Chapter 1 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS 1.1 Analysis of Stress 1.1.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS AND SIGH CONVENTION Since it is often convenient in soil mechanics to consider conpressive stresses as positive, this conventional will be adopted here. The noraal and shear stresses acting on an elenent are shown in Fig.1.1, the stresses all being of positive sign. ‘The normal stresses Gz, dy, Jz are positive when directed into the surface. notation for the shear stress tjj is as fol Taj, is the sens sere accing.ia the direction on 2 plane normal to the ¢ The sign convention for shear stress is as follows: ‘The shear stress is positive when directed in a negative Cartesian direction vhile acting on a plane whose outward normal points in a positive direction, or, when directed in a positive Cartesian direction while acting on a plane whose outward normal points in avhogative Cartesian direction. Equilibrium requires that ly 7 cy for the definition of stresses in other coondin- ate systems, see Section 1.5. 1.1.2 STRESS COMPONENTS ON ANY PLANE Referring to Fig.1.2, the stress components Prss Pry» Pra on any plane with a directed normal cabo" ipressed in tomes of the stresses in the = y and tes as FIG.1.22 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS Pre cos(n,z) Pry | = cos(n,y) an Pas cos(nyz) where cos(njz) is the cosine of the angle between the mand = directions, and similarly for eoe(ny) and covin,a). 1.1.3. TRANSFORMATION OF AXES If a new set of orthogonal axes 2!, y’, 2! are chosen, the stress components in this coordinate system are related to the stress components in the original =, y, 2 system as follows: sy -asat se G2) where S, is the stress matrix with respect to the z'y’s! axes, S is the stress matrix with respect tothe 22 axes, A 4s the direction cosine matrix, A= | cos(e',2) costs',y) goste',2) eoaty'y2) coety'sy) costy's3) c00(s',2) eosts',y) e082", 3) A is the transpose of A. 1.1.4 PRINCIPAL STRESSES It is possible to show that there is one set of axes with respect to which all shear stresses are zero and the normal stresses have their extreme values. The three mutually cular planes where this condition exists are called the principal planes, and the normal stresses acting on these planes are the principal stresses. ‘The principal stresses, 1, 0; and 03 (the maximum, intermediate and minimua stresses respect- ively) may be found as the roots of the equation ang? + Jao, > dy = 0 + G5) where Jy = 0,40,40,= o(bulk streoa) eye + G.da) 2 = 0,9, 40,0,40,0,-1, 2 at, 2 at? Ta = O61, 9,105 ry Tye “Tae ses tb) = 0,9,0,-0,1,2-0,7,2-0,%,2 Fa Oya akys yan Satay ER Jy (oF 0), Jz, Js are often known as the first, ‘second and third stress invariants, as they remain ‘constant, independent of the coordinate system. In terms of the principal stresses, NO ant o tos wee G58) Ju = 0102 + 0205 + 0904 ses @.5b) Js = 10205 se (Se) ‘The directions of the normals to the principal planes are given by 208 (nyt) ses G63) . ses (2.60) se (1.60) Seats = tyl9,-3,) 05 = Naylys Tas! y%0) and 0, are the principal stresses = 12,8). + 1.1.5 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS ‘The maximm shear stress occurs on a plane whose normal makes an angle of 45° with the 0; and oy directions. ‘The maximm shear stress, ‘Taz at a point is given by= Ho1-04) sae 7) 1.1.6 OCTAHEDRAL STRESSES ‘The octahedral normal stress yop and the octahedral shear stress Toct at a point are the Stresses acting on the eight planes of an imaginary ‘octahedron surrounding the point, the normals to the faces of the octahedron having direction cosines of 21/8 “with the direction of the principal stresses. ‘The magnitudes of the octahedral stresses are 0/0, Sap = ae a) Toot =F [(or-ar)* #602057 1o5-01)*)* 1 Fy 2 = 2 ((@,-0,))*0,-0,)*+(0,-0,) Hele tg ye 0.9) 1.1.7 THO-DIMENSIONAL STRESS SYSTEMS Many situations in soil mechanics can be treated as two-dimensional problems in which only the stresses in a single plane need be considered. The most important case is that of plave strain, in which the strain (see Section 1.2) in one of the coordinate @irections (usually the y direction here) is zero. Another class of problens are those involving plave ‘stress conditions, in which the stress in one of the coordinate directions (usually y here) is zero. In tyo-dimensional stress situations, the stress relationships are considerably simplified’ in relation 0 the general three-dimensional case. Referring to Fig.1.3, the stresses on a plane making an angle with the = dizection are Oy = HG,40,)44(0,-0,)eas20+",,sind® «.. (1-10) ss Qa) Ty = Tg00st0-4(o,, -0,)sindo The principal stresses are given by & b= sto,s0,) *((0,r9,)*40,.2)* a.) o rit) (Ore) Ht F -- O ‘The principal planes are inclined at an angle *es arty O = Stan os Qs) and 81490" to the = axis. FIG.1.3 ‘The naximm shear stress occurs on planes inclin- ‘ed at 45° to the principal planes and is of magnitude Tyae =F ((0,r0,)% 4,,2)* ves G14) (It should be noted that the sign of this maxima shear stress is opposite on the tvo planes, in order to conform to the sign convention given in’ Section Ln. 1.1.8 MOHR'S CIRCLE OF STRESS A geonetrical solution for stresses in any dir- ection is provided by Mohr's circle, shown in Fig.1.4 for a two-dimensional stress systen. The circle is drayn in relation to a set of orthogonal axes, one for normal stress (0) and the other for shear stress (x). The scale of these two axes must be equal. If the principal stresses 01, 03 are know, the cixele can be dravn with the centre at o-#(01103) and of radius (01-03)/2. If the nomal and shear stresses are known, the cizcle can be dram with the centre at o=b(oztdy) and essing through the points (G., t_,) and (0,,-t1,)- Tho radius of the cizcle thus constructed is mt £6 the socimen shear strees ay (608 Eistion The angle 281 is twice the angle between the a2 coordinate axes and the axes corresponding to the ‘directions of principal stress (the 1-3 axes in Fig.1.4). The direction of rotation of the radius from its original constructed position to where the cizcle intersects the normal stress axis is in the ‘sane angular sense as the direction of rotation of the axes for the a-8 axes to become the principal 3-2 ‘The stresses in any other directions =', 3 nay similarly be determined by drawing a diameter, through the centre of the circle, at an angle 26’ to the @ianeter describing the stress conditions on the4 FUNDMVGNTAL DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS 2-2 axes, whiere 0” is the angle between the m2 axes and the z/-2' axes (see Fig.1.4). It should be noted that shear stresses are con sidered positive if they tend to produce a clockwise rotation about a point, outside the elenent, at the plane on which they act (Fig.1.5). This convention is consistent with that previously developed for ‘three-dimensional conditions. Ik Nk FIG.1.5 1.1.9 POLE CONSTRUCTION ‘The pole construction is a useful way of Linking the stresses at a point in the physical plane (Fig. 1.60) to the Mohr circle diagram for the stresses (Fig.1.6a). ‘The pole, ?, is the point on the circle such that the noraal and shear stresses on any plane @ (perpendicular to the physical plane) are given by ‘the intersection with the Mohr circle of a line through P parallel with the plane a. For example ‘stresses on vertical and horizontal planes areas indicated in Fig.1.6a and the major principal plane As inclined at the angle 8 above the horizontal. 1.2 Analysis of Strain 1.2.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS Considering first the case of two-dinensional strain (Fig-1.7), the normal strains cz and c, are defined as see 28a) .ANALYSIS OF STRAIN 5 5 --a ee (1.150) where fe; Og sre the displacenents in the = and 2 directions. A positive normal strain corresponds to a decrease in length. ‘The shear strain Ygq is the angular change in a right angle in a material and is related to the dis- placements pz and pz as 3, 30, ly Ee + (16) A positive shear strain represents an increase in the right angle and 2 negative shear strain represents a decrease in the right angle. = Considering the sy and yz planes sinilarly, the six strain components are related to the displace- nents Pz by, Og inthe =, y and z directions as ses G78) ses 7B) 16.1.7 1.2.2. STRAIN IN A PLANE. Considering again a two-dimensional strain situ- ation, the normal strain ¢3 in a plane inclined at 8 tothe = axis is 7 einae ve G8) and the shear strain is Yq = Yay ©0828 - (6,764) sind0 (1.19) Qlote that the above expressions correspond to those for the normal and shear stresses (Section 1.1), except for 2 factor of in the last term). 1.2.3. TRANSFORMATION OF AXES Ig a new set of orthogonal axes 2', y!, 2! are chosen, the strain components in this coordinate systea are related to the strain components in the original =, y, 2 system as Dy = Adar see G20) where Dis the strain matrix in the 2 ¥) 2 system, see @.2) Dy is the strain matrix in the af, y', a! system. A 4s the direction cosine matrix defined in Section 1.1.3. A is the transpose of A. Im natrix operations, it is convenient to use the double suffix notation and to define Aygj as ezj. ‘The strain natrix is then exe Sey Yaa D= lee Sy Se see 1.22) Fae ye ss] 1.2.4 PRINCIPAL STRAINS Analogous to the principal planes of stress, there are three principal planes of strain. The shear strains in these planes are zero and the noraal strains are the principal strains. The major and minor prin- cipal strains are respectively, the greatest and least normal strains at the point. For an isotropic elastic material, the principal planes of strain can be shown to coincide with the principal planes of stress.6 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS ‘The principal strains are deternitied, in a simil- ‘ar manner to principal stresses, as the roots of the equation + - net + ne; se 28) where Ths et ey te, vs (24a) yt Ten es +e, + 6c, = BE wile ff oe fae ccc, - Sue. Stee ar] 4 Sela, Yar Yes ve é 4 ses (1.24) Ty, Izy Iy_are the strain invariants, analogous to the stress invariants. In two-dinensional systens, the principal strains cus ep) are as follows: a, ete, be SE lene 1, ses (1.25) 2 fF ata) Yas and the principal planes are inclined at an angle @ to the = and 2 axes, where 6 = Har! 22 ws 0.26) 41.2.5 MAXIMIM SHEAR STRAIN mae = ee ss G27) where ¢) = maximin principal normal strain, 5 = minimm prineipal normal strain. Ynge occurs on a plane whose normal makes an angle of 48° with the 1 and €3 directions. 1.2.6 MOHR'S CIRCLE OF STRAIN A geometrical solution for strains in any direct~ on is provided by Mohr's cixcle of strain (Fig.1.8). The only difference between the circle of strain and the circle of stress is that, in the circle of strain, the ordinate represents only one-half the shear strain Gue. the ordinate axis is 7/2). As in Fig.1.4, the axes 1-5 ‘represent the principal axes, m2 the horizontal and vertical space axes and ‘s'-2' the faxes in direction at an angle 6" to the =z axes. ‘The dianeter of the circle is equal to the maximm shear strain ket Yar = Mere g)* + Yan ‘The pole construction as described for’ the Mohr cizcle of stress my be adapted for the Mohr circle of strain. 1.3 Equilibrium Equations 1.3.1 CARTESIAN COORDINATES By considering the equilibrium of the elenent shown in Fig-1.1 in the Cartesian coordinate systea, ‘the following equilibriua equations are obtained: (2.284) q.2a) , %, -, Sa, ey Sere ae * Oy * GeRey 2», 5a Geese 4.290) where %, ¥, 2 are the body forces, per unit volume, in the =, y’ and 2 directions. (2.308) With an ordinary gravity field and the 2 dir- ection vertically downwards, X and Y are zero and Z is the unit weight, ¥, of the material. s++ (2.500) 1.3.2 CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES 1.3.5. SPHERICAL COORDINATES (Fig.1.10) ¥1G.1.10 20, -Iyrdytt,goot® sew eo FIG.1.9 ses Qe51a) Seygtlogayert® eee 310) Considering the equilibrium of the elezent in she cylindrical (res, 9) coordinate systea shom in Fig. 1 %y , HygtPtygcots 1.9, the equilibrium equations are (n + - =o Boy Feind 3} @.s1e) O20, > For complete spherical symmetry these become . Hay Boyne ™ , eee ves 52)3 FUMDAMEWERL, DEPIUTSIONS AND RELABTONSHTPS 4.4 Strain-Displacement and Compatibility Equations 1.4.1 CARTESIAN CoonDrnArES ‘The strain - displacenont relationships are given in equation (1.17). Since six strain components are derived from only three displacenents, the strains are not independent of each other. Six further relation- ships, kno as the compatibility equations, can be "These axe a2 follows: derived. ses G.338) see Q.33b) see (2.33) soe (538) vs 1.330) woe (556) 1.4.2 CYLINDRICAL coonozNaTEs ‘The strain ~ displacement equations are. 2», 1%, 2) oor 09 FO ete ss 34a) cy =o en E ey ee ro rag Ys" Ge 8 se+ (1.340) 2», 2», 2, pees =e Pe ". oe Tap ©" Ge 7 Ue ss (340) Tho corresponding compatability equations are quoted by Lture (1964). 1.4.5. SPHERICAL COORDINATES ‘The strain ~ displacesent equations are: + (1.350) ‘The compatibility equations, for the case of axial symotry, are quoted by Liure (1964). 1.5 Stress-Strain Relationships 1.5.1 LINEAR HOMOGENEOUS ISOTROPIC MATERIAL Strains in terns of stress: 1 2 te, - veo, + 01 pes G36) 2 fa, - vio, + 9, oe Qe Fie - vo, + 0,01 360) = Lo, - vo, +6, ee G.366) | 5, = bi, - ve, oi G.360) ty bt, ses L360) a Gey yet Eye sos e360) w+ G36) whore F = Young's modulus y= Poisson's ratio = shoar modulus . + G37) 2a) Aiso, volume strain 6, = Ge 22 » = Be -& se 37) where c= Gattytey © = o,s0y40, = bulk stressSTRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS 9 X= balk modulus. Stresses in terms of strains: oO, = de, + 206, ves (1.388) 9, = ¥e, # 26, ves (2.386) 0, = de, + 206, + @.38e) Or, ete ses (1.384) where AG are Lane's parameters a= —E— __... assay (40) (1-20) c= —2—= shear modulus 20249) see (2.596) (G 4s also often denoted as 1). For the special case of plane stress e.g. in the zz plane, oy=0 in the above equations. For the special case of plane strain in the =-z plane, ey@0 and hence 4, = vo, +0,) ses (1-40) Equations (1.56) then reduce to eg GEM tect = 9) ve Gta) yee ses ttt) eg GM aytaew = v0 ve ut) 1 vor bts ses GQ.4l8) Solutions for a plane strain problem can be used for the corresponding plane stress problea provided that the following equivalent values of EF and v aze used in the plane strain problen: fered z, ves (428) ° ary)? x ye see (2.420) iw Conversely, to use solutions for a plane stress problea for the corresponding plane strain problea, , the equivalent moduli are Pad = (1.432) a" ses Q.43b) Plane stress solutions which do not involve the elastic parameters are therefore identical with the ‘corresponding plane strain solutions e.g. stresses within a seni-infinite plate and stresses due to line loading on a seni-infinite mass. Swmary of Relationships Between Elastic Paraiieters Clrw = — see (148) 2a) aw os (1.45) (ar a-29) x= —2-. Hine oo 46) Sc-2) 300-2) z= aan 3ue0 : v = Gea vs (48) 2¢5K40) LL he 1.49) o* ew Constrained modulus (1/my in Soil Mechanics) = GE s+ 0.50) (aaa) : 1.5.2 CROSS ANISOTROPIC MATERIAL Stresses in tomas of strains: Cartesian coéndinctoa: ©, = as, + be, +e, ve G51) Q.s1b) G.51e) gy 7 Bete te o, = ce, +e, + de, te Peay asia) yt Fey @.5te) yt ede, ses Q.516) Cylindrical coordinates: 6, = ay # bey + ec, ses 52a) Oy = be, + aty + 06, a.s2) @, = ot, + oc + de, .s2e) Typ = Pye a.sz Ter Peg 520) Tyg t lable gy a.52610 [FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS F(T Yoon) PY) OY ,%o5) ses 1.838) Exton? (my) (1-0 ,-20,945) see 1.530) where 55 Yoh 1-2 yop er se A536) B(1-v,) oon se 538) and E, = sodulus of elasticity in the horizontal direction B, = modulus of elasticity in the vertical direction Vj, = Poisson's ratio for effect of horizontal stress on com plementary horizontal strain = Poisson's ratio for effect ‘wo of horizontal stress on Vertical strain = Poisson's ratio for effect of vertical stress on horizontal strain. It can be shown that Fa, a.s4) By Yon The elastic constant f is 2 shear modulus and cannot be expressed in terns of the Young's moduli or Poisson's ratios. f is often denoted as G,. Strains in terms of stresses: 2.882) s+ 1.550) ses @.55e) ssa) see Q.55e) ss G55) In some works (e.g. Urena et al, 1966) Viy is denoted merely as vy and the use of vy, is avoid~ ed by using equation’ (1.56). ‘The fact that the strain energy mst be positive Amposes restrictions on the values of the elastic parameters. For a cross-anisotropic material witha vertical axis of elastic symmetry, Hearnon (1961) gives these restrictions as a>o s++ 56a) a>o0 ses 560) fro se (2.560) ats bt ses (2-562) (atb)a > 26% (2.566) ad > o® - «a.s6e) In teras of the Poisson's ratios, these restrictions Impose the linits 1 =~ May Yon? 7 s+ (1.578) 1-y,>0 ss G87) 14+y,>0 ses (1.876) 1.6 Differential Equations of Isotropic Elasticity 1.6.1 EQUATIONS IN TERNS OF STRESSES Cartesian Coondinates vig, + MOL OX, thy et BU wet bye ym ses (1.588) vo + bee. y yee Beet Yo wat te yay se (1.580) vo + HOw My De gB iat Iv te yt os * vse (.58¢) a see (884) ay x see (1.586) aBQUATIONS OF ISOTROPIC ELASTICITY n vr +t MOL ww tty ye s+ (1.888) where Vo = yey fet yt et © = ota ra, For constant or zero body forces, the first three ‘equations of (1-58) reduce to the Lapiace equation ve =0 aes (2.59) For the special case of plane stress, the equat- fons are the equilibrium equations me, %, +e s +++ (160a) rears aa, B10 eo (0.600) a oe and at, 3 ax , 2 (2 4 2) fo +o) = ae CE + at ae Sa as s+ (1-606) For plane otrain, the first two of the above three equations are again applicable. The third equation is a, 2) 1, % Fo rope bt eh at ae Ce GT ae se (1.61) Ig body forces are constant, the equations for plane stress and plane strain conditions are identical. Cylindrical Coordinates With zero or constant body forces: (2.628) 4 ye + LP. corey ie ot (2.620) 4 42,129. 5 woe an” ee see (1.620) +2695 i+y or 7 30 ++ (1.624) -4 fre ve a2 ., IW te see 1.620) ses 628) For the general case of non-constant body forces, the corresponding equations, in tensor forn, are given by Lure (1964). 1.6.2 EQUATIONS IN TERMS OF STRESS FUNCTION @ Cartesian Coordinates We = 0 = viv a6) where 2 at es eH ae ay? aa For plane stress or plane strain, oe, ate Be. g ast) ae aston? 3% and the stresses are related to @ as follows: «, - Ht (ives) aa? o 2 = (1.656) 7 a wat se se Cylindrical Coordinates For axial symmetry, We = 0 = VV a.66) ‘The stresses are related to $ as - Los - #5 eee (1-678) ae art 2 (tg 23) a.67) vee o, = Drew ve - By hs (1.676) e ast2 FUWDRIGNTAL DEFINITIONS AND RELATTONSHTPS. = 2p aw vy - Ht 2 1 s+ @.674) ar ast 1.6.3 EQUATIONS IN TERMS OF DISPLACEMENTS Cartesian Coordinates %y (046) 2+ Op -x = 0 sss (1688) 3 ey (40) 2+ oo, -¥ = 0 vo (2.680) ay # Ry 040) 2+ ove, - 2 = 0 ses 68) 3 where A,@ are Lane's parameters 5 a = ete te, et ey te, volume strain Cylindvieal Coordinates For axial symmetry, at °, 3, 3p, ‘#20 ( 2) +o 2+ re) at eae aa? arte = Rw. (698) Pn a. 2, +t ror g as og 2) = Zone (2.698) where 2,2 aze the body forces in the rand 2 directions. On the 2 axis (m0) the relevant equation is o, ae, ap, 0 #06) —E+ 2g —2 + 200400) —D= a at ant ards ++ (1.690) 1.7 Convenient Methods of Considering Loaded Areas 1.7.1 SUPERPOSITION OF RECTANGLES I€ the loaded area can be approximated by a rec- tangle, or by a series of rectangies, and appropriate influence factors for stress or displacement beneath ‘the comer of a rectangle are available, the stress, or displaconent at any point may be determined by superposition of rectangles. For the simple case of a single rectangle, the stress beneath an interior point Or (see Fig.1.11) nay sisply be calculated as o = Bement) ves (1.70) where Ki, Key Ka, a are the approp- ‘Hate influence factors for areas 1,2,3 and 4, for the appropriate geometry of each rectangle. For an exterior point Og (Fig1.11) © = pikisatate Kate “Kate #Ke) se 71) For computer calculations, the superposition principle can be stated as (see Fig.1.11): © = SX) = TERU,R) ~ FHI) + TUH-U,ET) see (1.72) where J(mn) = sign (rmJo(|m|,|n|) sign (mm) = 1 when m>0 a m <0 o(|m|,|n|) = stress beneath corner of 2 rectangle m* ms Displacements are calculated similarly. For horizontal and shear stresses, care must be taken to take account of the sign of X for each rectangle. 1.7.2 NEMMARK'S METHOD ‘This method was developed by Newmark (1935) and is a graphical method involving the use of an influence chart, examples of which are shown in Figs.3.68-5.78. A drawing is made of the loaded area to a scale which is marked on the chart, and this drawing is so placed on the chart that the origin of the chart coincides with the point at or beneath which the stress or dis- placement is required. ‘The mumber of blocks covered by the loaded area is then counted and miltiplied by'an appropriate factor (hown on the chart) ond the applied loading to give the required stress or displacement.METHODS FOR LOADED AREAS 2 When the area is not uniformly loaded, the charts can still be used by considering the non-uniform load- ing to be made up of several sets of uniforaly loaded In using the charts, parts of blocks may be est- imated with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes In general, the loaded area will be drawn on tracing paper and laid upon the chart. Several "Newmark Charts" for stresses and dis- placements in a semi-infinite mass are given in Section 3.6. For a finite layer, Burmister (1956) hhas prepared charts, but the use of these charts is, nore complicated as’they must be used in conjunction with a table of influence values (see Section 5.4.1). 1.7.3 SECTOR METHOD ‘This method has been described by Poulos (19672). For any particular problea, a set of curves relating the stress or displacesent influence factor beneath the apex of a uniformly loaded sector to the sector radius may be obtained by integration of the approp- riate point load influence factors over a sector. Such sets of curves are referred to as "sector curves", and fypical examples are given in Sections 5.6.2 and 4 In order t0 use the sector curves for calculation of the required influence factors for a loaded area of say shape, a scale élagran of the area is dravm, and a umber of relatively suall-engled sectors are dram to cut the loaded area, each sector emanating from an apex Which lies on the sine vertical Line as the point 2 Which the influence factor is required. The point on ‘the surface of the elastic solid through which this vertical line passes vill be termed the "surface origin". In Fig.1.12, typical sectors Oz AzB2 and Of Aidt" are shom in plan for surface origins “Op outside and Or inside the loaded area. For invarimt stresses such as the bulk stress 9, and for the stress og and the displacement 6g» the influence of the typical sector Og AaB for the exter~ nal surface origin Og is @,, - 1,,) -89 ay” 732/ where I, fs, 12 the sector influence value at the required depth for a mean sector radius m, and sinilar- ly for Ig, ‘The-influence factor at Oy for the whole loaded area r= Yay, 2) 88 a.75) For the surface origin Or within the loaded area, the influence factor for the whole loaded area is 1 = ¥y,,.60 ves (1.74) When evalue ing the influence factor for a stress or displacement ~.ich is in a direction other than the 2. direction, the sumation of sector influence factors must be vectorial. To calculate the horizon- tal stress, in the = direction at Oz, both the tangential and radial stress influence factors for each sector are required, the influence value for the whole loaded area being given by Jaq ~ Wlosts,~ ont) S8.cote + Heats, ~ o9%y,)5 yin*e}.. (1.75) where Io, is the influence factor for due to the loaded area, fare the sector influence fact- ors for the radial stress, for sector radii of rand rz respectively. opiex? ope are the sector influence fact~ ors for tho tangential stress, for sector radii of ri, rz. ootes? og’ex ‘The influence factors for horizontal stress oy im the y direction may be obtained similarly, Foy 7 UG Fay “oslo eine + Caan eat 16 In the same manner, it may be shown that the influence factors for the three shear stresses in the Cartesian coordinate systen are as follows: Faye 7 Fey 7 Wola, ~ open “glen the) 48.0%n @.200 8} a.77)4“ FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS ret, a 1,,).0008.60 ye + Ht 778) ye” Uogo eel) #n808 @.7¢) where tyolsys typlog a0 the sector Influence factors for radial shear stress, for sector radii of ri, Pe For the displacements pg and py in the = asd y dizections for the surface origin Op, the Influence factors are = tor ~ pZog)82088 +. (1.788) = Woctor ~ pyteg)-SP-stn@ (1.78) where Ipg and Ip are influence fact ors forthe displacenents in the = and y directions due to the whole loaded area, are the sector influence fact- ors for radial displacenent, for sector radii of 1,72. filer? alee Having found the influence factor I for the whole area, the stresses and displacenents for Op and 0 due to uniform loading are given in all cases by o-2.2 os @.79) a and,p = 2X. 7 aE ses G80) ‘The accuracy of the influence factors calculated by the sector method increases with the mmber of sec- tors used, and the more irregular the shape of the loaded area, the greater is the desirable mumber of Sectors. For the calculation of influence factors for stresses and displacements which are neither in- variant nor in the z direction, the sector angle 66 must be small in order to preserve the accuracy of ‘both the magnitude and direction of the calculated influence factor. ‘Stresses and Displacements Beneath the Contre of @ Untformty Loaded Circle Beneath the centre of a uniforaly loaded circle, the expressions for stresses and displacesents reduce ‘to very simple forms. For 0g, ps and the invariant stresses, I = m4, aan) where Igq is the sector influence factor for a sector radius equal to the radius of the circle. and y ses (2.82) For the horizontal stresses = alga * ogisa! where gaa oglea #7€ sector influence factors for op and or for a sector radius equal tO the radius of the circle. ‘The influence factors for all shear stresses and for the horizontal displacements pz and py are zero in this case. 1.8 Superposition of Solutions for Various Loadings Solutions are usually only available for relativ- ely simple types of loading. If the loading pattern is complicated, superposition of solutions for simple loadings may frequently be employed. Examples of ‘the decomposition of complicated loadings into simpler loads have been given by Giroud (1968) in terms of four simple loading types, uniform vertical load, linearly varying vertical load, unifora horizontal. Joad and linearly varying horizontal load. Fig-1.15 shows the examples given by Giroud, the signs in each case referring to the signs of the four simple loading types. ‘The foregoing is exact for generalized linear loading. The approach can be extended approximately ‘to completely general non-linear loading by division of this loading into a series of general linear oan ® ® © Wm |. | Gans @ @ oO Ly Waz| axa corm @® ® @ WA fad J GEG || Gar ® ® ® 4) | A FIG.1.13 Decomposition of loadings (ciroud,1968).SIMPLE BENDING THEORY 5 1.9 Equations of Simple Bending Theory 1.9.1 ORIZONTAL BEAK netew ses (1.83) where EI = flexural rigidity p = deflection (positive downwards) 2 = distance along bean M = bending moment ("sagging” moments positive, "hogging" moments negative) & Stope o= 2 ves 84) @ Shear force ¥ = & ats war £2 coor eostat 2D... 0.889 eu s++ @.86a) Load td ot per mit Imgth psf - fp (for constant BY) ... (1-866) 1.9.2 CIRCULAR PLATE For axially-symetrical loading, fo,2He1f:,1hH_.2 | asn at ord det rtd D where p = deflection (positive dowm- wards) = radial distance from centre load intensity q = load intensity D = flemural rigidity of plat ae 12(1-v7) B = Young's modulus of plate \v = Poisson's ratio of plate = plate thickness ‘The bending monents M, and Mj per unit length in the radial and tangential directions are given by sss (1.888) G88) 1.9.3 RECTANGULAR PLATE Bey -2e Fe. 2 + 89a) aah "tata? ay D 2 po G/D see 1.896) where q = intensity of load D = flemural rigidity of plate as before, ‘The moments per unit length, Mz and My, in the = and y directions are y, = > @2+y% coe (1.900) Ma ae @.90a) we ss (2-900) oo S24 Hs ay? a