+"1. 5/%2$ 3#/#0)(%2$, (.# #*+1,# 3#. 3#/#0)(%2$ 9%2 /#.*.4G%2" 1 B"# )"%#,
'1*%'",#, B(1:%$ 6 %9%.#&69%/1 400' 9#*41/*% B+1/1 &851.. E*)31./#. (.# #906 1"/%06, #004
B+1. 94*# 9%00B$ 19.0%(B$ - 9%*1,/1 "# /.$ &1,/1 5/'" #"/,5/%.+' 510,&# <%6:1.#$ 1 /'" 1"/%06
man find.

T.# "# Q4H1/1 (.# )0# /# #*+1,# 1 /'" 3#/40'H' .txt, H13."8"/#$ #9) /%" /*B+%"/# 3#/40%(% (.) 3#.
52"1+,G%"/#$ 51 )0%2$ /%2$ 29%3#/#0)(%2$, /298"%"/#$ /% )"%# /%2 #*+1,%2 5/'" %:)"',
90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% find . -name "*.txt" -print

T.# "# <*1,/1 )0# /# #*+1,# 1 B(1:%$ 1(#0;/1*% #9) 1 Mb 3#. "# &1,/1 /# #9%/10B5#/# -$ 0,5/#
1 019/%1*1,$ 90'*%D%*,1$, 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% find . -size +1M -ls

history

=% 3B02D%$ 3*#/41. .# 0,5/# (+*%".34 /#H."%'B"') 1 /.$ 1"/%0B$ 9%2 B+1/1 6&' 13/10B51.. @4:1
1"/%06 9#,*"1. B"# #*.:) #"40%(# 1 /' 51.*4 13/B015'$ /'$:

% history (/(%#' +%#04+,05 *)#0/6))

>" +*'5.%9%.1,/#. /% 3B02D%$ C (csh), 9%*1,/1 "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 /% :#2#5/.3) (!) (.# "#
#"#3#0B51/1 /.$ 1"/%0B$ 1 1;3%0% /*)9%.

% !! (')7,/&%& #&1 #*/*"#'('1 *)#0/31)

% !-3 (')7,/&%& #&1 #4(#&1 8+0 84$%9'#&1 *)#0/31)

% !5 (')7,/&%& #&1 8.8#&1 *)#0/31 '8$ #& /(%#')

% !grep (')7,/&%& #&1 #*/*"#'('1 *)#0/31 80" :*,+)7*+ * grep)

F9%*1,/1 "# #2H651/1 /% B(1:%$ /'$ 9*%5-*."6$ #9%:63125'$ /%2 .5/%*.3%;, 90'3/*%0%(8"/#$:

% set history=200

UNIX: <>?,, !+#4"

7.1 F#'&/;>''"4+ D&0C'<% -(/"4"0(3 4'( UNIX

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!"# 5;5/'# UNIX 9%*1, "# 91*.B+1. /)5% 101;:1*% )5% 3#. 19%*.3) (.&.)3/'/%) 0%(.5.3).
T1".34 1,"#. &2"#/)" B"#$ +*65/'$ "# 3#/1<451. 3#. "# 1/#(0-//,51. .3*4 9#3B/# 0%(.5.3%; 5/%
&.3) /%2 3#/40%(%. >2/) /% 0%(.5.3) 9.:#")" 1,"#. +*65.% )"% (.# 52(313*.B"# 4/%#.

T.# "# 1(3#/#5/651/1 0%(.5.3) #9) /%" 9'(#,% 38&.3#, 1,"#. #9#*#,/'/# 349%.# <6#/#.

E*B91. "# 1"/%9,51/1 3#. "# 3#/1<451/1 /%" 9'(#,% 38&.3# (52"6:-$ &,"1/#. 51 529.15B"'
%*D6)

E*B91. "# #9%529.B51/1 /%" 9'(#,% 38&.3#

E*B91. "# 1/#(0-//,51/1 /%" 9'(#,% 38&.3#

E*B91. "# 1(3#/#5/651/1 /% 13/10B5.% #*+1,% 9%2 :# 9*%3;Q1.

E*B91. "# D/.4H1/1 349%.1$ *2:,51.$ (path) 85/1 "# 9%*1, "# <*1:1, /% 13/10B5.%

>9) )0# /# 9#*#94"- <6#/#, 9.:#"8$ /% 9.% &;53%0% 1,"#. ' 1/#(08//.5' /%2 9'(#,%2 38&.3#.

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N !B()E' make .$" () J-H+:) Makefile

N 1"/%06 make 19./*B91. 5/%2$ 9*%(*##/.5/B$ "# &.#+1.*.5/%;" 1(40# 9*%(*4#/# 6 %4&1$
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1(3#/45/#5'$ /%2 /10.3%; 13/10B5.%2 #*+1,%2, /-" 510,&-" <%6:1.#$ (manual pages), /-" #*+1,-"
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<%':'/.3) 9*)(*## GNU configure.

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--exec-prefix. 7. 19.0%(B$ #2/B$ +*'5.%9%.%;"/#. (.# "# 3#:%*,5%2" /%2$ 3#/#0)(%2$

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F1/#3."':1,/1 5/%" 3#/40%(% download 3#. &1,/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# /%2.

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#*+1,% 1 3#/40'H' .tar.

% gunzip units-1.74.tar.gz

E*%+-*65/1 B91./# 51 1H#(-(6 /-" #*+1,-" 9%2 91*.B+%"/#. 5/% #*+1,% .tar.

% tar -xvf units-1.74.tar

?1,/1 H#"4 /# 91*.1+)1"# /%2 3#/#0)(%2 download 3#. B91./# 1/#3."':1,/1 5/%" 29%3#/40%(%
units-1.74.

% cd units-1.74

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7.4 O3G"4+ 0&" 7+"(,./$& '(, Makefile

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% mkdir ~/units174

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I'1,-5': N 1/#<0'/6 $HOME 1,"#. B"# 9#*4&1.(# 1/#<0'/6$ 91*.<400%"/%$. N /.6 /%2
$HOME 1,"#. /% 906*1$ %"%94/. (.# /%" 9*%5-9.3) 5#$ 3#/40%(%. T.# "# /% &.#9.5/851/1,
#908$ 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% echo $HOME

(.# "# &1,/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# #2/6$ /'$ 1/#<0'/6$. U# .065%21 91*.55)/1*% (.# /.$ 1/#<0'/B$
91*.<400%"/%$ 51 19)1"% 4:'#.

>" 13/1015/1, 5-5/4 /% configure, :# &'.%2*(651. B"# #*+1,% Makefile 1 )01$ /.$ #9#*#,/'/1$
19.0%(B$. F9%*1,/1 "# &1,/1 /% Makefile #" :B01/1 (+*'5.%9%.65/1 3#. 940. /'" 1"/%06 less), #004
'" #004H1/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# /%2.

7.5 F#'&/;>''"4+ '(, D&0C'(,

F9%*1,/1 /8*# "# H13."651/1 /' 1/#(08//.5' /%2 9#3B/%2 +*'5.%9%.8"/#$ /'" 1"/%06 make.

% make

F1/4 #9) B"# - &;% 019/4 (1H#*/4/#. #9) /'" /#+;/'/# /%2 29%0%(.5/6 5#$), :# &'.%2*(':%;" /#
13/10B5.#. F9%*1,/1 "# 10B(H1/1 #" ' 1/#(08//.5' B(."1 5-5/4, 90'3/*%0%(8"/#$:

% make check

>" )0# 96(#" 3#04, 9%*1,/1 /8*# "# 1(3#/#5/651/1 /% 9#3B/%.

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% make install

N 1"/%06 #2/6 :# 1(3#/#5/651. /% 9#3B/% 5/%" 3#/40%(% ~/units174 9%2 &'.%2*(65#1

9*%'(%2B"-$.

7.6 )0'C;#4+ '(, -(/"4"0(3

C,#5/1 90B%" B/%.%. "# 13/10B5%21 /% 0%(.5.3) (:1-*8"/#$ )/. )0# 01./%;*('5#").

% cd ~/units174

>" &1,/1 /# 91*.1+)1"# /%2 3#/#0)(%2 units, :# <*1,/1 B"# #*.:) #9) 29%3#/#0)(%2$.

bin E' ")*"+26&' '($"#'

info E")1(#961 .(5.7.&12%1 )'*3++1+' -&' *. 7(,-('' GNU info

man 4"+#<"0 G.;8"&'0 (man pages)

share I.&%,$(16*' '($"#' <"<.2%9%

T.# "# 13/10B51/1 /% 9*)(*##, 1/#3."':1,/1 5/%" 3#/40%(% bin 3#. (*4Q/1

% ./units

T.# 9#*4&1.(#, 1/#/*BQ/1 6 9)&.# 51 B/*#.

You have: 6 feet

You want: metres

* 1.8288

>" 94*1/1 /'" #94"/'5' 1.8288, 52(+#*'/6*.#! =% 9*)(*## 01./%2*(1, 3#"%".34.

T.# "# &1,/1 9%.1$ %"4&1$ 9%*1, "# 1/#/*BQ1., 3%./4H/1 /% #*+1,% &1&%B"-" 5/%" 3#/40%(%
share (' 0,5/# 1,"#. 5+1/.34 1(40').

T.# "# &.#<451/1 /'" 906*' /13'*,-5', 1/#3."':1,/1 5/%" 3#/40%(% info 3#. 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% info --file=units.info

7.7 5K(/3%<4+ '(, :>*"0& &K1 N6.+4'& !9&'&

@#/4 /'" #"49/2H' 1")$ 9#3B/%2 0%(.5.3%;, 1,"#. +*65.% (.# /%" 9*%(*##/.5/6 "#
5291*.04<1. 90'*%D%*,1$ #9%5D#04/-5'$ 5/% 13/10B5.% #*+1,% 9%2 9*%3;9/1.. F1 /%" /*)9%

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#2/), #" 1D#".5/%;" 9*%<06#/# 3#/4 /'" 13/B015' /%2 9*%(*4#/%$, % 9*%(*##/.5/6$
9%*1, "# D%*/851. /% 13/10B5.% 51 B"# 3#/400'0% 9*)(*## 3#. "# <*1. /# 9*%<06#/# (bugs).

>2/) 1,"#. +*65.% (.# /%" 9*%(*##/.5/6, #004 4+*'5/% (.# /%" +*65/'. F9%*%;1 "#
:1-*65%21 )/. /% 9#3B/%, #9) /' 5/.(6 9%2 B+1. /101.851. 3#. 1,"#. &.#:B5.% (.# 3#/B<#5# B+1.
6&' &%3.#5/1, 3#. &.%*:-:1,. O5/)5%, )/#" 1/#(0-//,5#1 /% 9#*#94"- 9#3B/%, 5291*.04<#1
5/% /10.3) 13/10B5.% 3#. /.$ 90'*%D%*,1$ #9%5D#04/-5'$. F.# 3#. 1,"#. #9,:#"% "# /.$
+*1.#5/%;1 -$ /10.3%, +*65/1$ /%2 9*%(*4#/%$, 9%*%;1 "# /.$ <(40%21 #9) /% 13/10B5.%.
U# B+%21 B/5. /% 901%"B3/'# 1")$ .3*)/1*%2 13/10B5.%2 #*+1,%2 9%2 :# 13/101,/#. 3#. 0,(%
/#+;/1*#.

U# &%;1 /% B(1:%$ /%2 13/10B5.%2 #*+1,%2 9*." 3#. 1/4 /' &.#&.3#5,#. F1/#3."':1,/1 5/%"
29%3#/40%(% bin /%2 3#/#0)(%2 1(3#/45/#5'$ /%2 9*%(*4#/%$ units:

% cd ~/units174/bin
% ls -l

R9-$ 9%*1,/1 "# &1,/1, /% #*+1,% 1,"#. 94"- #9) 100 kbytes 51 B(1:%$. F9%*1,/1 "# &1,/1
91*.55)/1*1$ 90'*%D%*,1$ (.# /% #*+1,% +*'5.%9%.8"/#$ /'" 1"/%06 file:

% file units

units: ELF 32-bit LSB executable, Intel 80386, version 1,

dynamically linked (uses shared libs), not stripped

T.# "# &.#(*4Q1/1 #9) /% 13/10B5.% /.$ 90'*%D%*,1$ #9%5D#04/-5'$ (debug) 3#. #*.:8"
(*#8" #9) /% &2#&.3) #*+1,%, +*'5.%9%.65/1 /'" 1"/%06 strip:

% strip units
% ls -l

R9-$ 9%*1,/1 "# &1,/1, /% #*+1,% /8*# 1,"#. )0.$ 36 kbytes - /% B"# /*,/% /%2 #*+.3%; /%2
1(B:%2$! ?;% /*,/# /%2 13/10B5.%2 #*+1,%2 3#/#0#<4"%"/#" #9) /.$ 90'*%D%*,1$
#9%5D#04/-5'$.

C0B(H/1 H#"4 /.$ 90'*%D%*,1$ /%2 #*+1,%2.

% file units

units: ELF 32-bit LSB executable, Intel 80386, version 1,

dynamically linked (uses shared libs), stripped

I1 1*.3B$ 91*.9/851.$, 9%*1,/1 "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 /'" 1"/%06 make (.# "# 1(3#/#5/651/1
&2#&.34 #*+1,# /# %9%,# #9) /'" #*+6 "# '" 91*.B+%2" 90'*%D%*,1$ #9%5D#04/-5'$. >"/, "#
(*4Q1/1 make install, 90'3/*%0%(65/1 #908$ make install-strip

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UNIX: @&?,, !+#4"

8.1 F#'&L;+'C8 4'( UNIX
7. 1/#<0'/B$ 1,"#. B"#$ /*)9%$ "# 91*45%21 90'*%D%*,1$ #9) /% 3B02D%$ 5/# 9*%(*4#/#
)/#" /# 13/10%;1. =# 9*%(*4#/# 3%./4G%2" "/% 91*.<400%"" (.# 52(313*.B"1$ 1/#<0'/B$ 3#. #"
/.$ <*%2", +*'5.%9%.%;" /.$ /.B$ /%2$. F1*.3B$ #9) /.$ 1/#<0'/B$ %*,G%"/#. #9) /% 5;5/'#,
4001$ #9) 154$ 3#. 4001$ #9) /% 3B02D%$ 6 %9%.%&69%/1 9*)(*## D%*/8"1. B"# 400%
9*)(*##.

7. /29%9%.'B"1$ 1/#<0'/B$ /%2 UNIX +-*,G%"/#. 51 &;% 3#/'(%*,1$, /.$ 1/#<0'/B$

91*.<400%"/%$ 3#. /.$ 1/#<0'/B$ 310;D%2$. I1 (1".3B$ (*#B$, %. 1/#<0'/B$ 310;D%2$
1D#*)G%"/#. )"% 5/% 3B02D%$ 9%2 13/101,/#. /' &1&%B"' 5/.(6 3#. +*'5.%9%.%;"/#. (.# "#
:B5%2" 52":631$ 1*(#5,1$ (.# 349%.% .3*) +*%".3) &.45/'#. 7. 1/#<0'/B$ 91*.<400%"/%$ B+%2"
1(#0;/1*' 19,&*#5', 3#. #2/B$ 9%2 /,:1"/#. 3#/4 /'" 1,5%&% 5#$ 5/% 5;5/'# 1,"#. B(32*1$ (.#
)5% &.45/'# 9#*#B"1/1 52"&1&1B"%.. @#/4 5;<#5', %. 1/#<0'/B$ 91*.<400%"/%$ B+%2"
%")#/# 1 @CW>M>S> T[>FF>=> 1"8 %. 1/#<0'/B$ 310;D%2$ 1 .3*4.

8.2 F#'&L;+'C8 D#."LA;;(%'(8

!"# 9#*4&1.(# 1/#<0'/6$ 91*.<400%"/%$ 1,"#. ' 1/#<0'/6 OSTYPE. N /.6 /'$ 1,"#. /%
01./%2*(.3) 5;5/'# 9%2 +*'5.%9%.1,/1. E0'3/*%0%(65/1:

% echo $OSTYPE

F1*.34 #3)# 9#*#&1,(#/# 1/#<0'/8" 91*.<400%"/%$ 1,"#.:

USER (/% )"%# +*65/' 5#$)

HOME (' 906*'$ &.#&*%6 (.# /%" 9*%5-9.3) 5#$ 3#/40%(%)

HOST (/% )"%# /%2 29%0%(.5/6 9%2 +*'5.%9%.1,/1)

ARCH (' #*+./13/%".36 191H1*(#5/6 /%2 29%0%(.5/6 5#$)

DISPLAY (/% )"%# /'$ %:)"'$ 9%2 +*'5.%9%.1,/#. #9) /# X Windows)

PRINTER (% 13/29-/6$ 9%2 &B+1/#. 1*(#5,1$ 13/;9-5'$ #9) 9*%19.0%(6)

PATH (%. 3#/40%(%. 9%2 Q4+"1. /% 3B02D%$ (.# "# 1"/%9,51. .# 1"/%06)

!1-+#2 (&B 9-+H/B(&B 9"4B (&B 5+($>E2(4B

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7. 1/#<0'/B$ /;9%2 ENVIRONMENT (91*.<400%"/%$) 9%*%;" "# /1:%;" 1 /'" setenv 3#. "#
#91.3%".5/%;" 1 /' +*65' /'$ printenv 6 env. F9%*%;" "# &.#(*#D%;" 1 /'" +*65' /'$
unsetenv.

T.# "# &1,/1 /.$ /.B$ )0-" #2/8" /-" 1/#<0'/8", 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% printenv | less

8.3 F#'&L;+'C8 :#;3@(,8

!"# 9#*4&1.(# 1/#<0'/6$ /%2 310;D%2$, 1,"#. ' 1/#<0'/6 9%2 5+1/,G1/#. 1 /'" /6*'5'
.5/%*.3%;. N /.6 #2/6$ /'$ 1/#<0'/6$ #"#DB*1/#. 5/% 9)51$ 1"/%0B$ :# :24/#. /% 3B02D%$,
19./*B9%"/#$ B/5. 5/% +*65/' "# #"#/*BH1. 5/.$ 1"/%0B$ 9%2 B+1. 6&' 13/10B51.. E0'3/*%0%(65/1:

% echo $history

E1*.55)/1*# 9#*#&1,(#/# 1/#<0'/8" 310;D%2$ 1,"#.:

cwd (% /*B+%" 3#/40%(%$ 5#$)

home (' &.#&*%6 (.# /%" 9*%5-9.3) 5#$ 3#/40%(%)

path (%. 3#/40%(%. 9%2 :# Q4H1. /% 3B02D%$ (.# "# <*1. .# 1"/%06)

prompt (/% 31,1"% 9%2 &1,+"1. -$ 9*%/*%96 /% 3B02D%$ 5#$ (.# "# 1.54(1/1 .# 1"/%06)

shell (/% 3B02D%$ 1 /% %9%,% 34"#/1 login 5/% 5;5/'#)

!1-+#2 9-+H/B(&B 9"4B J,(4B (&B 5+($>E2(4B

7. 1/#<0'/B$ /%2 310;D%2$ 9%*%;" "# /1:%;" 3#. "# #91.3%".5/%;" +*'5.%9%.8"/#$ /'" 1"/%06
set. F9%*%;" 19,5'$ "# &.#(*#D%;" 1 /'" 1"/%06 unset command.

T.# "# &1,/1 /.$ /.B$ )0-" #2/8" /-" 1/#<0'/8", 90'3/*%0%(65/1:

% set | less

9+E".6 <)"$ +:B$" 2 ?"$F)-6 +($O1 path .$" PATH;

I1 (1".3B$ (*#B$, %. 1/#<0'/B$ 91*.<400%"/%$ 3#. 310;D%2$ 9%2 B+%2" /% ,&.% )"%# (13/)$ #9)
/% (1(%")$ )/. %. 1" 1,"#. 31D#0#,# 3#. %. &1 .3*4) 1,"#. +-*.5/B$ 3#. #"1H4*/'/1$ 13/)$ #9) /%
(1(%")$ )/. 9.:#")" B+%2" /.$ ,&.1$ #*+.3B$ /.B$. O5/)5% 294*+%2" 3#. 1H#.*B51.$.

@4:1 D%*4 9%2 #004G%2" %. 1/#<0'/B$ 310;D%2$ home, user 3#. term #"#"18"%"/#. 3#. %.
#"/,5/%.+1$ 1/#<0'/B$ 91*.<400%"/%$ HOME, USER 3#. TERM. O5/)5% #" #"#"1-:%;" 9*8/# %.
1/#<0'/B$ 91*.<400%"/%$, %. #"/,5/%.+1$ /%2 310;D%2$ &1" #004G%2" /.6.

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7. 1/#<0'/B$ PATH 3#. path 3#:%*,G%2" /%2$ 3#/#0)(%2$ 9%2 #".+"1;%"/#. (.# /'" 1;*15' 1"/%08"
3#. 9*%(*#4/-". @#. %. &;% 1/#<0'/B$ 94"/%/1 #"/.9*%5-91;%2" /'" ,&.# 0,5/# 3#/#0)(-" -
)9%.# #9) /.$ &;% 3#. #" #004H1., ' 400' #"#"18"1/#. #2/)#/#.

8.4 J.+4"(K(">%'&8 0&" PC'(%'&8 F#'&L;+'C8

@4:1 D%*4 9%2 1.5B*+15/1 5/% UNIX 5;5/'# 5#$, /% 5;5/'# Q4+"1. 5/%" 9*%5-9.3) 5#$
3#/40%(% (.# #*+1,# #*+.3%9%,'5'$. 7. 90'*%D%*,1$ 51 #2/4 /# #*+1,# +*'5.%9%.%;"/#. (.# "#
*2:,5%2" /.$ 9#*#B/*%2$ /%2 9*%5-9.3%; 5#$ 91*.<400%"/%$. =# 310;D' C 3#. TC
+*'5.%9%.%;" &;% #*+1,#, /# .login 3#. .cshrc (9*%5BH/1 )/. 3#. /# &;% #*+1,# H13."%;" 1 /101,#).

@#/4 /'" 1,5%&% 5#$, /% 3B02D%$ C &.#<4G1. 9*8/# /% .cshrc 3#. 1/4 /% .login

=% .login +*'5.%9%.1,/#. (.# "# :B51. *2:,51.$ 9%2 .5+;%2" (.# )0' /'" 5;"%&% (session) 3#. (.#
"# 13/10B51. 01./%2*(,1$ 9%2 #9#./%;"/#. )"% 5/' &.#&.3#5,# 1.5)&%2.

=% .cshrc +*'5.%9%.1,/#. (.# "# :B51. *2:,51.$ 3#. "# 13/10B51. 01./%2*(,1$ 9%2 5+1/,G%"/#. 1 /%
3B02D%$ 3#. 9*B91. "# (,"%"/#. 34:1 D%*4 9%2 H13."4 - 45+1/# #" 1,"#. /% 3B02D%$ 1.5)&%2 6 )+.).

I1 (1".3B$ (*#B$, 1,"#. 5-5/)/1*% "# *2:,G%"/#. %. 1/#<0'/B$ ENVIRONMENT (91*.<400%"/%$)

5/% #*+1,% .login 3#. %. 1/#<0'/B$ SHELL (310;D%2$) 5/% .cshrc.

*+!,!-.: E7=C ' <401/1 1"/%0B$ 9%2 1"1*(%9%.%;" /% (*#D.3) 91*.<400%" 5/# #*+1,#
.cshrc 6 .login.

8.5 PC'(%'&8 F#'&L;+'C8 D#."LA;;(%'(8 4'( 5.6#$( .cshrc

>" (.# 9#*4&1.(# :B01/1 "# #004H1/1 /%" #*.:) /-" 1"/%08" 310;D%2$ 9%2 #9%:'31;%"/#. 5/'
0,5/# .5/%*.3%;, :# 9*B91. "# :B51/1 .# "B# /.6 5/' 1/#<0'/6 /%2 310;D%2$ 9%2 %"%4G1/#.
history. N 9*%19.01(B"' /.6 1,"#. 100, #004 9%*1,/1 "# /'" #2H651/1 #" :B01/1.

% set history = 200

C0B(H/1 )/. ' 9#*#94"- 1"/%06 01./%;*('51:

% echo $history

=% 9#*#94"- -5/)5% :B/1. /'" 1/#<0'/6 )"% (.# )5' 8*# 13/101,/#. /% /*B+%" 3B02D%$. >"
#"%,H1/1 B"# "B% 9#*4:2*% xterm ((.# 9#*4&1.(#), :# B+1. /'" 9#0.4 /.6 /'$ 1/#<0'/6$. T.# "#
#004H1/1 #2/6 /'" /.6 MONIMA :# 9*B91. "# 9*%5:B51/1 /'" 1"/%06 set B5# 5/% #*+1,% .cshrc.

>"%,H/1 /% #*+1,% .cshrc 51 B"# 52"/43/' 31.B"%2. F9%*1,/1 "# +*'5.%9%.651/1 349%.% 52"/43/'
9%2 5#$ 9#*B+1. /% (*#D.3) 91*.<400%" 5#$ 6 B"# 1;3%0% 52"/43/' (.# /'" 3%"5)0# (9.+. /%" ee).

% ee ~/.cshrc

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E*%5:B5/1 /'" 9#*#34/- (*#6 FC=> /' 0,5/# /-" 400-" 1"/%08".

set history = 200

>9%:'31;5/1 /% #*+1,% 3#. #"#(345/1 /% 3B02D%$ "# H#"#&.#<451. /% #*+1,% .cshrc

+*'5.%9%.8"/#$ /'" 1"/%06 /%2 310;D%2$ source.

% source .cshrc

C0B(H/1 /' 5-5/6 01./%2*(,#, 90'3/*%0%(8"/#$:

% echo $history

8.6 O3G"4+ '(, path

R/#" 90'3/*%0%(1,/1 .# 1"/%06, ' 1/#<0'/6 path (6 PATH) %*,G1. 51 9%.%2$ 3#/#0)(%2$ :# Q4H1.
/% 3B02D%$ (.# "# /'" <*1.. >" /% 5;5/'# 19.5/*BQ1. B"# 6"2# /%2 /;9%2 "command: Command
not found", 5'#,"1. 1,/1 )/. ' 1"/%06 &1" 294*+1. 3#:)0%2 5/% 5;5/'#, 6 #904 )/. &1" 294*+1. 5/%
path 5#$.

T.# 9#*4&1.(#, (.# "# 13/10B51/1 /% 9*)(*## units 9*B91. 1,/1 "# %*,51/1 #912:1,#$ /' 906*'
&.#&*%6$ 9*%$ #2/)$ (~/units174/bin/units) 6 "# B+1/1 9*%5:B51. 5/% path 5#$ /%" 3#/40%(%
~/units174/bin.

F9%*1,/1 "# /%" 9*%5:B51/1 5/% /B0%$ /%2 294*+%"/%$ path (/% %9%,% #"/.9*%5-91;1/#. #9) /%
$path) +*'5.%9%.8"/#$ /'" 9#*#34/- 1"/%06:

% set path = ($path ~/units174/bin)

C0B(H/1 /' 01./%2*(,# /%2 9#*#94"-, 9*%59#:8"/#$ "# 13/10B51/1 /% units 1"8 <*,5315/1 51
%9%.%&69%/1 3#/40%(%.

% cd
% units

T.# "# 34"1/1 #2/6 /'" #00#(6 5/% path F7YSFN, 9*%5:B5/1 /'" 9#*#34/- (*#6 5/% #*+1,%
.cshrc FC=> /' 0,5/# /-" 29)0%.9-" 1"/%08".

set path = ($path ~/units174/bin)

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