SteadyHeatConduction

Inthermodynamics,weconsideredtheamountofheattransferasasystemundergoesa
process from one equilibrium state to another. Thermodynamics gives no indication of
howlongtheprocesstakes. Inheattransfer,wearemoreconcernedabouttherateof
heattransfer.
Thebasicrequirementforheattransferisthepresenceofatemperaturedifference.The
temperaturedifferenceisthedrivingforceforheattransfer,justasvoltagedifferencefor
electrical current. The total amount of heat transfer Q during a time interval can be
determinedfrom:
t
Q Q dt kJ
0

Therateofheattransferperunitareaiscalledheatflux,andtheaverageheatfluxona
surfaceisexpressedas
Q

q
A
W / m
2

SteadyHeatConductioninPlaneWalls
Conductionisthetransferofenergyfromthemoreenergeticparticlesofasubstanceto
theadjacentlessenergeticonesasresultofinteractionsbetweentheparticles.
Considersteadyconductionthroughalargeplanewallofthicknessx=Landsurfacearea
A.ThetemperaturedifferenceacrossthewallisT=T2T1.
Notethatheattransferistheonlyenergyinteraction;theenergybalanceforthewallcan
beexpressed:
dE wall
Qin Qout


dt
Forsteadystateoperation,
Qin Qout

const.
Ithasbeenexperimentallyobservedthattherateofheatconductionthroughalayeris
proportional to the temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area,
butitisinverselyproportionaltothethicknessofthelayer.
(surface area)(temperature difference)
rate of heat transfer
thickness

T
Q
Cond kA W
x

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer1
 T1

T2

A
A

x
Fig.1:Heatconductionthroughalargeplanewall.

Theconstantproportionalitykisthethermalconductivityofthematerial.Inthelimiting
casewherex0,theequationabovereducestothedifferentialform:

Q Cond kA
dT
W
dx
whichiscalledFourierslawofheatconduction.ThetermdT/dxiscalledthetemperature
gradient,whichistheslopeofthetemperaturecurve(therateofchangeoftemperature
Twithlengthx).

ThermalConductivity
Thermalconductivityk[W/mK]isameasureofamaterialsabilitytoconductheat.The
thermal conductivity is defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of
materialperunitareaperunittemperaturedifference.
Thermalconductivitychangeswithtemperatureandisdeterminedthroughexperiments.
The thermal conductivity of certain materials show a dramatic change at temperatures
nearabsolutezero,whenthesesolidsbecomesuperconductors.
Anisotropicmaterialisamaterialthathasuniformpropertiesinalldirections.
Insulatorsarematerialsusedprimarilytoprovideresistancetoheatflow.Theyhavelow
thermalconductivity.

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer2
TheThermalResistanceConcept
TheFourierequation,forsteadyconductionthroughaconstantareaplanewall,canbe
written:
dT T T2
Q Cond kA kA 1
dx L
Thiscanberearrangedas:
T2 T1
Q Cond (W )
Rwall

L
Rwall
( C /W )
kA
Rwallisthethermalresistanceofthewallagainstheatconductionorsimplytheconduction
resistanceofthewall.
Theheattransferacrossthefluid/solidinterfaceisbasedonNewtonslawofcooling:
Q hA Ts T W
1
RConv ( C / W )
hA
Rconv is the thermal resistance of the surface against heat convection or simply the
convectionresistanceofthesurface.
Thermal radiation between a surface of area Aat Ts and the surroundings at T can be
expressedas:
Ts T

Qrad A Ts4 T4 hrad A Ts T (W )
Rrad
1
Rrad
hrad A

hrad Ts2 T2 Ts T
W
2
m K
where = 5.67x108 [W/m2K4] is the StefanBoltzman constant. Also 0 < <1 is the
emissivityofthesurface.NotethatboththetemperaturesmustbeinKelvin.

ThermalResistanceNetwork
Considersteady,onedimensionalheatflowthroughtwoplanewallsinserieswhichare
exposedtoconvectiononbothsides,seeFig.2.Understeadystatecondition:

rateofheat = rateofheat = rateofheat = rateofheat

convection conduction conductionthrough convectionfromthe
intothewall throughwall1 wall2 wall

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer3
 T1 T2 T T3
Q h1 AT ,1 T1 k1 A k2 A 2 h2 AT2 T , 2
L1 L2
T ,1 T1 T1 T2 T2 T3 T2 T , 2
Q
1 / h1 A L / k1 A L / k 2 A 1 / h2 A
T ,1 T1 T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 T , 2
Q
Rconv ,1 Rwall ,1 Rwall , 2 Rconv , 2
T ,1 T , 2
Q
Rtotal
Rtotal Rconv ,1 Rwall ,1 Rwall , 2 Rconv , 2
NotethatAisconstantareaforaplanewall.Alsonotethatthethermalresistancesarein
seriesandequivalentresistanceisdeterminedbysimplyaddingthermalresistances.

R1 R2 R3 R4

T,1 k1
h1 T1
k2 A
T2
A

Q
T3
L1
Q L2
h2
T,2

Fig.2:Thermalresistancenetwork.
The rate of heat transfer between two surfaces is equal to the temperature difference
dividedbythetotalthermalresistancebetweentwosurfaces.
Itcanbewritten:
T=QR
Thethermalresistanceconceptiswidelyusedinpractice;however,its useislimitedto
systems through which the rate of heat transfer remains constant. It other words, to
systemsinvolvingsteadyheattransferwithnoheatgeneration.

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer4
ThermalResistancesinParallel
Thethermalresistanceconceptcanbeusedtosolvesteadystateheattransferproblemin
parallellayersorcombinedseriesparallelarrangements.
It should be noted that these problems are often two or three dimensional, but
approximatesolutionscanbeobtainedbyassumingonedimensionalheattransfer(using
thermalresistancenetwork).

A1
k1
T2
T1

k2
A2

Insulation
L
Q=Q2+Q2
R1 Q1

Q Q

T1 Q2 T2
R2

Fig.3:Parallelresistances.

T1 T2 T1 T2 1
T1 T2
1
Q Q1 Q2
R1 R2 R1 R2
T1 T2
Q
Rtotal
1 1 1 1 RR
1 2
Rtotal R1 R2 Rtotal R1 R2

Example1:ThermalResistanceNetwork
Considerthecombinedseriesparallelarrangementshowninfigurebelow.Assumingone
dimensionalheattransfer,determinetherateofheattransfer.

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer5
 A1
k1
A3
T1 k3
h,T
k2
A2

Insulation
L1 L3

Q1
R1
Q
Q

T1 T
R2
R3 Rconv

Q2

Fig.4:Schematicforexample1.
Solution:
Therateofheattransferthroughthiscompositesystemcanbeexpressedas:
T1 T
Q
Rtotal

RR
Rtotal R12 R3 Rconv 1 2 R3 Rconv
R1 R2
Twoapproximationscommonlyusedinsolvingcomplexmultidimensionalheattransfer
problems by transfer problems by treating them as one dimensional, using the thermal
resistancenetwork:
1Assumeanyplanewallnormaltothexaxistobeisothermal,i.e.temperaturetovaryin
onedirectiononlyT=T(x)
2Assumeanyplaneparalleltothexaxistobeadiabatic,i.e.heattransferoccursinthex
directiononly.
These two assumptions result in different networks (different results). The actual result
liesbetweenthesetworesults.

HeatConductioninCylindersandSpheres
Steadystateheattransferthroughpipesisinthenormaldirectiontothewallsurface(no
significant heat transfer occurs in other directions). Therefore, the heat transfer can be

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer6
modeled as steadystate and onedimensional, and the temperature of the pipe will
dependonlyontheradialdirection,T=T(r).
Since,thereisnoheatgenerationinthelayerandthermalconductivityisconstant,the
Fourierlawbecomes:
dT
Qcond , cyl kA (W )
dr
A 2rL

r2 T2

Qcond,cyl

r1

T1

Fig.5:Steady,onedimensionalheatconductioninacylindricallayer.
Afterintegration:
r2 T2
Qcond
dr kdT A 2rL
, cyl

r1
A T1

T1 T2
,cyl 2kL

Qcond
ln r2 / r1

T T2
Qcond ,cyl 1
Rcyl
ln r2 / r1
Rcyl
2kL
whereRcylistheconductionresistanceofthecylinderlayer.
Following the analysis above, the conduction resistance for the spherical layer can be
found:

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer7
 T1 T2
Qcond , sph
Rsph

r r
Rsph 2 1
4 r1 r2 k
Theconvectionresistanceremainsthesameinbothcylindricalandsphericalcoordinates,
Rconv = 1/hA. However, note that the surface area A = 2rL (cylindrical) and A = 4r2
(spherical)arefunctionsofradius.
Example2:Multilayercylindricalthermalresistancenetwork
SteamatT,1=320Cflowsinacastironpipe[k=80W/m.C]whoseinnerandouter
diameterareD1=5cmandD2=5.5cm,respectively.Thepipeiscoveredwitha3cm
thickglasswoolinsulation[k=0.05W/m.C].HeatislosttothesurroundingsatT,2=5C
bynaturalconvectionandradiation,withacombinedheattransfercoefficientofh2=18
W/m2. C. Taking the heat transfer coefficient inside the pipe to be h1 = 60 W/m2K,
determinetherateofheatlossfromthesteamperunitlengthofthepipe.Alsodetermine
thetemperaturedropacrossthepipeshellandtheinsulation.
Assumptions:
Steadystateandonedimensionalheattransfer.
Solution:
TakingL=1m,theareasofthesurfacesexposedtoconvectionare:
A1=2r1L=0.157m2
A2=2r2L=0.361m2
1 1
Rconv ,1 0.106 C / W
h1 A1 2
60 W / m . C 0.157m
2

ln r2 / r1
R1 R pipe 0.0002 C / W
2k1 L
ln r3 / r2
R2 Rinsulation 2.35 C / W
2k 2 L
1
Rconv , 2 0.154 C / W
h2 A2
Rtotal Rconv ,1 R1 R2 Rconv , 2 2.61 C / W

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer8
 r3 T3

Qcond,cyl
r2
r1
h2,T,2
r1
T1

T2
h1,T,1

Insulation

T1 T2 T3
Rconv,1 R1 R2 Rconv,2
T,1 T,2

Fig.6:Schematicforexample1.
Thesteadystaterateofheatlossfromthesteambecomes
T ,1 T , 2
Q 120.7 W (per m pipe length)
Rtotal
Thetotalheatlossforagivenlengthcanbedeterminedbymultiplyingtheabovequantity
bythepipelength.
Thetemperaturedropacrossthepipeandtheinsulationare:

Tpipe Q R pipe 120.7 W 0.0002 C / W 0.02 C


Tinsulation Q Rinsulation 120.7 W 2.35 C / W 284 C
Note that the temperature difference (thermal resistance) across the pipe is too small
relativetootherresistancesandcanbeignored.

CriticalRadiusofInsulation
Toinsulateaplanewall,thethickertheinsulator,thelowertheheattransferrate(since
theareaisconstant).However,forcylindricalpipesorsphericalshells,addinginsulation
resultsinincreasingthesurfaceareawhichinturnsresults inincreasingtheconvection
heattransfer.Asaresultofthesetwocompetingtrendstheheattransfermayincreaseor
decrease.

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer9
 T1 T T1 T
Q
Rins Rconv ln r2 / r1 1

2kL 2r2 L h

r2
h
Q
k

Insulation
r1

Qcritical rcritical=k/h

Qbare

r2
r1 rcritical

Fig.7:Criticalradiusofinsulation.

ThevariationofQwiththeouterradiusoftheinsulationreachesamaximumthatcanbe
determinedfromdQ/dr2=0.Thevalueofthecriticalradiusforthecylindricalpipesand
sphericalshellsare:
k
rcr ,cylinder ( m)
h

2k
rcr , spherer ( m)
h
Notethatformostapplications,thecriticalradiusissosmall.Thus,wecaninsulatehot
water or steam pipes without worrying about the possibility of increasing the heat
transferbyinsulatingthepipe.

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer10
HeatGenerationinSolids
Conversion of some form of energy into heat energy in a medium is called heat
generation.Heatgenerationleadstoatemperaturerisethroughoutthemedium.
Someexamplesofheatgenerationareresistanceheatinginwires,exothermicchemical
reactions in solids, and nuclear reaction. Heat generation is usually expressed per unit
volume(W/m3).
In most applications, we are interested in maximum temperature Tmax and surface
temperatureTsofsolidswhichareinvolvedwithheatgeneration.
ThemaximumtemperatureTmaxinasolidthatinvolvesuniformheatgenerationwilloccur
atalocationfurthestawayfromtheoutersurfacewhentheoutersurfaceismaintained
ataconstanttemperature,Ts.

L
Tmax
Tmax

Ts Ts

T
Heatgeneration

Symmetryline

Fig.8:Maximumtemperaturewithheatgeneration.
ConsiderasolidmediumofsurfaceareaA,volumeV,andconstantthermalconductivityk,
whereheatisgeneratedataconstantrateofgperunitvolume.Heatistransferredfrom
thesolidtothesurroundingsmediumatT.Understeadyconditions,theenergybalance
forthesolidcanbeexpressedas:

rateofheattransfer = rateofenergygeneration
fromthesolid withinthesolid

Q=gV(W)
From the Newtons law of cooling, Q= hA (Ts T). Combining these equations, a
relationshipforthesurfacetemperaturecanbefound:
g V
Ts T
hA

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer11
Usingtheaboverelationship,thesurfacetemperaturecanbecalculatedforaplanewall
ofthickness2L,alongcylinderofradiusr0,andasphereofradiusr0,asfollows:
gL
Ts,plane wall T
h

g r0
Ts,cylinder T
2h
g r0
Ts,sphere T
3h
Notethattheriseintemperatureisduetoheatgeneration.
Using the Fouriers law, we can derive a relationship for the center (maximum)
temperatureoflongcylinderofradiusr0.
dT
kAr g Vr Ar 2rL Vr r 2 L
dr
After integrating,
g r02
Tmax T0 Ts
4k
where T0 is the centerline temperature of the cylinder (Tmax). Using the approach, the
maximumtemperaturecanbefoundforplanewallsandspheres.
g r02
Tmax,cylinder
4k
g L2
Tmax,plane wall
2k
g r02
Tmax,sphere
6k

HeatTransferfromFinnedSurfaces
From the Newtons law of cooling, Qconv = h A (Ts T), the rate of convective heat
transferfromasurfaceatatemperatureTscanbeincreasedbytwomethods:
1)Increasingtheconvectiveheattransfercoefficient,h
2)IncreasingthesurfaceareaA.
Increasingtheconvectiveheattransfercoefficientmaynotbepracticaland/oradequate.
An increase in surface area by attaching extended surfaces called fins to the surface is
moreconvenient.
Finnedsurfacesarecommonlyusedinpracticetoenhanceheattransfer.Intheanalysisof
thefins,weconsidersteadyoperationwithnoheatgenerationinthefin.Wealsoassume
thattheconvectionheattransfercoefficienthtobeconstantanduniformovertheentire
surfaceofthefin.

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer12
 h,T

Tb

Tb

0 x
L

Fig.9:Temperatureofafindropsgraduallyalongthefin.
Inthelimitingcaseofzerothermalresistance(k),thetemperatureofthefinwillbe
uniformatthebasevalueofTb.Theheattransferfromthefinwillbemaximizedinthis
case:
Q fin ,max hA fin Tb T

Finefficiencycanbedefinedas:
Q fin actual heat transfer rate from the fin
fin

Q fin , max ideal heat transfer rate from the fin (if the entire fin were at base temperature)
whereAfinistotalsurfaceareaofthefin.Thisenablesustodeterminetheheattransfer
fromafinwhenitsefficiencyisknown:
Q fin fin Q fin ,max fin hA fin Tb T

FinefficiencyforvariousprofilescanbereadfromFig.1042,1043inCengelsbook.
Thefollowingmustbenotedforaproperfinselection:
the longer the fin, the larger the heat transfer area and thus the higher the rate of
heattransferfromthefin
thelargerthefin,thebiggerthemass,thehighertheprice,andlargerthefluidfriction

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer13
 also,thefinefficiencydecreaseswithincreasingfinlengthbecauseofthedecreasein
fintemperaturewithlength.

FinEffectiveness
The performance of fins is judged on the basis of the enhancement in heat transfer
relativetothenofincase,andexpressedintermsofthefineffectiveness:
Q fin Q fin heat transfer rate from the fin
fin
Q
no fin hAb Tb T heat transfer rate from the surface area of A b

1 fin acts as insulation

fin 1 fin does not affect heat transfer
1
fin enhances heat transfer

ForasufficientlylongfinofuniformcrosssectionAc,thetemperatureatthetipofthefin
will approach the environment temperature, T. By writing energy balance and solving
thedifferentialequation,onefinds:

T x T hp
exp x
Tb T kAc

Qlong fin hpkAc Tb T

whereAcisthecrosssectionalarea,xisthedistancefromthebase,andpisperimeter.
Theeffectivenessbecomes:
kp
long fin
hAc

Toincreasefineffectiveness,onecanconclude:
thethermalconductivityofthefinmaterialmustbeashighaspossible
theratioofperimetertothecrosssectionalareap/Acshouldbeashighaspossible
the use of fin is most effective in applications that involve low convection heat
transfercoefficient,i.e.naturalconvection.

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)SteadyConductionHeatTransfer14