Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 337346

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Energy for Sustainable Development

Knowledge communication regarding solar home systems in Uganda: The

consumers' perspective
Annika Tillmans a,, Petra Schweizer-Ries b, 1
a
Postgraduate Program Microenergy Systems, Center for Technology and Society, Technische Universitt Berlin, Hardenbergstr, 1618, Sekr. HBS 1, D-10623 Berlin, Germany
b
Environmental Psychology, Nachhaltigkeitswissenschaft, Universitt des Saarlandes, Campus A5.4, D-66123 Saarbrcken, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Due to their complexity, the lifespan of solar home systems depends to a great extent on proper sizing,
Received 28 June 2011 installation and use. Hence, knowledge communication to the local solar companies who carry out the sizing
Revised 5 July 2011 and installations, and to the users who have to handle their systems according to the usage instructions, is a
Accepted 5 July 2011
crucial factor for success. For effective knowledge communication, new information should always match the
Available online 6 August 2011
recipients' existing beliefs and misbeliefs. Our study provides a rst insight into the prevalence of beliefs and
Keywords:
misbeliefs among key stakeholders in Uganda regarding basic technical aspects of solar home systems.
Solar home systems Moreover, we analyze the ability of stakeholders, who are responsible for knowledge transfer, to accurately
User perspective predict the users' beliefs. A total of 139 representatives from ve groups of key stakeholders responded to ten
Knowledge communication knowledge items. Users were asked to give their personal opinion about each item. In addition to their own
Mental models opinion, the other stakeholders estimated the users' opinions. The rst result of our survey reveals an early
knowledge drop in the chain of information transfer from the manufacturers via supervising organizations in
Uganda, down to the local solar companies and the users. As a consequence, solar companies and users do not
possess the required knowledge to run the systems sustainably. The second result demonstrates that those
stakeholders, who possess the technical knowledge and the means to design instructions for users, are unable
to see the users' perspective due to great psychological distance, thus limiting effective knowledge transfer.
2011 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction Goals (MDGs). However, this contribution can only be accomplished if

Challenges of knowledge communication regarding solar home systems
in Uganda
The countrywide electrication rate in Uganda is only 9% (UNDP,
2010), and comes down to 3% in rural areas (Gesellschaft fr
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), 2009). Since grid connection is
in most cases too expensive for people in rural areas, there is a high
demand for off-grid solutions. Solar home systems have a high
potential to fulll this demand, because the energy service needed
by people in rural areas in developing countries is only 1 kWh or less
per day (see e.g. Reiche, Grner, Attigah, Hellpap & Brderle, 2010).
Nevertheless, they have to use about one third of their income to cover
their expenditures for kerosene, candles or batteries for lighting, and
the service fee to have their mobile phones charged (Bundesminister-
ium fr wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit, 2007). Solar home systems
therefore have the potential to contribute to poverty reduction and
support the achievement of some of the Millennium Development
Corresponding author. Tel.: + 49 30 50178022.
E-mail addresses: annika.tillmans@fg-upsy.com (A. Tillmans),
petra.schweizer-ries@fg-upsy.com (P. Schweizer-Ries).
1
Tel.: + 49 681 302 3180; fax: + 49 681 302 3450.
the systems work reliably for a reasonable period of time.
During an evaluation of the solar program of an established NGO in
Uganda the majority of the solar home systems were found to be
malfunctioning, even though most of the observed systems were less
than a year old, some only a few weeks. The experiences of GTZ
(2000) and Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ,
2011) have shown that the reliability of solar energy installations
signicantly depends on proper handling and maintenance (see also
GIZ, 2011). As Schweizer-Ries (2004) states, solar systems mostly
work without problems in laboratory or eld tests; problems
connected to usage arise only later. Since the evaluation included
technical system checks as well as interviews with users and other
stakeholders, it was found that users, as well as the responsible
technicians, had problems with the new technology. They seemed to
be lacking the appropriate knowledge of correct installation, handling,
use and maintenance. As a result, the systems did not work reliably
and broke down prematurely. At the same time some technicians
seemed to not consider the end-user as the major component of the
system and one which requires training (see also GIZ, 2011). In some
cases the technician did the installation at the user's home and left
without further explanation (personal experience, February 2010).
Our rst question was which belief systems about solar home
systems do actually exist among different groups of stakeholders in

0973-0826/$ see front matter 2011 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.esd.2011.07.003
338 A. Tillmans, P. Schweizer-Ries / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 337346
Uganda. Our second question focused on the reasons for the
apparently poor knowledge transfer to the people who handle the
system.
Research objectives
The present study therefore has two main objectives. First we want
to analyze the existing mental models about solar home systems of
different groups of key stakeholders in Uganda by exploring their
beliefs and misbeliefs concerning crucial technical aspects of solar
home systems. We expect a decline of knowledge from the
manufacturer down to the user, since information is handed over
from manufacturers via organizations working in development
cooperation to local solar companies and technicians, and from
them to the actual end users.
The second objective is to analyze an important aspect of the
communication process. The knowledge communication to the local
solar companies, but also to the users is mainly carried out by
supervising organizations working in development cooperation like
GIZ, Rural Energy Foundation, but also Ugandan institutions like the
Energy Ministry, their executing institution the Rural Electrication
Agency or the Faculty of Technology at Makerere University in
Kampala. They carry out trainings for users and technicians and
develop information material and usage manuals. In order to
communicate effectively the communicator should, according to
Breakwell (2001), on the one hand possess correct knowledge in
itself and on the other hand adapt the new information to existing
beliefs and the recipient's level of understanding, since those two
aspects are assumed to inuence reception and interpretation of new
information. That means the communicators should attempt to
anticipate the users' beliefs and misbeliefs in order to anchor new
knowledge to existing knowledge structures and to change inappro-
priate beliefs. Therefore the capability of key stakeholders to adopt the
users' perspective will be analyzed. Who of the key stakeholders can
best predict the users' mental models? The concept of psychological
distance (Trope et al., 2007), which will be examined in the following
section, seems to provide a well-founded hypothesis: we expect to
reveal a decreasing ability to adopt the users' perspective with an
increasing distance of the communicator from the users' way of living
and thinking.
We hope that the knowledge gained from these analyses will
provide a valuable starting point for discussions about improvements
in information transfer as well as changes in education of staff in
technical development cooperation towards a more human-centered
approach (as stated by Schweizer-Ries (2004) and successfully
carried out by Schweizer-Ries et al. (2006)).
Literature review
Knowledge structures as mental models
A person's beliefs and misbeliefs about a physical system are
according to Norman (1983) represented in a mental model. People
possess mental models in order to understand and anticipate a
system's behavior. Beliefs develop either through observation,
instruction or inference. In the present case, every stakeholder
involved in solar home systems has at least some relevant beliefs
about it, which are embedded in a mental model about the solar home
system and energy use and supply in general. In order to make
inferences and reach conclusions on how to actfor instance how to
design a system, how to determine its size and specications, how to
install it, how to facilitate it, or how to use ita person has to evaluate
his or her mental model about it. A relevant part of the mental model,
especially regarding comparatively new technology, is acquired by
communication. The mental model approach has been studied most
elaborately in the eld of risk communication (see e.g. Morgan et al.,
2002), but its tenets regarding communication also apply to
communication on other matters or systems or to bridge the gap
between mental models of laymen and experts.
A matching, and therefore effective communication of missing
facts or correction of misbeliefs can only be developed, when the
recipient's initial knowledge of the target system (here the solar home
system) is mapped. Different groups of stakeholders require different
kinds of instructions about solar home systems. That is the reason
why the mental models on basic technical knowledge concerning
solar home systems of each group of key stakeholders will be
examined in this study.
Psychological distance and perspective-taking as success factors in
knowledge communication
All stakeholders try to transfer knowledge to the users (e.g. by
developing user manuals, carrying out village presentations, or giving
instructions during installation), since the users are the supposed
beneciaries of all of the efforts around solar home systems. Correct
use is one key factor inuencing the lifespan of the systems and
therefore sustainability in economical, social and ecological terms. In
order to make their manuals, presentations and instructions effective,
the stakeholders need to anticipate the users' mental models. The
ability to adopt the users' perspective and thereby the success of
communication processes seem to depend on the so called psycho-
logical distance as the following studies show.
Trope et al. (2007) refer to psychological distance as an important
inuence on individuals' thoughts and behavior with multiple
dimensions, space and social distance among others. Research has
shown that psychological distance affects mental models or con-
struals and thereby guides prediction and evaluation. People construe
objects or matters that are psychologically close to them in a more
detailed and contextualized way, whereas they construe distant
objects or matters in more abstract and less detailed ways (see e.g.
Galinsky et al., 2003).
As different project evaluations show, psychological distance
seems to affect the outcomes of programs of technology and
knowledge transfer to so called developing countries. Clemens et al.
(2002) analyzed a water project in Guatemala and considered a
similar reason to be one of the success factors. This project, Agua del
Pueblo, recruited all the required staff from indigenous peoples from
rural areas to minimize social, cultural and economical differences
between project coordinators and beneciaries. Clemens et al. stated
that this was very important for the projects' effectiveness, since
Agua del Pueblo was able to act more sensitively to the local
populations (p.120). They also explained that even cultural barriers
between urban elites and the rural population undermine the success
of regional development efforts (p.120). Their ndings seem to prove
that one crucial factor for the project's success was the staff's ability to
understand the world in which the beneciaries lived and their ability
to see the project through the beneciaries' eyes.
Considering the ndings of Clemens et al. (2002) and Trope et al.
(2007), in the present case stakeholders that are psychologically near
the actual users of the systems should be able to anticipate the users'
mental models of solar home systems much better than stakeholders
that are more distant.
Methods
To understand both aspectsthe mental models of different
stakeholders as well as their ability to adopt the users' perspective
a co-orientation approach was used in this study (see e.g. Uzzel,
1987). This approach provides a methodology to analyze perceptions
of specic subjects held by different groups. In this case, each
stakeholder has a mental model regarding solar home systems and it
is suggested that these models are related to other stakeholders'
 A. Tillmans, P. Schweizer-Ries / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 337346
conceptions (McLeod and Chaffee, 1973; Uzzel, 1987). They state a
person's behavior is not based simply in his private cognitive
construction of his world. It is also a function of his perception of
the orientations held by others around him and his orientation to
them (McLeod and Chaffee, 1973, p.470).
The co-orientation technique analyzes the connections of
communication processes among groups using the concepts of
similarity and accuracy: similarity is the correlation among the
mental models of two persons regarding an object. In our case
knowledge differences between stakeholders can be examined with
this concept. Accuracy assesses how accurate a person estimates the
cognitions of another person in reality, in this case, the degree of
accuracy to which stakeholders are able to see solar home systems
from the users' perspective. Also researchers of the co-orientation
approach emphasize that accuracy in understanding the users' belief
structures is crucial for communication, because the less accurate
the perception, the more ineffective the communication will be
(Brnn, 2000, p. 14).
Questionnaire development
The development of the questionnaire was one of the most
exciting parts of the study and will therefore be described in detail.
The challenge was to assemble a questionnaire that met several
criteria. First, the items should ask for knowledge which was crucial
for the systems' life span and at the same time reected existing
problems in the Ugandan eld of solar home systems. That was easy to
realize, since the items were developed bottom-up based on
preliminary interviews with representatives of each stakeholder
group, on-site technical system checks during the mentioned
evaluation of a solar program in Uganda, and additional expert
discussions. For example, we found many undersized systems during
the evaluation which had an insufcient panel for the applied load. A
solar panel labeled as 20 Watt in fact only produces about 14 W
peak, due to the performance ratio of the battery 2and other energy
losses (reection, cable losses, etc.). If a technician who sizes systems
and explains usage regulations to the user does not know that, he
might undersize the system or install too many light bulbs at the
user's home, which reduces the battery's lifespan. Since batteries
account for between one third and half of the price of the system,
replacements cannot easily be made by the users.
As a second criterion the questionnaire should contain easy,
medium and difcult items, to differentiate knowledge levels
among the participants. That implied including items which could
most likely not be answered by the users, but only by the more
technically educated stakeholders. Nevertheless we also included
these items in the users' questionnaire in order to be able to compare
their knowledge level to that of other stakeholders. To avoid
demotivation of the participating users through too many unanswer-
able items, the knowledge items were embedded in a longer
questionnaire containing easier questions as well. 3 At the same
time all items should be equally understandable to all surveyed
groups of stakeholders in the Ugandan eld of solar home systems.
During an on-site pilot phase, representatives of each stakeholder
2
Performance ratio of the battery means that the voltage of the battery has an
inuence on the energy output of the solar panel. For example 20-watt-peak panels only
produce 20 W when an 18-volt battery or an 18 V load is connected to it. A normal
battery used for solar home system only has a voltage of 12 V, which reduces the energy
output of the panel by about 25%. Modern charge controllers possess a maximum power
point tracker that modulates the voltage with a small micro processor to always reach the
voltage of maximum power. For more details see Rothenwnder (2009) or http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking, or have a closer look at the data
sheets of solar modules.
3
The actual survey contained additional questions not discussed in this paper. These
questions, mainly concerning beliefs about advantages and disadvantages of solar
home systems, will be analyzed in following publications.
339
group were requested to judge each item's comprehensibility. Their
wording proposals were included in the nal questionnaire, which
contained ten statements about knowledge crucial for the lifespan of a
solar home system and was designed for users as well as other
stakeholders. Participants of the study were asked to respond
according to a truefalse-test-design. The applied ve-option scale
(true, maybe true, don't know, maybe false, false) is often used to
examine knowledge questions in a mental models approach (e.g.
Morgan et al., 2002) because they are more compact than multiple
choice questions and allow the respondent to express uncertainty.
The don't know-item was especially useful, since we did not expect
all respondents to be able to answer every item. All stakeholders
(including the users) were asked to give their personal opinion about
each item. In addition to their own opinion, the other stakeholders
were also supposed to estimate the user's opinion in order to show
their ability to adopt the user's perspective (for an example of the
questionnaire see Table 1).
As the following part shows, each item was designed according to
a hypothesis on how users and other stakeholders might respond.
Item 1. When the charge controller shows red light all the time, it
means the charge controller is broken. referred to one of the ndings
during the preliminary program evaluation: a few users reported that
they had called their solar company, when their charge controller
showed a red light nearly permanently. The technician came and did
something with the charge controller. After that, the charge
controller did not show the red light anymore. We interpreted
those incidents as follows: the users who reported those incidents all
had a comparatively new system which was still under warranty
where broken parts had to be replaced by the solar company without
extra costs to the user. That nearly constant red light indicated a
malfunctioning battery. 4 Instead of replacing the expensive battery,
the solar company sent a technician to bypass the charge controller. A
malfunctioning battery will still give a little bit of power, so the user
can feel satised for a while and the company can keep the costs low.
Even though it is a matter of a poor regulatory framework and a weak
quality control system, if a technician can get away with bypassing the
charge controller instead of replacing the battery under warranty, an
informed user can exert more social pressure on the company. With
Item 1 we tried to nd out how widespread that belief is among users,
and maybe even among solar companies.
Item 2. Daily deep discharging of the battery reduces its lifespan.
was designed as an easy item which most participants would agree
to. Since it is so crucial to know that deep discharging reduces a
battery's lifespan, even a single user or other stakeholder who is not
aware of this would be close to a catastrophe. The rather technical
phrase deep discharging was explained to the users by the
translator as taking a lot of energy out every day, so that the battery
is nearly empty.
Item 3. When there is bright sunshine a 20-watt panel in a solar
home system generates about 20 watt. and Item 4 (When there is
bright sunshine a 20-watt panel in a solar home system generates
about 14 watt.) belong together. We expected most of the partici-
pants, except for the manufacturers, to judge Item 3 as true and Item
4 as false. Manufacturers know that due to the performance ratio of
the battery (see footnote 1 for explanation) the actual output of the
panel is reduced substantially, but we found sizing sheets (provided
by supervising organizations to solar companies) which completely
4
In most of the visited systems the batteries' malfunctioning was caused by a
conglomerate of problems. First of all most batteries were of questionable quality and
not at all made for daily deep discharging. Secondly, the systems were sized too small
(as described in footnote 1), and at the same time the charge controller did not
support low voltage disconnection (as described under Item 10) so that the battery
was constantly drained in a way that would lead to destruction very quickly.
340 A. Tillmans, P. Schweizer-Ries / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 337346
Table 1
Questionnaire.
neglected this fact. Not surprisingly, all the 20-watt systems we
checked in Uganda were undersized and equipped with too many
consumer loads, but often approved by the quality control of
supervising organizations as correctly sized and installed.
Item 5. When the automatic cut-off (so that the battery does not
discharge below a certain level) is not working, the solar home
system can still run well for many years. and Item 10 (The
automatic cut-off is the life insurance for the battery.) were
included, because the most frequently used charge controller of
German origin in the inspected systems did not support low voltage
disconnection. The corresponding user manual only revealed that
feature's absence when the small print was read very carefully. Since
user manuals are rarely read at all in Uganda, users rely on what they
are told by the installing technician. All of the users we talked to
during the system checks were sure that the charge controller would
cut-off the system in case of low power. Some of them experienced a
system breakdown when the power was so low that the bulbs were
not working anymore. They misinterpreted these incidents as
regular cut-offs. Especially in undersized systems like the ones we
found in Uganda, a low voltage disconnection is very important to
avoid such deep discharging which will destroy the batteries very
quickly. Items 5 and 10 therefore target the awareness of the
importance to employ a low voltage disconnection. We expected
some participants of the solar companies and some of the users to
judge Item 5 as true and Item 10 as false, which means that they are
not aware of the importance.
Item 7. A 20-watt system with a standard 10-ampere hour-battery
can be run for many years with up to six 5-watt-lights and a mobile
charger. Item 8 ( four 5-watt-lights and a mobile charger.), and
Item 9 ( two 5-watt-lights and a mobile charger.) again belong
together and refer to Items 3 and 4, since the number of installed
ve-watt light bulbs is a direct consequence of the presumed output
of the panel. We therefore expected similar results. Expert
discussions and technical system checks proved Item 9 as true,
but Item 7 and 8 as false. Hence, during our eld research we found
many households with 20-watt systems with three or four installed
ve-watt bulbs in addition to a mobile charger, which is also
supposed to consume 5 W. The additional challenge for the already
undersized systems was the fact that all bulbs tested by us were
actually fake products consuming up to 8 W instead of the declared
5 W. Of course, these bulbs were supposed to be used only 2 to 4 h
per day, but considering the battery's performance ratio, the fake
bulbs and the problems discussed with item 6, these restrictions
would not at all be sufcient. We assumed users to reply according to
the number of bulbs that were installed in their home, since they
would not expect to have miscalculated systems. The question was
more designed to reveal at which point in the information chain the
correct knowledge was lost.
Item 6. The system size can be minimized for a required demand,
when strict rules for usage are given. was added to learn more about
the importance stakeholders attach to the issue of fault tolerance,
because on top of the already mentioned problems with system
sizing, organizations and solar companies try to minimize the panel
size also for nancial reasons in such a way that the system does not
have any fault tolerance anymore. That means that any usage
mistake (e.g. 1 h extended light usage or dust on the panel) will
immediately affect the charging condition of the battery in a way
that can cause damage. Since following rules or time slots very
strictly is not especially African (see e.g. Mayer et al., 2003), many
of the users seemed to be unaware that only half an hour of extended
light usage could already affect their system's lifespan. For example,
one teacher who had a 20-watt system installed on his school
reported that they sometimes simply need and use more light than
the regulations allow, because they have four dormitories that need
more than the specied 2 h of lighting. It seems to be illusory to
believe that strict rules will be followed. Solar home systems should
always be fault tolerant to ensure a long life span. Nevertheless, we
expected most stakeholders to judge Item 6 as true. How else could
they justify their undersized systems?
Conducting the survey
In total 139 questionnaires were completed. Members of non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), supervising organizations and
manufacturers lled in the questionnaires by themselves in writing,
whereas users and the majority of solar company members needed
the support of an interview situation to respond to the questions. For
many of the solar company members, even though they were able to
 A. Tillmans, P. Schweizer-Ries / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 337346
read English, the interview situation served as a source of motivation
to actually respond to every question. Most users needed the help of a
trained translator, because they were illiterate or at least unable to
read in English. The translator was a person who worked for a NGO
and had received a semi-advanced training on solar home systems so
he was familiar with the subject and able to understand the rather
technical questions. Prior to conducting the interviews he had to ll in
the questionnaire himself and to discuss his opinion about the given
statements. That was done in order to fulll his need to express his
own view, but leave it out while translating.
To encourage the users and to avoid fears of not passing the
questionnaire, they were reassured that we did not expect them to
have the same technical knowledge as manufacturers, but were
interested in their perspective. Since the knowledge questions were
preceded and followed by more opinion related items, most of the
interviewees enjoyed our interest in their experiences.
Sample
To identify the key stakeholders in the Ugandan eld of solar home
systems who are especially important for the success of a project or
program, a stakeholder analysis according to the guidelines of
Schmeer (1999) and the Overseas Development Administration
(ODA) (1995) was carried out. Stakeholders are labeled as important
when they are either able to inuence a project's or program's
outcome signicantly or when they are the activities' targetin this
case the users of solar home systems (ODA, 1995). According to
Schmeer (1999) to identify key stakeholders, rst literature about
rural electrication programs in Indonesia (Dauselt, 2001), South
Africa (Wamukonya, 2001), Sri Lanka (Caron, 2002), Bangladesh
(Alam et al., 2003), Thailand (Green, 2004) and Peru (Cherni, 2006)
was analyzed in order to identify the largest possible number of
potential stakeholders and their role in the described programs. In the
second step, an expert discussion was conducted to prioritize
stakeholders along the life cycle of solar home systems in rural
electrication in developing countries (see e.g. Mller et al., 2009).
Following Schmeer (1999), these experts were consultants and
scientists specialized in rural electrication with solar home systems,
who possessed general knowledge on this topic and had worked with
many stakeholders in that eld.
As a result, ve groups of key stakeholders for rural electrication
with solar home systems in Uganda were identied and will be
described in the following section.
Table 2
Demographic data.
Users
Gender Male 12
Female 48
Nationality Ugandan 60
Non-Ugandan 0 2
Technical training Received technical training 8 24
No technical training 52
n.s.
Technically interested Technically interested 55
Not technically interested 5 3
n.s.
Position in company User 60
Head of company
Head of department
employee
Other
n.s.
N 60
341
The users are the supposed beneciaries of the other stakeholders'
activities.
This sample mainly consisted of clients of FINCA (Foundation for
International Community Assistance), a NGO and micronance
institution. At the time of the survey, FINCA carried out the largest
solar electrication program in Uganda and had a widespread network
of clients in rural areas that could be reached in a reasonable period of
time. The 60 users lived mainly in central Uganda in rural or peri-urban
areas with no or extremely unreliable grid connection. The majority of
them were female. This is not only because FINCA focuses its activities
on women, but also due to the fact that the survey was carried out
during daytime when many men were out for work. A minority of
eight users had received an unspecied technical training, but the
majority of 55 users labeled themselves as technically interested.
The NGOs that establish and carry out programs on rural electrication
with solar home systems on an administrative basis.
The nine participants belonged to two different NGOs with solar energy
programs: FINCA and JEEP (Joint Energy Environmental Project), both
situated in Greater Kampala. The majority was male (6 vs. 3 female),
Ugandan (7 vs. 2 Non-Ugandans) and technically interested (7 out of
9). Five NGO members received technical training. One of the
respondents was the head of her NGO, two were head of department,
four were employees and two held other positions like internships.
Local solar companies cover the technical side, like sizing, selling,
installing and repairing the systems, since in Uganda NGO programs
for rural electrication with solar home systems follow a so called
two-hand-model (as described in Kebir (2010)).
They were spread over all of Uganda with a focus on companies in
Kampala. Among the 41 respondents were 31 males and 10 females.
The vast majority of 39 were of Ugandan origin. Only 24 of them had
received technical training for their job, but 32 considered
themselves as technically interested. Most of the solar company
members were employees (22) or occupied the position of a head of
department (12). Four participants headed a solar company.
Supervising organizations like the GTZ, the Ministry of Energy, the
Rural Electrication Agency, the Rural Energy Foundation and the
Faculty of Technology at Makerere University are involved in
facilitating NGOs' and solar companies' activities by providing
access to technical knowledge, trading partners and nancial
resources. They also provide a political framework and subsidies
which are supposed to go hand in hand with quality control.
From the supervising organizations 17 males and four females
participated. The majority was Ugandan (13 vs. 8), technically
trained (17 vs. 4), technically interested (19 vs. 2) and employees in
Solar companies NGOs Supervising organizations Manufacturers
31 6 17 6
10 3 4 1
39 7 13
2 8 7
5 17 7
16 4 4
1
32 7 19 6
1 2 1
6 1
4 1 3 1
12 2 5 5
22 4 13 1
2 2
1
41 9 21 7
342 A. Tillmans, P. Schweizer-Ries / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 337346
their organization (13 vs. 5 heads of department, and 3 heads of
organization).
Manufacturers of solar home systems or their parts develop and
produce the employed products.
All seven were Europeans who had received a technical education.
The majority was male (6), technically interested (6) and head of
department (5 vs. one employee and one head of company) (see
Table 2).
Results
Technical knowledge regarding Ugandan solar home systems in different
groups of stakeholders
We expected a decline of knowledge down the line of information
communication. That means we expected manufacturers to have the
most profound knowledge about their products. Supervising organi-
zations were supposed to have similar degrees of knowledge as
manufacturers relating to these comparatively basic questions, since
they are the ones who support solar programs by training other
stakeholders and by controlling the quality of their work and
products. NGOs and solar companies were expected to possess better
knowledge of technical facts on solar home systems than users.
To compare the prevalence of misbeliefs or correct knowledge
among the different groups of stakeholders, i.e. the participants' own
opinions about each statement, the polarities of items 2, 4, 9 and 10
(see Table 1) were reversed, so that answer 5 is the one which is
considered to be true (after system checks and expert discussions, and
with regard to technical facts and the circumstances in which the
systems are employed in Uganda).
What we found in the analysis of variance is the expected stair-case
shaped decline of knowledge (see Fig. 1) with signicant differences
between the groups (F= 6,182, p b .0001). The linear contrast test of the
mean answers shows three knowledge groups that differ signicantly
from each other (T= 6,700, p b .0001 (2-tailed)), but are slightly
different from what we expected to nd: manufacturers have the most
profound knowledge; supervising organizations and NGOs have a
medium knowledge level; and solar companies and users seem to have
the least knowledge. There is no signicant difference between the
answers of users and solar companies (T= 0,948, p N .3 (2-tailed)) nor
between NGOs and supervising organizations (T= 0,267, p N .7 (2-
tailed)). That means a relevant knowledge drop happens earlier than
expected within the information chain and earlier than required for an
acceptable lifespan of the systems.
4.4
4.25
4.2
Mean judgments
4 user training.
3.89
3.83
3.8
3.6 3.53
3.42
3.4
Manufacturers Supervising NGOs Solar Users
Organizations Companies
Fig. 1. Mean judgments of the different groups of stakeholders regarding the given
statements.
The following examples refer to items with the highest frequency
of misbeliefs and try to illustrate the relevance of the early
knowledge drop in the chain of information communication.
Item 2. Daily deep discharging of the battery reduces its lifespan. is
correctly rated as true or maybe true by most of the users and
other stakeholders, but there are six users and two employees of solar
companies who say it is false. That may not be a huge number, but
since it is so crucial for the systems lifespan to consider this fact when
sizing and using the system, even a single misinformed user (let alone
solar technician) is a disaster.
Items 3. When there is bright sunshine a 20-watt panel in a solar
home system generates about 20 watt. and 4 (When there is bright
sunshine a 20-watt panel in a solar home system generates about
14 watt.): 32 respondents of the solar companies and 10 of the
supervising organizations rate item 3 as true or maybe true,
whereas many of them reject item 4 (19 out of 41 and 7 out of 21).
That means, many of the stakeholders who are responsible for
technician training, system sizing and quality control are not aware
that their solar home systems may be undersized in a way that can
destroy the batteries very quickly. As a consequence the solar
companies are equally bad informed. The users responded with the
same tendency as the other stakeholders, but as expected many of
them decided that they were not able to judge this question and
responded don't know (Item 3: 24, Item 4: 29).
Item 5. When the automatic cut-off (so that the battery does not
discharge below a certain level) is not working, the solar home system
can still run well for many years. is judged by many users (25 out of
59) and most of the other stakeholders (55 out of 75) as false or
maybe false.
Item 10. The automatic cut-off is the life insurance for the battery.
is at the same time rated by the majority of the respondents (106 out
of 138) as true or maybe true. Thus, the majority is aware of the
relevance of the low voltage disconnection. Unfortunately most of the
inspected systems did not have that feature, even though users
believed it did. They used the system accordingly and thereby
constantly drained the battery.
Item 6. The system size can be minimized for a required demand,
when strict rules for usage are given. reveals another example of the
relevance of lacking knowledge among stakeholders. As expected, 120
out of 138 respondents judge this item as true or maybe true,
whereas reality in the Ugandan eld of solar home systems shows the
opposite: many users actually have a higher energy demand than the
system they were able to afford can provide. Most of them are not
fully aware of the consequences of even minor over-usage and these
minimized systems do not possess any fault tolerance. As a result (and
in addition to the fake bulbs and the missing low voltage disconnec-
tion), the batteries will be drained constantly up to the early
breakdown we found in many of the technically checked systems.
The solar companies that face problems with over-used systems
blame the users for disobedience instead of questioning their sizing or
The users' mental model of solar home systems
To characterize the mental model or knowledge structure of the
prototypical Ugandan user of solar home systems, the mode of their
responses will be looked at. The prototypic user does correctly not
believe that a constant red light indicates a broken charge controller
and is aware that daily deep discharging reduces the batteries
lifespan. She seems to be aware of the importance of a low voltage
disconnection and its role as a life insurance for the battery. She even
seems to know the correct number of light bulbs that are supposed to
 A. Tillmans, P. Schweizer-Ries / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 337346
be installed in a 20-watt system. The only visible misbeliefs refer to
the rather technical items: the prototypic user thinks that a panel that
is labeled as 20 watt will have a corresponding output, but does not
know about an output of only 14 W. Nevertheless, this knowledge
about energy output is also important for the users, since it could
increase the users' awareness about the system's limitations.
Furthermore, the user wrongly believes in strict usage rules as a
means to reduce the size and with it the price of the system. This is
understandable, since for getting an inexpensive system the user
would promise just about everything, even though the promise
cannot be kept in the end due to the already discussed difculties.
At rst glance the prototypic user seems to be pretty well informed,
but since it is just a prototype, there are many users who lack crucial
information. For example 15% of the users believe that a constant red
light indicates a broken charge controller and 17% are not sure. That
means a solar company could in 32% of the cases get away with
manipulating the charge controller instead of replacing the battery. A full
10% of users are condent that daily deep discharging does not reduce
the battery's lifespan; 7% do not know. Another 40% of the users think
their system would run well for many years even if there was no charge
controller and 27% mistakenly believe that a 20-watt system can work
durably with four 5-watt bulbs and a mobile charger. In reverse that can
partly explain the users' lax handling of the strict usage rules. Nearly all
the surveyed users were part of a supervised solar program and should
have received a certain kind of training from the installing technician as
well as a user manual provided by a supervising organization.
The problem is that the technicians seem to have roughly the same
knowledge gaps as the users. The manuals for users, but also the guide
books for technicians which are mostly provided by supervising
organizations, are not only written in English, which not every user
and every technician is able to understand entirely, but are maybe at
the same time not fully adapted to the users' and the technicians prior
belief structures as the following section suggests.
Prediction accuracy of stakeholders with regard to their psychological
distance to the users
First we want to outline our assumptions concerning the
psychological distance of the mentioned stakeholder groups towards
the users. The following distance-ranking is extracted from the
stakeholders' demographic data, their working setting and additional
information from the preliminary interviews.
Local solar companies are considered to have the least psychological
distance to the users because they are spatially and socially close to
them. Solar company participants were mostly of Ugandan origin
(95.1%), generally had a low or medium level of education, and worked
directly with the users when selling and installing the systems.
NGO members were slightly less often of Ugandan origin (77.8%)
and mainly operated from Greater Kampala. However, during village
presentations and installment collection they were in frequent
contact with the users. Therefore their psychological distance to the
users is assumed to be only slightly bigger.
Supervising organizations consisted of only 61.9% Ugandans. These
Ugandans belonged to the urban elite whose personal living
conditions differ considerably from conditions in rural areas. Nearly
all of them had a university degree and worked in ofces in Kampala
city with almost no contact to the users of their systems. Even though
they worked in Uganda, their psychological distance to the users can
be assumed to be substantial.
Manufacturers are assumed to have the biggest psychological
distance to the users of solar home systems, since all of them were
Europeans with university education who worked in Europe and only
knew Uganda from business visits.
We expected that stakeholders with small psychological distance
from the users would be able to predict their knowledge better than
stakeholders with greater psychological distance.
343
Mean correlation between estimted and
0.45
0.4 0.43
actual users' responses
0.35 0.37
0.3 0.34
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.16
0.1
0.09
0.05
0
Solar NGOs Supervising Manufacturers Stakeholders
Companies Organizations Total
Fig. 2. Mean correlation between estimated and actual users' responses.
The results seem to support these assumptions. As Fig. 2 shows, the
mean correlation (after Fisher transformation) between the solar
companies' estimations and the actual users' responses is r = .425.
Between NGOs and users it is r = .371. Supervising organizations and
manufacturers seem to be less able to predict the users' knowledge
(r = .093 and r = .162). The difference between solar companies and
supervising organizations is signicant (p b .05), whereas other
differences reveal trends.
When items are sorted according to the mean prediction accuracy
of all stakeholders (Fig. 3), it reveals that respondents of solar
companies werein seven out of ten itemsable to predict just as
well or better than the average. In the three cases (Items 3, 5 and 9)
where solar companies failed to predict as accurately as the average,
data suggests that solar companies expected the users to answer
don't know, whereas users did in fact have an opinion. In ve out of
ten cases NGO participants predicted better or just as well as the
average stakeholder and manufacturers in two out of ten cases.
Supervising organizations predicted only in one case better than the
average, but even then the correlation between their estimation and
the actual users' responses was below zero.
As is visible in Fig. 3, there are items in which the prediction
accuracy is generally very low among all groups of stakeholders (e.g.
Item 5 and 8). Fig. 4 shows a typical response pattern of an item with
low prediction quality: most of the stakeholders estimated that users
would answer don't know whereas many users actually had an
opinion about the statement.
Even the Items 1, 2, 7, 9, and 10, that range on a medium prediction
level show this typical pattern, but in decreasing intensity. Items 2
(Daily deep discharging of the battery reduces its lifespan.) and 10
(The automatic cut-off is the life insurance for the battery.) are items
where solar companies could predict the users' responses much better
than other stakeholders. Whereas other stakeholders expected the users
to answer don't know the participants of the solar companies were
more condent in the users' abilities to respond correctly. These items
may cover topics which are part of the explanations that are given to the
users by the installing technician. Items 3 and 4 where all groups of
stakeholders could predict the users' responses on a high level, cover the
rather technical aspect of whether a 20-watt panel produces 20 or only
14 W. Most of the stakeholders correctly estimated that users agree to
Item 3, but are less sure about Item 4 (Fig. 5).
Discussion
Relevance of the results and recommendations
Stakeholders who are supposed to have a small psychological
distance to the users seem to be able to predict the users' responses
344 A. Tillmans, P. Schweizer-Ries / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 337346

user's response and actual user's response

Pearson correlation between estimated
0.8

0.6 Solar
Companies
0.4
NGOs
0.2
Supervising
0 Organizations
5 8 1 2 7 10 9 6 3 4
-0.2 Manufacturers

-0.4 Stakeholders
Total
-0.6

-0.8
Item Number
Fig. 3. Items ordered by prediction accuracy of the total stakeholder sample.

more accurately than stakeholders with a great distance. That means,
with regard to Brnn (2000) and Breakwell (2001), solar companies
and NGOs possess the basic requirements to adjust their explanations
to the users' mental models, and thereby to effectively communicate
knowledge about solar home systems to them. The problem seems to
be that especially the technicians lack correct knowledge themselves.
The level of knowledge among stakeholders declines earlier than
expected. Even the supervising organizations which facilitate and
provide training for employees of NGOs and local solar companies do
not possess the full knowledge necessary to properly size, install and
use solar home systems.
The prevalence of misbeliefs among solar companies is alarming,
since they are the ones who on the one hand size and install the
systems, and on the other hand supply the users with usage
instructions. That means, even if all the knowledge that actually
reached the solar companies is passed on to the users, it is not
sufcient to ensure a sufcient lifespan. As a result, the desired
impacts on sustainability and the MDGs are in question.
The early knowledge drop suggests that information is not
communicated effectively. The supervising organizations seem to be
the most important link between manufacturers and the stakeholders
in Uganda, since they develop most of the informational material for
solar companies and users. They are (probably caused by their
multiple tasks in development cooperation) on the one hand not
equipped with the required technical knowledge and on the other
hand the ones who are least able to anticipate the users' mental
45
40
models and therefore to adapt their communication to existing
knowledge.
Therefore, we strongly recommend a more detailed preparation of
staff in development cooperation, incorporating a focus on mental
models of users and other local stakeholders. Technician trainings
should, for example, not be carried out by volunteers who have only
received a quick brieng themselves. Only well trained technicians
can differentiate between high-quality components and fake products
or components of dubious quality.
Stakeholders in NGOs and supervising organizations in particular
have greater potential to adapt not only communication strategies, but
also the design of products and programs to the actual requirements of
the users. For that task they need to be better educated. The existing
mental models among the users have to be taken into account to
facilitate the success of technical innovations. At least the mental
models of the most important technical facts to run the system durably,
like the meaning of the red light on the charge controller, the effect of
deep discharging on the battery's lifespan, the actual output of a panel
labeled as 20 W, and the consumption of different appliances. Technical
innovation can never be regarded as detached from the people and
always requires close collaboration between engineering and social
sciences in order to be successful and sustainable.
Limitations of the study
One motivation behind this study was to develop an understand-
ing of knowledge structures, beliefs and misbeliefs of different groups
of stakeholders on the topic of rural electrication with solar home
40

35 35

30 30
Stakeholders'
25 own opinion 25 Stakeholders'
20 Estimated users' own opinion
20
15 response Estimated users'
15
response
10 Actual users'
response 10 Actual users'
5 response
5
0
true maybe don't maybe false 0
true know false true maybe don't maybe false
true know false
Fig. 4. Response pattern for Item 5 When the automatic cut-off (so that the battery
does not discharge below a certain level) is not working, the solar home system can still Fig. 5. Response pattern for Item 4 When there is bright sunshine a 20-watt panel in a
run well for many years. solar home system generates about 14 watt.
 A. Tillmans, P. Schweizer-Ries / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 337346
systems. The second, maybe more psychological motivation was to
learn more about the stakeholders' ability to take the users'
perspective as a key meta-competency to design products and user
training according to the users' habits and existing as well as required
knowledge. Some of the present results show that the groups of
stakeholders that possess the technical knowledge and the means to
design products and trainings according to the actual users' needs, are
unable to see the world through the users' eyes due to great psychological
distance. Of course, the direct results of this study are limited to solar
programs in Uganda done by NGOs. Hence, results cannot just be
transferred to situations in other countries, but can serve as a rst hint on
what to take into consideration when starting to investigate similar
situations in different countries. Furthermore the samples of manufac-
turers and NGO members were comparatively small due to their low
number in population; quantitative results may therefore be biased.
In general as well as in the examined program knowledge
communication is not the only challenge. We are aware that quality
issues of products and services account for the major part of the problems
and have to be addressed in the rst place. Without question, it is a
catastrophe that prot-oriented manufacturers let the poorest pay for
products which are knowingly of bad quality. Nevertheless, adapted belief
structures could also lead to more careful handling of systems of medium
quality and therefore increase their lifespan.
Outlook
Until now there has been very little research on mental models in
technical development cooperation. Also concerning solar home
systems, several interesting questions have not yet been addressed
by the current study and therefore need further investigation. Will
there actually be an increase in the level of knowledge among users if
stakeholders are able to predict the initial users' misbeliefs more
accurately? To what extent do the knowledge decits of relevant
stakeholders effectively inuence the performance and lifespan of
solar home systems? If performance and lifespan are affected, how
does it inuence the customers' trust in and their willingness to buy
solar home systems? A comparative study with situations in other
countries with successful solar programs, like Bangladesh, could be
illuminating.
In order to obtain broader knowledge on mental models about
solar home systems in different groups of stakeholders, not only
technical knowledge has to be studied, but also beliefs and misbeliefs
about assumed advantages and disadvantages of using a solar home
system. Currently, solar home systems are being promoted as
sustainable energy solutions which imply advantages for the social,
economic and environmental situation of people in rural areas of
developing countries. The strong belief in their advantages is probably
one of the main motivations for stakeholders to promote solar home
systems in rural areas of Uganda. Many potential users seem to
believe the promises of saved money and multiple benets and
express the intention to buy a solar home system in the near future.
Are all of the assumed advantages justied? Who believes which
myths? To which degree are stakeholders able to accurately predict
the users' beliefs and misbeliefs about advantages? Will we nd the
same pattern as in the present study?
Some of these issues will be addressed in our further research
which will include quantitative as well as qualitative techniques like
narrative interviews with stakeholders and the analysis of training
material.
Role of the funding source
Primary nancial support for this research came from the Hans
Bckler Foundation. Any opinions, ndings, and conclusions
expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reect the views of the Hans Bckler Foundation. The Hans Bckler
345
Foundation did not inuence the study design, data collection or
analysis, or the writing of the paper. We are very grateful for their
unconditional support.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful for the great support FINCA provided in Uganda
to make the survey possible. Their dedicated staff enabled us to
reach many users of solar home systems. The researchers of CREEC
patiently helped us pretest our questionnaire and provided
valuable technical and scientic support. Many people gave us
advice and have helped to make contacts and nd questionnaire
respondents. Without implying that they occur in our ndings and
conclusions we wish to thank: Patricia Kawagga, Lucius Mayer-
Tasch, Ronald Schuurhuizen, Miep Sellmeijer, Izael Pereira da Silva,
Steffen Wassler, Karsten Bechtel, Ruth Kiwanuka, Patricia K. Litho,
Tobias Rothenwnder, Annekathrin Gotsch, Heidi Berkmller,
Anna Husemann, Christoph Zipfel, the colleagues at the Postgrad-
uate Program Microenergy Systems and all the respondents who
kindly completed our questionnaire.
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