TIPSONWRITINGAPHILOSOPHYPAPER

DouglasW.Portmore

Copyright2001(Revised2006)byDouglasW.Portmore.SomeRightsReserved.This
workislicensedunderaCreativeCommonsLicense.Seefulllicensingdetailshere.

1.ConstructingaThesisStatement

Athesisstatementisthatsentenceortwothatassertsyourpositiononagivenissue,
specifically,thepositionthatyouwillbearguingforinyourpaper.Thisthesis
statementshouldappearsomewhereintheintroductiontoyourpaper.Itcanbethe
firstsentence,althoughthatsoftenarathersimplisticandunexcitingwaytobeginyour
paper.Moreoften,then,athesisstatementshouldappearatorneartheendofthefirst
paragraphortwo.
Thefirststepindevelopingathesis(onceyouhavedecidedonatopic)isto
determinewhatyourpositionis.Todothis,youwillneedtothoroughlyreviewallthe
relevantcoursematerials.Inmostcases,youwillhavebeenpresentedwithanumberof
argumentsonbothsidesoftheissue.Carefullyanalyzeandevaluateallthose
arguments,takingnotesasyoudo.Intheprocess,youshoulddevelopyourowntake
ontheissue.
Itisimperativethatyouclearlydefineyourthesisbeforeyoubeginwriting,foritis
yourthesisthatwillguideyouthroughouttheentirewritingprocesseverythingyou
writeshouldsomehowcontributetoitsdefense.Thisdoesntmeanthatyourthesis
cantberevised,narrowed,orrefinedduringthewritingprocess;itslikelythatitwill
needtobe.Thepointisthatyouwontevenknowwheretostartunlessyouhaveat
leastaworkingthesistoguideyou.
Yourthesisshouldnarrowthefocusofyourpaper.Supposeyouareaskedtowrite
onthemindbodyproblem.Itsimportanttorealizethatitwontbepossibletoaddress
everyimportantphilosophicalissueconcerningsuchabroadtopicinjustonepaper.
Youllneedtochooseathesisthatnarrowsthefocustosomethingmoremanageable.
Dontbetooambitioushere.Yourenotgoingtosolvesomethinglikethemindbody
probleminfive,oreventwenty,pages.Ofcourse,itsalsoimportantnottogotoofarin
theoppositedirection.Yourthesismustntbetrivial.Instead,yourthesisshouldmake
aninterestingassertion,oneoverwhichreasonablepeoplemightdisagree.
Yourthesisshouldbequitespecific,therebydefiningasharpfocusforyourpaper.
DontmakeaclaimsuchasPeopleshoulddonatemoneytohungerrelief
organizations.Thisisvague.Areyousayingthatdonatingmoneytohungerrelief
organizationsismoralobligatory,orareyoumerelyclaimingthatdoingsowouldbe
supererogatory?Ineithercase,youshouldstateyourreasonsformakingtheclaimthat
youdo,foryourthesisshouldprovidesomehintastowhatthemainargumentwillbe.
Tosumup,athesisstatementshould:
 Bespecific.
Benarrowenoughastobepracticablydefendedwithinthelength
parametersoftheassignment.
Makeaninterestingclaim,oneoverwhichreasonablepeoplemightdisagree.
Providesomehintastowhatthemainlineofargumentwillbe.

Thefollowingaresomedosanddonts.

NO:

2 Iwillarguethatactutilitarianismisthemostplausiblemoraltheoryaround.

NOTE:Thisistooambitious.Thereisnochanceofadequatelydefendingsucha
claiminanythingshorterthanabooklengthproject.Todefendsuchaclaim,
youwouldhavetocompareactutilitarianismwithKantianism,rule
utilitarianism,virtueethics,moralrelativism,moralsubjectivism,divine
commandtheory,etc.andarguethatactutilitarianismdoesbetterthanallthe
othersintermsofourstandardsforevaluatingmoraltheories(i.e.,consistency,
determinacy,intuitiveappeal,internalsupport,etc.).Amoresensiblethesis
wouldfocusondefendingactutilitarianismagainstcertainspecificobjectionsor
wouldarguethatactutilitarianismismoreplausiblethan,say,Kantianism.

2 Deathandsufferingfromalackfood,potablewater,andbasichealthcareisbad.

NOTE:Thisistrivial;noreasonablepersonwoulddisagree.

2 Iwilldiscussobjectionstomoralrelativism.

NOTE:Itsnotenoughtosaythatyouwilldiscussacertainissue;youmuststate
yourpositionontheissue.

2 Ibelievethatthedivinecommandtheoryisanimplausiblemoraltheory.

NOTE:Thisstatementmerelyreportswhatonebelieves;itdoesntassert
anythingabouttheplausibilityofthedivinecommandtheory.Athesis
statementmustmakeanassertionabouttheissueathand,notaboutonesbeliefs
concerningthatissue.

2 Iwillarguethatabortioniswrong.

NOTE:Thisstatementisntspecificenough.Yourthesisshouldexplainwhy,on
yourview,abortioniswrong.

 2 Iwillarguethatdonatingmoneytohungerrelieforganizationsis
counterproductive.

NOTE:Theissueofwhetherornotdonatingmoneytohungerrelief
organizationsiscounterproductiveisanempiricalissue,notaphilosophical
issue.Youmusttakeastandonsomephilosophicalissue.

2 Iwillarguethatdonatingoursurplusincometohungerrelieforganizations
wouldresultinmoredeathsandmoresuffering.

NOTE:Theissueofwhetherornotdonatingoursurplusincometohungerrelief
organizationswouldresultinmoredeathsandmoresufferingisanempirical
issue,notaphilosophicalissue.Youmustaddresssomephilosophicalissue.
Thusamoreinterestingthesiswouldaddressthefollowingissue:Ifdonatingour
surplusincomewouldalleviatesignificantsufferingandsavelives,wouldwe
thenbemorallyobligatedtodoso?

YES:

9 Iwillarguethatevenifthefetusisapersonwitharighttolife,abortionis,
nevertheless,morallypermissibleinthecaseofrape,forthefetushasnorightto
usethewomansbodywithout,atleast,hertacitconsent,andthisisclearly
absentwherethewomanispregnantasaresultofbeingraped.

NOTE:Thepositionyoutakedoesnthavetoexhaustthetopic.Forinstance,
theresnothingwrongwithtakingastandonthemoralityofabortioninthecase
ofrapewhileremainingneutralaboutothercases.

9 IwillarguethatThomsonsargumentisntcogent.Iwilldemonstratethatthere
areimportantdifferencesbetweenkillingtheviolinist(inherFamousViolinist
Example)andkillingafetusthathasbeenconceivedasresultofrape.These
differencesundermineherargumentbyanalogyforthepermissibilityof
abortioninthecaseofrape.

NOTE:Youdonthavetomakeanypositiveassertion.Athesisthatassertsthat
somephilosophicalpositionisfalseorthatsomephilosophersargumentis
unsoundisaninterestingandimportantthesis.

9 IwillarguethatArthurscriticismsfailtoundermineSingerscentralthesis:that
wearemorallyobligatedtodonateoursurplusincometohungerrelief
organizations.IwillshowthatSingercanrebutArthursobjectionsby.

 NOTE:Evenifyouagreeentirelywithoneofthephilosophersthatyouveread,
youcanstillhavesomethingoriginalandimportanttosay.Forinstance,you
couldshowhowthatphilosophermightrebutcriticismsfromanother.

9 IwillarguethatSingersthesisneedstoberevisedinlightofArthurscriticisms,
butonlyslightly.IwillproposethefollowingrevisedversionofSingers
thesis.AndIwillarguethatthisrevisedversionofSingersthesisavoids
Arthursobjections.Lastly,Iwilldefendthisrevisedthesisagainstother
potentialobjections.

NOTE:Ifyoucantseeanywaytodefendathesisinitscurrentform,youmight
suggesthowthatthesiscouldberevisedsoastoavoidtheobjectionsleveledby
another.

9 Iwillarguethatmanyoftheobjectionsthathavebeenleveledagainstact
utilitarianismcanbemetandthat,onthewhole,actutilitarianismisarather
plausibletheory.Nevertheless,Iwilladmitthatoneseriousobjectionremains,
forwhichIcanseenoadequateresponsenamely,.However,thisdoesnot
meanweshouldrejectthetheory,for,asIwillshow,nonutilitariantheoriesface
thefollowingmoreseriousobjection...

NOTE:Oftentimes,youllfindthatallthealternativepositionsfacesome
problemoranother.Inthiscase,youcanstilldefendonepositionoveritsrivals
byarguingthatitfacesfewerorlessseriousproblemsthantheothersdo.Of
course,youstillneedbeupfrontabouttheproblemsthatyourownfavored
positionfaces,and,inlightofthosepotentialproblems,youmaywanttomake
yourthesissomewhattentative:utilitarianismseemstobethemostpromising
positionratherthanutilitarianismiscorrect.

2.TheIntroduction

Getrightdowntobusiness!Avoidinflated,rhetoricalintroductoryremarks(commonly
knownasfluff).If,forinstance,yourpaperisonabortion,youshouldntwastelimited
spacewithsomeirrelevantandlongwindedspielaboutwhatanimportantand
controversialissueabortionis.Norshouldyoustartyourpaperoffwithasentencelike,
Downthroughtheages,mankindhasponderedtheproblemof....Nevertheless,you
shouldmotivateyourpaper,explainingwhatissueorproblemthatyouwillbe
addressingandwhyitsimportantjustkeepitbrief.
Anintroductionisbestthoughtofasareadersguidetoyourpaper.Itshouldhelp
makeiteasierforthereadertofollowandunderstandyourpaper.Itshouldincludean
explicitstatementofwhatitisthatyouwillbearguingfor(thatis,yourthesis),and
defineforthereaderanyterminologythatsneededtounderstandyourthesis.The
introductionshouldalsomapoutthestructureofyourpaper,explainingtheorderin
whichyouwillargueforvariouspointsandexplaininghowallthosepointscome
togetherinsupportofyourthesis.Tosumup,agoodintroductionshould:(1)be
concise,(2)containaclearstatementofyourthesis,(3)introduce,verysuccinctly,your
topicandexplainwhyitisimportant,(4)indicate,verybriefly,whatthemainlineof
argumentwillbe,and(5)mapouttheoverallstructureofyourpaper.

Illustrations:

ThefollowingaretwoexamplesofthetypeofintroductionthatIamlookingfor.The
firstisMaryAnneWarrensintroductiontoherpaperOntheMoralandLegalStatusof
Abortion,TheMonist57(January1973)reprintedinTomL.BeauchampandLeRoy
Walters,eds.,ContemporaryIssuesinBioethics,3rded.(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,1989),
p.211:

Wewillbeconcernedwithboththemoralstatusofabortion,whichforourpurposeswemay
defineastheactwhichawomanperformsinvoluntarilyterminating,orallowinganotherperson
toterminate,herpregnancy,andthelegalstatuswhichisappropriateforthisact.Iwillargue
that,whileitisnotpossibletoproduceasatisfactorydefenseofawomansrighttoobtainan
abortionwithoutshowingthatafetusisnotahumanbeing,inthemorallyrelevantsenseofthat
term,weoughtnottoconcludethatthedifficultiesinvolvedindeterminingwhetherornota
fetusishumanmakeitimpossibletoproduceanysatisfactorysolutiontotheproblemofthe
moralstatusofabortion.Foritispossibletoshowthat,onthebasisofintuitionswhichwemay
expecteventheopponentsofabortiontoshare,afetusisnotaperson,andhencenotthesortof
entitytowhichitispropertoascribefullmoralrights.

ThesecondexampleistheintroductiontomypaperWelfare,Achievement,andSelf
Sacrifice:

RECENTLY,SOMEPHILOSOPHERS havearguedthatbyholdingthatitistheachievementofourgoals
asopposedtothefulfillmentofourdesiresthatcontributestoourwelfare,wecanaccommodate
whatsattractiveaboutthedesiretheoryofwelfarewhileavoidingitsimplausibleimplications.
TheviewthattheachievementofonesgoalsinitselfcontributestooneswelfareiswhatIcall
theAchievementView.Adifferentviewholdsthatthemeaningfulnessofonesselfsacrifices
initselfcontributestooneswelfare,whereonesselfsacrificescountasmeaningfulifandonlyif
they were not for naught. I call this view the NotforNaught View, or the NFN View for
short.Inthispaper,IarguethattheNFNViewhasalltheadvantagesthattheAchievementView
hasplussomeothers,thatithasnoneofthedisadvantagesthattheAchievementViewhas,and
that,therefore,thosesympathetictotheAchievementViewshouldaccepttheNFNViewinstead.
Ofcourse,itispossibletoacceptbothviewssincetheyarenotcontraries,butiftheNFNView
hasalltheadvantagesandnoneofthedisadvantagesoftheAchievementView,thentheformer
shouldsupplantthelatter.IwontbearguingthattheNFNViewissuperiortoallotherviews
aboutwelfare,onlythatitissuperiortotheAchievementView.Nevertheless,thepaperwillbeof
interest even to those who oppose the Achievement View, because, as I will show, a much
strongercasecanbemadeinfavoroftheNFNView,andsotheopponentsoftheAchievement
ViewshouldfindtheNFNViewtobeamoreworthycontender.
Thepaperhasthefollowingstructure.Insection1,Iexplicatethetwoviews.Insection2,I
arguethattheNFNViewhasalltheadvantagesthatphilosopherssuchasThomasScanlonand
SimonKellerhaveclaimedfortheAchievementView.Insection3,Iarguethat,unliketheNFN
View,theAchievementViewhasanumberofcounterintuitiveimplications,includingthatwe
should,otherthingsbeingequal,adoptgoalsthatwillplayamorecomprehensiveroleinour
 livesand/orthatwillrequiremoreproductiveefforttoachieve.Insection4,IarguethattheNFN
Viewhasgreaterexplanatorypower,accountingforabroaderandmorediverserangeof
intuitionsaboutwelfare.Lastly,insection5,Iarguethat,unliketheAchievementView,theNFN
Viewiscompatiblebothwiththeideathatwecanprovideaunifiedtheoryofwelfareandwith
theideathatonlybeingswithsomesortofaffectcanhaveawelfare.

3.TheBody

Thebodyofyourpapershouldinclude:(1)anexpositionoftheviews,concepts,and
argumentstobediscussed,(2)yourownargumentsinsupportofyourthesisand
claims,and(3)aconsiderationofobjectionsandcounterargumentsalongwithyour
responsestothem.
Eachbodyparagraphshouldpresentonlyasingleideaorsetofrelatedideas,and
eachshouldbringyourreaderonestepclosertoacceptingyourthesisandthecogency
ofyourarguments.Becauseeachbodyparagraphshouldbeastepinyourargument,
youshouldbemindfuloftheoverallorganizationofyourbodyparagraphs.Agood
waytotestthestrengthofbothyourtopicsentencesandyourargumentasawholeisto
constructanoutlineofyourpaperusingonlyyourpapersthesisstatementandthetopic
sentencescontainedinthebodyofyouressay.Thisoutlineshouldcontainthelogical
coreofyourpapersargument,anditshouldfollowaclearlogicalpattern.
Thefirststepinwritinganeffectivebodyparagraphistheconstructionofitstopic
sentence.Justasyourthesisstatementactsasthecontrollingideabehindyourentire
paper,atopicsentenceactsasthecontrollingideathatbindstogetherthesentences
withinaparagraph.Thesentenceswithinaparagraphshouldexplain,develop,or
supporttheidea/claimthatwasintroducedinthetopicsentence.(Althoughmost
paragraphsshouldhaveatopicsentence,noteveryparagraphneedsone.Forinstance,a
topicsentencewontbeneededinaparagraphthatcontinuestodevelopanideathat
wasintroducedbythetopicsentenceofthepreviousparagraph.Andalthoughatopic
sentenceneedntalwaysappearasthefirstsentenceinaparagraph,itisoftenmost
effectivewhenitdoes.)

4.TheConclusion

Thebasicpurposeofyourconclusionistorestateyourthesisandsummarizeyour
argument,butitshouldnotjustbeacopyofyourintroduction.Inyourconclusion,you
shouldmakeafinalefforttoconvincethereaderthatyouhavebothestablishedyour
thesisandofferedacogentargumentinitsdefense.Theconclusionisalsotheplaceto
discusstheimplicationsand/orlimitationsofyourargument.Forinstance,youmight
explainwhatthepracticaland/ortheoreticalimplicationsofyourargumentare.You
mightalsopointtosomequestionsthatyourargumentraisesortosomeoftheissues
thatyourpaperleavesunresolved.

5.MakingtheStructureofYourPaperPerspicuous

5.1Thestructureoftheparagraphswithinyourpaper:Agoodpaperwillhavealogicaland
perspicuousstructure.Youneedtoorganizeyourpointsandargumentsinalogical
fashionandatthesametimemakethatorganizationapparenttoyourreader.Each
paragraphshouldhaveaclearplaceintheoverallargument.Forinstance,heresone
commonstructure:introduction,explicationofsomephilosophicalpositionorproblem
(i.e.,explicationofthepositionthatyoullbecriticizingorexplicationthephilosophical
problemthatyouhopetosolve),themainargument(youllprobablyneedmorethan
oneparagraph),clarificationofandsupportforthecontroversialpremisesinyourmain
argument(oneparagraphpercontroversialpremise),considerationofpotential
objectionsandyourresponsestothem(again,oneparagraphperobjection),conclusion.
Thekeytohavingyouressayfollowalogicalstructureistomakeanoutlinebefore
sittingdowntowrite.Itsdifficulttogiveanymorespecificadvicesincethebestlogical
structureforyouressaywilldependontheparticularitiesofyourargument.Butthere
aretwoobviouspointsthatyoushouldbeawareof:(1)makesureyouexplicateaview
orargument,clearlyandcharitably,beforecriticizingitand(2)explainkeyterms,
concepts,andexamplesbeforeemployingthem.
Icannotoveremphasizehowimportantitistomakethestructureofyouressay
perspicuoustoyourreader;yourreadershouldnthavetoworktofigureitout.Sostart
withagoodintroduction,onethatmapsoutthegeneralstructureoftheessay,andthen,
inthebodyofyourpaper,employtransitionalwordsandsentencestokeepyourreader
ontrack.

Usetransitionalphrases,suchas:

Iwillbeginby...
BeforeIsaywhatiswrongwithXsargument,Iwillfirst...
Atthispoint,weneedtoconsiderthefollowingobjection...
Inthissection,Iwill...
Inthenextsection,Iwill...
Havingarguedfortheviewthat...,Inowwishtoconsiderrivalviews.
AlthoughIhaveshown...,Istillneedtoprove...
Next,Iwilloffersupportforwhatisperhapsmymostcontroversialassumption,that...
Ihavearguedthat...,butsomeonemightobject...
Furthersupportforthisclaimcomesfrom...

Thesetransitionalphrasesgoalongwaytowardsmakingthestructureofyourpaper
perspicuous.Toillustrate,considerthefollowingtwopaperfragments: 1

...WevejustseenhowXsaysthatP.Iwillnowpresenttwoarguments
thatnotP.
Myfirstargumentis...
Mysecondargumentis...
Xmightrespondtomyargumentsinseveralways.Forinstance,he

1IborrowthisfromJamesPryorsGuidelinesonWritingaPhilosophyPaper.
 mightsaythat...
However,thisresponsefails,because...
AnotherwaythatXmightrespondtomyargumentsistoclaimthat...
Thisresponsealsofails,because...
SowehaveseenthatnoneoftheresponsesopentoXsucceedin
rebuttingmyargument.Hence,weshouldrejectXsclaimthatP.

IwillarguefortheviewthatQ.
TherearethreereasonstoacceptQ.
First...
Second...
Third...
ThestrongestobjectiontoQis...
However,thisobjectiondoesnotsucceed,forthefollowingreasons...

Noticehoweasyitistoidentifyandfollowthestructureofeachpaper.Youwantyour
papertobejustaseasytofollow.
Youmightalsoconsiderdividingyourpaperintosections(andpossiblyeven
subsections),usinginformativeheadingstohelpguideyourreader.Thistoocanhelp
makethestructureofyouressayperspicuous.

Illustration:
I.Introduction
II.SingersArgumentforanObligationtoAssist
III.WhyWeShouldRejectHisInitialAssumption
IV.HowSingerMightRespond
V.Conclusion

5.2Thestructureofthesentenceswithinyourparagraphs:Notonlyshouldtheparagraphs
withinanessaycohere,butsoshouldthesentenceswithineachparagraph.Theyshould
flowsmoothlyfromonetothenext.Thereareanumberofwaystoachievethis:(1)
Repeatkeywordsandphrases.Itisimportanttobeconsistentwhenreferringtokey
conceptsandtheories.Thisconsistencyandrepetitionwillhelpbindtheparagraph
together.(2)Usepronounstorefertowhatwasmentionedearlierintheparagraph.If
yousayThisistruebecause...,thereaderisforcedtorecallwhatthisrefersto.The
pronoun,thus,causesthereadertosumup,quicklyandsubconsciously,whatwassaid
previously(whatthisis)beforegoingontothebecauseclause.Ofcourse,itismust
alwaysbeperfectlyclearwhatthepronounrefersto.Ifthethisisambiguoussuchthat
itcouldrefertoeitheroneofthetwothingsthatyoumentionedintheprevious
sentence,thenthereaderwillhavetopausetofigureoutwhichitis,andthatsbad.(3)
Createparallelstructures.Parallelstructuresarecreatedbyconstructingtwoormore
phrasesorsentencesthathavethesamegrammaticalstructureorusethesamepartsof
speech.Parallelstructureshelpthereaderseethattheparagraphisgivinganumberof
illustrationsofthesamegeneralidea.(4)Usetransitionalorbridgingwordstohelpthe
readerfollowthelogicalstructureoftheparagraph.

Herearesomeexamplesofsuchtransitionalwords:
Toshowaddition:and,also,besides,forone,inthefirstcase,first,second,third,
finally
Tooffersupport:because,since,for,given
Toconclude:so,thus,therefore,hence,consequently,accordingly,itfollowsthat,for
thisreason,fromthis,asaresult,itwouldseemthen
Toillustrate:e.g.,forexample,forinstance,toillustrate,acaseinpoint
Tospecify:i.e.,thatis,viz.,namely,specifically
Tointensify:moreover,furthermore,mainly,principally,aboveall,afterall,whats
more,moreimportantly
Toemphasize:certainly,indeed,infact,ofcourse
Tocompare:likewise,similarly,bythesamereasoning
Tocontrast:yet,but,rather,still,although,while,nevertheless,regardless,despite,
evenso,inspiteof,however,whereas,eventhough,bycontrast,ontheone
hand...ontheotherhand...
Torefocus:inanycase,atanyrate,inaword,inshort,tosumup,toreturn
Toindicatesupposition:assume,suppose,letsassume,letssuppose
Toconcedeapoint:ofcourse,doubtless,itcannotbedenied,whilerecognizing,the
factremains

Illustration:Lookatthefollowingparagraph: 2

TheancientEgyptiansweremastersofpreservingdeadpeoplesbodiesby
makingmummiesofthem.Mummiesseveralthousandyearsoldhavebeen
discoverednearlyintact.Theskin,hair,teeth,fingernailsandtoenails,andfacial
featuresofthemummieswereevident.Itispossibletodiagnosethediseasethey
sufferedinlife,suchassmallpox,arthritis,andnutritionaldeficiencies.The
processwasremarkablyeffective.Sometimesapparentwerethefatalafflictions
ofthedeadpeople:amiddleagedkingdiedfromablowonthehead,andpolio
killedachildking.Mummificationconsistedofremovingtheinternalorgans,
applyingnaturalpreservativesinsideandout,andthenwrappingthebodyin
layersofbandages.

Thoughweak,thisparagraphisnotatotalwashout.Itstartswithatopicsentence,and
thesentencesthatfollowareclearlyrelatedtothetopicsentence.Inthelanguageof
writing,theparagraphisunified(i.e.,itcontainsnoirrelevantdetails).However,the
paragraphisnotcoherent.Thesentencesaredisconnectedfromeachother,makingit
difficultforthereadertofollowthewriterstrainofthought.

2FromCharlesDarling,GuidetoGrammarandWriting,athttp://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htm.
 Belowisthesameparagraphrevisedforcoherence.(Italicsindicatespronounsand
repeatedkeywords,boldindicatestransitionalwords,andunderliningindicatesparallel
structures.)

TheancientEgyptiansweremastersofpreservingdeadpeoplesbodiesby
makingmummiesofthem.Inshort,mummificationconsistedofremovingthe
internalorgans,applyingnaturalpreservativesinsideandout,andthen
wrappingthebodyinlayersofbandages.Andtheprocesswasremarkably
effective.Indeed,mummiesseveralthousandyearsoldhavebeendiscovered
nearlyintact.Theirskin,hair,teeth,fingernailsandtoenails,andfacialfeatures
arestillevident.Theirdiseasesinlife,suchassmallpox,arthritis,andnutritional
deficiencies,arestilldiagnosable.Eventheirfatalafflictionsarestillapparent:a
middleagedkingdiedfromablowonthehead;achildkingdiedfrompolio.

Theparagraphisnowmuchmorecoherent.Theorganizationoftheinformationandthe
linksbetweensentenceshelpreadersmoveeasilyfromonesentencetothenext.Notice
howthiswriterusesavarietyofcoherencedevices,sometimesincombination,to
achieveoverallparagraphcoherence.

6.DemonstratingMasteryofthePertinentPhilosophicalMaterial

Agoodphilosophypaperwilldemonstratemasteryofthepertinentphilosophical
views,concepts,andarguments.Todemonstratemastery,youmustdomorethanjust
regurgitatewhatyouhavememorizedfromthelecturesandreadings.Regurgitation
doesntevendemonstrateunderstandingletalonemastery.(ThisiswhyIsuggestthat
youusequotesonlysparingly,andthatwhenyoudousethemyoualwaysexplainwhat
thequotedpassagesaysinyourownwordsseethesectionentitledQuotingbelow.)
Furthermore,theresadifferencebetweenmerelyunderstandingatopicandmastering
it.Foryoucanunderstandsomematerialwithoutbeingabletoconveythat
understandingtoothers.Tohavemasteryistohavetheabilitytoteachthatmaterialto
others,tobeabletoexplainthematerialarticulatelyusingyourownwords,
descriptions,andexamples,suchthatevensomeonewithnopriorknowledgeor
understandingofthematerialcouldunderstand.Onceyouvemasteredatopic,you
shouldunderstanditwellenoughtogobeyondwhatyouhavereadaboutit.You
shouldbeabletopresentanddefendyourownviewsonthetopic.Thekey,then,to
demonstratingmasteryistoshowthatyoucanexplainthingsinanilluminatingway,
usingyourownwordsandusingyourownoriginalexamplesanddescriptions.

7.ArguingforYourPosition

Writingaphilosophypaperinvolvesmorethansimplystatingyouropinions.Youmust
supportyourviewsbypresentingargumentsinfavorofthem.Youshouldalsotryto
defendyourviewsagainstpotentialcriticisms.Thatis,trytoanticipatewhatobjections
mightberaisedagainstyourviewsanddemonstrateboththatyouareawareofthese
possibleobjectionsandthatyoucanrespondtothemmoreonthislater.
Aphilosophypapershouldberationallypersuasive.Forone,thismeansthatyou
 shouldappealtoyourreadersintellectasopposedtohis/heremotions.Thusyoushould
avoidtheuseofinflammatorylanguageandnamecalling.Forinstance,avoid
statementssuchas,AnydoctorwhowouldgiveapatientalethalinjectionisaNazi.
Second,ifyourargumentsaretobepersuasive,theymustnotrestuponunsupported,
contentiousclaims.Insteadtheyshouldultimatelyrestuponassumptionsthatevena
reasonablepersonoftheopposingviewwouldaccept.Soif,forinstance,youwantto
arguethatabortionismorallywrong,youshouldntbeginbyassumingthatthefetus
hasarighttolife.Realizethatsuchanargumentwouldunlikelypersuadeanyonewho
isprochoice.Afterall,theviewthatthefetushasarighttolifefromthemomentof
conceptionispreciselywhatmostprochoiceadvocateswouldcontest.Ofcourse,you
canarguethatthefetushasarighttolife;youjustshouldntassumeit.
Thepointistoavoidmakinganyassumptionswhichsomeoneoftheopposingview
issuretoreject.Youshouldthinkofyourpaperasanattempttopersuadesomeoneof
theopposingview,andifyouaretohaveanychanceofpersuadingsuchaperson,you
mustfirstfindsomecommongroundfromwhichtobuildyourarguments.Agood
exampleofwhatIhaveinmindhereisJudithJarvisThomsonsargumentsinA
DefenseofAbortion.Inthispaper,Thomsonarguesthatabortionismorally
permissiblewherethewomanispregnantastheresultofbeingraped.Nowwhatmakes
Thomsonsargumentssocompellingisthattheyarebasedonassumptionsthateventhe
mostextremeantiabortionist(i.e.,onewhoholdsthatabortionisalwayswrong)would
likelyaccept.
Thomsonasksyoutoimaginewakingupsomemorningtofindyourselfconnectedto
anunconsciousviolinistsufferingfromapotentiallyfatalkidneyailment.Supposethat
lastnighttheSocietyofMusicLoverskidnappedyouand,withoutyourconsent,
surgicallyconnectedtheviolinisttoyourcirculatorysysteminadesperateattemptto
savehislife.Younowfacethefollowingchoice.Youcanremainconnectedtothe
violinistforninemonthsbywhichtimetheviolinistwillbeabletosurviveonhisown,
oryoucanunplugyourselffromtheviolinistinwhichcasetheviolinistwill
immediatelydieasaresult.
Thomsonassumesthatinthissituationyouareundernoobligationtoremain
connectedtotheviolinistfortheninemonths.Youmayunplugyourselffromthe
violinistevenifthisentailskillinghim.Nowthisassumptionseemsrelatively
uncontroversial;itisonethatevenaproliferwouldlikelyaccept.Butfromthis
seeminglybenignassumption,Thomsonisabletoarguethatabortionissometimes
permissibleevenifthefetushasarighttolife,fortheviolinistsurelyhasarighttolife
andyetitispermissibleforyoutokillhim.Andabortingafetuswhoseexistenceisdue
torapeis,inallmorallyrelevantrespects,analogoustounpluggingyourselffromthe
violinist(orsoThomsonargues).ThusThomsonconcludesthatitispermissibletohave
anabortionincertaincircumstances(i.e.,thecaseofrape)evenifthefetushasarightto
lifefromthemomentofconception.

8.CriticizinganArgument
Donttreatthephilosophersorviewsyourediscussingasiftheywerestupid.Ifthey
werestupid,wewouldntbediscussingtheminthefirstplace.Soevenifyouare
subsequentlygoingtocriticizeanargument,stateitfirstinafairandsympathetic
manner,makingclearwhyareasonablepersonmightbeledtothinkinsuchaway.In
somecases,itmayevenbenecessarytomakecharitablerevisionstoanargument.That
is,sometimesanargumentisflawedinawaythatcanbeeasilyfixed.Inthiscase,you
shouldexplainhowtheargumentcanberevisedandthenfocusyourcriticismsonthis
stronger,revisedversionoftheargument.Forinstance,considerthefollowingobjection
againstThomsonsviolinistexample.SomepeoplearguethatThomsonsviolinist
exampleisntanalogoustopregnancybecausebeinghookeduptotheviolinistfornine
monthsisagreaterburdenforthepersonkidnappedthanpregnancyisforanexpectant
motheratleast,apregnantwomancanwalkaroundandgoplaces,whereastheperson
hookeduptotheviolinistisconfinedtoahospitalbed.ButitseemsthatThomsoncould
easilyreviseheranalogyandstilluseitforthesameeffect.Afterall,evenifwesuppose
thattheviolinistisamidgetwhocouldbecarriedononesbackfortheninemonths,it
stillseemspermissibletodisconnectyourselffromhim.
Thepointisyoudontwanttotaketheweakestargumentforanopposingviewan
attackthat.Ratheryouwanttothinkofthestrongestpossibleargumentforanopposing
viewandshowthateventhatargumentfails.Onlythenwillyouhaveconvincedothers
thattheopposingviewisindefensible.
Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatitisneverthecasethattheonlyproblemwithan
argumentisthatitsconclusionisfalse.Iftheconclusionisfalse,theneither(a)oneor
moreofitspremisesarefalseor(b)itsreasoningisfaultysuchthattheconclusion
doesntfollowfromthepremises.Thus,ifyoudisagreewiththeconclusionofan
argument,youmustfindfaultwitheitheritslogicorwithoneofitspremises,andyou
needtobeexplicitaboutwhichitisandwhy.
Youshouldensurethatyourcriticismsfocusontherelevantphilosophicalissuesas
opposedtoanyrelatedempiricalissues.Inotherwords,Iamnotinterestedinpapers
thatcontesttheempiricalassertionsmadeinthelecturesandreadings.Thepointofthe
assignmentistodemonstrateyourphilosophicalabilities,notyourknowledgeofany
empiricalfacts.Soif,forinstance,yourpaperisaboutabortion,dontgettooinvolvedin
empiricalissuessuchaswhetherornotthefetusissentientorselfawareby,say,the
secondtrimester.Youshouldinsteadfocusontherelatedphilosophicalissuessuchas
howsentienceandselfawarenesscanaffectthemoralstatusofafetus.

9.ConsideringPotentialObjections

Afterofferingreasonsforacceptingyourthesis,youneedtoconsiderpotential
objections.Theseobjectionscomeintwovarieties,andyoumustconsiderboth.First,
thereareobjectionstoyourargument,whichcanbedirectedagainsteitheryour
reasoningoryourassumptions.Secondthereareobjectionstoyourthesis.Thefirstsort
ofobjectionisdirectedagainstthereasonsyougiveforyourthesis,whilethesecond
sortisdirectedagainstthethesisitself.
Todealwiththefirstsortofobjection,youwillprobablyneedtooffersubarguments
(i.e.,argumentsthatdefendcertainstepsorassumptionsmadeinyourmainargument).
Butfirstyoullneedtoaskyourself,towhichofmyassumptionsandtowhichofthe
stepsinmyargumentissomeoneoftheopposingviewlikelytoobject.Youllneedto
offercounterargumentsagainstsuchobjections.Ultimately,theargumentativesteps
andassumptionsyourelyonshouldbeacceptabletoyouropponent.Thispartofyour
essayisabsolutelyessential.Forifyoufailtoconsiderandrebutsuchobjections,then
youwillhavefailedtomakeasatisfactorypositivecaseforyourthesis.
Theothertypeofobjectionisdirectedagainstyourthesis/conclusion.Youshouldask
yourselfthefollowingquestions:Doesmyconclusionhaveanycontroversial
implications?CanIthinkofanycounterexamplestomyconclusion?And,most
importantly,DONTIGNOREYOUROPPONENTSCOUNTERARGUMENTS.Ifyou
makeaclaimthatoneofthephilosopherswevediscussedhasarguedagainst,you
absolutelymustaddressthatargumentseethesectionentitledCriticizingan
Argument.Inotherwords,ifyourthesisisPandoneofthephilosophersweve
discussedhasarguednotP,thenyoumustshowwherethatphilosophersargumentfor
notPgoeswrong.Ifyoudont,youwillreceiveapoorgrade.Ofcourse,ifyoudont
thinkthatyoucanadequatelyrebuttheargument,thenyouneedtochangeyourthesis
tosomethingyoucandefend.

10.YourAudience

Inyourpaper,youmustdemonstratethatyouhavemasteryofthephilosophicalissues
andargumentsthatyouarediscussing.Thebestwaytogoaboutdoingthisisby
pretendingthatyouarewriting,notforyourinstructor,butforsomeonewhoknows
absolutelynothingaboutphilosophyorthecoursethatyouretaking.So,asJamesPryor
putsit,

Pretendthatyourreaderhasnotreadthematerialyourediscussing,andhasnotgiventhetopic
muchthoughtinadvance.Thiswillofcoursenotbetrue.Butifyouwriteasifitweretrue,itwill
forceyoutoexplainanytechnicalterms,toillustratestrangeorobscuredistinctions,andtobeas
explicitaspossiblewhenyousummarizewhatsomeotherphilosophersaid.
Infact,youcanprofitablytakethisonestepfurtherandpretendthatyourreaderislazy,
stupid,andmean.Heslazyinthathedoesntwanttofigureoutwhatyourconvolutedsentences
aresupposedtomean,andhedoesntwanttofigureoutwhatyourargumentis,ifitsnotalready
obvious.Hesstupid,soyouhavetoexplaineverythingyousaytohiminsimple,bitesizedpieces
[whilealsoillustratingyourpointswithhelpfulexamples].Andhesmean,sohesnotgoingto
readyourpapercharitably.(Forexample,ifsomethingyousayadmitsofmorethanone
interpretation,hesgoingtoassumeyoumeantthelessplausiblething.) 3

11.WritingClearlyandPrecisely

Refrainfromusingstuffywordsandlongwindedsentences.Avoidpretentiousprose
suchas,alas,deem,quest,ponder,propound,etc.Beingclearisfarmore
importantthanappearingtohaveasophisticatedwritingstyle.Avoidusingvocabulary

3SeehisGuidelinesonWritingaPhilosophyPaper.
thatyouareunaccustomedtousinginordinaryconversation.Toomanystudentsthink
thatbeingphilosophicalinvolvesbeingcomplexandobscure.Quitetheopposite,
simplicityandclarityaretheidealsofphilosophy.
Youshouldchooseyourwordsverycarefully.Askyourself:DoeswhatIvewritten
preciselyexpressthethoughtsthatImeantoconvey?Donotleavesomethingunclear
andjustassumethatyourreaderwillbeabletofigureoutwhatyoumean.Forinstance,
dontwritesomethinglikeAbortionisthesamethingasmurder.Abortionandmurder
arenotthesamething.Ifabortionandmurderwerethesamething,thenonecouldsay
thatJacktheRipperabortedmanywomen.But,ofcourse,thisisabsurd.JacktheRipper
murderedmanywomenbutabortednone.Ofcourse,mostpeoplewouldunderstand
thatwhatyoumeantwasthatabortionisaformofmurder.Butwhetherornotyour
readerisabletofigureoutwhatyoumeantisirrelevant,becauseeitherwayitisbad
writing.
Youwillfindthatphilosopherswritewithadegreeofprecisionthatgoeswell
beyondthatwhichiscustomaryinordinaryconversation,andIwillexpectthesame
degreeofprecisioninyouressay.Thebestwaytoensurethatyouwriteclearlyisto
keepyourprosesimpleanddirect.Donttrytomakeyourwritingcolorful.For
instance,dontusemetaphorsjustplainlysaywhatitisyouhavetosay.Andavoid
overstatingwhatyouhavetosay.Overstatementiscommonineverydayconversation
butunacceptableinaphilosophypaper.Forinstance,inconversationsomeonemight
say,Everyoneinthetropicsissorelaxed.But,ofcourse,noteveryonelivinginthe
tropicsisrelaxed.Sobecarefulwhenusingwordslikeeveryandall.
Andavoidthefollowingpitfalls:

BadDiction:Thisiswhereawordisusedinappropriately.
Example:Rachelssargumentisfalse.(Statements,claims,beliefs,etc.canallbe
trueorfalse,butnotarguments.Argumentsarevalidorinvalid,soundor
unsound,cogentornotcogent.)
Example:ThestatementAllhumanlivesarevaluableinfersthatthelivesof
permanentlyunconscioushumansarevaluable.(Toinferistodrawsome
conclusionfromasetofstatementsorfacts.Buttodrawaconclusionisamental
actthatonlyrationalbeingscanperform.ThestatementAllhumanlivesare
valuablehasnomindandsocannotperformanymentalact,letalonethatof
inferring.Inthisexample,properdictiondemandsthatthewordinfersbe
replacedwiththewordimplies.)
Example:Utilitarianismbelievesthattherightactistheonethatproducesthe
greatesthappinessforthegreatestnumber.(Utilitarianismisaview,nota
consciousentity.Thusutilitarianismisincapableofthementalactofbelieving.So
youmustrevisethissentence.Initsplace,youcouldsay,Utilitariansbelieve...
orUtilitarianismistheviewaccordingtowhich...)
Vagueness:Thisiswhereonefailstoexpresswhats/hemeansprecisely.
Example:Abortionisnotthebestsolutiontoanunwantedpregnancy.(Does
thismeanthatalthoughyouthinkthatabortionismorallypermissible,you
 believethatitwouldbepreferableforwomenwithunwantedpregnanciesto
carrythemtotermandputtheirunwantedchildrenupforadoption?Or,does
thismeanthatyousimplythinkthatabortionismorallywrong?)
Ambiguity:Thisiswhereoneusesawordthatcanhavemorethanonemeaningbut
failstospecifywhichmeaningisintended.
Example:Afetusisaninnocenthumanbeing.(Byclaimingthatafetusis
human,areyoumerelyclaimingthatitisamemberofthespeciesHomosapiens?
Or,areyouclaimingthatitishumaninthemorallyrelevantsenseofthatterm,
thesenseinwhichwethinkyouandIarehumanbutsomeoneinapersistent
vegetativestateisnot?)
Example:Affirmativeactionisdiscrimination,plainandsimple.(Becareful
here.Theworddiscriminationissometimesusedinanevaluativelyloaded
sensetorefertoprejudicedaction,butitisalsousedinanevaluativelyneutral
sensetorefertotheactofrespondingtodifferences.Andwhileitisclearthat
affirmativeactioninvolvestheactofrespondingtodifferencesinrace,itisnotat
allclearthatitinvolvesprejudice.Considerthecasewhereacastingdirector
refusestoauditionawhiteactorfortheroleofMalcolmX.Isthisdiscrimination?
Well,itisclearlydiscriminationintheevaluativelyneutralsenseoftheterm,but
itdoesntseemtobebasedonprejudice.Bottomline,theresnothingplainand
simpleaboutclaimingthataffirmativeactionisdiscrimination.)

12.ArguingAgainstaClaim

Thefollowingaretwoofthemostcommonstrategiesforarguingagainstaclaim(You
mayfinditusefultoemploythesestrategiesinyourownpaperortoconsiderwhether
youropponentmightbeabletousethemagainstyou.):

ReductioadAbsurdum:Thisstrategyinvolvesarguingagainstaclaimbyshowingthatit
impliessomeabsurdity.Toillustrate,considerthatsomepeopleclaimthatthereason
humansufferingismoreimportant(morallyspeaking)thananimalsufferingisthat
humanshaveakindanddegreeofintelligencethatotheranimalslack.Here,onecould
arguethatweshouldrejectsuchaclaimgiventhatitimpliesthatthesufferingof
severelyretardedinfants(whoalsolackthekindanddegreeofintelligencethatnormal
adultshumanbeingspossess)islessimportantthanthesufferingofnormaladult
humanbeings,whichjustseemspatentlyabsurd.

PresentingaCounterexample:Thisstrategyinvolvesgivinganexamplethatproves
somegeneralpropositionfalse.Toillustrate,considerthatsomepeoplemaintainthatwe
onlyhavedutiestohelpthosepeoplethatstandinsomespecialrelationshipto
ourselves.Forinstance,theysayIhaveadutytohelpmyfamilybecauseofthenatureof
familialrelationships.AndtheysaythatIhaveadutytohelpmyemployerbecauseof
thenatureoftheemployer/employeerelationship.However,theywoulddenythatI
haveadutytohelpmyfriendsemployersinceIdonotstandinanyspecialrelationship
tothatemployer;sheisnotmyemployer.
Onewaytoargueagainstthisviewistopresentacounterexample.Onefamous
example,whichcomesfromthephilosophicalliterature,iscalledTheShallowPond.
Imaginethatwhilewalkingtoclassoneday,youseeasmallchilddrowningina
shallowpond.Inordertosavethechild,youneedonlywadeintotheshallowpondand
grabthechild.Nowmostofusareinclinedtojudgethatyouhaveadutytosavethe
child.Weareeveninclinedtothinkthatitwouldbeseriouslymorallywrongtojust
walkawayandletthechilddrown.Butnotethatyoudonotstandinanyspecial
relationshiptothechild,forwearetosupposethatthechildisacompletestrangerwho
belongstoadifferentcultureandsociety.TheShallowPond,then,constitutesacounter
exampletotheclaimthatweonlyhaveadutytoaidthosewithwhomwehavesome
specialrelationship.

13.DefiningYourTerms

Avoiddictionarydefinitionsofphilosophicalterms.Dictionariesarenotauthoritative
whenitcomestophilosophicalmeanings.Dictionariesaregoodauthoritiesonthe
commonandordinaryusageofwords,buttheproblemisthatthephilosophicaluseofa
wordrarelycoincideswithordinaryusage.Philosophicaltermsoftenhavevery
specializedmeanings.Considerthewordsvalidandtrue.Inordinaryconversation,
thewordscanoftenbeusedinterchangeably,aswhensomeonemightsubstituteThats
avalidclaimforThatsatrueclaim.Butdontbemisledbythis.Youcannotusethe
wordtruetodescribeanargument.Asphilosophersusetheseterms,validisusedto
describethoseargumentswheretheconclusionnecessarilyfollowsfromthepremises,
andtrueisusedtodescribethosestatements(notarguments!)thataccurately
representthewaytheworldis.
Althoughyoushouldnotuseadictionarytodoso,itisimportanttodefine
philosophicalterms,aswellasotherkeyterms.Awordmustbedefinedifanyof
followingapply:(1)itisatechnicaltermthatalaypersonisnotlikelytoknowthe
meaningof,(2)itisanordinarywordwhosemeaningisnotsufficientlyclearorprecise,
or(3)itisanordinarywordthatisgoingtobeusedtomeansomethingotherthanwhat
itordinarilymeans.Sodefinetechnicaltermslikedeterminism,aprioriknowledge,
andprimafaciewrong.Anddefinewordslikeeuthanasiaandabortion.Although
thesearefairlyordinarywords,theirprecisedefinitionsareopenfordebate.For
instance,inregardstoabortion,itisnotclearwhetherabortionnecessarilyinvolves
killingthefetus.Cantherebelivebirthabortions?Ifafetusisforciblyextractedbya
physicianandlives,wasitanabortion?Ourordinarynotionofabortionisntprecise
enoughtosettletheissue.
Lastly,ifyouaregoingtouseanordinarywordtomeansomethingotherthanwhat
itordinarilymeans,youmustmakethatcleartoyourreader.Forinstance,PeterSinger
usesthewordpersontorefertoanyrational,selfconsciousbeing.Thus,asSinger
definesperson,nonhumanscanbepersons.Ofcourse,itmayseemoddtocall
anythingbutahumanbeingaperson,butthisisonlybecauseSingerdoesntuse
persontomeanwhatitordinarilymeans.Nevertheless,thereisnothingwrongwith
usinganordinarywordinsuchanonordinarysensesolongasyoumakeitclearthat
youaredoingsoandSingerdoes.

14.Quoting

Donotrelyonquotationsasameansofmakingyourpoints.Youshould,rather,explain
thingsusingyourownwords.Theabilitytoexplainsomeoneelsespositionusingyour
ownwordsdemonstratestothereaderthatyouhaveaclearunderstandingofthat
personsviewpoint.Youshouldalsoavoidcloseparaphrasingforthesamereason.
Usequotationsonlyinordertosupportaparticularinterpretationofatext.Sodont
quoteunlessyouintendtodiscussthequotedpassageandhowitsupportsyour
interpretationofthetext.Perhapstheonlyotherexceptioniswhereyouwanttoquote
theprecisedefinitionofaword,asitisgivenbyoneofthephilosophersthatyoure
discussing.

15.Plagiarism

Plagiarismistheactofusinganotherpersonsideasorexpressionsinyourwriting
withoutacknowledgingthesource...toplagiarizeistogivetheimpressionthatyouhave
writtenorthoughtsomethingthatyouhaveinfactborrowedfromsomeoneelse....
Otherformsofplagiarismincluderepeatingsomeoneelsesparticularlyaptphrase
withoutappropriateacknowledgment,paraphrasinganotherpersonsargumentasyour
own,andpresentinganotherslineofthinkingasthoughitwereyourown. 4
Ifyouareatallunclearaboutwhatcountsasplagiarism,thenyoushouldseeyour
instructorbecauseplagiarismoftencarriesseverepenalties,rangingfromanFonthe
assignmenttoexpulsionfromtheuniversity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Icannotclaimcreditformanyoftheideascontainedwithinthisguide.Manyofthem
havecomefromtheotherguidesthatIvelookedatIvelistedthembelow.Ihavealso
borrowedfromhandoutsusedbycolleaguesatboththeUniversityofCalifornia,Santa
BarbaraandtheCollegeofCharleston.Ihavetriedtogivecreditwherecreditisdue,but
Imayhaveleftsomepeopleout.Mysincereapologiestothoseindividualsandmy
thankstotheauthorsofallthoseguides.

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4JosephGibaldiandWalterS.Achert,MLAHandbookforWritersofResearchPapers,3rded.(NewYork,NY:
TheModernLanguageAssociation,1988),2125.
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http://spot.colorado.edu/~tooley/WritingEssays.html.
CharlesDarling,GuidetoGrammarandWriting,at
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