Diaforiki Geometria

:
Copyright , 2015
Creative Commons -
- 3.0.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/gr/

9, 15780
www.kallipos.gr
ISBN: 978-960-603-016-1

1 9
1.1 R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2 43
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3 63
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4 75
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5 Gauss 89
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6 119
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7 Codazzi Gauss 129

7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8 145
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9 155
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9.2 Clairaut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
9.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10 Gauss-Bonnet 183
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
11 Gauss 201
11.1 Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
11.1.1 Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
11.1.2 Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.1.3 Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.2 Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

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[1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7].

, , .
1.1 R2
n- Rn = {(x1 , . . . , xn ) : xi R}
h, i : Rn Rn R+
0
hx, yi = x1 y1 + + xn yn .
() k k : Rn R+ n
0 R ,
q
kxk = x21 + + x2n .
(1) hx, yi = hy, xi
(2) hx + z, yi = hx, yi + hz, yi
(3) hx, yi = hx, yi R.
, : I Rn , : f : I Rn , f (t) = h(t), (t)i.

:
df d d(t) d(t)
= (h(t), (t)i) = h , (t)i + h(t), i.
dt dt dt dt
9
10
1.1. (parametrized curve) Rn ()

: I Rn , I R.
(I) Rn .
.
1. : I Rn
.
2. : I Rn (parametrization) (I).
3. (t) Rn , (t) = (1 (t), . . . , n (t)), i : I R .
1.2. 1. (tangent vector) : I Rn

(t) 0 (t).
2. (arclength)
Z
L() = k 0 (t)kdt 6 .
I
3. ( )(regular) 0 (t) 6= 0 t I.
1.1: .
, , .
.
1. p 6= q R2 . : R R2 , (t) = (1 t)p + tq
p = (0) q = (1).
2. : I R2 0 (t) 6= 0, t I,
(0, 0) (t) 0 (t) t I.
, (I) (0, 0) f (t) =

h(t), (t)i = k(t)k2 . f 0 (t) = 0 t I.
f 0 (t) = 0 h 0 (t), (t)i = 0 0 (t) (t).
3. : R R2 , (t) = (t, |t|) R2 . ( 1.1)

4. : R R2 , (t) = (t3 4t, t2 4) .
1-1 ((2) = (2) = 0), . ( 1.2)
5. : R R2 , (t) = (t3 , t2 ) , 0 (0) = (0, 0).
R2 11
1.2: (t) = (t, |t|).
1.3: (t) = (t3 4t, t2 4).
6. p R2 r > 0. : R R2 , (t) = p + r(cos t, sin t)

p r. [0, 2)
Z 2 Z 2
0
L(|[0,2) ) = k (t)kdt = r dt = 2r.
0 0
7. 1 , 2 : R R2 , 1 (t) = (cos t, sin t), 2 (t) = (cos(2t), sin(2t)),

(0, 0) 1, 2
1 .
1.1.1
(t0 ) ,
(t0 ) 0 (t0 ).
12
1.4: .
() = (t0 ) + 0 (t0 ), R. (1.1)
= 0 (0) = (t0 ). () = (x1 (), x2 (), x3 ()),

(t0 ) = (x1 (t0 ), x2 (t0 ), x3 (t0 )) 0 (t0 ) = (x01 (t0 ), x02 (t0 ), x03 (t0 )). (1.1)
:
x1 () = x1 (t0 ) + x01 (t0 )

x2 () = x2 (t0 ) + x02 (t0 )
x3 () = x3 (t0 ) + x03 (t0 ). (1.2)
(1.2) ,
. , :
x1 x1 (t0 ) x2 x2 (t0 ) x3 x3 (t0 )

0 = 0 = .
x1 (t0 ) x2 (t0 ) x03 (t0 )
(t0 ) =
(x1 (t0 ), x2 (t0 ), x3 (t0 )) 0 (t0 ) = (x01 (t0 ), x02 (t0 ), x03 (t0 )).
1.1.
(t) = ( cos t, sin t, t), , R \ {0}, t R
t0 = /4.

0 (t) = ( sin t, cos t, ), 0 (/4) = ( 2/2, , 2/2, ). (/4) =

( 2/2, 2/2, /4). (1.1) :

2 2
() = (1 ), (1 + ), (/4 + ) .
2 2
R2 13
:

2
x1 () = (1 )
2
2
x2 () = (1 + )
2
x3 () = (/4 + ),
. , t0 = /4

x1 2/2 x2 2/2 x3 /4
= = .
2/2 2/2
1.3. : I Rn : J Rn .
(reparametrization) , h : J I,
= h.
h h -
, 1-1, , .
.
7 2 1 , 2 (t) = (1 h)(t), h : R R
h(t) = 2t. ,
. ,
.
1.1. . L() = L().
. : [a, b] R3 : [a0 , b0 ] R3 = h,
h : [a0 , b0 ] [a, b] .
Z b0 Z b0 Z b0
0 0
k 0 (h(s))k h0 (s) ds.

L() = k (s)kds = k( h) (s)kds =
a0 a0 a0
h0 > 0, h ,
Z b0 Z h(b0 ) Z b
0 0 0
L() = k (h(s))kh (s)ds = k (h(s))kdh(s) = k 0 (t)kdt = L().
a0 h(a0 ) a
h0 < 0, h
Z b0 Z h(b0 )
0 0
L() = k (h(s))kh (s)ds = k 0 (h(s))kdh(s)
a0 h(a0 )
Z a
= k 0 (t)kdt = L().
b
14
: I Rn , t0 I. t I
Z t
s(t) = L(|(t0 ,t) ) = k 0 (u)kdu. (1.3)
t0
() , t
t0 , s(t) = t t0 . (1.3)
ds
1= = k 0 (t)k,
dt
. ,
Rt
: I Rn k 0 (t)k = 1, (1.3) s(t) = t0 1du = t t0 ,
t t0 .
.
1.4. : I Rn k(s)k = 1,
s I.
.
1. , (s) 0 (s).
s t.
2. k 0 (t)k ,
.
3. Sn1 = {(x1 , . . . , xn ) Rn : x21 + + x2n = 1} Rn ,
(s) Sn1
( Rn ).
1.2. f : I Rn kf (t)k = c, .
hf 0 (t), f (t)i = 0, f 0 (t) = 0 f 0 (t) f (t) t I.
. kf (t)k = c f (t) 6= 0, :
kf (t)k = c hf (t), f (t)i = c ,

hf 0 (t), f (t)i + hf (t), f 0 (t)i = 0 (1.1)
2hf 0 (t), f (t)i = 0,
f 0 (t) = 0 f 0 (t) f (t), t I.
. : I Rn , (s) = 0
(s) (s).
.
R2 15
1.1. : (, ) Rn Rn . ((, ))
.
Rt
. : (a, b) R+ , (t) = a k 0 (u)kdu. 0 (t) =
k 0 (t)k > 0, ((a, b)) = (0, L()). : (0, L())
(a, b) , ( (s)) = s s (0, L()).
, :
d
(( (s))) = 0 ( (s)) (s) = 1.
ds
: (0, L()) Rn = .
(s) = 0 ( (s)) (s),
k(s)k = k 0 ( (s))k (s) = 0 ( (s)) (s) = 1.
1-1, ((a, b)) .
Mnn (R) n n .
1.5. : Rn Rn ( ) (rigit motion)

(x) = Ax + b, b Rn A O(n) = {X Mnn (R) : XX t = In }.1
A SO(n) = {X O(n) : detX = 1}.
O(n) SO(n)
.
. O(2) SO(2).
R2 . : I R2
.
T : I R2 , T (s) = (s)
N : I R2 , N (s) = R T (s),
R : R2 S 2 () 2
! ! ! !
0 1
R = , R2 .
1 0
s I {T (s), N (s)}
R2 , Frenet .
.
1
In n n .
16
1.5: Frenet.
1.6. : I R2 .
(curvature) : I R+
0 ,
(s) = hT (s), N (s)i = h(s), N (s)i.
.
1. , , -
T (s) = (s) N (s)
T (s).
2. (s) 6= 0 (s)
1
(s) = .
(s)
1.2. : I R2 .
Frenet .
! ! !
T (s) 0 (s) T (s)
= . (1.4)
N (s) (s) 0 N (s)
. , T (s) N (s)
R2 . hT (s), N (s)i = 0,
d
0= hT (s), N (s)i = hT (s), N (s)i + hT (s), N (s)i.
ds
hT (s), N (s)i = (s) hT (s), N (s)i = hT (s), N (s)i = (s),
T (s) = hT (s), N (s)iN (s) = (s)N (s).
N (s) = hN (s), T (s)iT (s) = (s)T (s)

R2 17
1.3. : I R2 .
: I R (I)
( ).
. (s) = 0 s, hT (s), N (s)i = 0. , N (s) 6= ~0,

T (s) = ~0 s I. T (s) = c1 0 (s) = c1 , c1
R2 .
(s) = c1 s + c2 , c2 R2 . (1.5)
(1.5) . , (1.5),
(s) = 0, s I.
(
) , .
1.4. : I R .
: I R2 , . , : I R2
, A SO(2) b R2
(s) = A(s) + b.
-
, . ,
.
1.7. : I R2 (
). = h : J R2 -
h : J I : J R . t I
t
(t) = (h1 (t)).
1.3. : I R2 .
det( 0 (t), 00 (t))

(t) = . 2
k 0 (t)k3
. = h : J R2 ,
h = s1 s . T , N Frenet
. = h1 = s, t I, :
0 (t) = ( s)0 (t) = (s(t))s

0
(t) = T (s(t))s0 (t),
00 (t) = T (s(t))s0 (t)2 + T (s(t))s00 (t) = s0 (t)2 (s(t))N (s(t)) + s00 (t)T (s(t)).
!
2 1 2
= (1 , 2 ), = (1 , 2 ) det(, ) = det .
1 2
18

s0 (t) 0
det( 0 (t), 00 (t)) = 00 = (s(t))s0 (t)3 ,

s (t) (s(t))s0 (t)2
det( 0 (t), 00 (t)) Rt
(s(t)) = 0 3
. s(t) = t0 k 0 (u)kdu s0 (t) = k 0 (t)k.
s (t)
det( 0 (t), 00 (t))
(s(t)) = .
k 0 (t)k3
, 1.7,
det( 0 (t), 00 (t))
(t) = (s(t)) = .
k 0 (t)k3
, (t) = (x(t), y(t)) t I

x0 (t) y 0 (t)

00 00

0 00
det( (t), (t)) x (t) y (t)
(t) = = p .
k 0 (t)k3 ( x0 (t)2 + y 0 (t)2 )3
1.1. : I R2 . (I)
0 (t) 00 (t) t I.
.
,
:
, ;.
19o .
.
, .
1.8. : R R2 ,
L > 0 |[0,L) : R R2 1-1. (
(t) = (t0 ) t0 t = kL k Z).
1.6: .
, .
R2 19
1.5. ( Jordan)
: R R2 , .
R2 \ (R) .
Int()
Ext() .
1.9. : R R2
,
!
0 0 1
N (t) = R (t) = 0 (t)
1 0
Int() t R. , .
1.7: .
,
Green .
1.1. : R R2 -
, . A Int() ,
Z
1
x(t)y 0 (t) y(t)x0 (t) dt

A =
2 (R)
Z Z
= x(t)y 0 (t)dt = x0 (t)y(t)dt.
(R) (R)
1.6. ( )
C , L. A
C.
4A L2 .
C .
20
1.8: .
. l1 l2 C,
C (. 1.8).
l1 l2 x
:
l1 = {(x, y) R2 | x = r} l2 = {(x, y) R2 | x = r},
2r l1 l2 . = (x, y) : R R2
C x(0) = r x(s1 ) = r
s1 (0, L).
: R R2 (s) = (x(s), y(s)),
p
+ r2 x2 (s), s [0, s )
1
y(s) = p
r2 x2 (s), s [s , L).
1
x2 + y 2 = r2 .
1.1
Z L Z L
A= x(s)y 0 (s)ds r2 = y(s)x0 (s)ds.
0 0
1.2. R3 21
Cauchy-Schwartz,
Z L
A + r2 = x(s)y 0 (s) y(s)x0 (s) ds

0
Z Lp
(x(s)y 0 (s) y(s)x0 (s))2 ds
0
Z Lp
(x(s)2 + y(s)2 ) (x0 (s)2 + y 0 (s)2 )ds
0
Z Lp
= x(s)2 + y(s)2 ds = Lr,
0
2x(s)x0 (s)y(s)y 0 (s)

x(s)2 x0 (s)
+ y(s)2 y 0 (s)2 x0 (s)2 + y 0 (s)2 = 1.
2
0 ( A r ) = A 2r A + r2
A + r2
r A Lr,
2
A r2
. 4Ar2 L2 r2
4A L2 .
4A = L2 A = r2 .
r l1 l2 . A
l1 , l2 , r. ,
4A = L2 C .
1.2 R3
: I R3 R3 .

.
R3
1.2.1
1.10. u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ), v = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) R3 .
u v u v R3 u
v :

e1 e2 e3

u v = x1 y1 z1 = (y1 z2 y2 z1 )e1 (z1 x2 z2 x1 )e2 + (x1 y2 x2 y1 ))e3

x2 y2 z2
= (y1 z2 y2 z1 , z1 x2 z2 x1 , x1 y2 x2 y1 ),
{e1 , e2 , e3 } R3 . u v
u, v, u v .
22
u, v
.
, .
u, v, z R3
(1) u v = v u
(2) (au + bv) z = a(u z) + b(v z) = (au) z + (bv) z, a, b R
(3) u u = 0.
f, g : I R R3 . f g : I R R3 , t 7 (f g)(t) =
f (t) g(t)
d d df (t) dg(t)
(f g)(t) = (f (t) g(t)) = g(t) + f (t) .
dt dt dt dt
1.11. u, v, z R3 . h(u v), zi -
u, v, z [uvz],
h(u v), zi = [uvz].

, .
. u, v, z R3 :
(1) [uvz] = [vzu] = [zuv],
(2) [uvz] = [vuz] = [uzv] = [zvu],
(3) [uvz] = 0 u, v, z .
R3 .
1. p 6= q R3 . : R R3 , (t) = (1 t)p + tq
p = (0) q = (1).
2. {Z, W } V R3 , r > 0 p V R3 .
: R R3 , (t) = p + r (cos t)Z + (sin t)W

() p + V p r.
3. r, a, b > 0.
: R R3 , (t) = (r cos(at), r sin(at), bt)
. 1 (t)2 + 2 (t)2 = x2 + y 2 = r2 , (R)

{(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 = r2 }
R3 23
1.9: .
r, . 2b
( z,
[0, 2)).
1.12. : I R3 .
: I R+
0
(s) = k(s)k.
1.7. : I R3 .
: I R+0 (I)
( ).
. ()
(s) = k(s)k Z S2
p R3
(s) = p + sZ,
(I) . .
1.13. : I R3
Frenet ( ) , (s) 6= 0
s I.
24
: I R3 Frenet. .
(tangent vector)
T : I R3 , T (s) = (s).
( ) (principal normal vector)
(s) (s)
N : I R3 , N (s) = = .
k(s)k (s)
(binormal vector)
B : I R3 , B(s) = T (s) N (s).
s I {T (s), N (s), B(s)} R3 (s).

, : I R3 ,
d
0= h(s), (s)i = 2h(s), (s)i = 2(s)hN (s), T (s)i.
ds
,
T (s) = N (s) B(s), N (s) = B(s) T (s), B(s) = T (s) N (s).
( ) Frenet .
, .
, s I
, .
,

.
, .
1.14. : I R3 Frenet. (torsion)
: I R, (s) = hN (s), B(s)i.
.
(s)
N (s) =
k(s)k
B(s) .
1.4. : I R3 Frenet.
...
[(s)(s) (s)]
(s) = .
(s)2
R3 25
1.10: Frenet.
. (s) = hN (s), B(s)i,
(s) 1
B(s) = T (s) N (s) = (s) = (s) (s).
(s) (s)
(s)
N (s) = :
(s)
...
(s)(s) (s)(s)
N (s) = .
(s)2
,
...
(s)(s) (s)(s) 1
(s) = hN (s), B(s)i = h , (s) (s)i
(s)2 (s)
1 ... (s)(s) 1
= 2
h (s) , (s) (s)i h 2
, (s) (s)i
(s) (s) (s)
1 ... (s) 1
= [ (s)(s)(s)] [ (s) (s)(s)]
(s)2 (s)2 (s)
...
[(s)(s) (s)]
= ,
(s)2
(s)
( ) (s)
(s)2
(s) .
26
1.8. : I R3 Frenet. Frenet

:

T (s) 0 (s) 0 T (s)
N (s) = (s) 0 (s) N (s) .

B(s) 0 (s) 0 B(s)
. s,
(s)
N (s) = . T (s) = (s), T (s) = (s)
(s)
T (s)
N (s) = T (s) = (s)N (s).
(s)
N (s) = (s)T (s) + (s)B(s). -

T (s), N (s), B(s) R3 . , R3 (
N (s)) .
N (s) = 1 T (s) + 2 N (s) + 3 B(s). (1.6)
1 , 2 , 3 , (1.6)
T (s), N (s) B(s).
hN (s), T (s)i = 1 hT (s), T (s)i + 2 hN (s), T (s)i + 3 hB(s), T (s)i = 1 .
hN (s), T (s)i = 0, , :
d
hN (s), T (s)i = 0 hN (s), T (s)i + hN (s), T (s)i = 0
ds
T (s) = (s)N (s),
hN (s), T (s)i + hN (s), T (s)i = 0 hN (s), T (s)i = (s)hN (s), N (s)i

hN (s), T (s)i = (s).
1 = (s). 2 . N (s) ,
, 1.2 ,
0 = hN (s), N (s)i = 1 hT (s), N (s)i + 2 hN (s), N (s)i + 3 hB(s), N (s)i = 2 .
(1.6) N (s) = (s)T (s) + 3 B(s).
hN (s), B(s)i = (s)hT (s), B(s)i + 3 hB(s), B(s)i = 3 .
hN (s), B(s)i = (s), 3 = (s),
N (s) = (s)T (s) + (s)B(s)

R3 27
. B(s) = (s)N (s),

B(s) = T (s) N (s) , .
:
B(s) = T (s) N (s) + T (s) N (s)

B(s) = (s)N (s) N (s) + T (s) ((s)T (s) + (s)B(s))
B(s) = (s) 0 (s)T (s) T (s) + (s)T (s) B(s)
B(s) = (s) 0 + (s)T (s) B(s)
B(s) = (s)N (s),
Frenet
Darboux
(s) = (s)T (s) + (s)B(s).
dT dN dB
= (s) T (s), = (s) N (s), = (s) B(s)
ds ds ds
1.9. : I R3 Frenet. : I R
(I) .
. hc, M i = d, M
R3 , d c R3
. M .
h(s), M i = d, s, :
h(s), M i = 0 hT (s), M i = 0, (1.7)

h(s), M i = 0 hT (s), M i = 0 h(s)N (s), M i = 0. (1.8)
Frenet, (s) 6= 0 s I, (1.5)
hN (s), M i = 0. (1.9)
(1.4) (1.9) T (s) N (s) M ,

B(s) = T (s) N (s) M . B(s) M
B : I S 2 , s 7 B(s) ( ) s,
B(s) = M s I B(s) = M s I. , B(s)
, B(s) = 0, = 0. , .
B(s) = (s)N (s), B(s) = 0 B(s) B(s) = M .
28
h (s), B(s)i = 0 h (s), M i = 0

d
h(s), M i = 0 h(s), M i = 0
ds
h(s), M i = d
hc, M i = d.

,
.
1.15. : I R3 ,
.
,
, /2.
1.5. : I R3 > 0, ,

= .

. . M
, T
, kM k = 1. hM, T (s)i = cos (), s I.
Frenet,
hM, T (s)i = 0, hM, (s)N (s)i = 0.
(s) 6= 0, hM, N (s)i = 0. M

,
M = T (s) + B(s), (1.10)
, R.
T (s) B(s), = hM, T (s)i = cos = hM, B(s)i = cos(/2 ) = sin .
(1.10) M = cos T (s) + sin B(s),
0 = cos T (s) + sin B(s) = cos (s)N (s) sin (s)N (s)

= cos (s) sin (s) N (s),
(s) cos (s)

cos (s) sin (s) = 0 = = cot = c (). , =
(s) sin (s)
c. cot (, +), , c = cot .
R3 29
(s) cos = (s) sin (s) cos N (s) (s) sin N (s) = 0
cos T (s) + sin B(s) = 0
cos T (s) + sin B(s) = M = R3
cos hT (s), T (s)i + sin hB(s), T (s)i = hM, T (s)i
cos = hM, T (s)i = .
1.6. : I R3 .
.
. (x0 , y0 ) r,

(s) = x0 + r cos(s/r) y0 + r sin(s/r) , s I [0, 2),

1
T (s) = (s) = sin(s/r), cos(s/r) , T (s) = (s) = cos(s/r), sin(s/r) ,
r
(s) = kT (s)k = 1r , .
, , (s) = s I.
1
(s) = (s) + N (s).

0 (s) = T (s) + 1 N (s) = T (s) + 1 (T (s)) = 0. , (s) , (s) =
(x0 , y0 )
1 1
k(s) (x0 , y0 )k = k(s) (s)k = k N (s)k = ,

1
(s) (x0 , y0 ) .

1.2. : I R3
Frenet {T, N, B}, s I
sin(2s)T (s) + cos(2s)N (s) + B(s) cos(2s) 6= 0
. . , s I sin(2s)T (s) +
cos(2s)N (s) + B(s) = c, c . s

d
sin(2s)T (s) + cos(2s)N (s) + B(s) = 0.
ds

2 cos(2s) (s) cos(2s) T (s) + sin(2s)(s) 2 sin(2s) (s) N (s) + cos(2s) (s)B(s) = 0.
30
T (s), N (s), B(s) ,
2 cos(2s) (s) cos(2s) = 0, sin(2s)(s) 2 sin(2s) (s) = 0, cos(2s) (s) = 0.
(s) = 0, .
1 1
(s) = 2, 1.6 r = = .
2
3
Frenet R
( R3 ).
:
1.16. : R3 R3 ( ) R3 (rigid
motion), (X) = AX + b, b R3
A O(3) = {X M33 (R) : XX t = I3 }.
, A SO(3) = {X O(3) : detX = 1}.

1.10. ( )
: I R+ : I R . Frenet : I R3
. , : I R3 ,
A SO(3) b R3
(s) = A(s) + b.

.
1.3. () s,
(s) = es (s) = 2es .
() s R N (s) = N (s) 10N (s).
(), (s) > 0 s R (s), (s) .
, ,
(s) = es (s) = 2es . ()
N (s) = (s)T (s) + (s)B(s) = es T (s) + 2es B(s). ,
N (s) = es T (s) es T (s) + 2es B(s) + 2es B(s) Frenet

= es T (s) es (es N (s)) + 2es B(s) + 2es (2es N (s))
= es T (s) 5e2s N (s) + 2es B(s).
N (s) = N (s) 10N (s) :
N (s) = N (s) 10N (s) N (s) N (s) + 10N (s) = 0

es T (s) 5e2s N (s) + 2es B(s) es T (s) + 2es B(s) + 10N (s) = 0

(10 5e2s )N (s) = 0
e2s = 2 s = ln 2/2.
R3 31
1.17. : I R3 R3 (
). = h : J R3
h : J I : J R . t I
t
(t) = (h1 (t)).
, : I R
(t) = (h1 (t)),
: J R .
,
.
1.7. : I R3 R3 .
k 0 (t) 00 (t)k [ 0 (t) 00 (t) 000 (t)]

(t) = , (t) = .
k 0 (t)k3 k 0 (t) 00 (t)k2
. = h : J R3 , h = s1
s . T , N , B Frenet . = h1 = s,
t I :
0 (t) = ( s)0 (t) = (s(t))s

0
(t) = T (s(t))s0 (t)
00 (t) = T (s(t))s0 (t)2 + T (s(t))s00 (t) = s0 (t)2 (s(t))N (s(t)) + s00 (t)T (s(t)),
0 (t) 00 (t) = s0 (t)T (s(t)) s00 (t)T (s(t)) + s0 (t)2 (s(t))N (s(t))

= s0 (t)s00 (t)T (s(t)) T (s(t)) + s0 (t)3 (s(t))T (s(t)) N (s(t))

= s0 (t)3 (s(t))B(s(t)). (1.11)
Rt
s(t) = t0 k 0 (u)kdu, s0 (t) = k 0 (t)k. (1.11)
0 (t) 00 (t) = k 0 (t)k3 (s(t))B(s(t)).
k 0 (t) 00 (t)k = k 0 (t)k3 (s(t))kB(s(t))k

= k 0 (t)k3 (s(t)),
k 0 (t) 00 (t)k
(s(t)) = , 1.17 -
k 0 (t)k3
:
k 0 (t) 00 (t)k
(t) = (s(t)) = .
k 0 (t)k3
32
.
:
000 (t) = N (s(t))s0 (t)3 (s(t)) + N (s(t))0 (s(t))s0 (t)3 + 3N (s(t))(s(t))s0 (t)2 s00 (t)
+s000 (t)T (s(t)) + s00 (t)s0 (t)T (s(t)) = (s(t))2 s0 (t)3 + s00 (t) T (s(t))

+ (s(t))s0 (t)3 + 3(s(t))s0 (t)2 s00 (t) + s00 (t)s0 (t)(s(t)) N (s(t))

+ (s(t))s0 (t)3 (s(t)) B(s(t))
= f (t)T (s(t)) + g(t)N (s(t)) + w(t)B(s(t)).
, det( 0 (t), 00 (t), 000 (t)) = [ 0 (t) 00 (t) 000 (t)] = h 0 (t) 00 (t), 000 (t)i,
(1.11), :
h 0 (t) 00 (t), 000 (t)i = h 0, 0, s0 (t)(s(t)) , f (t), g(t), w(t) i

= s0 (t)3 (s(t))w(t) = s0 (t)3 (s(t)) (s(t))s0 (t)3 (s(t)) .

(1.12)
k 0 (t) 00 (t)k
s0 (t) = k 0 (t)k (s(t)) = ,
k 0 (t)k3
(1.12)
h 0 (t) 00 (t), 000 (t)i [ 0 (t) 00 (t) 000 (t)]

(s(t)) = = .
k 0 (t) 00 (t)k2 k 0 (t) 00 (t)k2
,

[ 0 (t) 00 (t) 000 (t)]
(t) = (s(t)) = .
k 0 (t) 00 (t)k2
: I R3
, Frenet t I :
0 (t) 00 (t) 0 (t)

0 (t) 0 (t) 00 (t)
T (t) = 0 , N (t) = , B(t) = .
k (t)k k 0 (t) 00 (t)kk 0 (t)k k 0 (t) 00 (t)k
1.8. : I R3 .
{T (t), N (t), B(t)} Frenet . T, N, B
T 0 (t)

0 (t)v 0 T (t)
0
N (t) = (t)v 0 (t)v N (t) ,

B 0 (t) 0 (t)v 0 B(t)
v .
1.2. : I R3 R3 . :
R3 33
1. (I) 0 (t), 00 (t)

t I.
2. (I) 0 (t), 00 (t), 000 (t)

t I.
1.3
1.4. (t) = (t, 1) +
( sin t, cos t) ( > 0).
1. .
Rt
2. (t) = 0 k 0 (u)kdu.
3. ;
1. (t) = (x(t), y(t)),

x
x(t) = (t sin t) t = sin t

y
y(t) = (1 cos t) 1 = cos t.

2 2
t x + 1 y = 1 (t x)2 + ( y)2 = 2 .
K(t, ) > 0. 1.11.
1.11: .
2. 0 (t) = (1 cos t, sin t)

r
t t
q
0
k (t)k = (1 cos t) + sin t = 2 1 cos t = 2 2 sin2 = 2| sin( )|.
2 2 2 2
2 2
Z t
u t
0 t/2 (t) = 2 sin du = 4(1 cos ).
0 2 2
3. 0 (t) = 0 cos t = 1 sin t = 0, t = 2k
(k Z).
34 R3
1.5. : I R2 (t) = (sin t, sin(2t)). ,

;
, 0 (t) = (cos t, 2 cos(2t)) 6= (0, 0) t. ,

(0) = () = (0, 0) ( ). , , I = [0, 2]
(0) = (2) = (0, 0). :
1.12: (t) = (sin t, sin(2t)).
1.6. (t) = (t, cosh t), t > 0. k 0 (t)k

.
p
0 (t) = (1, sinh t) k 0 (t)k = 1 + sinh2 t = cosh t.
Z t Z t
0
s= k (u)kdu = cosh udu = sinh t.
0 0
p
t = sinh1 s ( sinh s) cosh t = 1 + sinh2 t = 1 + s2 . ,

p
(s) = t(s) = sinh1 s, 1 + s2 .

1.7. ) 1 , 2 1 , 2 1 , 2 :
R R3

1 (t) = r cos(t), r sin(t), bt

2 (t) = r cos(t), r sin(t), bt (r, , b > 0).
) : R3 R3 2 = 1 . ;
R3 35
k 0 (t) 00 (t)k
(t) =
k 0 (t)k3

det 0 (t), 00 (t), 000 (t)

(t) = .
k 0 (t) 00 (t)k2
:
10 (t) = (r sin(t), r cos(t), b)

100 (t) = (r2 cos(t), r2 sin(t), 0)
p p
k10 (t) 100 (t)k = r2 b2 + r2 2 , k10 (t)k = r2 2 + b2 .
r2 r()2 b
1 (t) = 2 2 2
= 2 2 2
= 2 (t). , 1 (t) = 2 2 = 2 (t).
r +b () r + b r + b2
) A : R3 R3 .

r cos(t) r cos(t)
r sin(t) = A r sin(t)

bt bt

1 0 0
A. A = 0 1 0 . : R3 R3

0 0 1
(x, y, z) = (x, y, z). det(A) = 1, .
1.8. : (/2, /2) R3 , (t) = (2 cos2 t3, sin t8, 3 sin2 t+

4) .
() R3 ,
() R3 .
0 (t) = (4 cos t sin t, cos t, 6 sin t cos t) 6= (0, 0, 0) t (/2, /2) ( cos t 6= 0).
. det 0 (t), 00 (t), 000 (t) = 0 (t) = 0,

. 0 (t) 00 (t) ( ..

0 (t) 00 (t) 6= 0 ) (t) 6= 0, .
1.9. .
(I) : I R3 . (x, y, z) R3
(s0 ) (x, y, z) (s0 )
36 R3
T (s0 ) N (s0 ), B(s0 ).

(x, y, z) (s0 )
h(x, y, z) (s0 ) , B(s0 )i = 0 (1.13)

T (s0 ) (s0 )
B(s0 ) = T (s0 ) N (s0 ) = (s0 ) = (s0 ) , (1.13)
(s0 ) (s0 )
h(x, y, z) (s0 ) , (s0 ) (s0 )i = 0.
(II) a : I R3 0 .
(x, y, z) a(t0 ) (1.13)
h(x, y, z) a(t0 ) , B(t0 )i = 0,

a0 (t0 ) a00 (t0 )
B(t0 ) = ,
ka0 (t0 ) a00 (t0 )k
a0 (t0 ) a00 (t0 )
h(x, y, z) a(t0 ) , i = 0 h(x, y, z) a(t0 ) , a0 (t0 ) a00 (t0 )i = 0
ka0 (t0 ) a00 (t0 )k
1.10. : I R3
6= 0, Z
N (s)
(s) = + B(s)ds

| |.
N (s) (s)
0 (s) = + B(s) N (s) = (s)T (s) + B(s), 0 (s) = T (s).

|(s)|
k 0 (s)k = 6= 1 s ,
| |

0 (s) 00 (s)
(s) = .
k 0 (s)k3
0 (s) (s)
00 (s) = T (s) + T (s),

0 (s)(s) (s)2
0 (s) 00 (s) = (T (s) T (s)) + (T (s) T (s))
2 2
(s)2 (s)3
= T (s) ((s)N (s)) = B(s)
2 2
(s)3 |(s)|3
k 0 (s) 00 (s)k = k B(s)k = .
2 | |2
, ,
|(s)|3 1
(s) = = | | .
| |2 |(s)|3
| |3
R3 37
1.11. : R R3 -
(s) p R3 . .
(s) (s) + t(s). p

s R, f (s)
p = (s) + f (s)(s).
f .
f (s)(s) = p (s) f (s) = hp (s), (s)i
f . p = (s) +
f (s)(s)
0 = T (s) + f 0 (s)T (s) + f (s)(s)N (s) 1 + f 0 (s) = 0 f (s)(s) = 0
f 0 (s) = 1 f (s) = s + c, c R. f (s)(s) = 0 (s) = 0 s R

.
1.4
1. : R R2 , (t) = (4 cos3 t, 4
sin3 t) = 3(cos t, sin t)+ (cos(3t), sin(3t)), > 0.
a. .
Rt
0

b. (t) = 0 (u) du.
c. ;
2. (t) = (et cos t, et sin t), t R.
a. limt+ (t) = limt+ 0 (t) = (0, 0).

R
b. t0 k 0 (u)kdu.
c. .
3. 1 , 2 : R R2 1 = r(cos(t), sin(t)), 2 = r(cos(t), sin(t)).

1 , 2 1 , 2 . : R2 R2
2 = 1 . ;
4. : I R2 Frenet
{T (s), N (s)} . R
(t) = (t) + N (t).

38 R3
1.13: .
|| < 1. -
.
5. : I R2 R2 .
0 00
det( (t), (t))
(t) = 3 .
k 0 (t)k
6. : I R2 R2 (t) = (sin t, sin(2t)). , ;
7. : R R2
, . L > 0,
(s)
Z L
(s)ds = 2.
0
8. 1 , 2 1 , 2 1 , 2 : R R3 1 (t) =
(r cos(at), r sin(at), bt) 2 (t) = (r cos(at), r sin(at), bt) , (r, a, b > 0).
: R3 R3 2 = 1 . ;
9. : R R3 k > 0 R.
10. : R R3
[ 0 (t), 00 (t), 000 (t)]

(t) = .
k 0 (t) 00 (t)k2
R3 39
11. : ( 2 , 2 ) R3 (t) = (2 cos2 t 3, sin t 8, 3 sin2 t + 4) .

: ) R3 , ) R3 .
12. 4 : R R3 , (t) = (t3 + t2 + 3, t3 t +

1, t2 + t + 1).
13. Fenchel:
: R R3 R3
.
Z P
L() = (s)ds 2,
0
P .
14. .
15. : R R3 ,
: R R,
s s
(s) = T (s) + (s)N (s) + B(s), s R.
2 2

2
(0) = ( 2 , 0, 0), , .
16. : R R3 (s) 6= 0 s R.

p.
40 R3

[1] M. Abate and F. Torena, Curves and Surfaces, Springer 2012.
[2] C. Bar, Elementary Differential Geometry, Cambridge Univ. Press 2010.
[3] M. P. do Carmo, Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces, Prentice-Hall 1976.
[4] J. E. Marsden and M. J. Tromba, Vector Calculus, 6th ed., Macmillan Higher Edition, 2011.
3 . , , 1992.
[5] J. Oprea, Differential Geometry and Its Applications, The Mathematical Assocation of America,
2007.
[6] . . , , . . , , 2013.
[7] A. Pressley, Elementary Differential Geometry, Second Edition, Springer 2010. : -

, , 2012.
41
42
2
R3 , .
R3 ,
, R2 .
( )
R3 , .
R3 .
,
. ,
R3
. [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6].

, ,
.
2.1. M R3 (regular
surface) ( (embedded) ) p M
V R3 , U R2 p V 1-1 X : U R2 V M R3 , X = X(u, v)
1. X
2. Xu (q) Xv (q) 6= 0 q U .
X (local parametrization) M
(V M, X 1 ), X 1 : V M U , (local chart)
M p = X(q).
1. X Oxyz R3 X(u, v) = (x(u, v)

, y(u, v), z(u, v)), x, y, z : U R2 R , u, v U .
43
44
, 2

Xu (q) = xu (q), yu (q), zu (q) ,

Xv (q) = xv (q), yv (q), zv (q)
. , dXq : R2 R3 1-1,
!
xu (q) yu (q) zu (q)
xv (q) yv (q) zv (q)
2.
n o
V M, X1 : I M

2. A =
M ,
[
M= V M
I
i : R3 R, (i = 1, 2) , :
2.1: .
X1 X1

(q) (q)
u v
det 6= 0.

X X2
2
(q) (q)
u v
2.1. = {(x, y, z) R3 : Ax + By + z + = 0}
. , , ,
A, B, .
45
Ax By
6= 0, z = . x = u, y = v, z = z(u, v).

X : R2 R3

(u, v) 7 X(u, v) = x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)
Au Bv
= u, v, .

X 1-1, ,
X 1 : R3 R2 , X 1 (x, y, z) = (x, y),
, X . X (
x, y, z : R2 R). ,
A B
Xu (q) Xv (q) 6= 0 q = (u, v) R2 . Xu = (1, 0, ) Xv = (0, 1, ),

e1 e2 e3
A B
Xu Xv = 1 0 A = , ,1

0 1 B

kXu Xv k 6= 0, Xu Xv 6= (0, 0, 0). ,
2.1, (, X 1 ),
X 1 : R3 R2 .
2.2. U R2 f : U R .
X : U M

X(u, v) = u, v, f (u, v)

M = (u, v, f (u, v)) : (u, v) U
f . (M, X 1 ) X 1 : M U X 1 (x, y, z) = (x, y).

M .
M f : R2 R f (x, y) = z.
, g : R2 R g(x, z) = y {(u, g(u, v), v) : (u, v)
R2 } Y (u, v) = (u, g(u, v), v), h : R2 R h(y, z) = x
{(h(u, v), u, v) : (u, v) R2 } W (u, v) = (h(u, v), u, v). -
Monge.
2.1 Monge.
2.3. S2 = (x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 R3 .

N = (0, 0, 1), S = (0, 0, 1) . UN = S2 \ {N }, US =

S2 \ {S} XN : UN R2 , XS : US R2 ( )
1
XN (x, y, z) = (x, y),
1z
1
XS (x, y, z) = (x, y).
1+z
46
A = (UN , XN ), (US , XS ) S2 .

1.1.
2.2: .
.
R3 -
. :
F = (F1 , . . . , Fm ) : U Rn Rm U
Rn p U . DF (p) : Rn Rm p
m n ( Rn , Rm )
F1 F1

(p) (p)
x1 xn
.. ..
[DF (p)] =
. . .

F Fm
m
(p) (p)
x1 xn
DF (p). F : U Rn R,
DF (p) : Rn R 1 n

F F
[DF (p)] = (p), . . . , (p) .
x1 xn
F F
(p), . . . ,
(p) (grand) F gradF
x1 xn
F , F p [DF (p)]
.
: R U Rn (0) = p, 0 (0) = Z R.
F : R Rm Rm
F (p) Rm
d
F (t) = DF ((0)) 0 (0) = DF (p)Z.
dt t=0
47
Rm ,
m n n 1 . , DF (p) F : Rn Rm
, p U
Rn F (p) Rm .
:
2.1. DF (p) F : Rn Rm
.
2.1. ( )
U Rn F : U Rn Rn . p U
DF (p) : Rn Rn F p ( ).
Up 3 p, Vq 3 q = F (p) f = F |Up : Up Vq 1-1,
f 1 : Vq Up . , f 1 :
1
Df 1 (q) = DF (p) .
2.2. U Rn F : U Rm .
1. p U (critical point) F ,
DF (p) : Rn Rm
. , p (regular point).
2. q F (U ) (regular value) F , -
F 1 ({q}) q . , q (critical
value) F .
f : U R3 R U R3 .
Df (p) f p 1 3

f f f
[Df (p)] = (p), (p), (p) .
x y z
Df (p) : R3 R ( 1)
f f f
(p), (p), (p) . ,
x y z
q f (U ) f : U R3 R
f f f
(p), (p), (p) f 1 (q), f 1 (q)
x y z
.
,
R3 .
( ).
48
2.2. U R3 , f : U R q
f ,
f f f
f (p) = (p), (p), (p) 6= 0,
x y z
p M = f 1 {q} . M R3 .

. p M . (f )(p) p ,
f
, (p) 6= 0. F : U R3 R3
z
F (x, y, z) = (x, y, f (x, y, z)).
DF (p) p

1 0 0
0 1 0 ,

[DF (p)] =
f f f
x y z p
f
det([DF (p)]) = 6= 0.
z p
Up 3 p, Wl 3 l = F (p), f = F |Up : Up Wl
1-1,
f 1 : Wl Up , (u, v, t) 7 (u, v, g(u, v, t))
, g : Wl R3 R.
1
X = fW : Wl R3
l
( ) Wl = {(u, v, t) Wl : t = q} .
X : Wl Up M . p ,
M R3 .
2.4. f : R3 R
f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2
p = (x, y, z) R3 . f (p) f (p) = 2x, 2y, 2z |p = 2p,

r f .
S2r = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r2 } = f 1 {r2 }

r R3 .
2.5. r, R R 0 < r < R.
f : U = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 6= 0} R
49

p 2
f (x, y, z) = z 2 + x2 + y 2 R .

p 2
T2 = f 1 {r2 } = {(x, y, z) R3 : z 2 + x2 + y 2 R = r2 }.

f p = (x, y, z)
2 p p p
f (p) = p x( x2 + y 2 R), y( x2 + y 2 R), z x2 + y 2 .
x2 + y 2
r2 f . , p T2 f (p) = 0,
z = 0,
2r
f (p) = p (x, y, 0) 6= 0,
x + y2
2
. , T2 R3 ,
(torus)
2.3: T2 .
8.1 2.5
:
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2 =1
a2 b c
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 2 =1
a2 b c
x 2 y 2 z 2
2 2 =1
a2 b c
x 2 y 2
2 z = 0,
a2 b
a, b, c 6= 0.
( ).
.
2.3. (regular parametrized surface) -

X : U R2 R3 (U R2 ) q U
Xu (q) Xv (q) 6= 0. ()
50
1. X(U ) .
2. () DX(q) : R2 R3 1-1.
3. (immersed) R3 .
2.4. M R3 . X : U R2 M
(U ) (parametrization) M :
1. X .
2. p U Up 3 p X|Up : Up X(Up )
M .
X(U ) X : U R2 R3 .
q = (u0 , v0 ) U . v = v0 X

(u) X(u, v0 )
X(U ), X(q) q.
u-. , u = u0 U R2
X,
(v) X(u0 , v)
X(U ), , X(q) q
v-.
u, v U ,
, q U
. X
X(U ) . q = (u0 , v0 ) X(U )
u-, v = v0 v-, u = u0 . (u0 , v0 )
q.
2.5. X : U R2 M M .
(u0 , v0 ) U :
(1) u- , v = v0 , Xu (u0 , v0 ).
(2) v- , u = u0 , Xv (u0 , v0 ).
2.6. Oxy
. X(u, v) = (u, v, 0).
Xu Xv 6= 0, z = 0.
, u = u0 , v = v0 , (u0 , v0 ) R2 ,
.
51
X(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, 0). , , -

, (0, 0, 0).
:
() u- (v = v0 )
X(u, v0 ) = (u cos v0 , u sin v0 , 0).
( v0 ) x = u cos v0 y =
u sin v0 . u ,
y = x tan v0 .
v0 [0, 2] -
O(0, 0) .
() v- (u = u0 ),
X(u0 , v) = (u0 cos v, u0 sin v, 0).
x = u0 cos v y = u0 sin v.
v ,
x2 + y 2 = u20 .
u0 R \ {0} (0, 0).

(u0 , v0 ) y = x tan v0
x2 + y 2 = u20 .
2.7. T2 2.5 {(x, 0, z)

R3 : z 2 + (x R)2 = r2 } (x, z), z (. 2.4).
2.4: T2 .
, ( -
)
X : R2 T2

cos v sin v 0 R + r cos u
X(u, v) = sin v cos v 0 0 .

0 0 1 r sin u
52
2.8. S2 R3 . S2

X : U = {(, ) : /2 < < /2, 0 < < 2} S2

X(, ) = cos cos , cos sin , sin .
X(U ) = S2 \ C, C = {(x, 0, z) S2 : x 0} S2 .
2.9. = (r, 0, z) : I R2 (x, z)

r(s) > 0 r(s)2 + z(s)2 = 1 s I. z,
(surface of revolution),

X : R2 R3

cos v sin v 0 r(u) r(u) cos v
X(u, v) = sin v cos v 0 0 = r(u) sin v .

0 0 1 z(u) z(u)
2.5: .
(generating curve) z
. , , ,
, ( )
.
2.6. M R3 . : I M (I R
) ( ) M ,
R3 .
53
1 : I M 2 : J M p M ,
t0 I s0 J 1 (t0 ) = 2 (s0 ) = p.
,
h10 (t0 ), 20 (s0 )i

cos =
k10 (t0 )k k20 (s0 )k
2.1
f : M1 M2 , M1 M2
. ,
.
.
2.7. M R3 . f : M R
(smooth or differentiable), X : U M
M , f X : U R2 R .
2.6: f X : U R2 R.
2.2. M R3 f : M R. f
, X : U R2 M , f X .
. f . 2.7,
Y : V M M
f Y :V R
54
. , f X = f Y Y 1 X : U V R
f Y Y 1 X. .
2.8. : M1 M2 R3
, (U1 , X1 ) M1 (U2 , X2 ) M2
X21 X1 U : U R2 R2 ,

U = X11 X1 (U1 ) 1 X2 (U2 ) R2 , .
2.7: X21 X1 U : U R2 R2 .

2.3. 1 : M1 M2 2 : M2 M3
R3 . 2 1 : M1 M3 .
. 1 R3 ,
2.8, X1 : U1 M1 X2 : U2 M2
X21 1 X1 : X11 X1 (U1 ) 1 (X2 (U2 )) R2 R2

. , 2 ,
X31 2 X2 : X21 X2 (U2 ) 1 2 2

2 (X3 (U3 )) R R
. 2 1 : M1 M3 ,
X1 : U1 R2 R X3 : U3 R2 R,
X31 (2 1 ) X1 : W R2 R2
W = X11 X1 (U1 ) (2 1 )1 (X3 (U3 )) , -

X31 2 X2 X21 1 X1 .
55
2.4. M1 , M2 R3 : U R3 R3
U , M1 U (M1 ) M2 . |M1 : M1 M2
.
. p M1 X1 : U1 R2 M1 , X2 : U2 R2 M2 -
, p (p) , p X1 (U1 ), (X1 (U1 )) X2 (U2 ).
,
X21 X1 : U1 R2 U2 R2
X1 (p), X21 X1 .
X21 X1 = X21 |M1 X1 ,
|M1 p. p
M1 , |M1 : M1 M2 .
2.10. f : R3 R3 , f (x, y, z) = (ax, by, cz) abc > 0. f

. f S2
,
S2 = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1}
x2 y 2 z 2
E = {(x, y, z) R3 : + 2 + 2 = 1}.
a2 b c
2.9. : M1 M2 R3
(diffeomorphism), 1-1, 1 : M2 M1
. M1 M2 .
2.11. f : S2 S2 f (x, y, z) = (x, y, z) . -

, f 1-1 f 1 = f . , f ( S2 )

F : R3 R3 , (x, y, z) 7 (x, y, z).
2.4, f
2.5. f : M1 M2 . X1
M1 , f X1 M2 .
-
. f : M1 M2
, p M1 U M1 , f (U )
M2 f |U : U f (U ) .
( U = M1 ). , 2.5
f , X1 1-1.
56
2.2
2.12. X : U R3 , X(u, v) = (u cosh v, u sinh v, u2 ) U = {(u, v) R2 : u >
0}. X ( )
M = {(x, y, z) R3 : z = x2 y 2 }.
X(u, v) = (x, y, z). x2 y 2 = u2 cosh2 v sinh2 v = u2 , X(u, v) M

(u, v) U . V = X(U ). :
) X 1 1
) X ( )
) X 1 : V U
) Xu Xv 6= 0 (u, v) U .
,
) X(u1 , v1 ) = X(u2 , v2 ).
u1 cosh v1 = u2 cosh v2
u1 sinh v1 = u2 sinh v2
u21 = u22 .
u1 = u2 u1 , u2 > 0 u1 = u2 . sinh
1-1 v1 = v2 , X 1-1.
) X .
) X 1 : V U
x = u cosh v, y = u sinh v, z = u2
y
u, v. u = z, v = tanh1 x
y
X 1 : V U, (x, y, z) 7 (u, v) = z, tanh1 ,
x
. , X .

) Xu = cosh v, sinh v, 2u , Xv = u sinh v, u sinh v, 0 ,
Xu Xv = 2u2 cosh v, 2u2 sinh v, u 6= (0, 0, 0) (u, v) U.

2.13. X : (0, ) (0, ) R3 , X(u, v) = (u, 2u, uv 2 )

.
57
X , u, 2u, uv 2 1-1,
X(u1 , v1 ) = X(u2 , v2 ) (u1 , v1 ) = (u2 , v2 ).

r
1 z
X (x, y, z) = x, ,
x
, (x, y, z) X(U ) x 6= 0 ( x, z > 0). ,

Xu Xv = (4uv, 2uv, 0) 6= (0, 0, 0),
X .
2.14. M = {(x, y, z) R3 : xz+f (yz) = 0}, f : R R

, .
F : R3 R F (x, y, z) = x z + f (y z). M = F 1 ({0}).

F
F (x, y, z) = (1, f 0 (y z), 1 f 0 (y z)).
(x, y, z) M F (x, y, z) 6= (0, 0, 0),

M = F 1 ({0}) , M .
2.15. M = {(x, y, z) R3 : xy + xz zy + y 2 = 2}
(1, 1, 1).
F (x, y, z) = xy + xz zy + y 2 2, M = F 1 ({0}). M
.
F (x, y, z) = (y + z, x z + 2y, x y).
F F (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0),
y + z = 0, x z + 2y = 0, xy =0 x = y = z = 0.
(0, 0, 0) M , M R3 .
y. y 2 + y(x z) 2 + xz = 0
p
(x z) (z x)2 4(xz 2)
y= .
2
(1, 1, 1) +.
p
u + v + (u v)2 + 8 4uv
X(u, v) = u, ,v
2
M (1, 1, 1).
58
2.16. c R
S = {(x, y, z) R3 : 4x5 + 2y 3 y + 3z 2 = c}
R3
f : R3 R f (x, y, z) = 4x5 + 2y 3 y + 3z 2 . S = f 1 (c). S

, .
f f f
f (x, y, z) = 0 ( , , ) = (0, 0, 0)
x y z
(20x4 , 6y 2 1, 6z) = (0, 0, 0)
1
(x, y, z) = (0, , 0),
6
f (0, 16 , 0), (0, 16 , 0). (0, 16 , 0) f 1 (c) f ((0, 16 , 0)) = c
2 2
c = . , (0, 16 , 0) f 1 (c) c = .
3 6 3 6
1 2
S = f (c) c R \ { }.
3 6
2.17. R3 ;
) M1 = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 = z}
) M2 = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 = z 2 }.
) f : R3 R, f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 z. M1 = f 1 (0)
f = (2x, 2y, 1) 6= (0, 0, 0) (x, y, z) R3 .
M1 X(u, v) = (u, v, u2 + v 2 ).
) f : R3 R, f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 z 2 . M2 = f 1 (0)
f = (2x, 2y, 2z)
(x, y, z) M2 \{(0, 0, 0)}. M2

, (0, 0, 0) .
. M2
p
X : R2 \ {(0, 0)} R3 , X (u, v) = u, v, u2 + v 2 .

2.18.
x2 y 2 z 2
E = {(x, y, z) R3 : + 2 + 2 = 1}, abc 6= 0
a2 b c
0, S2 = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1}.
59
x y z
F : R3 R3 F (x, y, z) = ( , , ), , ,
a b c
F 1 : R3 R3 , (x, y, z) 7 (ax, by, cz). F (E) S2
F 1 (S2 ) E. ,
f = F |S : E S2
2.3
1. R3 ;
(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 = z

M1 =
(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 = z 2

M2 =
(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 z 2 = 1

M3 =
= (x, y, z) R3 : x sin z = y cos z .

M4
R3 , .
2. ax + by + cz = d R3 .
3. : S2 M S2
M = (x, y, z) R3 : x2 + 2y 2 + 3z 2 = 1 .

4. U = (u, v) R2 : < u < , 0 < v < 1 X : U R3 X(u, v) = (sin u, sin(2u), v).

M = X(U ). M X , 1-1
, X 1 . M
R3 ;
5. 2.6, :

(1) X(u, v) = (r cos u sin v, r sin u sin v, r cos v), 0 u 2, v
2 2
(2) X(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, u)
(3) X(u, v) = ( cos u, sin v, v)
(4) X(u, v) = ( cos u cos v, sin u cos v, sin v)
(5) X(u, v) = (u cosh u, u sinh v, u2 )
6. f (x, y, z) = (x + y + z 1)1 g(x, y, z) = xyz 2 .

f, g. c f 1 ({c}) g 1 ({c}) R3 ;
7. , z = x2 + y 2 ,
.
60
8. X : U R3 X(u, v) = (a cos u sin v, b sin u sin v, c cos v),

U = R (0, ), . u- v-.
9. a, b 6= 0. x2 + y 2 + z 2 = ay x2 + y 2 + z 2 = bz
R3 . , .

2007.
[5] . . , , . . , , 2013.

, , 2012.
61
62
3

. .
2.
,
.
.
,
. [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6].

, ,
.
3.1. M R3 , p M . (tangent space)

Tp M M p 0 (0) ( C 1 )
: I M , (0) = p.
Tp M = Z R3 : : I M C 1 , (0) = p, 0 (0) = Z .

3.1. M p -
2.
. X : U R2 M M p, 0 U
X(0) = p. : I X(U ) M X(U ) (0) = p.
X : U X(U ) , : X 1 : I U U R2 (0) = 0,
63
64
3.1: .
= X .
0 (0) = DX((0)) 0 (0) = DX(0, 0) 0 (0)

= DX(0, 0)(ae1 + be2 ) = aDX(0, 0)e1 + bDX(0, 0)e2
= aXu (0, 0) + bXv (0, 0).
, 0 (0) Xu Xv . , w =
DX(0, 0)(Z) Z R2 . : I U R2 (t) = tZ. -
(0) = 0, 0 (0) = Z = X . (0) = X((0)) = X(0) = p 0 (0) =
DX(0, 0) 0 (0) = DX(0, 0)Z = w, w Xu Xv
p M .
3.1. M R3 X : U R2 M
p, X(q) = p. DX(q) : R2 Tp (M ) .
, ,
.
(0) = p.
. ,

Tp M = span Xu (, ), Xv (, ) ,
X : U R2 M R3 M p (, ) U
X(, ) = p. , , Xu (, ), Xv (, )
. , Xu (, ) Xv (, )
Xu (, ) Xv (, ),
.
3.1. M = {(x, y, z)
R3 : z = x2 + y 2 } p = (1, 2, 5).
M X : R2 M, X(u, v) = (u, v, u2 + v 2 ).
Xu (u, v) = (1, 0, 2u) Xv (u, v) = (0, 1, 2v)

65
X(1, 2) = (1, 2, 5) = p. ,
Tp M = span{Xu (1, 2), Xv (1, 2)} = span{(1, 0, 2), (0, 1, 4)}.
, -
( ), : -
Tp M (1, 2, 1/2) ( h(a, b, c), (1, 0, 2)i =
h(a, b, c), (0, 1, 4)i = 0 a, b, c), x + 2y 12 z = d.
p = (1, 2, 5),
2x + 4y z = 5.
3.2. U R , f : U R M = f 1 (q),
q f , f (p) 6= 0 p M .

Tp M = f (p) .
X X R3 ,
.
. Z Tp M : I M (0) = p 0 (0) = Z.
(f )(t) = q t I. t,

d
= hf ((0)), 0 (0)i = hf (p), Zi,

0 = (f )
dt t=0

Z f (p), Tp M f (p) .

Tp M , f (p) R3 2, Tp M = f (p) .

M p =
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) M , :
.
X : U R2 M R3 p M
X(u, v) = (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)) X(q) = p, q = (u0 , v0 ) U
Tp M p
Xu (q) Xv (q). , Xu (q) Xv (q) p.
, (x, y, z) Tp M
h(x, y, z) (x0 , y0 , z0 ), Xu (q) Xv (q)i = 0 (3.1)
3.2. M = S2 (R) R
X(u, v) = (R cos u cos v, R sin u cos v, R sin v).

66
Xu Xv = (R2 cos u cos2 v, R2 sin u cos2 v, R2 sin v cos v). Xu Xv = (R cos v)p,
p . (0, 0, 0)
p, . p = (R, 0, 0), u = v = 0.
p
Xu Xv = (R2 , 0, 0),
() Tp M
h(x, y, z) (R, 0, 0), Xu Xv i = 0 h(x R, y, z), (R2 , 0, 0)i = 0 R2 x = R3 x = R.
p = (R, 0, 0).
.
f (x, y, z) = 0 f : R3 R.
p :
Z Tp M . , : I M (t) =
(x(t), y(t), z(t)) (0) = (x(0), y(0), z(0)) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = p 0 (0) = (x0 (0), y 0 (0), z 0 (0)) =
Z. ,
f ((t)) = f (x(t), y(t), z(t)) = 0,
f dx f dy f dz
+ + =0
x dt y dt z dt
t = 0
fx (p)x0 (0) + fy (p)y 0 (0) + fz (p)z 0 (0) = 0.
Z = (x0 (0), y 0 (0), z 0 (0)) Tp M

(fx (p), fy (p), fz (p)) f (p), (x, y, z) Tp M
fx (p)(x x0 ) + fy (p)(y y0 ) + fz (p)(z z0 ) = 0. (3.2)
3.3. x2 + 4y 2 z = 0
p = (2, 1, 8) f (x, y, z) = x2 + 4y 2 z = 0, (3.2) :
fx (2, 1, 8)(x 2) + fy (2, 1, 8)(y 1) + fz (2, 1, 8)(z 8) = 0

4(x 2) + 8(y 1) z + 8 = 0 4x + 8y z = 8.
.
, .
3.4. Tp S2 p S2
R3 .
67
: I S2 R3 (0) = p, 0 (0) = Z, Z R3 .
(I) S2 h(t), (t)i = 1,
d
(h(t), (t)i) = 0 h 0 (t), (t)i + h(t), 0 (t)i = 0
dt
2h 0 (t), (t)i = 0.
t = 0 h 0 (0), (0)i = 0 hZ, pi = 0. ,
A = {Z R3 : hZ, pi = 0}
( p), Tp S2 A.
, Z 6= 0 hZ, pi = 0. : R S2
sin(tkZk)
(t) = cos(tkZk)p + Z
kZk
S2 (0) = p, 0 (0) = Z ( ).
S2 p). A Tp S2

Tp S2 = {Z R3 : hZ, pi = 0}.
3.1

.
,
.
3.2. M1 , M2 , p M1 : M1 M2 .
(differential) dp : Tp M1 T(p) M2 p : Z Tp M1
: I M1 (0) = p, 0 (0) = Z.
d
dp (Z) = (t) t=0 T(p) M2 .
dt
3.3. ( dp (Z)
Z ). , dp .
. X : U M1 , Y : V M2 M1 , M2
X(0) = p, Y (0) = (p) (X(U )) Y (V ). F = Y 1 X : U R2 .
: I M1 (0) = p, 0 (0) = Z (I) X(U ) (
I). = X 1 : I U ( ). X = ,
D(X )(0) = 0 (0),
DX(0)0 (0) = Z (3.3)

68
( :
d d
DX(0)(0 (0)) = (X (t))|t=0 = (t)|t=0 = Z).
dt dt
, (3.3)
d d
dp (Z) = ( )|t=0 = ( X )|t=0
dt dt
d d
= (Y Y 1 X )|t=0 = (Y F )|t=0
dt dt
= D(Y F )(0)(0 (0)) = D(Y F )(0)(DX 1 (0))Z.
. ,
dp .
3.5. f : M1 M2 . p M1
dfp 0. , X Tp M1 .
: I M1 (0) = p 0 (0) = X.
,
d d
dfp X = (f )|t=0 = (f ((t)))|t=0 = f 0 ((t)) 0 (t)|t=0 = f 0 ((0)) 0 (0) = 0 0 (0) = 0.
dt dt
3.6. A : R3 R3 , A O(3) f : S2
S2 f = A|S2 . p S2 . f p. : I S2
(0) = p, 0 (0) = X Tp S2 . A
d d d
(f )|t=0 = (A )|t=0 = A |t=0 = A(X).
dt dt dt
, dfp = A|Tp S2 : Tp S2 TA(p) S2 .
3.4. (1) M1 , M2 , M3 f : M1 M2 , g : M2 M3 -
. g f : M1 M3
d(g f )p = (dg)f (p) dfp ,
p M1 .
(2) f : M1 M2 , dfp : Tp M1 Tf (p) M2

(dfp )1 = d(f 1 )f (p) p M1 .
3.1. ( )
f : M1 M2 R3 p M1 , q = (p).
dfp : Tp M1 T(p) M2 1-1 ( ).
Up 3 p, Vq 3 q f |Up : Up Vq 1-1
1
f |Up : Vq Up ( f ).
69
. X : U R2 M1 R3 , Y : V R2 M2 R3 ()
M1 M2 p q , X(u0 , v0 ) = p. (
U ) f (X(U )) Y (V ). f ,
: U R, : U R
f (X(u, v)) = Y ((u, v), (u, v)).
, : U V (u, v) = ((u, v), (u, v))

f X = Y . dfp : Tp M1 Tq M2 {Xu , Xv }, {Yu , Yv }
Tp M1 Tq M2
!
u v
J= .
u v
dfp , J .
,
: U R2 V R2 , (u, v) 7 ((u, v), (u, v))
, W U (u0 , v0 ) W
W V . Up = X(W ) Uq = Y (W )
f |Up : Up Uq
( ).
3.2
3.7. M
X(u, v) = (u, v, u2 v 2 ), p = (1, 1, 0).
X(1, 1) = (1, 1, 0) = p. Tp M p
{Xu (1, 1), Xv (1, 1)}. ,
R3 . Xu (u, v) = (1, 0, 2u), Xv (u, v) = (0, 1, 2v),
Xu (1, 1) = (1, 0, 2) Xv (1, 1) = (0, 1, 2).
. ,
n = Xu (1, 1) Xv (1, 1) = (2, 2, 1). , (x, y, z)
,
hn, (x 1, y 1, z)i = 0 2x 2y z = 0.
3.8. M z = x2 + 3xy 5y 2 .
70
() u1 = (1, 0, 0) u2 = (0, 1, 0)
M p = (0, 0, 0).
() 1 , 2 : R2 R3 1 (t) = (t, 0, t2 ), 2 (t) = (0, t, 5t2 )

M , p
p u1 u2 .
() M .
() z = f (x, y), f : R2 R f (x, y) = x2 + 3xy 5y 2 ,

x = u, y = v z = z(u, v).
X(u, v) = (u, v, u2 + 3uv 5v 2 ),
Tp M = {Xu (q) + Xv (q) : , R}, q = X 1 (p) = (0, 0)

= {(1, 0, 2u + 3v)q + (0, 1, 3u 10v)|q : , R}
= {(1, 0, 0) + (0, 1, 0) : , R} = {u1 + u2 : , R}
() F : R3 R F (x, y, z) = x2 +3xy 5y 2 z. F (1 (t)) = F (2 (t)) =

0.
F (1 (t)) = F (t, 0, t2 ) = t2 + 3t 02 5 0 t2 = 0
F (2 (t)) = F (0, t, 5t2 ) = 0 + 3t 0 5t2 + 5t2 = 0
1 , 2 M . t = 0 1 (0) = 2 (0) = p,
p. :
10 (t) = (1, 0, 2t) t = 0 : 10 (0) = (1, 0, 0) = u1

20 (t) = (0, 1, 10t) t = 0 : 20 (0) = (0, 1, 0) = u2 .
() M
Xu Xv 1
N= =p (2u 3v, 3u + 10v, 1).
kXu Xv k (2u 3v)2 + (3u + 10v)2 + 1
x2 y 2 z 2
3.9. 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 p =
a b c
xx0 yy0 zz0
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) 2 + 2 + 2 = 1.
a b c
x2 y 2 z 2
f : R3 R f (x, y, z) = + 2 + 2 1.
a2 b c
2x
2x0 2y 2y0 2z 2z0
fx (p) = 2 = 2 , fy (p) = 2 = 2 , fz (p) = 2 = 2 .
a p a b p b c p c
71
(3.2) p = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) :
fx (p)(x x0 ) + fy (p)(y y0 ) + fz (p)(z z0 ) = 0

xx0 yy0 zz0 x20 y02 z02
+ + = + 2 + 2
a2 b2 c2 a2 b c
xx0 yy0 zz0
+ 2 + 2 = 1,
a2 b c
p ( ).
3.10. M , v R3
f : M R f (p) = hv, pi. dfp (X), X Tp M .
: R M (0) = p 0 (0) = X.
d d d
dfp (X) = (f (t))|t=0 = (f ((t)))|t=0 = (hv, (t)i)|t=0
dt dt dt
dv d 0
= h , (t)i|t=0 + hv, i|t=0 = hv, (t)i|t=0
dt dt
0
= hv, (0)i = hv, Xi.
dfp (X) = hv, Xi.
3.11. S2 R3 Rz, : R3 R3
z. f = Rz, |S2 : S2 S2 .
dfp : Tp S2 Tf (p) S2 .
: I S2 (0) = p, 0 (0) = Z. Rz,
d
dfp (Z) = (Rz, (t))|t=0 = Rz, ( 0 (0)) = Rz, (Z).
dt
Rz, N (0, 0, 1) dfN : TN S2

TN S2 TN S2 . (
3.6).
3.3
1.
:
() X(u, v) = (u, v, u2 v 2 ), p = (1, 1, 0).
() X(r, ) = (r cosh , r sinh , r2 ), p = (1, 0, 1).
2. .
72
3. Tp M M -
X(u, v) = (u + v, u v, uv), (u, v) R2 p = (0, 2, 1).
4. M1 , M2 x2 +y 2 +z 2 = x, x2 +y 2 +z 2 =
y, , R .
5. 3x2 + 2y 2 + z 2 = 9 x2 + y 2 + z 2 8x 6y 8z + 24 = 0
p = (1, 1, 2).
6. M , p0 R3 \ M f : M R f (p) = kp p0 k2 .
dfp (Z) = 2hZ, p p0 i, Z Tp M . ( h , i R3
kxk = hx, xi1/2 ).
7. M p,
M p.
8. () M , p M IdM : M M .
(dIdM )p = IdTp M : Tp M Tp M.
() 3.4.
() f : M1 M2 . p M1
dfp : Tp M1 Tf (p) M2 ( ).
9. M 1 . f : M R
dfp = 0 p M . f M .
1
R3 .

2007.
[5] . . , , . . , , 2013.

, , 2012.
73
74
4

(..
R3 ).
.
,
, . -
(intrinsic) ,
R3 .
[1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6].

, , .
4.1. M R3 , p M h, ip
Tp M h, i R3 .
(first fundmental form) ( )
Ip : Tp M R+ , Ip (Z) = hZ, Zip = kZk2 .
: V .
V f : V V R f (1 u1 + 2 u2 , u) = 1 f (u1 , u) +2 f (u2 , u)
f (u, 1 u1 +2 u2 ) = 1 f (u, u1 ) +2 f (u, u2 ), 1 , 2 R u1 , u2 , u V . f
, f (u, v) = f (v, u) u, v V . Q : V R
Q(u) = f (u, u),
f : V V R.
.
1. h, i R3 Tp M ,
h, ip .
75
76
2. ( ) h, ip Tp M ,
:
1
hZ, W ip = Ip (Z + W ) Ip (Z) Ip (W ) , Z, W Tp M.
2
3.
.
4.2. M : I M C 1 .
Z p
L() = h 0 (t), 0 (t)idt.
I
, d M , (M, d)
(metric space).
4.1. M p, q M .
Cpq : [0, 1] M C 1 (0) = p, (1) = q.
d : M M R+

0 , d(p, q) = inf L() : Cpq .
(M, d) , p, q, r M :
i. d(p, q) 0
ii. d(p, q) = 0 p = q
iii. d(p, q) = d(q, p)
iv. d(p, q) d(p, r) + d(r, q).
M Tp M (p M )
, R3 . -
p ( Tp M ).
,
, .
M X : U R2 M R3 M .
p = X(u, v) X(q) X(U ) Tp M = TX(u,v) X(U )
Xu (u, v), Xv (u, v).
. w Tp M . w = 1 Xu (q) + 2 Xv (q),
hw, wi = 21 hXu (q), Xu (q)i + 21 2 hXu (q), Xv (q)i + 22 hXv (q), Xv (q)i.
E(q) = hXu (q), Xu (q)i = kXu (q)k2 , F (q) = hXu (q), Xv (q)i, G(q) = hXv (q), Xv (q)i = kXv (q)k2 .
77
E(q), F (q), G(q) M

p. q U E(u, v), F (u, v), G(u, v). ,
4.3. () E, F, G : U R
E(u, v) = hXu (u, v), Xu (u, v)i, F (u, v) = hXu (u, v), Xv (u, v)i, G(u, v) = hXv (u, v), Xv (u, v)i
M X : U M.
4.1. M R3 R3 p0 R3

v1 ,

v2 R3 . M
X(u, v) = p0 + u
v1 + v

v2 .
p M Tp M Xu =
v1 , Xv =

v2 ,

E = h

v1 ,

v1 i, F = h

v1 ,

v2 i, G = h
v2 ,

v2 i.

v1 ,

v2 , E = G = 1, F = 0.
4.2. M 1 z.
M
X : (0, 2) R R3 , X(u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v),
E = G = 1, F = 0.
,
. .

. ,
. , .
,
. ,
. ,
(
).

.
4.4. M1 M2 , f : M1 M2
M1 M2 .
f : M1 M2 , M1 , M2 .

.
.
78
4.5. : M1 M2 R3
(isometry) p M1 dp : Tp M1 T(p) M2
,
hdp (Z), dp (W )i = hZ, W i Z, W Tp M1 .
M1 , M2 (isometric).
4.2. f : M1 M2 ,
X1 (u, v) M1 , X1 (u, v) f X1 (u, v) M1 M2 ,
.

4.3. X : U R3 X(u, v) = (u, v, 1 u2 v 2 )
S2 p = u, v, X(u, v) S2 . Tp S2

u v
Xu (u, v), Xv (u, v) = 1, 0, , 0, 1, ,
1 u2 v 2 1 u2 v 2

1 v2 uv 1 u2
E = hXu , Xu i = , F = hXu , Xv i = , G = hXv , Xv i = .
1 u2 v 2 1 u2 v 2 1 u2 v 2
S2 . U = {(, ) R2 :
0 < < , 0 < < 2} Y : U R3

Y (, ) = sin cos , sin sin , cos .
Tp S2 p = (, , Y (, ))

Y , Y = (cos cos , cos sin , sin ), ( sin sin , sin cos , 0) ,
0 E = 1, F = 0, G = sin2 .
1. , :
dX(u, v) : R2 R3
t
[dX] : U R2 M23 (R), [dX](u, v) = Xu , Xv ,
At A. Xu , Xv
-, 2 3 .

!
E F
= [dX][dX]t .
F G
79
,
! !
g11 g12 E F
gij (u, v) = .
g21 g22 F G
2. h, ip Tp M -
E, F, G : Z = aXu + bXv , W = cXu + dXv Tp M .

hZ, W ip = haXu + bXv , cXu + dXv ip

= achXu , Xu ip + (ad + bc)hXu , Xv ip + bdhXv , Xv ip
= abE + (ad + bc)F + bdG.
Ip (Z) = E(u, v)a2 + 2F (u, v)ab + G(u, v)b2

! !
E F a
= (a, b) . (4.1)
F G b
ds2 = Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2 , ()
1 . ()
U : q U ds2q : R2 R2 R,
: !
E(q) F (q)
ds2q Z, W = Z t

W.
F (q) G(q)
X : U X(U ) M ds2q h, ip=X(q) ,
() .
.
() X(U ) M U R2 . -
, , M R2 (
).
, -
. X : U M : I M M ,
(t) = X(u(t), v(t)) t I. ,

M , {Xu , Xv }.
0 (t) = Xu (u(t), v(t))u0 (t) + Xv (u(t), v(t))v 0 (t).

1
(differential forms).
80
( 4.2) E, F, G
Z p
L() = h 0 (t), 0 (t)idt
I
Z p
= E(u(t), v(t))u0 (t)2 + 2F (u(t), v(t))u0 (t)v 0 (t) + G(u(t), v(t))v 0 (t)2 dt.
I
1 , 2
. ,
1 (u) = X(u, v0 ), 2 (v) = X(u0 , v),

hXu (q), Xv (q)i F (q)

cos = =p
kXu (q)kkXv (q)k E(q)G(q)
p = X(q) 1 2 .
X F (u, v) = 0 (u, v) U .
.
4.6. M1 M2 R3 . f : M1
M2 , 1 1 M1
p M1 2 2 f , 1 1
2 2 f (p).
f : M1 M2 ,
.
.
4.1. f : M1 M2
: M1 R
hdfp (Z), dfp (W )i = (p)hZ, W i, p M1 Z, W Tp M1 .
4.1. f : M1 M2 , ,
X1 M1 , X1 f X1 .
, X(u, v)
(du2 + dv 2 ) (u, v).
4.4. X(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, (v)). -

(v), X .
X ,

I = (u, v)(du2 + dv 2 ). (4.2)
81
Xu (u, v) = (cos v, sin v, 0) Xv (u, v) = (u sin v, u cos v, 0 (v)),
E(u, v) = hXu (u, v), Xu (u, v)i = 1,

F (u, v) = hXu (u, v), Xv (u, v)i = 0,
G(u, v) = hXv (u, v), Xv (u, v)i = u2 + (0 )2 .
I = E(u, v)du2 + 2F (u, v)dudv + G(u, v)dv 2 = du2 + (u2 + 02 )dv 2 (4.3)
(4.3) (4.2), u2 + 02 = 1,
p
0 (v) = 1 u2 ,

(v) = v 1 u2 + c, c R, u 1.
4.7. M , X : U X(U ) M
U (measurable) R2 . , (area)
X(U )
Z p

A X(U ) = kXu (q) Xv (q)kdudv, q U.
U
kXu (q)Xv (q)k2 = hXu , Xu i hXv (q), Xv (q)i hXu (q), Xv (q)i2 = E(q)G(q)F 2 (q).
,
Z p

A X(U ) = E(q)G(q) F 2 (q)dudv.
U
X(U )
M .
4.8. M1 M2 R3 . f : M1
M2 , M1 M2 (
, ).
4.1
4.2. f : M1 M2 ,
X(u, v) M1 ,
E1 du2 + 2F1 dudv + G1 dv 2 , E2 du2 + 2F2 dudv + G2 dv 2
X M1 f X M2
E1 G1 F12 = E2 G2 F22 .
82
4.5. T2 X(u, v) = (R + r cos u) cos v, (R +

r cos u) sin v, r sin u (u [0, 2), v [0, 2)) 4 2 rR. ,

Xu = (r sin u cos v, r sin u sin v, r cos u), Xv = (R + r cos u) sin v, (R + r cos u) cos v, 0
E(u, v) = r2 , F (u, v) = 0, G(u, v) = (R + r cos u)2 ,

Z 2 Z 2 p Z 2 Z 2
A(T2 ) = E(u, v)G(u, v) F 2 (u, v)dvdu = r(R + r cos u)dvdu
0 0 0 0
Z 2
= 2r(R + r cos u)du = 4 2 rR.
0
4.1
4.6. M X(u, v) = f (u) cos v,

f (u) sin v, g(u) . M M
, .

M (u) = f (u), 0, g(u) ,
z. E = 1, F = 0, G = f (u)2 (). R
z. R3

cos sin 0
R = sin cos 0 ,

0 0 1

X (u, v) = (R X)(u, v) = f (u) cos(v + ), f (u) sin(v + ), g(u) , M
.
E = 1, F = 0, G = f (u)2
0 .
4.7. X : U R2 X(U ) R3 , X(u, v) = (u, v, u2 + v 2 )

R3 .
(1) .
(2) . ;
(3) K x, y 0
z [0, 1].
83
(1) Xu = (1, 0, 2u) Xv = (0, 1, 2v),
E(u, v) = kXu k2 = 1 + 4u2 , F (u, v) = hXu , Xv i = 4uv, G(u, v) = kXv k2 = 1 + 4v 2 .
(2) : z = x2 + y 2 .
.
R p
(3) A(K) = U E(u, v)G(u, v) F 2 (u, v)dudv,
U = X 1 (K) = {(u, v) R2 : 0 u2 + v 2 1, u, v 0}.

R
A(K) = U 1 + 4v 2 + 4u2 dudv. -
.
u(, ) = cos , v(, ) = sin , 0 /2
Z 1 Z /2 q
D(u, v)
A(K) = 1 + 42 cos2 + 42 sin2 dd, (4.4)
0 0 D(, )
u u

D(u, v) cos sin
= = = cos2 + sin2 = .
D(, ) v v sin cos

, (4.4) :
Z 1 Z /2 p Z 1 p
A(K) = 2
1 + 4 dd = 1 + 42 /2d
0 0 0
1

1
= /2 (1 + 42 )3/2 = (5 5 1).
12 0 24
4.8. U z = f (x, y)
Z p
A(K) = 1 + fu + fv dudv,
K
K U xy .
z = f (x, y) X(u, v) = (u, v, f (u, v)).

Xu = (1, 0, fu ), Xv = (0, 1, fv ),
E = hXu , Xu i = 1 + fu2 , F = hXu , Xv i = fu fv , G = hXv , Xv i = 1 + fv2 .
K U xy , :
Z p Z p
A(K) = 2
E(u, v)G(u, v) F (u, v) dudv = 1 + fu2 + fv2 dudv.
K K
84
4.9. X : U R3
E(u, v) = 1 + v 2 , F (u, v) = 2uv, G(u, v) = 1 + u2 .
u, v- .
X(u, v0 ), X(u0 , v) (u0 , v0 ),
hXu (u, v0 ), Xv (u0 , v)i F (u0 , v0 ) 2u0 v0

cos = =p =p .
kXu (u, v0 )kkXv (u0 , v)k E(u0 , v0 )G(u0 , v0 ) 1 + u20 + v02 + u20 v02
4.2
1. M X : R+ R M,

Xa (r, ) = (r sin a cos( ), r sin a sin( ), r cos a).
sin a sin a
f (x, y, z) = 0 .
2. :
(1) : X(u, v) = (sin u cos v, sin u sin v, cos u)

(2) : X(u, v) = R + r cos u) cos v, (R + r cos u) sin v, r sin u (0 < r < R)
(3) : X(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, bv)
(4) : X(u, v) = (cosh u cos v, cosh u sin v, u).
3. ( ) X : R2 M
M = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 = 1}.
4. Mercator X : R2 S 2 S2

cos v sin v sinh u
X(u, v) = , ,
cosh u cosh u cosh u
5. M R3

6. X, Y : R2 R3 :
X(u, v) = (cosh u cos v, cosh u sin v, u),

Y (u, v) = (sinh u cos v, sinh u sin v, v).
85
X Y . ,
f (x, y, z) = 0, .
7. z = x2 + y 2 z 1
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z 0.
8. M R3 X E = 1
F = 0. v- u-
.
9. M X : R+ R+ R3 , X(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, u).

X .
10. (s) R3 N (s) -

B(s). ( > 0)
X(s, ) = (s) + (N (s) cos + B(s) sin ).
. X 1-1
1 s.
s0 < s < s1 , 0 < < 2, s0 , s1 , 2(s1 s0 ).
86

2007.
[5] . . , , . . , , 2013.

, , 2012.
87
88
5
Gauss
-
, (,
). .
Gauss,

.
Gauss,
. , Gauss
R3 .
(Theorema Egregium) Gauss ,
( )
. .
, ,

!
[1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6].

, , .
5.1. M . N : M S2
Gauss M p M N (p)
M p.
, M (orientable).
M Gauss (oriented)
.
.
1. M = {(x, y, 0) R3 : x, y R} xy. Gauss N (x, y, 0) =
89
90 Gauss
5.1: Gauss.
(0, 0, 1).
2. M = S2 . Gauss N = IdS2 , Id : S2 S2 , Id(p) = p
M .
3. M = S1 R . N (x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
Gauss.
4. Mobius ( )
Gauss, .
5.2: Mobius.
1. . , X : U X(U ) M

M X( 0 ) = p, q = X(u, v) X(U )
Xu (u, v) Xv (u, v)
N (q) = N (X(u, v)) =
kXu (u, v) Xv (u, v)k
() Gauss M .
2. N : M S2 Gauss M , N (p)
Tp M TN (p) S2 . , Tp M = TN (p) S2
Gauss 91
( ). dNp : Tp M
TN (p) S2 N dNp : Tp M Tp M .
N ,
, .
5.2. M Gauss N : M S2 .
(shape operator) M ( Weingarten) p M
Sp : Tp M Tp M, Sp (Z) = dNp (Z),
Z Tp M.

:
. U ,
, .
5.1. M , Gauss N : M S2 .
Sp : Tp M Tp M p M ,
M .
. M , Gauss ,
, Sp = dNp = 0, p M .
, p M , q M : I M
(0) = q (1) = p. fq : I R
fq (t) = hq (t), N ((t))i
fq (0) = 0
fq0 (t) = h 0 (t), N ((t))i + hq (t), dNp 0 (t)i = 0.
hq (t), N ((t))i = 0 t I. , t = 1
h(q p), N (p)i = 0
q M . p
N (p).
.
1. M = S2 , N (p) = p. Sp = Id : Tp S2 Tp S2 .
2. M Oxy , N (x, y, 0) = (0, 0, 1). N = , Sp = 0 p M .
3. M = S1 R , N (x, y, z) = (x, y, 0).
Sp M p = (x, y, z) M , [Sp ]
92 Gauss
Sp ( Tp M ). 0
Tp M = span{(y, x, 0), (0, 0, 1)}.
d
Sp (0, 0, 1) = dNp (0, 0, 1) = N (x, y, z + t)t=0
dt
d
= (x, y, 0)t=0 = (0, 0, 0).
dt

Sp (y, x, 0). (t) = cos(t + t0 ), sin(t + t0 ), z , t0 R
(cos t0 , sin t0 ) = (x, y).
(0) = (cos t0 , sin t0 , z) = (x, y, z) = p

0 (0) = ( sin t0 , cos t0 , 0) = (y, x, 0).
d
Sp (y, x, 0) = dNp (y, x, 0) = N cos(t + t0 ), sin(t + t0 ), z t=0
dt
d
= cos(t + t0 ), sin(t + t0 ), 0 t=0 = (sin t0 , cos t0 , 0)
dt
= (y, x, 0).
, {(y, x, 0), (0, 0, 1)}

!
1 0
[Sp ] = .
0 0
5.1. M , Gauss N : M S2
p M . ,

hSp (Z), W i = hZ, Sp (W )i,
Z, W Tp M.
. X : U M M X(0, 0) = p N :
X(U ) S2 Gauss X(U ),
Xu (u, v) Xv (u, v)
N (X(u, v)) = .
N X(u, v) Tp M
d
0 = hN X, Xu i = hdNp Xv , Xu i + hN X, Xuv i
dv
d
0 = hN X, Xv i = hdNp Xu , Xv i + hN X, Xvu i.
du
Xuv = Xvu :
hdNp Xv , Xu i = hXv , dNp Xu i.

Gauss 93
dNp : Tp M Tp M

hdNp Xu , Xu i = hXu , dNp Xu i,

hdNp Xv , Xv i = hXv , dNp Xv i.
. Sp ,
.
5.1. M Gauss N : M S2 , p
M . {Z1 , Z2 } Sp
Tp M
Sp (Z1 ) = 1 Z1 , Sp (Z2 ) = 2 Z2
1 , 2 , Sp .
5.3. M Gauss N : M
S2 , p M . M p ,
IIp : Tp M Tp M R, IIp (Z, W ) = hSp (Z), W i.
, -
(
).
M Gauss N : M S2 . X : U
R2 M M X(0) = p M (
X , ).
, Tp M = TN (p) S2 Xu , Xv .
!
a11 a12
A= M22 (R)
a21 a22
Sp : Tp M Tp M {Xu , Xv } (
Weingarten).
Sp (Xu ) = a11 Xu + a21 Xv

Sp (Xv ) = a12 Xu + a22 Xv . (5.1)
, Sp = dNp , dNp : Tp M TN (p) S2 .

dNp (Xu ) = Nu , dNp (Xv ) = Nv . (5.2)
(, : I U = (t, 0) ( x) U R2 (0) = (0, 0)

0 (0) = (1, 0) e1 . = X : I M M ,
94 Gauss
(0) = X (0) = X(0, 0) = p 0 (0) = X (0) 0 (0) = X(0, 0)e1 = Xu . ,

d d
dNp (Xu ) = N t=0 = N X t=0
dt dt
0
= D(N X)(0, 0) (0) = (N X)(0,0) = Nu .
u
).
(5.1) (5.2)
a11 Xu + a21 Xv = Nu
a12 Xu + a22 Xv = Nv , (5.3)
A[dX] = [dN ],
[dX] = (Xu , Xv )t , [dN ] = (Nu , Nv )t .
e, f, g : U R
! !
e f t t E F
= [dN ][dX] = A[dX][dX] = A . (5.4)
f g F G
5.4. e, f, g : U R .
II = edu2 + 2f dudv + gdv 2 ,
.
(5.4) N span{Xu , Xv }, :
[Xu Xv Xuu ] [Xu Xv Xuu ]

e = hNu , Xu i = hN, Xuu i = =
kXu Xv k EG F 2
[Xu Xv Xuv ] [Xu Xv Xuv ]
f = hNu , Xv i = hN, Xvu i = =
kXu Xv k EG F 2
[Xu Xv Xvv ] [Xu Xv Xvv ]
g = hNv , Xv i = hN, Xvv i = = .
kXu Xv k EG F 2

( ) N X,
( ) X.
N Xu , Xv
( ). ,
, .
Gauss 95
.
, E, F, G
C 3 e, f, g C 1 , U
R2 ,
(1) EG F 2 > 0, E > 0, G > 0
(2) E, F, G, e, f, g ( Egregium Gauss

Mainardi - Codazzi),
X : U X(U ) X C 3 , E, F, G e, f, g
, X.
X(U ) , .
-
.
( ) . , -
r ,
. ,
,
, 1/r.
5.3: .
, , -
. .
M Gauss N : M S2
: I M , (0) = p, 0 (0) = Z Tp M .
(0) p :
(0) = (0)tan + (0)norm ,

96 Gauss

(0)tan Tp M (0)norm Tp M -
.
5.4: .
N ((s)) (s),
(0)
(0)norm = h(0), N (p)iN (p)

= h(0), dN (p)(0)iN (p) = hZ, dN (p)ZiN (p),
(0)norm (0)
(0) Gauss ,
p, (0) = Z Tp M .
.
5.5. M Gauss N : M
S2 , p M Z Tp M . (normal curvature) p (Z) M p
Z
n (Z) = h(0), N (p)i,
: I M (0) = p, 0 (0) = Z.
, :
(s)
R3 (s) N (s) = ,
(s)
(0) = (0)N (0). N (0)
N (0) = N (0)tan + N (0)norm

= N (0)tan + hN (0), N (p)iN (p),
Gauss 97
(0) = (0)N (0) = (0)N (0)tan + (0)hN (0), N (p)iN (p).
(
) ,
n (Z) = h(0), N (p)i = (0)hN (0), N (p)i.
( (0) = 0, p (Z) = 0). N (p) N (0)
n (Z) = (0) cos .
5.5: .
, |p (Z)| (0).
, ,
:
5.2. ( Meusnier)
M Gauss N : M S2 , p M
Z Tp M . M p Z

n (Z) = hSp (Z), Zi = IIp (Z, Z).
. , (0) = p (0) = Z.
N ((s)) (s),
d
0 = (h(s), N ((s))i) = h(s), N ((s))i + h(s), dN ((s))(s)i.
ds
,
n (Z) = h(0), N (p)i = hZ, dNp Zi = hSp (Z), Zi = IIp (Z).

98 Gauss
, M Gauss N : M S2
Tp1 M = Z Tp M : kZk = 1

Tp M . Tp1 M ,
n : Tp1 M R, n (Z) = n (Z)
. Z1 , Z2 Tp1 M
1 (p) n (Z1 ) = maxZTp1 M n (Z),

2 (p) n (Z2 ) = minZTp1 M n (Z).
Z1 , Z2 (principal directions) p
1 (p), 2 (p) (principal curvatures) M p. 1 (p) = 2 (p) -
p (umbilic).
.
5.2. M Gauss N : M S2
p M . Z Tp1 M p Z
Sp : Tp M Tp M .
. {Z1 , Z2 } Tp M Sp ,
Sp (Z1 ) = 1 Z1 , Sp (Z2 ) = 2 Z2 , (1 , 2 R).
Z Tp1 M Z() = cos Z1 + sin Z2

n Z() = hSp (cos Z1 + sin Z2 ), cos Z1 + sin Z2 i
= cos2 hSp (Z1 ), Z1 i + sin2 hSp (Z2 ), Z2 i + cos sin (hSp (Z1 ), Z2 i + hSp (Z2 ), Z1 i)
= 1 cos2 + 2 sin2 .
1 , 2

n Z() = IIp Z(), Z() . 1 = 1 , 2 = 2 ,
n (Z) = 1 cos2 + 2 sin2 ,
1 , 2 M p. ,
Euler,1 .
, 1 , 2 M p
Sp : Tp M Tp M , , , .
1
Leonard Euler.
99
{Z1 , Z2 } Tp M ,
Sp ,
!
1 0
[Sp ] = .
0 2
.
5.6. M R3 Gauss N : M S2 .
Gauss (Gauss curvature) K (mean curvature) H M

K : M R, H:M R
1 1
K(p) = det[Sp ] = 1 2 , H(p) = tr[Sp ] = (1 + 2 ).
2 2
M (flat), K(p) = 0 p M , (
) (minimal), H(p) = 0 p M . (
, ).
5.1.
H 2 K,
H, K Gauss
.

1
K = 1 2 , H = (1 + 2 )
2
1 , 2 .
(1 2 )2 0 21 21 2 + 22 0 21 + 21 2 + 22 41 2
2
2 1
(1 + 2 ) 41 2 (1 + 1 ) 1 2
2
H 2 K.
H 2 = K, 1 = 2 Euler,

n (Z) = 1 cos2 + 1 sin2 = 1 ,
n (Z) = 1 = 2 , p
(Z Tp1 M ).
5.7. p M R3
(1) K(p) > 0,
(2) K(p) < 0,
(3) K(p) = 0 dNp 6= 0,
(4) dNp = 0.
100 Gauss
5.1
5.8. M M
M M
, R \ {0}.
X (u, v) = X(u, v) + N (u, v).
5.3. M M ,
, ,
. X : U M M . X = X(u, v) + N (u, v) ( =6= 0)

M . u, v
Xu = Xu + Nu , Xv = Xv + Nv .
Xu Xv = (Xu + Nu ) (Xv + Nv )
= Xu Xv + (Xu Nv + Nu Xv ) + 2 (Nu Nv ).
, 5.8 ,

Xu Xv = Xu Xv + (2H(Xu Xv )) + 2 K(Xu Xv )
= (1 2H + 2 K)Xu Xv .

Xu Xv = EG F 2 N ,
p
Xu Xv = (1 2H + 2 K) EG F 2 N.
, M
M . , M
N
= sgn(1 2H + 2 K)
sgn .

. M
M ||.
, ,
.
M .
:
101
5.4. M M
(1) E G (F )2 = (1 2H + 2 K)2 (EG F 2 )
(2) K H M ,
K (H K)
K = , H = .
1 2H + 2 K 1 2H + 2 K
Bonnet2 :
5.3. (Bonnet) Gauss K M ,

M K/2

K/2.
. K > 0 .
M M
H K
H = . (5.5)
1 2H + 2 K
M1
1
= > 0. (5.6)
K
(5.5)
K

H K H K K( K H) K
H1 = = = = ,
1 2H 1K 1
+ KK 2H
2 K 2( K H) 2

K
H1. =
2
M1 M

K/2.
M2
1
= < 0
K
M . N N .
(5.5)

H + KK H+ K K

H2 = = = ,
1 + 2H 1K + 1K K H
2(1 + K )
2

K
= H2
.
2
M2 M M1 ,

K/2.
2
Pierre Ossian Bonnet.
102 Gauss
Gauss ( )

K K K K
K1 = < 0 K2 = > 0.
2( K H) 2( K + H)
5.4. H M ,
M M Gauss 4H 2 .
. M M ,
Gauss M
K
K = . (5.7)
1 2H + 2 K
M
1
= 6= 0 (5.8)
2H
M . (5.7)
K
K = 1 1 = 4H 2 ,
1 2H 2H + 4H 2
K
K = 4H .
M M Gauss
4H 2 .
Gauss, ,
Gauss ( ).
Gauss :
5.5. M R3 Gauss
K(p) 6= 0 p M . V p -
K .
A0
|K(p)| = limA0 ,
A
A B V p B A0 B
Gauss N : M S2 .
{Bn } p
n p Bn .
Gauss
, X : U M
M.
103

! !
e f E F
=A ,
f g F G
A Sp : Tp M Tp M {Xu , Xv }.

! !1 ! !
e f E F 1 e f G F
A= = .
f g F G EG F 2 f g F E
Gauss
A, :
! !1
e f E F
K = det(A) = det det
f g F G
!
e f
det
f g eg f 2
= !=
E F EG F 2
det
F G
1 1 eG 2f F + gE
H = tr(A) = .
2 2 EG F 2
, 1 , 2
det(A I) = 0.
ij , (5.3)

f F eG eF f E
Nu = 11 Xu + 21 Xv = Xu + Xv
EG F 2 EG F 2
gF f G f F gE
Nv = 12 Xu + 22 Xv = Xu + Xv
EG F 2 EG F 2
Weingarten3 .
, K H,

x2 2Hx + K = 0.
3
Julius Weingarten.
104 Gauss
5.2. = (r, 0, z) : I R3 ( )
Oxz r(u) > 0 r(u)2 + z(u)2 = 1 su I. X : I R R3

X(u, v) = sin v cos v 0 0 = r(u) sin v

0 0 1 z(u) z(u)
(surface of revolution) M (
z).

r(u) cos v r(u) sin v
Xu = r(u) sin v , Xv = r(u) cos v

z(u) 0
() Gauss

cos v sin v 0 z(u) z(u) cos v
N (u, v) = sin v cos v 0 0 = z(u) sin v .

0 0 1 r(u) r(u)
hXu , N i = hXv , N i = 0. ,
!
r(u) cos v r(u) sin v z(u)
[dX] = (Xu , Xv )t = ,
r(u) sin v r(u) cos v 0
! !
E F t 1 0
= [dX][dX] =
F G 0 r(u)2
! !
e f t r(u)z(u) + z(u)r(u) 0
= [dN ][dX] = .
f g 0 z(u)r(u)
= (r, 0, z) (
)
eg f 2 r(u)
K= 2
= . (?)
EG F r(u)
.
M S2 , r(u) = cos u, z(u) = sin u /2 < u < /2.
E = 1, F = 0, G = cos2 u e = 1, f = 0, g = cos2 u,
cos2 u
K = = 1 = 1 2 ,
cos2 u
1 cos2 u + cos2 u 1
H = 2
= 1 = 1 + 2 ,
2 cos u 2
1 = 2 = 1. r(u) =
1
1, z(u) = u, E = 1, F = 0, G = 1 e = f = 0, g = 1, K = 0 H = .
2
105
(?)
r(s) + K(s)r(s) = 0.
K = 1 ( Gauss)
r(s) = es + bes , (, b R).

Z sp
s
= 0, b = 1 r(s) = e z(s) = 1 e2t dt. -
0
r, z : R+ R X : R+ R M (
Gauss K = 1).
5.6: .

! !
E F 1 0
= [dX][dX]t = .
F G 0 e2s
u > 0 s(u) = ln u,
X : R+ R M X(u, v) = X s(u), v .

1
Xu = su Xs = Xs , X
u
! !
E F t 1 1 0
= [dX][dX] = 2 .
F G u 0 1
( )
1
ds2 = du2 + dv 2

u2
106 Gauss
H2 = {(v, u) R2 : u > 0}. (H2 , ds2 )

(hyperbolic space) ds2 .
(
( ) ).

M .
5.1. U . f : U R2
fx = fy = 0, f .
5.5. M Gauss
N : M S2 . p M , M
.
. X : U M M U
R2 . X(U ) ,
f : U R
Sp : Tp M Tp M
(aXu + bXv ) 7 f (u, v)(aXu + bXv ),

(N X)u = f Xu (N X)v = f Xv .
0 = (N X)uv (N X)vu
= (f Xu )v (f Xv )u
= fv Xu f Xuv + fu Xv + f Xvu
= fv Xu + fu Xv .
Xu Xv , fu = fv = 0.
U f , f U M , M
.
f = 0, , 5.1
.
f 6= 0, Y : U R3
1
Y (u, v) = X(u, v) + N (u, v).
f
1 1
dY = dX + dN = dX f dX = 0,
f f
107
1
Y kX Y k2 = . X(U )
f2
1
Y . M ,
f
.
5.6. M . p M
Gauss K(p).
. f : M R f (p) = kpk2 . f
M , . p0 M ,
f . f (p0 ) = kp0 k2 , p0 M
. r = kp0 k. M S2r r.
1
. K(p0 ) 2 .
r
Z Tp0 M : I M M (0) = p0 0 (0) = Z.
f : I R t = 0.
d d2
(f ) = 0, (f ) 0.

dt t=0 dt2 t=0
f (t) = k(t)k2 = h(t), (t)i,

d
(f (t)) = 2h(t), 0 (t)it=0 0 = 2h(0), 0 (0)i = 2hp0 , Zi.

dt t=0
hp0 , Zi = 0 Z Tp0 M , , p0 Tp0 M . ,
d2
(f (t)) = 2h 0 (t), 0 (t)it=0 + h(t), 00 (t)it=0

dt2 t=0
d2
0 (f (t)) = 2h 0 (0), 0 (0)i + 2h(0), 00 (0)i

dt2 t=0
= 2hZ, Zi + 2hp0 , 00 (0)i = 2 + 2hpo , 00 (0)i 1 hp0 , 00 (0)i.
p0 1
M p0 . = p0
r kp0 k
M ,
p0 00 1
p0 (Z) = hN (p0 ), 00 (0)i = h , (0)i .
r r
1
, 1 , 2 . Gauss
r
p0
1 1 1
K(p0 ) = 1 (p0 )2 (p0 ) = 2 > 0.
r r r
5.2. R3 K 0. ,
R3 .
108 Gauss
5.7. (Liebmann) M Gauss K.

1
M .
K
5.2
5.3. z = x2 + y 2
X(u, v) = (u, v, u2 + v 2 ).

Xu (u, v) Xv (u, v) 1
N (u, v) = = (2u, 2v, 1).
kXu (u, v) Xv (u, v)k 1 + 4u2 + 4v 2
N , ,
.
5.4. Enneper M X : R R+ R3
u3 v3
+ uv 2 , v + vu2 , u2 v 2 .

X(u, v) = u
3 3
( Mathematica)
. ,
Gauss, Gauss,
.
!
E F
Xu = (1 u2 + v 2 , 2uv, 2u), Xv = (2uv, 1 v 2 + u2 , 2v), = [dX][dX]t ,
F G
2
E(u, v) = hXu , Xu i = u2 + v 2 + 1
F (u, v) = hXu , Xv i = 0
2
G(u, v) = hXv , Xv i = u2 + v 2 + 1 ( ).
ds2 U = R R3
ds2 = Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2

!
E(u, v) F (u, v)
ds2(u,v) (Z, W ) = Z t
W
F (u, v) G(u, v)
2 !
u2 + v 2 + 1 0
= Zt 2 W
0 u2 + v 2 + 1
109
(u, v) U R2 Z, W R2 . Gauss N : M S2
Xu Xv Xu Xv 1 2 2

N (u, v) = = = 2 2u, 2v, 1 u + v
kXu Xv k EG F 2 (u + v 2 + 1)
( !).

1 2 2 2 2

e = hN, Xuu i = 4u + 4v + 2 2u 2v =2
u2 + v 2 + 1
f = hN, Xuv i = 0
g = hN, Xvv i = 2.
p = X(u, v) M
Sp : Tp M Tp M, Sp (Z) = dNp (Z)

! !1 ! !
e f E F 1 e f G F
[Sp ] = =
f g F G EG F 2 f g F E
! ! !
1 2 0 1 0 1 2 0
= 2 = 2 .
u2 + v 2 + 1 0 2 0 1 u2 + v 2 + 1 0 2
( ) .
,
2
1 = 2 = 2 .
u2 + v 2 + 1
, Gauss
4
K(u, v) = det[Sp ] = 4
u2 + v 2 + 1

1 1
H = tr[Sp ] = 1 + 2 = 0,
2 2
M .
5.5. M R3 () X : R2
M, X(u, v) = (u, v, u2 v 2 ).
) M .
) Gauss M .
) Gauss M .
110 Gauss
) : I M M (0) = X(0, 0) M .
M (0) (0) = aXu + bXv
[2, 2].
) Xu = (1, 0, 2u), Xv = (0, 1, 2v).
E = hXu , Xu i = 1 + 4u2 , F = hXu , Xv i = 4uv G = hXv , Xv i = 1 + 4v 2 .
) Gauss
Xu Xv 1
N X(u, v) = = 2u, 2v, 1 .
kXu Xv k 4u2 + 4v 2 + 1
) Xuu = (0, 0, 2), Xuv = (0, 0, 0), Xvv = (0, 0, 2)
2
e = hN, Xuu i =
4u2 + 4v 2 + 1
f = hN, Xuv i = 0
2
g = hN, Xvv i = .
4u2 + 4v 2 + 1
2 2
II = du2 dv 2 .
4u2 2
+ 4v + 1 4u + 4v 2 + 1
2
eg f 2 4
, K = 2
= 2 ( ).
EG F 4u2 + 4v 2 + 1
) k(0)k2 = a2 + b2 , a = cos , b = sin . ,
p = (0) Z = (0)
cos2 sin2
(0) (0) = IIp (Z, Z) = 2 = 2 cos 2 [2, 2].
1
2(a2 b2 )
IIX(u,v) (aXu + bXv ) = ea2 + 2f ab + gb2 = .
4u2 + 4v 2 + 1
5.6. p

Z 2
1
H= p ()d,
2 0
p () p
.
111
Euler
p () = 1 cos2 + 2 sin2 ,
1 , 2 p. ,
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
p ()d = (1 cos2 + 2 sin2 )d = 1 cos2 d + 2 sin2 d
0 0 0 0
Z 2 Z 2
cos 2 + 1 1 cos 2
= 1 d + 2 d = 1 + 2 .
0 2 0 2
Z 2
1 1 + 2 1 + 2
p ()d = = = H.
2 0 2 2
5.7. M p M . w1 , w2 Tp M

Sp (w1 ) = 3w1 2w2 Sp (w2 ) = w1 ,
Sp = dNp M p,
M p.
,
Sp : Tp M Tp M . Sp u .
w1 , w2 , u = aw1 + bw2 . Sp (u) = u
Sp (u) = Sp (aw1 + bw2 ) = aSp (w1 ) + bSp (w2 ) = a(3w1 2w2 ) + bw1 = (3a + b)w1 + (2a)w2 ,
(3a + b)w1 + (2a)w2 = (aw1 + bw2 ), (3a + b a)w1 + (2a b)w2 = 0.
w1 , w2
(3 )a + b = 0, 2a + b = 0. (5.9)
u , u 6= 0,
! !
a 0
6= .
b 0
(5.9) .
!
3 1
det = 0 2 3 + 2 = 0.
2
= 1 = 2. Sp 1 2,
p 1 2.
112 Gauss
5.8. M Tp M
p M . w1 , w2 Tp M ,
(1) Sp (w1 ) Sp (w2 ) = K(p)(w1 w2 ),
(2) Sp (w1 ) w2 + w1 Sp (w2 ) = 2H(p)(w1 w2 ).
w1 , w2 Tp M ,
Sp (w1 ) = 1 w1 + 1 w2 , Sp (w2 ) = 2 w1 + 2 w2 ,
Sp : Tp M Tp M ( )
!
1 2
[Sp ] = .
1 2
,
K(p) = det([Sp ]) = 1 2 2 1
1 1
H(p) = tr([Sp ]) = (1 + 2 ),
2 2
Sp (w1 ) Sp (w2 ) = (1 w1 + 1 w2 ) (2 w1 + 2 w2 )
= 1 2 (w1 w1 ) + 1 2 (w1 w2 ) + 2 1 (w2 w1 ) + 1 2 (w2 w2 )
= (1 2 2 1 )(w1 w2 ) = K(p)(w1 w2 ).
Sp (w1 ) w2 + w1 Sp (w2 ) = (1 w1 + 1 w2 ) w2 + w1 (2 w1 + 2 w2 )
= (1 + 2 )(w1 w2 ) = 2H(p)(w1 w2 ).
5.3
1. Gauss X(u, v) = (u+v, uv, uv)
(2, 0, 1.)
2. U R3 q R f : U
R. M = f 1 ({q}) R3 .
3. Gauss
Sr2 = (x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r2 .

4. Enneper X : R R+ R3
X(u, v) = (3u u3 + 3uv 2 , 3v v 3 + 3vu2 , 3u2 3v 2 ).
:
113
()
()
()
() Gauss .
5.7: Enneper.
5. Gauss (catenoid)
M X : R R+ R3
1 + r2 1 + r2

X(, r) = cos , sin , log r .
2r 2r
f (x, y, z) = 0 M.
5.8: .
6. X, Y : R2 R3 X(u, v) = (cosh u cos v, cosh u sin v, u) Y (u, v) = (sinh u cos v, sinh u sin v, v)
. -
1 , 2 X, Y.
114 Gauss
5.9: .
7. M R3
.
8. : R R3
. ~n, ~b .
r > 0 (tube) M r X : R2 R3 ,
X(s, ) = (s) + r(cos ~n(s) + sin ~b(s)) R3 .
Gauss K M s, , r, k(s) (s).
9. X : U R3 M R3 Gauss N : M S 2
1 1
k1 = , k2 = . r R Xr : U R3 Xr (u, v) =
r1 r2
X(u, v) + rN (u, v) R3 .
1 1
Xr k1 (r) = k2 (r) = .
r1 r r2 r
10. Gauss X : R R M ,

Xa (r, ) = r sin a cos , r sin a sin , r cos a .
sin a sin a
11. R2 R4 .
X : R2 R4 X(u, v) = (cos u, sin u, cos v, sin v) (torus) M R4
. Gauss M ;
12. (s) (s) 6= 0 B(s).

M
X(s, u) = (s) + uB(s),

115
. Gauss M X(s, u)

(s)2
K(s, u) = .
(1 + u2 (s)2 )2
13. (a) ( )
(1) ,
(2) ,
(3) z = x2 y 2 .
(b) Gauss K = 1.
.
14. 5.7.
116 Gauss

2007.
[5] . . , , . . , , 2013.

, , 2012.
117
118
6
(
Gauss-Bonnet). (Theorema
Egregium) Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss 1828. Gauss
,
,
, . , Gauss .
5 Gauss M
eg f 2
K = ,
EG F 2
. , ,
.
Gauss (Theorema Egregium)
eg f 2 E, F, G ( -
), e, f, g
. , Gauss ()
. Gauss
Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann,
, .
[1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9].

, .
6.1. ( Theorema Egregium) M R3 .

Gauss K M . ,
Gauss , .
119
120
6.1. , Gauss
.
6.2. S2 .
, , .
. X : U R2 S2 .
Gauss .
Gauss K = 1 6= 0, .
6.1. Gauss
, E, F, G.
X : U M M .
! !
E F t hXu , Xu i hXu , Xv i
= [DX][DX] = .
F G hXu , Xv i hXv , Xv i
{Xu , Xv } M
X(u, v) X(U ). Gram-Schmidt,
{Z, W } :
Xu
Z=
E
f = Xv hXv , ZiZ = Xv hXv , Xu iXu = Xv F Xu ,

W
hXu , Xu i E

W
f E F
W = = (Xv Xu ).
kW
fk EG F 2 E
Z W a, b, c : U
R, E, F, G,
Z = aXu , W = bXu + cXv .
Gauss N : X(U ) S2
Xu Xv
N= = Z W.
kXu Xv k
{Z, W, N } ( ) R3
X(U ) M ( (u, v) U N (X(u, v)) X(U )). ,
Zu , Zv , Wu , Wv :
Zu = hZu , ZiZ + hZu , W iW + hZu , N iN

Zv = hZv , ZiZ + hZv , W iW + hZv , N iN
Wu = hWu , ZiZ + hWu , W iW + hWu , N iN
Wv = hWv , ZiZ + hWv , W iW + hWv , N iN.
121
( -
Z, W, N ).
Z, W 1, hZ, Zi = hW, W i = 1
u v
hZu , Zi = hZv , Zi = hWu , W i = hWv , W i = 0,
Zu , Zv , Wu , Wv :
Zu = hZu , W iW + hZu , N iN (6.1)

Zv = hZv , W iW + hZv , N iN (6.2)
Wu = hWu , ZiZ + hWu , N iN (6.3)
Wv = hWv , ZiZ + hWv , N iN . (6.4)
, hZu , W i E, F, G :
U R hZv , W i ():
hZu , W i = h(aXu )u , W i = hau Xu + aXuu , bXu + cXv i

= au bE + au cF + abhXuu , Xv i + achXuu , Xv i
1 1
= au bE + au cF + abEu + ac(Fu Ev ).
2 2
hZu , W iv hZv , W iu
Gauss K E, F, G. ,
hZu , W iv hZv , W iu = hZuv , W i + hZu , Wv i hZvu , W i hZv , Wu i

= hZu , Wv i hZv , Wu i
p
= K EG F 2 ,
.
, Gauss M
hZu , W iv hZv , W iu
K= ,
EG F 2
E, F, G .
6.1.
p
hZu , Wv i hZv , Wu i = K EG F 2 .
!
a11 a12
. A = SX(u,v) {Xu , Xv },
a21 a22
det(A) = a11 a22 a12 a21 = K.
Nu = a11 Xu + a21 Xv Nv = a12 Xu + a22 Xv ,

122
( e = hNu , Xu i = hN, Xuu i ). ,
hNu Nv , N i = h(a11 Xu + a21 Xv ) (a12 Xu + a22 Xv ), N i

= (a11 a22 a12 a21 )hXu Xv , N i
p
= Kh( EG F 2 )N, N i
p
= K EG F 2 .
, hN, Zi = hN, W i = 0 u v
(6.1)(6.4)
hNu Nv , N i = hNu Nv , Z W i
= hNu , ZihNv , W i hNu , W ihNv , Zi
= hZu , N ihN, Wv i hWu , N ihN, Zv i
= hZu , Wv i hZv , Wu i,
( )
K E, F, G :

12 Evv + Fuv 12 Guu 1
2 EuFu 12 Ev 0 1
2 Ev
1
2 Gu
det Fv 12 Gu E F det 1
2 Ev E F

1 1
2 Gv F G 2 Gu F G
K= 2
EG F 2
Frobenius1

E Eu Ev
1 1 Ev Fu Fv Gu
K= det F Fu Fv

4( EG F 2 )4 2 EG F 2 v EG F 2 u EG F 2
G G u Gv
, -
( ), F = Fu = Fv = 0,
" ! !#
1 1 G 1 E
K = + (6.5)
EG u E u v G v
, -
.
()
.
1
Ferdinand Georg Frobenius
123
6.2. M1 , M2 R3 : M1 M2
M1 M2 ,

Ip (X, Y ) = I(p) dp (X), dp (Y )

IIp (X, Y ) = IIp dp (X), dp (Y )
p M1 , X, Y Tp M1 . : M1 M2 = |M1 : M1 M2
: R3 R3 M1 .
-. -

, .
6.1
6.1. M
1
I(u, v) = (du2 + dv 2 ),
(u2 + v 2 c2 )2
c R, Gauss K .

1
E=G= , F = 0.
(u2 + v 2 c2 )2
, Gauss
(6.5),
" ! !#
1 1 G 1 E
K = + .
EG u E u v G v
E = G,
" ! !#
1 1 E 1 E
K= + . (6.6)
E u E u v E v
,
1 1
E= = u2 + v 2 c2
u2 2
+v c2
E
,
E 2u E 2v
= 2 , = 2
u (u + v 2 c2 )2 v (u + v 2 c2 )2

1 E 2u 1 E 2v
= 2 , = 2 .
E u u + v 2 c2 E v u + v 2 c2
124
,
! !
1 E 2u2 2v 2 + 2c2 1 E 2v 2 2u2 + 2c2
= , = 2 . (6.7)
u E u (u2 + v 2 c2 ) v E v (u + v 2 c2 )2
(6.6), (6.7)
2u2 2v 2 + 2c2 2v 2 2u2 + 2c2

2 2 2 2
K = (u + v c ) + 2
(u2 + v 2 c2 )2 (u + v 2 c2 )2
4c2
= (u2 + v 2 c2 )2 2 = 4c2 = ,
(u + v 2 c2 )2
M Gauss.
6.2. ,

ds2 = v du2 + u dv 2 ,
E = v, F = 0, G = u . (6.8)
Gauss
" ! !#
1 1 G 1 E
K = + . (6.9)
EG u E u v G v
(7.1)

E G
EG = u v ,
2 2 = v 2 1 , = u 2 2 ,
v 2 u 2

1 G
= u 2 1 v 2 ,
E u 2
!
1 G
= 1 u 2 1 v 2 . (6.10)
u E u 2 2
,
1 E
= u 2 v 2 1
G v 2
!
1 E
= 1 u 2 v 2 2 . (6.11)
v G v 2 2
125
(6.9) (6.10), (6.11) K = 0,

1 u 2 2 v 2 + u 2 v 2 1 = 0. (6.12)
2 2
u, v, u, v. ,

1 = 0,
2 2
= 0 = 2.
( = 0) E = 1, F = 0, G = 1,

ds2 = du2 + dv 2 ,
( = 2) E = v 2 , F = 0, G =
u2
ds2 = v 2 du2 + u2 dv 2 .
6.2
1. hZv , W i 6.1 E, F, G : U
R.
2. (0, 2 ) M X : R+ R M ,

X (r, ) = (r sin cos( ), r sin sin( ), r cos ).
sin sin
Gauss K M .
3. M X : U M ,
F = 0. Gauss

1 Ev Gu
K= + .
2 EG v EG u EG
4. M X : U M ,
F = 0 E = G. Gauss
2
2

1
K= (ln E) + 2 (ln E) .
2E u2 v
1 2
K= (ln E),
2E
126
2 f Laplace f .

4 4 1
E= , E= , E= .
(1 + u2 + v 2 )2 (1 u2 v 2 )2 u2
5. Gauss M1 , M2
X(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, v)

Y (u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, ln u)
, . ,
6.1 .
6. E = G = 1, F = 0, e = 1 = g, f = 0.

2007.
[5] . . , , . . , , 2013.

, , 2012.
[7] C. F. Gauss, General Investigations of Curved Surfaces of 1827 and 1825, The Princeton Univer-
sity Library, 1902.
[8] C. F. Gauss, General Investigations Of Curved Surfaces Unabridged, Wexford College Press, 2007.
[9] C. F. Gauss, General Investigations of Curved Surfaces, Dover Publications, 2005.
127
128
7
Codazzi Gauss
Gauss.
Christoffel, kij : U R
X : U M M .
Xuu , Xuv , Xvv {Xu , Xv , N } R3 .
, Codazzi Gauss,
E, F, G K Christoffel kij .
Christoffel E, F, G,
Gauss.
( Liebmann).
[1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8].

, .
M R3 Gauss N : M S2 X : U R2 M
M . X(U ) M R3
{Xu , Xv , N } Xu , Xv
Nu , Nv ( Frenet
).
X(u, v) = p, (u, v) U
Tp M = span{Xu (u, v), Xv (u, v)}
Xu (u, v) Xv (u, v)
N (X(u, v)) = Tp M . ,
,
e = hN, Xuu i , f = hN, Xvu i , g = hN, Xvv i . (7.1)
, u 1 v 2. -
{Xu , Xv , N } R3 , 111 , 211 , 112 , 212 , 122 222
129
130 Codazzi Gauss

Xuu = 111 Xu + 211 Xv + eN
Xuv = 112 Xu + 212 Xv + f N
Xvu = 121 Xu + 221 Xv + f N
Xvv = 122 Xu + 222 Xv + gN, (7.2)
(7.1). kij (i, j, k {1, 2}) U R2
Christoffel ( ). Xuv = Xvu
112 = 121 , 212 = 221 .
7.1. S2
X(u, v) = (sin u cos v, sin u sin v, cos u).
Xu = (cos u cos v, cos u sin v, sin u)

Xv = ( sin u sin v, sin u cos v, 0)
Xuu = ( sin u cos v, sin u sin v, cos u) = X(u, v)
Xuv = ( cos u sin v, cos u cos v, 0)
Xvv = ( sin u cos v, sin u sin v, 0) = sin u(cos v, sin v, 0).
Xuu N , 111 = 211 = 0. -
, Xuv = cot uXv , 112 = 0 212 = cot u. , Xvv =
sin u cos uXu sin2 uN 122 = sin u cos u 222 = 0. -
Cristoffel S2 ,
p
Y (x, y) = (x, y, 1 x2 y 2 ) :
x x2 y
111 = , 112 = 121 =
1 x2 y 2 1 x2 y 2
x(1 x2 ) y(1 y 2 )
122 = , 211 =
1 x2 y 2 1 x2 y 2
xy 2 y(1 x2 )
212 = 221 = , 222 = .
1 x2 y 2 1 x2 y 2
, (7.2) Xu Xv
hXuu , Xu i = 111 E + 211 F

hXuu , Xv i = 111 F + 211 G
hXuv , Xu i = 112 E + 212 F
hXuv , Xv i = 112 F + 212 G
hXvv , Xu i = 122 E + 222 F
hXvv , Xv i = 122 F + 222 G. (7.3)
Codazzi Gauss 131
:
1 1
hXuu , Xu i = hXu , Xu iu = Eu
2 2
1 1
hXuv , Xu i = hXu , Xu iv = Ev
2 2
1 1
hXuv , Xv i = hXv , Xv iu = Gu
2 2
1
hXuu , Xv i = hXu , Xv iu hXu , Xuv i = Fu Ev
2
1
hXvv , Xu i = hXu , Xv iv hXuv , Xv i = Fv Gu
2
1 1
hXvv , Xv i = hXv , Xv iv = Gv . (7.4)
2 2
.
1. (7.4) Christoffel
ijk , i, j, k = 1, 2. ijk = jik . , (7.4)
Christoffel
.
2. u = x1 , v = x2 E = g11 , F = g12 , G = g22 , 1
g = (gij ), i, j = 1, 2 gij,k gij xk ,
(7.4)
1
ijk = (gik,j + gjk,i gij,k ).
2
, (7.4) (7.3) :

! ! 1
E F 111 Eu
=
2
F G 2
11 1
Fu Ev
2
! ! 1
E F 1
12 Ev
=
2
F G 212 1
Gu
2
! ! 1
E F 122 Fv Gu
=
2 .
F G 2
22 1
Gv
2
:

! !1 1 ! 1
1
11 E F Eu 1 G F Eu
=
2 =
2
(7.5)
2
11 F G
1 EG F 2
F E
1
Fu Ev Fu Ev
2 2

! !1 1 ! 1
2 Ev 2 Ev
1
12 E F G F
1
2
= 1 = 2 1 (7.6)
EG F F

12 F G Gu E Gu
2 2
1
g = (gij ) .
132 Codazzi Gauss

! !1 1 ! 1
122 E F Fv 2 Gu 1 G F Fv 2 Gu
= 1 = 1 . (7.7)
222 EG F 2 F

F G Gv E Gv
2 2
(7.5), (7.6), (7.7)
1 GEu F Ev 1 F Eu EEv
111 = 2
F Fu + 211 = 2
+ EFu ,
EG F 2 2 EG F 2 2
1 GE v F G u 1 F Ev EGu
112 = 2
212 = 2
+ ,
EG F 2 2 EG F 2 2
1 GGu F Gv 1 F Gu EGv
122 = GFv 222 = F F v + + . (7.8)
EG F 2 2 2 EG F 2 2 2
.
2, g 1 = (g kl ) g,
(7.8) :
kij = g kl ijk , i, j, k, l {1, 2}.
Christoffel,
X.. ,
E, F, G,
.
7.2. Christoffel S2 -
7.1.
E = 1, F = 0 G = sin2 u. (7.8) 2
! ! ! !
111 1 0 0 0
= =
211 0 csc2 u 0 0
! ! ! !
112 1 0 1 0
= =
212 0 csc2 u sin u cos u cot u
! ! ! !
122 1 0 sin u cos u sin u cos u
= = .
222 0 csc2 u 0 0
, Christoffel 212 = 221 = cot u 122 = sin u cos u,

7.1.
, Sp : Tp M Tp M, !Sp = dNp
a b
M p M A = {Xu , Xv },
c d
! ! !1 !
a b e f E F 1 eG f F eF + f E
= = . (7.9)
c d f g F G EG F 2 f G gF f F + gE
2 1 1
cscx = x. secx = x.
sin x cos x
Codazzi Gauss 133
N u v
Nu = dNp (Xu ) = Sp (Xu ) = (aXu + bXv )

Nv = dNp (Xv ) = Sp (Xv ) = (cXu + dXv ). (7.10)
(7.2),
(7.10) :
Xuuv = (111 )v Xu + 111 Xuv + (211 )v Xv + 211 Xvv + ev N + eNv

= (111 )v Xu + 111 112 Xu + 212 Xv + f N + (211 )v Xv

+211 122 Xu + 222 Xv + gN + ev N e cXu + dXv

= (111 )v + 111 112 + 211 122 ec Xu + (211 )v + 111 212 + 211 222 ed Xv

+ 111 f + 211 g + ev N.

(112 )u + 112 111 + 212 112 f a Xu + (212 )u + 112 211 + 212 212 f b Xv

Xuvu =
+ e112 f 212 + fu N.

Xuuv = Xuvu , , :
(Xu ) : (111 )v + 211 122 ec = (112 )u + 112 111 + 212 212 f a

(Xv ) : (211 )v + 111 212 + 211 222 eb = (212 )u + 112 211 + 212 212 f b
(N ) : ev + f 111 + g211 = fu + e112 + f 212 (7.11)
Xuvv = Xvvu ,
:
(Xu ) : (112 )v + 112 112 + 212 122 f b = (122 )u + 122 111 + 222 112 ga
(Xv ) : (212 )v + 112 212 f d = (222 )u + 122 211 gc
(N ) : fv + f 112 + g212 = gu + e122 + f 222 . (7.12)
Codazzi3
ev fu = e112 + f 212 111 g211

fv gu = e122 + f 222 112 g212

eg f 2
Gauss K =
EG F 2

! ! !1 ! !
a b e f E F 1 e f G F
= = ()
c d f g F G EG F 2 f g F E
3
Codazzi - Mainardi
134 Codazzi Gauss
(7.11) Xu Xv ,
Gauss4
EK = (211 )v (212 )u + 111 212 + 211 222 112 211 (212 )2

FK = (112 )u (111 )v + 212 112 211 122
FK = (212 )v (222 )u + 112 212 122 211
GK = (122 )u (112 )v + 122 111 + 222 112 (112 )2 212 122 .
1. Gauss.
,
(7.11), :
(211 )v + 111 212 + 211 222 ed = (212 )u + 112 211 + 212 212 f b
(211 )v (212 )u + 111 212 + 211 222 112 211 (212 )2 = ed f b
1
= 2
e(f F + gE) f (eF + f E)
EG F
1
= (ef F + geE + ef F f 2 E)
EG F 2
1
= (eg f 2 )E
EG F 2
= EK,
().
2. , F = 0, Gauss

1 Ev Gu
K= + .
2 EG EG v EG u
Gauss (Therema
Egregium) Gauss.
7.1. ( Gauss) Gauss

, .
. Gauss K
E, F, G, Christoffel ,
E, F, G .
, Gauss
2
!
1 122 112 X s 1 s 1

K= + 22 1s 12 2s .
G u v
s=1
4
Gauss [4]
Codazzi Gauss 135
.

,
E, F, G, Gauss
K = 1 2 . 1
2 , N . ,
, Gauss
1
(1 = 0, 2 = ) (1 = 0, 2 = 0),
r
K = 0.
7.1. , Gauss
.
7.3. X : R R+ M M
E(u, v) = G(u, v) = v F (u, v) = 0. M
1
. , (7.8) 111 = 0, 211 = ,
2v
1 1 2 1 2 1
12 = , = 0, 22 = 0, 22 = . :
2v 12 2v
2
!
1 122 112 X s 1 s 1
1
K= + 22 1s 12 2s = 3.
G u v 2v
s=1
Gauss K , M
() .
Codazzi Gauss -
.

. .
,
E, F, G, e, f, g .
.
7.2. (Bonnet) E, F, G, e, f, g : V R2 R
V E > 0 G > 0. Codazzi
Gauss ( ) EG F 2 > 0. q V U V
q U X : U X(U ) R3 , X(U ) R3
E, F, G, e, f g .
U , X , R3 .
,
.
.
(. [1], [3])
136 Codazzi Gauss
Coodazzi Gauss ,
.
. .
7.1. M R3 Gauss N : M S2 .
(line of curvature) M : I M ,
0 (t) .
7.2. X : U R2 M M (u, v)
U . u- ( v-) M
u 7 X(u, v0 ) ( v 7 X(u0 , v)).
u, v U ,
M . (coordinate
lines) M . .
:
7.1. X : U M R3 M
X(U ) ( ).
F f 0.
.
.
A {Xu , Xv } .
(), F f 0, A ,
. ,
. Xu , Xv .
, Xu , Xv , F = hXu , Xv i = 0. ,
f f
A ()
G E
f 0. ,
.
7.1. X , (
u- v-) k1
k2 .
Ev Gu
(k1 )v = (k2 k1 ) (k2 )u = (k1 k2 ). ()
2E 2G
. 7.1 F 0 f . Codazzi
ev = e112 g211 , gu = g212 e122 .
F = 0 (7.5), (7.6) (7.7)
1 Ev 1 Ev
211 = , 112 =
2 G 2 G
1 Gu 1 Gu
122 = , 212 = .
2 E 2 G
Codazzi Gauss 137
, Codazzi
Ev e g Gu e g
ev = + , gu = + (7.13)
2 E G 2 E G
() F = 0 = f ,
e g
k1 = k2 = .
E G
v u
(7.13), .
Codazzi, K 0.
7.2. M ( K 0) (
p k1 (p) = k2 (p) = 0). M ,
.
. M , k1 = 0
k2 6= 0 . , X M ,
( u- k1 v-
k2 ). ( , . Shifrin .
119120). X, F = f = 0.
k1 = 0, p M Sp (Xu ) = 0, Nu = 0 . , N
u-. , e = hSp (Xu ), Xu i = 0.
u- . k1 = 0 , (k1 )v = 0
k2 6= k1 , 7.1 Ev = 0. (7.5)
211 = 0,
Xuu = 111 Xu + 211 Xv + eN = 111 Xu ,
Xu . Xu
u-, u- . ,
, .
(developable surfaces).

.
R3 . ,
.
7.3. (Liebmann) M Gauss

K. K > 0 M 1/ K.
:
138 Codazzi Gauss
7.2. (Hilbert) p k1 (p) >

k2 (p). k1 p k2 p. K(p) 0.
. k1 (p) 6= k2 (p), p, u- -
k1 v-
k2 . k1 6= k2 (k1 )v = (k2 )u = 0, p, 2.1
Ev = Gu = 0 p. () (k1 )u = (k2 )v = 0,
p
Evv
(k1 )vv = (k2 k1 ) 0 ( k1 (p) )
2E
Guu
(k2 )uu = (k1 k2 ) 0 ( k2 (p) ),
2E
Evv 0 Guu 0 p. Gauss,
2
2KEG = Evv + Guu + (u, v)Ev + (u, v)Gu
(u, v), (u, v), K(p) 0.
. ( 2.3). M ,
Gauss M , K > 0,
. M , M .
, M ,
k1 p M . K = k1 k2 , k2 = K/k1
p. p ,
(;) 7.2 K(p) 0, .
3. M ()

K > 0 H , M 1/ K. (.
H 2 K = (k1 k2 )2 /4 p M . H 2 K(p) = 0
H 2 K(p) > 0 Liebmann Hilbert .)
7.1
7.4. u =, v =,
M ,
N N N N
(1) = 211 212 , (2) = 212 122 ,
u E G v E G

N = EG F 2 .
139
(1) u = v =
F
cos = . (7.14)
EG
u:

Fu EG F ( EG)
sin = u
u EG
Eu G + EGu
Fu EG F
p
2
2 EG
1 cos =
u EG
(7.14),
r
F2

2EGFu F (Eu G + EGu )
1 =
EG u 2EG EG

2EGFu F GEu EF Gu
= . (7.15)
u 2EGN

N 2 N N G211 + N E112
11 112 =
E G EG
(7.5), (7.6), (7.6),
F Eu + 2EFu EEv GEv F Gu

NG 2
+ NE
N 2 N 2(EG F ) 2(EG F 2 )
1 =
E 11 G 12 EG
2EGFu F GEu EF Gu
= . (7.16)
2EGN
(7.15) (7.16), ,
. (2) .
7.5. N = N (u, v) M
X : U R2 M ,

(1) ln N = 111 + 212 (2) ln N = 112 + 122 .
u v
(1)
p
N = kN (u, v)k = EG F 2 (7.17)
140 Codazzi Gauss
E, F G M .
(7.17)
p 1 p
ln N = ( EG F 2 ) = ( EG F 2 )
u u EG F 2 u
1 1
= (EG F 2 )
EG F 2 2 EG F 2 u
1
= (GEu + EGu 2F Fu )
2(EG F 2 )
1
= (GE u 2F Fu + F Ev ) + (EGu F Ev )
2(EG F 2 )
GEu 2F Fu + F Ev EGu F Ev
= 2
+
2(EG F ) 2(EG F 2 )
= 111 + 212 .
(2) .
7.6. A = du2 + cos2 udv 2 .

R3 I = II = A.
.
I = A,
E = 1, F = 0, G = cos2 u. (7.18)
II = A
e = 1, f = 0, g = cos2 u. (7.19)

E > 0, G > 0, EG F 2 = cos2 u > 0. (7.20)
(8.1)
(8.2), Gauss Codazzi.
Egregium.
eg f 2
K= = 1. (7.21)
EG F 2
! !!
1 1 G 1 G
K = +
EG u E u v E v

1 1
= ( sin u) + ( 0) = 1. (7.22)
cos u u v cos u
Egregium. Codazzi.
F = f = 0,
Ev e g Gu e g
ev = + , gu = + . (7.23)
2 E G 2 E G
141
(8.1) (8.2) ev = Ev = 0
.
e g cos2 u
gu = 2 sin u cos u, Gu = 2 sin u cos u, + =1+ = 2,
E G cos2 u
Gu e g 1
+ = (2 sin u cos u)2 = gu
2 E G 2
Codazzi. ,
7.2 Bonnet,
, .
, X : U R2 M

E = 1 = hXu , Xu i, F = 0 = hXu , Xv i, G = cos2 u = hXv , Xv i.
X(u, v) = (f (u) cos v, f (u) sin v, h(u)). (7.24)
E = 1
f 0 (u)2 + h0 (u)2 = 1 (7.25)
G = cos2 u f (u)2 = cos2 u,
f (u) = cos u. (7.26)
(7.24)
f (f 0 h00 f 00 h0 ) f 2 h0
e= p , f = 0, g=p (7.27)
f 2 ((f 0 )2 + (h0 )2 ) f 2 ((f 0 )2 + (h0 )2 )
(8.2)
f 0 h00 f 00 h0 = 1, hh0 = cos2 u. (7.28)
, (7.25) h0 (u)2 = cos2 u,
h(u) = sin u. (7.29)
(7.28), (7.26) (7.29)
f 0 h00 f 00 h0 = ( sin u)( sin u) ( cos u)( cos u) = sin2 + cos2 u = 1 (7.30)
f h0 = cos2 u. f (u) h(u)

(7.26) (7.29)
X(u, v) = (cos u sin v, cos u sin v, sin u).

142 Codazzi Gauss
7.2
1. X(u, v) = (f (v) cos u, f (v) sin u, g(v)), f (v) 6= 0
ff0
111 = 112 = 0, 211 =
(f 0 )2 + (g 0 )2
f0 f 0 f 00 + g 0 g 00
112 = , 222 = 0 2 .
f (f ) + (g 0 )2
2. M z = z(x, y). p = zx , q = zy , r = zxx , s = zxy , t = zyy

N = EG F 2 .
pr ps pt
(1) 111 = , (2) 112 = , (3) 122 =
N2 N2 N2
pr ps pt
(4) 211 = 2, (5) 212 = 2, (6) 222 = 2
N N N
3. A = du2 + sin2 udv 2 . R3 ,

I = II = A.
4.
E = 1 + 2u2 , F = 2uv, G = 1 + 2v 2
e = (1 + 2u2 + 2v 2 )1/2 , f = 0, g = (1 + 2u2 + 2v 2 )1/2 .
5. R3 E = G = 1, F = 0, e = 1,
f = g = 0.
6.
du2 + cos2 udv 2 cos2 udu2 + dv 2
7. Cristoffel
2
1 X kl gil glj gij
kij = g + ,
2 xj xi xl
l=1
g11 = E, g12 = F, g22 = G (g ij ) (gij ).

[4] K. F. Gauss, Disqusitiones generales circa suporhcies curves, Comm. Soc. Gottingen Bd 6, 1823-
1827.
3 . , , 1992.
2007.
[7] . . , , . . , , 2013.

, , 2012.
143
144
8

.
, .

Foucault. [1], [2], [3],
[4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11].

, , .
.
,
, p L ,
p L.
V W R3 p, q R3
( V Tp R3 , W Tq R3 ) , W V
p q. :
S2
; (. 8.1).
( ) :
M X ( X) ~
, X ~
;
.
8.1. (vector field) M

~ : M R3 :
X
145
146
8.1: S2 .
~
1. X(p) Tp M p M .
~ X : U R3 .
2. X : U M X
8.2: .
~ M
X
V f f : R3 R, V R3 .
V f p R3 ( )
d
f ((t))t=0 ,
dt
R3 , (0) = p 0 (0) = V .
:
147
(1) .
(2) V f V ,
.
(3) Leibniz:
V (f g) = (V f )g + f (V g).
f : R3 R ,
: I R R3 M (t) = (1 (t), 2 (t), 3 (t)).
f (0) = p 0 (0) = V
f f f
V f (p) = (p)v1 + (p)v2 + (p)v3 = hf (p), V i,
x y z
V = (v1 , v2 , v3 ).
~ M , V Tp M : I M
X
M (0) = p, 0 (0) = V . X~ V
R3
~ = d (X ~ ) .

DV X t=0
dt
~
X~ dX . M
dt
~
DV X
Tp M , :
8.2. 1) M R3 Gauss N : M S2 , X ~
M V Tp M . (covariant derivative) X~
V
~ = (DV X)
V X ~ tan = DV X
~ hDV X,
~ N iN,
DV X ~ Tp M .
2) X ~ (parallel along ),
~ = 0 t I. D 0 (t) X
0 (t) X ~ N ((t))
Tp M , (. 8.3).
0 (0) = V .

DX~ ~
X
dt dt
148
8.3: .
8.1. M = R2 {0} xy : I M (t) = (1 (t), 2 (t), 0)

. X ~ M ( X(t)
~ T(t) M
~
t I) X(t) = (x1 (t), x2 (t), 0).
~ tan = (x01 (t), x02 (t), 0),

~ = (D 0 (t) X)
0 (t) X
~
X.
8.2. M = S2 .
: R S2 (t) = (cos t, sin t, 0). S2 ,
S2 xy. (t) = ( cos t, sin t, 0) = (t), (t)
T(t) S2 . , 0 (t) 0 (t) = 0.
8.3. X : U M M .
Xu Xu = (Xuu )tan = 111 Xu + 211 Xv

Xv Xu = (Xuv )tan = 112 Xu + 212 Xv
Xv Xv = (Xvv )tan = 122 Xu + 222 Xv .
Christoffel.
8.1. : [0, 1] M (0) = p, X0 Tp M .

~ X(p)
X ~ = X0 .
. X : U R2 M M : I R M
~
(t) = X(u(t), v(t)). 0 (t) = u0 (t)Xu + v 0 (t)Xv . X
149
~
( ) X((t)) = (t)Xu (u(t), v(t)) + (t)Xv (u(t), v(t)).
- :
tan
~

~ 0
tan d
0 (t) X = (X ) (t) = ((t)Xu (u(t), v(t)) + (t)Xv (u(t), v(t)))
dt
tan
0 0 d
= (t)Xu + (t)Xv + (t) Xu (u(t), v(t))
dt
tan
d
+(t) Xv (u(t), v(t))
dt
tan
= 0 (t)Xu + 0 (t)Xv + (t) u0 (t)Xuu + v 0 (t)Xuv
tan
+(t) u0 (t)Xvu + v 0 (t)Xvv
= 0 (t)Xu + 0 (t)Xv + (t)(u0 (t)(111 Xu + 211 Xv )
+v 0 (t)(112 Xu + 212 Xv ))
+(t) u0 (t)(121 Xu + 221 Xv ) + v 0 (t)(122 Xu + 222 Xv )

0 (t) + (t)(111 u0 (t) + 112 v 0 (t)) + (t)(121 u0 (t) + 122 v 0 (t)) Xu

=
+ 0 (t) + (t)(211 u0 (t) + 212 v 0 (t)) + (t)(221 u0 (t) + 222 v 0 (t)) Xv .

, X ~ (t) (t)
:
0 (t) + (t) 111 u0 (t) + 112 v 0 (t) + (t) 112 u0 (t) + 122 v 0 (t) = 0

(8.1)
0 (t) + (t) 211 u0 (t) + 212 v 0 (t) + (t) 212 u0 (t) + 222 v 0 (t) = 0.

(8.2)

~ X(p)
[0, 1], X ~ = X0 .

M , .
~ , .
X
~
p q, X(q) (parallel translation)
~
X(p) = X0 Tp M .
8.2. . -
~ Y
, X ~ p
~
q, kX(p)k ~
= kX(q)k ~
X(p) ~ (p) X(q)
Y ~
~ (q).
Y
~
. f (t) = hX((t)), ~ ((t))i.
Y
f 0 (t) = h(X
~ )0 (t), (Y
~ )(t)i + h(X ~ )0 (t)i
~ )(t), (Y
~ Y
= hD 0 (t) X, ~ i + hX,
~ D 0 (t) Y
~ i = h 0 (t) , Y
~ i + hX,
~ 0 (t) Y
~ i = 0.
150
, X~ Y
~ M ,
.
, X~ Y~ . ,
hX,~ Y
~ i . X ~ =Y ~
~ ( kY
kXk ~ k) . X ~ Y~
~ ~
hX, Y i
cos = .
~ kY
kXk ~k
8.4. S2 X(u, v) = (sin u cos v,

sin u sin v, cos u). X0 = Xv
u(t) = u0 , v(t) = t, p = X(u0 , 0).
E = 1, F = 0, G = sin2 u Christoffel 212 = cot u
122 = sin u cos u. (8.1)-(8.2)
0 (t) = sin u0 cos u0 (t), (0) = 0

0 (t) = cot u0 (t), (0) = 1.
00 (t) = cot u0 0 (t) = cos2 u0 (t), (0) = 1.
(t) = sin u0 sin ((cos u0 )t) , (t) = cos ((cos u0 )t) .
, X0
X((t)) = sin u0 sin ((cos u0 )t) Xu + cos ((cos u0 )t) Xv .
kX((t))k = E(t)2 + 2F (t)(t) + Gb(t)2 = sin2 u0 t,

X0 . , X((t))
, u0 = 0. X((t))
( u(t) = 0, v(t) = 0, (t) = 0, (t) = cos t). (2) = cos(2 cos u0 ),
X0 2 cos u0 . (holonomy)
.
,
. .
8.3. M (geodesic)
, 0 0 = 0.
, X ~ 0 -
, .
1
y 00 (t) + k2 y(t) = 0, y(t) = c1 cos(kt) + c2 sin(kt),
c1 , c2 R.
151
8.4: X0 u(t) = u0 , v(t) = t

.
8.5. Foucault. 1851 Jean Foucault ,

. ,
u = u0 ,
24
T = . Coriolis (. Arnold, Symon).
cos u0
8.4.2

u = u0 , 24 .
,
.
.
3 ,
. , u = u0 ,
2 cos u0 ,
2 24
= .
(2 cos u0 )/24 cos u0
8.1
1. (0, 0, 1) x2 + y 2 = 1,
z = 0 x2 + y 2 = 1.
2
.
3
R = 2960mi ,
2 2
R
R sin u0 cos u0 2
24
2
242 =
135, 7 mi/hr2
= 0, 0553 ft/sec
2
= 0, 17g, g .
152
2. V M .
W
V W .
3. X,~ Y~ M , M .
f, g M :
~ = f 0 X
(1) f 0 +g0 X ~ + g0 X.
~
~ +Y
(2) 0 (X ~ ) = 0 X ~.
~ + 0 Y
~ = d(f ) ~ ~
(3) 0 (f X) dt X + f 0 X.
4. M p, q M . Ppq : Tp M Tq M
p q. Ppq . (,
, 8.2).
5. z 2 = a2 (x2 + y 2 )

v v
X(u, v) = u sin cos , u sin sin , u cos ,
sin sin

sin = 1/ 1 + a2 , cos = a/ 1 + a2 .

v v
(v) = u0 sin cos , u0 sin sin , u0 cos , 0 v 2,
sin sin
2 sin .
6. p, q, r.
X0 p pq p q.
X0 pq, qr rp,

X0 2 A, A pqr.

[2] V. I. Arnold, Mathematical Methods of Classical Mechanics, Springer-Verlag, 1978.
[4] W. E. Boyce and R. C. DiPrima, Elementary Differential Equations, Ninth Edition, John Wiley
and Sons, 2009.
3 . , , 1992.
2007.
[8] J. Oprea, Geometry and the Foucault pendulum, Amer. Math. Monthly 102 (6) (1995) 515522.
[9] . . , , . . , , 2013.

, , 2012.
[11] K. Symon: Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, 1971.
153
154
9
. -
,
.
. -
, . Clairaut
. , -
.
[1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8].

, , .
() ( )
: ()
().
( ). ,
,
( ).
( - ) ,
. , ,
. ,
.
( - ) ,
,
.
(. 8)
M R3 : I M M
, (0) = p M . (0)
155
156
() p
(0) = (0)tan + (0)norm ,
(0)tan Tp M (0)norm (Tp M ) R3 .
9.1. M R3 . : M (
) M (geodesic),
(t) ,
(t)tan = 0 (9.1)
t I.
(9.1) t I, (t)
Tp M , , (t) = 0. ,
(t) ,
= 0.
d
, D = ( )t=0 = T(t) M .
dt
.
1) (9.1) (t) ,
.
2) . (t) ,

( ), . ,
F (t) = k(t) F Tp M , (t)
Tp M (t) .
9.1. S2 , p S2 Z Tp S2
p. hp, Zi = 01 , {p, Z}
R3 ( ), .
: R S2
(s) = (cos s)p + (sin s)Z.
(s) = (s) s R, tan = 0 (;).

(0) = p.
. .
9.1. M : I M M .
kk : I R ,
.
1
p
157
. :
d d
(k(t)k2 ) = h(t), (t)i = 2 h(t), (t)i = 2 (t)tan , (t) = 0.

dt dt
( )
, , .
.
,
: I R M
.
9.1
. ,

.
: I R M . (s)
M . (s) N ((s)), (s), N ((s)) N ((s)) (s)
. N ((s)) (s)
ng . , (s) (s), (s)
N ((s)) ng :
(s) = n (Z)N + g (0)ng = (0)perp + (0)tan (9.2)
kn (Z) = h(0), N (p)i M . g (0)

,
: I M M .
(geodesic curvature) kg : I R
kg (s) = hN ((s)) (s), (s)i = hng , (s)i.
9.1.
,
.
158
Xu Xv
. g (s) = hN , i N = .
EG F 2

X Xv 1
g (s) = u , = h(Xu Xv ) , i
EG F 2 EG F 2
1
= h(Xu )Xv (Xv )Xu , i
EG F 2
1
= (h(Xu )Xv , i h(Xv )Xu , i)
EG F 2
1
= (hXu , ihXv , i hXv , ihXu , i)
EG F 2
1 hX , i hX , i
u u
= .

(9.3)
EG F 2 hXv , i hXv , i
M X : U R2 M ,
(s) = X(u(s), v(s)).
= Xu u + Xv v (9.4)
= Xuu u2 + Xuv v u + Xu u + Xvu uv + Xvv v 2 + Xv v

= Xuu u2 + 2Xuv uv + Xvv v 2 + Xu u + Xv v. (9.5)
(9.4) (9.5)
hXu , i = hXu , Xu u + Xv vi = uhXu , Xu i + vhXu , Xv i

= uE + vF (9.6)
hXv , i = hXv , Xu u + Xv vi = uhXv , Xu i + vhXv , Xv i

= uF + vG (9.7)
hXu , i = hXu , Xuu u2 + 2Xuv uv + Xvv v 2 + Xu u + Xv vi

= u2 hXu , Xuu i + 2uvhXu , Xuv i + v 2 hXu , Xvv i + uE + vF
hXv , i = hXv , Xuu u2 + 2Xuv uv + Xvv v 2 + Xu u + Xv vi

= u2 hXv , Xuu i + 2uvhXv , Xuv i + v 2 hXv , Xvv i + uF + vG.
Christoffel
7, :
hXu , i = u2 111 + 2uv112 + v 2 122 + uE + vF (9.8)
hXv , i = u2 211 + 2uv212 + v 2 222 + uF + vG. (9.9)

159
(9.3) (9.6), (9.7), (9.8) (9.9)

1 uE + vF u2 + 2uv + v 2 + uE + vF
111 112 122
g (s) = .

2 2
(9.10)
EG F 2 uE + vG u 211 + 2uv212 + v 222 + uF + vG
(9.10) , Christoffel
. , , ,
= (uv uv)(EG F 2 ) + u3 (E211 F 111 ) + 2u2 v(E212 F 112 ) + uv 2 (E222 F 122 )

v 3 (G122 F 222 ) 2uv 2 (G112 F 212 ) u2 v(G111 F 211 ).
EG F 2 > 0
Christoffel (. 7),

= uv uv + u3 211 + 2u2 v212 + uv 2 222 v 3 122 2v 2 u112 v u2 111
EG F 2
= u(u2 211 + 2uv212 + v 2 222 + v) v(v 2 122 + 2uv112 + u2 111 + u).
(9.10),

p u u + u2 1 + 2uv1 + v 2 1
11 12 22
g (s) = EG F 2 .

(9.11)
v v + v 2 222 + 2uv212 + u2 211

, u, v, kij , i, j, k = 1, 2 ,
, u, v s .
(9.11) , , (g (s))u
(g (s))v v = , u = , :

2 EG F 2 1 EG F 2
(g (s))u = 11 , (g (s))v = 22 (9.12)
E E G G
.
1)
v = , u = , :
!
1 E
(g (s))u = + 112 sin (9.13)
E u G
!
1 G
(g (s))v = + 212 sin . (9.14)
G E
2) M , F = 0,
Gu Ev
sin = 1, = = 0, 122 = , 211 = .
u v 2E 2G
160
(9.13) (9.14) :
1 Ev
(g (s))u =
2E G
1 Gu
(g (s))v = .
2G E
3) : I R M t,
:

EG F 2 u0 u00 + (u0 )2 111 + 2u0 v 0 112 + (v 0 )2 122
g (t) = (9.15)
k 0 (t)k3 v 0 v 00 + (v 0 )2 222 + 2u0 v 0 212 + (u0 )2 211

(9.11) (9.15), -
:
u + 111 u2 + 2112 uv + 122 v 2 = 0

v + 211 u2 + 2212 uv + 222 v 2 = 0, (9.16)
u = u(s), v = v(s), s
. :
u00 + 111 (u0 )2 + 2112 u0 v 0 + 122 (v 0 )2 = 0

v 00 + 211 (u0 )2 + 2212 u0 v 0 + 222 (v 0 )2 = 0, (9.17)
u = u(t), v = v(t) t -
. , s t ,
v = v(u), -

v 00 (u) = 122 (v 0 (u))3 + (2112 222 )(v 0 (u))2 + (111 2212 )v 0 (u) 211 .
9.2.
.
. , (s)tan = 0, (s)
N ((s)) N ((s)) (s), kg (s) = 0. , kg (s) = 0
(s) N ((s)) (s). , (s), N ((s)) N ((s)) (s)
R3 (s), (s)
, (s) N ((s)), (s)tan = 0. ,
.
9.3. v = M
X : U R2 M, X = X(u, v) ,
E = E(u), F = 0, F Eu + EEv = 2EFu F 6= 0.

161
. v = M ,
dv du 1
= 0, = . (9.18)
ds ds E
(9.16) 211 = 0
F Eu + EEv = 2EFu . (9.19)
(9.16) (9.18)

d 1 1 Eu 1 1
+ 111 = 0 + 111 = 0,
ds E E 2E E E E

Eu
111 = . (9.20)
2E
GEu 2F Fu + F Ev
111 = , (9.20) :
2(EG F 2 )
F (F Eu + EEv 2EFu ) = 0. (9.21)
F = 0, (9.19) Ev = 0, E = E(u). F 6= 0,
(9.21) (9.19) .
: I M M . k : I R
R3 kn , kg : I R .

k(s)2 = kg (s)2 + kn (s)2 .
. N ((s)) N ((s)) (s) ,

(9.2)
h, i = hn N + g (N ) , n N + g (N )i
= hn N + g (N ) , n N i + hn N + g (N ) , g (N )i
= 2n + 2g
2 = 2n + 2g ,
= kk .
9.2. () . ,
.
9.3. .
9.4. M .
162
9.1: .
(normal section) M C M ,
M C.
Meusnier (. 5).
9.5. .
,
.
9.6. = (r, 0, z) : I R3 xz, r(s) > 0

r(s)2 + z(s)2 = 1 s I. X : I R R3

X(u, v) = sin v cos v 1 0 = r(u) sin v

0 0 1 z(u) z(u)
M . X(u, v)
M

r(u) cos v r(u) sin v
Xu = r(u) sin v , Xv = r(u) cos v .

z(u) 0
v R , 1 : I M

r(u) cos v
1 (u) = r(u) sin v

z(u)
(meridian) M .
h1 , Xu i = h1 , Xv i = 0, 1 span{Xu , Xv }, (1 )tan = 0, 1 : I M
163
M . , u R ( u = u0 ), 2 : I M

r(u) cos v
2 (v) = r(u) sin v

z(u)
(parallel) M .
h2 , Xu i = r(u0 )r(u0 ), h2 , Xv i = 0.
2 : I M M r(u0 ) = 0,
u0 r : I R. ,
M (. Clairaut).

.
,
.
9.2. M X : U R2 M M

!
E F
= [dX][dX]t .
F G
: I M M C 2
(s) = X(u(s), v(s)) : I X(U ) M
M :
d 1
Eu u2 + 2Fu uv + Gu v 2

E u + F v =
dt 2
d 1
Ev u2 + 2Fv uv + Gv v 2 ,

F u + Gv = (9.22)
dt 2
Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2 X.
(9.22) .
. {Xu , Xv } TX(u,v) M ,
Xu Xv . = uXu + vXv ,

d d
h (uXu + vXv ), Xu i = 0 h (uXu + vXv ), Xv i. (9.23)
ds ds
164
.
(9.23)
d dXu d
((uXu + vXv )Xu ) (uXu + vXv ) = (E u + F v) (uXu + vXv )(uXuu + vXuv )
ds ds ds
d
= (E u + F v) (u2 (Xu Xuu ) + uv(Xu Xuv
ds
+Xv Xuu ) + v 2 (Xv Xuv )). (9.24)
1
, Eu = hXu , Xu iu = hXuu , Xu i+ hXu , Xuu i = 2hXu , Xuu i, hXu , Xuu i = Eu
2
1
hXu , Xuv i = Gu . , hXu , Xuv i+ hXv , Xuu i = hXu , Xv iu = Fu .
2
(9.24),

d d 1
(uXu + vXv ) Xu = (E u + F v) (Eu u2 + 2Fu uv + Gu v 2 ).
ds ds 2
(9.23) (9.22).
.
9.7. 1
X : U R2 M R3 , X(u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v), U = [0, 2) R,
. E = 1, F = 0
G = 1. (9.22),
d
(u(s)) = 0 u(s) = 0 u(s) = u(s) = s +
ds
d
(v(s)) = 0 v(s) = 0 v(s) = c v(s) = cs + d,
ds
, , c, d R. : I R M
(s) = X(u(s), v(s)) = (cos(s + ), sin(s + ), cs + d)
M . = 0, z,
, 6= 0, .
-
.
9.3. M , p M Z Tp M .
: (, ) M
(0) = p (0) = Z.
Picard - Lindelof
.
. -
.
165
9.5. M1 , M2 : M1 M2 .
1 : I M1 M1 2 = 1 : I M2
M2 .
9.2: .
.
M = S1 I, I = [0, 1].
x2 + y 2 = 1 M .
X : R2 M X(u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v) xy .
(;)
.
X y = mx + c x.
(u) = (cos u, sin u, mu + c) ( x = u, y = v), 2|m|.
m = 0 . ,
X
y. .
9.8. S2 .

X(, ) = (cos cos , cos sin , sin )
( = , = ).
ds2 = d2 + cos2 d2 , E = 1, F = 0, G = cos2 .

(t) = X (t), (t) k(t)k = 1.
kX + X k = 1,
2 + 2 cos2 = 1. (9.25)
9.2
d
( cos2 ) = 0 cos2 =
dt
166
2
, 2 = . = 0, 2 = 0, ,
cos4
. 6= 0, 6= 0. (9.25) 2 =
2
1 2 cos2 = 1 .
cos2
2
2 1
= cos2 = cos2 (2 cos2 1)
2 2
cos4
d 2
dt = cos2 (2 cos2 1),
d 2
dt

2
d
= cos2 (2 cos2 1).
d
,

d p 1
= cos 2 cos2 1 d = d
d cos 2 cos2 1
Z
d
( 0 ) = , 0 .
2
cos cos2 1
1
u = tan , du = d. ,
cos2
Z
du 1 u
( 0 ) = = sin
2 1 u2 2 1
tan
sin( 0 ) =
2 1

tan = 2 1 sin( 0 ). x = cos cos , y =

cos sin , z = sin (t) z = ax + by, a = 2 1 sin 0

b = 2 1 cos 0 . S2
. , .
9.2 Clairaut
,
,
.
Clairaut 167
X(u, v) = (f (u) cos v, f (u) sin v, g(u)) ,

2 2
df dg
f > 0 + = 1. (9.22)
du du

df 2 d 2
u = f (u) v , (f (u)v) = 0. (9.26)
du dt
().
9.6. X(u, v) = (f (u) cos v, f (u) sin v, g(u))

:
(1) .
(2) ,
u = u0 , u0
df
f , = 0.
du u=u0
. -

.
9.4. (Clairaut) M : I M -
. : M R+
(t) M : I M (t)
(t). (t) sin (t)
. , M .
. M X(u, v) = (f (u) cos v, f (u)

Xu Xv
sin v, g(u)), = f (u). 2 (u) + g 2 (u) = 1, = Xu Xv =
kXu k kXv k
1 Xv .
F = hXu , Xv i = 0, . (t) = X(u(t), v(t))
. (t) = Xu u + Xv v
{Xu , Xv } :
(t) = Xu u + Xv v = cos Xu + sin Xv

= cos Xu + 1 sin Xv .
(u cos )Xu + (v 1 sin )Xv = 0.
Xu Xv ,
u cos = 0 (9.27)
v 1 sin = 0. (9.28)
168
9.3: Clairaut.
(9.28) 2 v = sin , (9.26),

sin = , R.
, sin
M ,
(9.26). (9.26).
sin
v = sin v = 2
v = 2 . (9.29)

(t) = X(u(t), v(t))
2
k(t)k = 1 u2 + f 2 (u)v 2 = 1 u2 = 1 .
2
t :

2 2 d d 2
2uu = 3 = 3 u u u v = 0.
du du
, (t0 ) =
X(u(t0 ), v(t0 )), > 0,
|t t0 | < . , u = 0 |t t0 | < . , u = u0
|t t0 | < , . ,
,
d
u = v 2 ,
du
(9.26) .
169

2
u2 = 1
2
sin
v = = 2

:
(1) = 0, v = .
2
(2) > 0, u2 = 1
2
M 0 .
9.3

.
.
, .
9.3. M : I M C 2 . [a, b]
I.
1. (length functional) L[a,b]

Z b
L[a,b] () = k(t)kdt.
a
2. (energy functional) E[a,b]
1 b
Z
E[a,b] () = k(t)k2 dt.
2 a
9.4. M , : I M C 2 .
1. (variation) C 2
: (, ) I M, = (t, s) = t (s),
0 (s) = (0, s) = (s) s I. I (I = [a, b]),

(proper), t (, )
t (a) = (a) t (b) = (b).
2. : I M C 2 ,
|[a,b]
d
L[a,b] (t ) t=0 = 0.
dt
170

, , -
.
9.5. : I = [a, b] M C 2
.
M
. : (, ) I M (t, s) 7 (t, s) : I M .

Z b
d d
L[a,b] (t ) = kt (s)kds

dt t=0 dt a t=0
Z b r
d
= h , ids
a dt s s t=0
Z b r !
d 2

= h , i/ h , i ds

a dt ts s s s t=0
Z b
d 2
= h , ids
a dt st s t=0
Z b
2

d
= h , ih , 2 i ds

a ds t s t s t=0
Z b
2
= (h (0, s), (0, s)i)|ba h (0, s), 2 (0, s)ids.
t s a t s
,

(0, a) = (0, b) = 0.
t t
,
2
(0, s) = (s),
s2

Z b
d
L[a,b] (t ) = h (0, s), (s)tan ids.
dt t=0 a t
,
.
. -
.
1. : I M (a), (b) M ,
L[a,b] t = 0,
d
L[a,b] (t ) = 0,
dt t=0
M .
171
2. : I M (a), (b),
L[a,b] ,
(a), (b). S2 (a), (b) ,
, .
(a), (b) (a), (b) .
9.4: .
3. M
. M = R2 \ {(0, 0)} R3 .
, p = (1, 0) q = (1, 0). , :
p, q M M ,
. , R3
S2 , M = R2 \ {(0, 0)} R3 .
9.4
. M ,
p M
Tp1 M = {W Tp M : kW k = 1}
( ) Tp M .
Z Tp M
Z = rZ eZ ,
1
rZ = kZk eZ = Z Tp1 M . W Tp1 M W : (aW , bW ) M
kZk
, aW , bW R+ {}, W (0) = p, W
(0) = W (
172
).
p = inf{aW , bW : W Tp1 M }
, ( )
Bp (0) = {Z Tp M : kZk < p }
9.5. (exponetial map) expp : Bp (0) Tp M M p

p, Z = 0
expp (Z) =
(r ), Z 6= 0.
Z Z
.
1)
, .
, O(n). -
I O(n) ( )
, expI (A) = eA , A TI O(n).
2) W Tp1 M , W : (p , p ) Tp M , W (t) = tW
W , W = expp W . ,
.
expp . , :
9.7. d(expp )0 : Tp M Tp M -
IdTp M Tp M .
. v Tp M . 2) :

d d d d
d(expp )0 (v) = expp (tv) = tv (ktvk) = tv (1) = (tv) = v.
dt t=0 dt ktvk t=0 dt t=0 dt t=0
, rp R+ , Up = Brp (0)
Vp = expp (Up ), expp |Up : Up Vp ,
Vp M . ( M )
(normal neighborhood) p M .
9.9. S2 R3 p = (1, 0, 0) .
Tp S2
Tp1 S2 = {(0, cos , sin ) : R}.

173
expp : Tp S2 S2 S2 p
expp (s(0, cos , sin )) = (cos s)(1, 0, 0) + (sin s)(0, cos , sin ).
B (0) = {Z Tp S2 : |Z| < }
1 1 , (s) = expp (s(0, cos , sin ))

p (r), r < .
.
.
9.6. M .
.
. p M , U = Br (0) Tp M V = expp (U ),
= expp |U : U V
p . ds2 U
ds2 (Z, W ) = hd(Z), d(W )i
Z, W U . .
U
0 = 1 (p)
Z : t 7 tZ (Z Tp M ).
q Br (0) \ {0} q : [0, 1] Br (0) q (t) = tq. : [0, 1] U

U , (0) = 0, (1) = q. X Xrad
: X : t 7 (t)
ds2 ((t), X(t))
Xrad : t 7 (t).
ds2 (X(t), X(t))

kds2 ((t), X(t))k
kXrad (t)k =
kds2 (X(t), X(t))k
d dp 2 ds2 ((t), X(t))

kX(t)k = ds (X(t), X(t)) = ,
dt dt kX(t)k
d
kXrad (t)k kX(t)k.
dt
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
d
L() = k(t)kdt kXrad (t)kdt kX(t)kdt
0 0 0 dt
= kX(1)k kX(0)k = kqk = L(q ).
q
p q.
174
9.5
9.10. u = t2 , v = t3 ,
R,
I = 2v 2 du2 2uvdudv + u2 dv 2 , u > 0, v > 0.
g = 0,
u0 v 00 u00 v 0 + 211 (u0 )3 + (2212 111 )(u0 )2 v 0 (2112 222 )u0 (v 0 )2 122 (v 0 )3 = 0. (9.30)
,
u0 = 2t, u00 = 2, v 0 = 3t2 , v 00 = 6t (9.31)
E = 2v 2 , F = uv, G = u2 , EG F 2 = u2 v 2 , (9.32)
Christoffel
6v 4 3 3 2 2u
211 = , 212 = , 111 = , 112 = , 222 = , 122 = 2 . (9.33)
u2 u u v v v
(9.30) (9.32) (9.33)
6t3 3 3 11 2 2 8 2t2
122 t2 62 t2 8 t + 4 t 3t2
18 3 5
t + 273 t6 =
2 t4 t2 t3 2 t6
122 t2 62 t2 482 t2 + 1322 t2 1442 t2 + 542 t2 = 0.
(9.30)
, I.
9.11. M X : U R2 M
E = E(u), F = 0, G = G(u). (s) = X(u(s), v(s)) ,

, G cos =,
v- u =.
Christoffel
Gu
211 = 222 = 0, 212 = . (9.34)
2G
(9.16) :
Gu
v(s) + u(s)v(s) = 0
G
Gv(s) + Gu u(s)v(s) = 0

d dv
G =0
ds ds
175

dv
G = Gv(s) = c, c R. (9.35)
ds
T (s) ,
T (s) = Xu u(s) + Xv v(s).
Xv F = hXu , Xv i = 0,
hT (s), Xv i = hXv , Xv iv(s) hT (s), Xv i = Gv(s).
(9.35) hT (s), Xv i = c,
kT (s)kkXv k cos = c.

kT (s)k = 1 kXv k = G,

G cos = c, c R
9.12. .
. M
X : I R M

cos v sin v 0 r(s) r(s) cos v
X(s, v) = sin v cos v 0 0 = r(s) sin v ,

0 0 1 z(s) z(s)
(r, 0, z) : I R3 xz, r(s) > 0 r(s)2 + z(s)2 = 1

s I. (. 5) Gauss K M

r(s) + K(s)r(s) = 0.
K 1 ( ) ,
r(s) = aes + bes . r, z : R+ R
Z sp
r(s) = es , z(s) = 1 e2t dt
0
X : R+ R R3 (pseudosphere),
! !
E F t 1 0
= [dX][dX] = .
F G 0 e2s
176
u > 0 s(u) = ln u
X : R+ R M , X(u, v) = X(s(u), v).

1
Xu = su Xs = Xs
u
X:
! !
E F t 1 1 0
= [dX][dX] = 2 .
F G u 0 1
()
1
ds2 = (dv 2 + du2 )
u2

H2 = {(v, u) R2 : u > 0}.
. ( )
(hyperbolic space) (H2 , ds2 )
.
. = (v, u) : I H2
. = (v, u)
1 2
kk2H2 = ds2 (, ) = (v + u2 ) = 1
u2
v 2 + u2 = u2 . Clairaut
1
r(s) sin (s) = r R
u2
( ) .
dv
v = = u2 R.
dt
a) R = 0, v = 0 v . v = v0
H2 .
du
b) R 6= 0 u4 R2 + u2 = u2 =
p dt
u = u 1 R2 u2 .
dv v Ru
= =
du u 1 R2 u2

Ru
dv = du.
1 R2 u2
1
R(v v0 ) = 1 R2 u2 (v v0 )2 + u2 = 2 ,
R
2 1
H (v0 , 0) .
R
177
9.5: .
9.13. M = {(x, y, z) R3 : z = x2 + y 2
X : R+ (0, 2) R3 , X(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, u2 ).
.
Xu = (cos v, sin v, 2u), Xv = (u sin v, u cos v, 0),

E = hXu , Xu i = 1 + 4u2 , F = hXu , Xv i = 0, G = hXv , Xv i = u2 ,
1
N= (2u cos v, 2u sin v, 1).
1 + 4u2
u = u0
Xv 1 1
= = ( sin v, cos v, 0), = Xvv = ( cos v, sin v, 0),
kXv k kXvv k u0
1
N ((t)) = p ( cos v, sin v, 2u0 ),
1 + 4u20
,
1
kg = h, N () i = p .
u0 1 + 4u20
9.6
1. (t) kk = .
= (t/) ,
.
2.
kg (s)2 = k(s)tan k2 .
3. T2 R3 (torus) (0, 2, 0)
1 yz, z.
178
() X : (/2, 3/2) (0, 2) R3
X(u, v) = ((2 + cos u) cos v, (2 + cos u) sin v, sin u)
T2 .
() Xu : (0, 2) T
Xu (t) = ((2 + cos u) cos t, (2 + cos u) sin t, sin u),
u (/2, 3/2).
4. ,
X(u, v) = (u sin cos v, u sin sin v, u cos ),
= , u > 0.
5. 9.5.
6. 9.6.
7. X = X(u, v) M , E = E(u), F = 0 G = G(u),
(1) u- (v =) .
(2) v- (u =) Gu (u0 ) = 0.
(3) (u) = X(u, v(u))

Z
c E
v= p du, c R.
G(G c2 )
8. X = X(u, v) Liouville E = G = U (u) + V (v)

F = 0. (s) = X(u(s), v(s)),
U sin2 V cos2 = c, c R,
u- .
9. M R3 X = X(u, v), F = 0 E = 1.
u- .
G G 2F
10. X : U R2 M M , = 0 = .
v u v
v- .
11. R3
x2 + 2y 2 = 2, x2 + y 2 z 2 = 1 x2 + y 2 = z
179
12. M 2 2
I = du + Gdv ,
d G
, = ,
dv u
v =.
13. (s) X(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, v).

u2 + (1 + u2 )v 2 = 1.
, ,

u = ,
1 + u2
. = 0 = 1.
14. M X : R2 R3
X(u, v) = (u, v, sin u sin v).
R : R M
(t) = X(t cos , t sin )
M .
15. (0, 0, 0),
M = {(x, y, z) R3 : xy(x2 y 2 ) = z}.
16.
Gauss.
180

[3] W. E. Boyce and R. C. DiPrima, Elementary Differential Equation, Ninth Edition, John Wiley
and Sons, 2009.
3 . , , 1992.
2007.
[7] . . , , . . , , 2013.

, , 2012.
181
182
10
Gauss-Bonnet
Gauss - Bonnet ( ) -
. ,
, Gauss
( ). ,
,
. Gauss - Bonnet , .
(
) ( ).

, ,
Gauss - Bonnet.
, , Euler -
Poincare.

, . -
Gauss - Bonnet
. [1], [4], [5], [8], [9] [10].

, , .
Gauss - Bonnet,
,
(. [7]), .
M X : U R2 X(U ) M , X(u, v) =
(x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)) f : M R . (
f = K : M R, Gauss M ).
183
184 Gauss-Bonnet
R
M f dA, dA U .
kXu Xv k2 = kXu k2 kXv k2 (1 cos2 )

= kXu k2 kXv k2 hXu , Xv i2 = EG F 2 ,

dA = kXu Xv kdudv = EG F 2 dudv. ,
s
(x, y) 2 (x, z) 2 (y, z) 2

dA = + + ,
(u, v) (u, v) (u, v)
(x, y)
3 2 [dX]t = (Xu , Xv ).
(u, v)
f = f X : U R2 R
Z Z Z
f dA = f(u, v)kXu Xv kdudv.
M U
X.
, Gauss,
Gauss - Bonnet. ,
.
10.1. (Gauss) T M
, , . K Gauss M ,
Z
KdA = ( + + ) .
T
10.1: .
. M = R2 R3 K = 0,
+ + = . ,
. Gauss - Bonnet
.
Gauss-Bonnet 185
. .
.
1) .
. M Gauss N : M S2 .
2) R3 . M R3
. , , M
. , M = S2 , (torus)
M = T2 .
10.2: .
3) . .
10.3: .
4) . : [a, b] M , (a) = (b).
10.4: .
186 Gauss-Bonnet
5) . -
X . (rotation index) ,
.
(.. Stokes ..). ,
M
N .
6) . .
10.2. (Gauss - Bonnet, )

M X : U M ,
X(U ) . : R M , ,
X(U ), . Int() X(U )
M kg : R R . K Gauss
M L R+ ,
Z L Z
kg (s)ds = 2 KdA.
0 Int()
. {Z, W } TX(u,v) M ,
{Xu , Xv }, Gram-Schmidt. : R X(U )
: R R, (s)
(s) = cos (s)Z(s) + sin (s)W (s).
N = N (cos Z + sin W )
= cos (N Z) + sin (N W )
= cos W sin Z.
= ( sin Z + cos W ) + cos Z + sin W ,
g = hN , i
= h sin Z + cos W , sin Z + cos W i
+h sin Z + cos W , cos Z + sin W i
= hZ, W i.
Gauss-Bonnet 187
g : R R ,
Z L Z L Z L
g (s)ds = (s)ds hZ(s), W (s)ids
0 0 0
Z L
= (L) (0) hZ(s), W (s)ids
0
Z L
= 2 hZ(s), W (s)ids.
0
= X 1 : R U U .
, . hZu , Wv i hZu , Wu i =

K EG F 2 (. 6.1) Green ([7]),
Z L Z
hZ(s), W (s)ids = hZ , uWu + vWv ids
0
Z
= hZ, Wu idu + hZ, Wv idv
Z
= (hZ, Wv iu hZ, Wu iv )dudv
Int()
Z

= hZu , Wv i + hZ, Wuv i hZv , Wu i hZ, Wvu i dudv
Int()
Z
= (hZu , Wv i hZv , Wu i)dudv
Int()
Z p
= K EG F 2 dudv
Int()
Z
= KdA.
Int()
10.1. : R R2 , , ()
. L R+ kg : R R
,
Z L
kg (s)ds = 2.
0
10.1. M . : R M
L R+ (
) M ,
0 = t0 < t1 < t2 < < tn1 < tn = L
[0, L], :
1. (t) = (t ), (t t ) = kL, k Z,
188 Gauss-Bonnet
2. (t0 , t1 ), (t1 , t2 ), . . . , (tn1 , tn ).
3.
(t) (ti ) (t) (ti )

(ti ) = lim , + (ti ) = lim
tt
i
t ti tt+
i
t ti
, ( ).

. , .

M X : U M ,
X(U ) M . : R M ,
, M , .
Int() kg : R R ,
() . L R+ , K Gauss M 1 , . . . , n
,
Z L n
X Z
kg (s)ds = i (n 2) KdA.
0 i=1 Int()
. {Z, W } , {Xu , Xv } -
Gram-Schmidt. D R,
(R). : R X(U ),
: R \ D R,
(s) = cos (s)Z(s) + sin (s)W (s).

g (s) = hZ, W i
Z L Z L Z L
g (s)ds = (s)ds hZ(s), W (s)ids.
0 0 0
Green
Z L Z
hZ(s), W (s)ids = KdA.
0 Int()
,
Z L n Z
X si
(s)ds = (s)ds.
0 i=1 si1
,
{Z, W }. , ( i ), i
Gauss-Bonnet 189
. ,
, 2. ,

Z L n
X
2 = (s)ds + ( i ).
0 i=1
, .
. ,
10.3
n
X Z
2 i KdA.
i=1 D
10.2. ( Gauss). : R M M
1 , 2 , 3 ,
Z
KdA = 1 + 2 + 3 ,
T
T K Gauss M .
. n = 3
kg = 0.
10.3. n- ,
1 , . . . , n .
n
X
i = (n 2).
i=1
. K = 0 kg = 0, 10.3.
10.4. D n- S2 ,
( n-).
n
X
i > (n 2)
i=1
. K = 1 S2 kg = 0, 10.3
n
X Z
i = (n 2) + 1dA = (n 2) + (D),
i=1 D
.
190 Gauss-Bonnet
10.5. E , , + +
.
. 10.2 n = 3 + + = + E, E =
+ + .

( ) . , , + + = E.
10.6. n- (K = 1),
n
X
i < (n 2).
i=1
, E n-
E = (n 2) 1 2 n .
n = 3 E = ( + + ),
.
Gauss - Bonnet. ,
.
.
1) M R3 , M
R3 .
.
2) f : M R (
X(U ) M , X : U M ),
R
M f dA. . , f : M R
f |M \X(U ) 0,
Z Z Z
f dA = f (X(u, v))kXu Xv kdudv.
M U
3) Euler .
(triangulation) M M ,
: , ,
.
:
10.4. , -
.
Gauss-Bonnet 191
10.5: , .
K , A E -
M . Euler ( Euler - Poincare) M

X (M ) = E A + K.
10.1. , .
K = 6, A = 12, E = 8, X (S2 ) = K A + E = 6 12 + 8 = 2.
K = 4, A = 6, E = 4, X (S2 ) = 4 6 + 4 = 2.
10.6: .
. , :
10.5. 1) Euler .
2) M, M 0 , X (M ) = X (M 0 ). ,
Euler .
, -
, ( ).
Euler K + E = A + 2,
.
192 Gauss-Bonnet
10.2. (torus) T2 X (T2 ) = 0.

.

M , , R3 , Gauss K
Euler X (M ).
Z
KdA = 2X (M ).
M
(total curvature) M .
. T = {T1 , . . . Tm } M , Tk
, Xk (Uk ) Xk : Uk M .
Gauss K M
Z m Z
X
KdA = KdA,
M k=1 Tk
Tk T . 10.3
Z nk
X
KdA = ki + (2 nk ),
Tk i=1
Tk .
Z m
X nk
X
KdA = ((2 nk ) + ki )
M k=1 i=1
m
XX nk
= 2E 2A + k1
k=1 i=1
= 2(E A + K).
10.3. S2 K = 1 X (S2 ) = 2. 10.6,

Z
(S2 ) = KdA = 4.
S2
, , S2
( M S2 ),
Z
KdA = 4.
M
, M ,
.
Gauss - Bonnet 193
-
.
10.2. (handle) M H M -
() M \H .
g N0 . g M , g
H1 , . . . , Hg , M \ (H1 Hg ),
, 2g .
. 1) (geodesic ball) Bp (p) = expp (Bp (0)) (.

9).
2) g M
(genus) M .
10.7. ( )
g 0
Euler 2 2g. :
1.
Euler.
2. Euler.
3. (torus) Euler
.
. R3 .
,
. , [2], [3], [6], [11].
10.1
.
10.4.
x2 y2 z2
+ + = 1.
2 2 2
R
S2 KdA 4. , -

. 10.6, M
Z
KdA = 2X (M ),
M
194
X (M ) Euler. ,
4.
10.5. M g 1.
M Gauss .
Gauss - Bonnet ( )
Z
KdA = 2X (M ) = 4(1 g) 0.
M
M , p M , K(p) > 0. ,
K : M R, U p, K|U > 0. ,
q M , K(q) < 0. , ,
Z Z
0 KdA KdA > 0,
M U
. , M , K
M .
10.6. (torus) T2 ,
(x )2 + z 2 = r2 z:
T2 = {(x, y, z) : (x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 r2 )2 42 (x2 + y 2 ) = 0}.
T2 , Gauss
R
T KdA = 0.
Gauss - Bonnet,
, g = 1. X (T2 ) = 2 2g = 0,
Z
KdA = 2X (T2 ) = 0.
T
Gauss - Bonnet.
T2

X(u, v) = ( + r cos u) cos v, ( + r cos u) sin v, r sin u , 0 < u, v < 2.
E = r2 , F = 0, G = ( + r cos u)2
e = r, f = 0, g = cos u( + r cos u).
, Gauss K : T2 R
eg f 2 cos u
K= 2
= .
EG F r( + r cos u)
Gauss - Bonnet 195

T2 dA = EG F 2 dudv = r( + r cos u)dudv,
Z Z 2 Z 2
KdA = cos ududv = 0.
T2 0 0
10.7. M , ,
.
M , ;
R3 p, q . r -
pq. \ {r} R3 .
-
(M, d), d : M M R+ M .
Hopf - Rinow :
1. p M expp : Tp M M
Tp M ,
2. M
.
3. M .
10.8. M , Gauss
. M .
R
K > 0 , M KdA > 0. Gauss - Bonnet
Z
KdA = 4(1 g) > 0,
M
g < 1. g g = 0, 1, 2, . . .,
g = 0, M . .
,
K = 0.
10.9. M Gauss K 0
1 , 2 p M . 1 , 2
q M , D M .
1 , 2
1 , 2 . Gauss - Bonnet
Z
KdA = 2 1 2 .
D
1 , 2 < , 1 + 2 < 2, 2 1 2 > 0. K 0 ,
R
D KdA 0, .
196
10.7: .
10.2
1. M R3 .
p M Gauss K(p) .
2. M R3
M = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 z 2 = 1 1 < z < 1}.
Z
KdA,
M
K Gauss M .
3. r R+ r
p
r = {(x, y, z) R3 : z = cos x2 + y 2 , x2 + y 2 < r2 , x, y > 0}.
Z
KdA,
r
K Gauss r .
4. n 1 Mn R3
Mn = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 = (1 + z 2n )2 , 0 < z < 1}.
Z
KdA,
Mn
K Gauss Mn .
5. M R3 ,
. M ,
Gauss .
6. M R3 Gauss K 0 . R M
, .
.
Gauss - Bonnet 197
7. Gauss K
M = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 = cosh2 z}
Z
KdA.
M
198

[2] P. Andrews, The classifications of surfaces, Amer. Math. Monthly 95 (1988) 861-867.
[3] M. A. Armstrong, Basic Topology, Mc Graw Hill, 1979
[6] J. Gallier and D. Xu, A Guide to the Classification Theorem for Compact Surface, Springer, 2013
3 . , , 1992.
2007.
[9] . . , , . . , , 2013.

, , 2012.
[11] C. Thomassen, The Jordan - Schonffies theorem and the classification of surfaces, Amer. Math.
Monthly 99 (1992) 116-131.
199
200
11

Gauss
R3 Gauss,
, , . -
.

(global theory of surfaces). ,
, ,
. ,
Gauss.
D. Hilbert, J. Hadamard, J.J. Stoker, ..
Gauss-
Bonnet, 10.
R3 , Gauss.
, , , R3 . ,
Gauss, Gauss ( )
.
, , . -
,
Gauss. ,
. -
Gauss.
[1], [2] [8].
201
202 Gauss
11.1 Gauss
11.1.1 Gauss
M Gauss. M ,
7.3 (Liebmann) 7, M .
Liebmann ,
.
11.1. C > 1 M R3 ,
: ( arcsin(1/C), arcsin(1/C)) R3 ,
Z tp
(t) = (C cos t, 0, 1 C 2 sin2 sds),
0
z. M
p
C cos t 1 C 2 sin2 t
k1 = p , k2 = ,
1 C 2 sin2 t C cos t
K = k1 k2 = 1. , C > 1, M ,
M . , M R3 .
11.1: Gauss.
, Gauss
, . , :
11.1. M , ,
K > 0.
M .
, Liebmann :
11.2. R3 Gauss,
.
11.2. GAUSS 203
11.1.2 Gauss
Gauss ,
. , .
. , :
11.3. (Hartman-Nirenberg). M R3 Gauss

. M , () .
[1], [2] [3], [4]

[5].
Hartman-Nirenberg ,
.
11.2.
M = {(x, y, z) R3 : z 2 = x2 + y 2 , z > 0}.
,
: (0, +) R, (t) = (t, 0, t). K 0 H(x, y, z) = z1 .
M , M .
, M ,
M (. 3), . ,
M , ,
.
11.1.3 Gauss
Hilbert,
.
11.4. (Hilbert). R3 ,
Gauss .
Hilbert [4]
Holmgren [5]. [1], [2]
[8].
11.2 Gauss
.
11.5. (Minding). Gauss,

.
204
,
Gauss,
Gauss. . ,
z,
X(u, v) = (f (u) cos v, f (u) sin v, g(u)),
f > 0 f 02 + g 02 = 1. E =
1, F = 0 G = f (u)2 , (. 6) Gauss

1 2 G f
K = = .
G u2 f

f(u) + Kf (u) = 0,
K (. [8] [9])
:
11.6. Gauss ,
.
,
Gauss ,
Gauss ,
Gauss,
.
Gauss , (developable).
.
( ),
, R3
. J. Plateau ( 1800),

.
19o . -

, ,
R3 ([7]).
11.3
1. M X : I R R3 , X(t, s) = (t) + sv(t),
: I R3 v : I S2 . M
Gauss - Bonnet 205
(developable),
. M
det[ v v 0 ] 0.
2. M R3 Gauss K .
|H| . M .
3. M Gauss K 0 p M .
, p, () ,
M .
4.
X(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, ln u), u > 0

Y (u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, v), u > 0,
Gauss
1
K= ,
(1 + u2 )2
. Minding
Gauss ( ).
5. X(u, v), Edu2 +
2F dudv + Gdv 2 Gauss N . :
(i) Ev = Gu = 0.
(ii) Xuv N .
(iii)
X, .
, -
X Chebyshev (Chebyshev net). , X
X(u, v),
du2 + 2 cos dudv + dv 2 ,
(u, v). ,
X.
206

[3] P. Hartman and L. Nirenberg, On spherical images whose Jacobians do not change signs, Amer.
J. Math., 81 (1959) 901920.
[4] D. Hilbert, Uber Flachen von konstanter Gausscher Krumung, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., 2 (1901)
9799.
[5] E. Holmgren, Sur les surfaces a courbure constante negative, C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 134 (1902)
740743.
[6] W.S. Massey, Surfaces of Gaussian curvature zero in Euclidean space, Tohoku Math. J., 14 (1963)
7379.
[7] W. Meeks III and H. Rosenberg, The uniqueness of the helicoid, Ann. Math., 161 (2005) 727758.
[8] . . , , . . , , 2013.

, , 2012.
207

Reparametrization, 13 generalized, 28
diffeomorphism, 13, 55 plane
mapping oscullating, 24
Gauss, 89 normal, 24
Weingarten, 91 , 24
simply connected region, tangent, 65
185 () rigit motion, 30
surface
Line of curvature, 136 regular, 43, 48
coordinate lines, 136 of revolution, 52
geodesic
smooth, 52
curve, 150, 156
orientable, 89
normal, 157
oriented, 89
curvature, 157
flat, 99
ball, 193
minimal, 99
genus, 193
parallel, 100
Enneper, 113
Vector
catenoid, 113
tangent, 10, 15, 24
helicoidal, 114
normal, 15
ruled, 115
Darboux, 27
developable, 137, 205
binormal, 24
differential, 46, 67 compact, 190
net Chebyshev Chebyshev net, 205 ellipsoid, 49
two-sheet hyperboloid, 49 immersion, 50
() torus, 49, 51 tangent space, 63
second fundamental X(U ) area, 81
form, 93 tangential component,
vector field, 145 96
parallel, 147 equations
Weingarten, 103
Tangent line, 11 Codazzi, 133
helix Gauss, 134
cyclic, 23 compatibility, 135
208
209
exponential map, 172 posi-

tively oriented on a surface, 186
pair of
period, 186
curved coordinates, 50
slope, 46
Theorem critical point, 47
inverse function, 47, regular point, 47
68 regular value, 47
Meusnier, 97 critical value, 47
Bonnet, 101, 135 regular para-
Liebmann, 108 metrized surface, 49
Clairaut, 167 normal component, 96
Gauss, 184, 189 normal curvature, 96
Hartman-Nirenberg, 203 principal directions, 98
Hilbert, 203 principal curvatures, 98
Minding, 203 Gauss Gauss curvature, 99, 103,
, 77 122
, 94 normal section, 162
Theorema Egregium, 119 normal neighborhood, 172
Gauss, 134
smooth mapping, 53, 54
Gauss-Bonnet
Hilbert Hilberts lemma, 138
, 186
, 188 Arc length, 10
global version, 192 one-sheet hyperboloid,
49
Isoperimetric inequa-
metric space, 76
lity, 19
metric, 79
isometric surfaces, 78
mean curvature, 99, 103
Curve variation, 169
parametrized, 10
Norm, 9
regular, 10
interior, 19 Group
exterior, 19 orthogonal, 15
flat, 29 special orthogonal, 15
fundamental theorem, umbilic point, 98
30 total curvature, 192
parallel, 37
u- u-curve, 50 Frenet Frenet frame, 15
v- v-curve, 50 normal line, 24
simple, 185 parametrization
closed, 185 Monge, 45
210
, 50 Pseudosphere, 105
Mercator, 84
orthogonal, 125
isothermic, 125
first fundamental form,
75
parallel translation, 149
Frenet Frenet moving frame,

24
torsion, 24, 31
stereographic projection,
45
conformal mapping, 80
Christoffel Christoffel symbols
of first kind, 131
of second kind, 130
covariant derivative, 147
functional
length, 169
energy, 169
Local parametrization, 43
local isometry, 77, 78, 79
local chart, 43
local coordinate
system, 43
() torus, 49, 51
surface patch, 50
shape operator, 91
Euler Eulers formula, 98
Laplace Laplace operator, 126
triangulation, 190
Hyperbolic parabo-
loid, 59
hyperbolic space, 176
hyperbolic metric, 176
Euler Euler characteristic,

191
handle, 193

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7 Codazzi Gauss 129

(1) hx, yi = hy, xi

(2) hx + z, yi = hx, yi + hz, yi

(3) hx, yi = hx, yi R.

, : I Rn , : f : I Rn , f (t) = h(t), (t)i.

1.1. (parametrized curve) Rn ()

1.2. 1. (tangent vector) : I Rn

, (I) (0, 0) f (t) =

3. : R R2 , (t) = (t, |t|) R2 . ( 1.1)

1.2: (t) = (t, |t|).

1.3: (t) = (t3 4t, t2 4).

6. p R2 r > 0. : R R2 , (t) = p + r(cos t, sin t)

7. 1 , 2 : R R2 , 1 (t) = (cos t, sin t), 2 (t) = (cos(2t), sin(2t)),

() = (t0 ) + 0 (t0 ), R. (1.1)

= 0 (0) = (t0 ). () = (x1 (), x2 (), x3 ()),

x1 () = x1 (t0 ) + x01 (t0 )

x1 x1 (t0 ) x2 x2 (t0 ) x3 x3 (t0 )

(t) = ( cos t, sin t, t), , R \ {0}, t R

1.1. . L() = L().

kf (t)k = c hf (t), f (t)i = c ,

f 0 (t) = 0 f 0 (t) f (t), t I.

k(s)k = k 0 ( (s))k (s) = 0 ( (s)) (s) = 1.

1-1, ((a, b)) .

(x) = Ax + b, b Rn A O(n) = {X Mnn (R) : XX t = In }.1

A SO(n) = {X O(n) : detX = 1}.

(s) = hT (s), N (s)i = h(s), N (s)i.

hT (s), N (s)i = (s) hT (s), N (s)i = hT (s), N (s)i = (s),

T (s) = hT (s), N (s)iN (s) = (s)N (s).

N (s) = hN (s), T (s)iT (s) = (s)T (s)

. (s) = 0 s, hT (s), N (s)i = 0. , N (s) 6= ~0,

det( 0 (t), 00 (t))

0 (t) = ( s)0 (t) = (s(t))s

l1 = {(x, y) R2 | x = r} l2 = {(x, y) R2 | x = r},

2x(s)x0 (s)y(s)y 0 (s)

(2) (au + bv) z = a(u z) + b(v z) = (au) z + (bv) z, a, b R

h(u v), zi = [uvz].

(1) [uvz] = [vzu] = [zuv],

(2) [uvz] = [vuz] = [uzv] = [zvu],

: R R3 , (t) = (r cos(at), r sin(at), bt)

. 1 (t)2 + 2 (t)2 = x2 + y 2 = r2 , (R)

( ) (principal normal vector)

B : I R3 , B(s) = T (s) N (s).

s I {T (s), N (s), B(s)} R3 (s).

T (s) = N (s) B(s), N (s) = B(s) T (s), B(s) = T (s) N (s).

1.14. : I R3 Frenet. (torsion)

: I R, (s) = hN (s), B(s)i.

. (s) = hN (s), B(s)i,

1.8. : I R3 Frenet. Frenet

B(s) 0 (s) 0 B(s)

N (s) = (s)T (s) + (s)B(s). -

N (s) = 1 T (s) + 2 N (s) + 3 B(s). (1.6)

hN (s), T (s)i = 1 hT (s), T (s)i + 2 hN (s), T (s)i + 3 hB(s), T (s)i = 1 .

T (s) = (s)N (s),

hN (s), T (s)i + hN (s), T (s)i = 0 hN (s), T (s)i = (s)hN (s), N (s)i

0 = hN (s), N (s)i = 1 hT (s), N (s)i + 2 hN (s), N (s)i + 3 hB(s), N (s)i = 2 .

(1.6) N (s) = (s)T (s) + 3 B(s).

hN (s), B(s)i = (s)hT (s), B(s)i + 3 hB(s), B(s)i = 3 .

hN (s), B(s)i = (s), 3 = (s),

N (s) = (s)T (s) + (s)B(s)

. B(s) = (s)N (s),

B(s) = T (s) N (s) + T (s) N (s)

(s) = (s)T (s) + (s)B(s).

() = (t0 ) + 0 (t0 ), R. (1.1)

= 0 (0) = (t0 ). () = (x1 (), x2 (), x3 ()),