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b c dfe c g h i j k l

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FH= } F| } |r|||r|0y|D  L[| } |

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DIRECT CURRENT ALTERNATING CURRENT
(DC) (AC)

I I

I I
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( *2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.

} FFF
p%# } |/| } F } FvsFFK| } Fs%FF|Fs| } |H|F
F|! F |?r/ } 0 }  |F } |9|FF?|
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; FV3$L"))L

Alternator operation

Step #1 Step #2

N S

+ -
no current! I I

Load Load

Step #3 Step #4

S N

- +
no current! I I
Load Load

| } /F|s!/F } FF/|F } |9F/|r!

FF|#3  } FsKCF|F|KFF|| }  KF|
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 =|| } F0F| } F } | } |0F/F|FF73 } | } |K
/73 } | } | } rr|[
|/R5|/213|-|/8-K*813-4/x*&

(DC) Generator operation

Step #1 Step #2

N S S N N S S N
- +
- +

I
Load Load

Step #3 Step #4

N S S N N S S N
- +
- +

I
Load Load
KF/|F } K#;F/F|!FrF

|FsFs| } | F|7#FK FF } y;
vF|79F } Fk(/F|CF |79 } |9#3|
|FF| } } |F#F! |Bs|/|9||s
v90|F?|
F# ||+#3|3|v } F| } } F } /|+v3| } |%
3|r 3|vLLC } ||#F| F|/|r?
pvFsFF|0Fs# } | } F|
r#s/7|#krFCFs } | }
F#Fn } |F } F } F/ F  r3
|Frr } FF9#9F[||K/#7F| } 3
F
/FH  |FF#F|0|#C  } v| } F| } 
X| F=F|FF[F=F/ } F| } } F } %|| } |;|
Fs }   H|F/Fv||F#|F } 
|F| } 9F FH|F|L 9|#9rFF|V| }
X } 3F| } FFs|F0|rF } |#K|F FFF|
#7Fsv|FsF/ F|#v/ } } #3|
F| } } |9F#F } Fv/FF| } |(F| ; VFF7
3 3r FE #F|90 F%v
F_|V||| } | K|FFF|||  } #3 } 
rE| 3L3FFFr9rFK|Ers|sF|%[FF;
 *2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.

FC |!|%C% } E } F| .VDn)(Cn

9/;F } |;[| } # % } | #| }  } F3| } EF
|vFp9k#_F | } | } |r+v|# } |E| 9|
} F/ F |v/ } |n;X0r0 } C3|3| } |3H7$ CL

Transformer

AC Induced AC
voltage voltage
source

F|| } } ;FFF||F||##0F 0 
 } |v } |n/ FK| } _|_  } rF  } |
|FF } E 9F  F|#  } |?VF||v3#F|V! } F
} |HF |#F } | p/F }  } ||vr9F| C } FsF
 } F } |;|9r|F |#F } | } F||3FF|vF|0F
} F|F|r|H#F } K } r| } r|#FrF
FFF } F } |[

Speed multiplication geartrain

Large gear
(many teeth)
Small gear
(few teeth)

high torque + low torque

low speed + high speed

"Step-down" transformer

high voltage

low voltage
AC voltage
many
source turns few turns Load
high current

low current

p;V||0F|s|FFsFF|# } |!FFrF_ } F } |g
F    /F K } [F#|9F/C
|/R5|/213|-|/8-K*813-4/x*& 

Speed reduction geartrain

Large gear
(many teeth)
Small gear
(few teeth)

low torque + high torque

high speed + low speed

"Step-up" transformer

high voltage

low voltage
AC voltage many turns
source few turns Load

high current

low current
_F v||F F0|]_| F

# } P3 |PF r9#|F|F|CXXPFF|F|  } F| } r9
#| } ||9  } |Fs|FF3p0r3p } F
#|7F/|#|F/F||#9/FF7C +FsF } _+ 
} F } #v|rFr|F } 
high voltage

Power Plant
Step-up

. . . to other customers

low voltage

Step-down

Home or
Business low voltage
FF } #/pF  } F| } 9|F|F| } F| } n%X|

||PP } |FFF]XCH|0 } pF||| } rF } 
3#93| } 7pF ||V |L9
7FFFFF 9F_| V } F
9| } F } 0F| : : 0| } E |F } } F } +F }
#7F| } %FFFF| |9F||F } } FH } FE|F }
 *2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.

}  F#kr|FF #FF|#F || +rs } F

} |#7| }  /|K#||#|||3# F } #|nF
# nF 7H |F | %[FF F
F 3#FF|| r } 0|F| } |0|09


v7
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9  |F } F  |FH } FF#|F| } F9F|
| } | } |9|
FrV  FFF| FF  |+v } F } F|
|F } |CF } F||
 } F } | } CFF3)pCL($p$y?KE| } F } |F_
 } F } | } F
r0 | } |F|0| } |F } 
7) #C9||!Vrp| } F| } |v } 3 2 } |?F
%HCF3%rFF;| } } ||%7; } FF9| } E } F
/9F F|#F } |[F/9F } F } |n
F|#F } FrHK|#F#F
3 } #Fx
3 }  } F| F|#F } F F|##FFH } FF

mKn t Pq,0z|$K{~u

X }  F3F//| } r|s|3H#|

| } #EX09|F  k  FF } v3|F;F|
F|#F F9|| } Hr3BLK3)7

Graph of AC voltage over time

(the sine wave)

-

Time
+s  } F } | } %rC }  #r|F
F| sr/ } |#|00F  }   %| 
vH|p;9KFsvF/F|7F| } } |  |  sF|F
=V
&39srv/ } FFC
 x*0|81II+.5 

D 2yD
D&:D:
:::::::::::3:: :SD&
EL:::::::::::3::
:L:::::::::::3::
L:::::::::::3::(
:L:::::::::::3::
:L:::::::::::3::
:L::::::::::::: :TD"ER:&
E:v::::::::::3::
E:v::::::::::3::
E:v::::::::::3::(
E:v::::::::::3::
E:v::::::::::3::
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E:v::::::::::A&3::
"Ev::::::::::A&3::
::v::::::::::A&3::(
&v::::::::::A&3::
::v::::::::::A&3::
::v::::::::::A:: :T&"ER:&
::v::::::::::A&3::
::v::::::::::A&3::
"Ev::::::::::A&3::(
::v::::::::::A&3::
&v::::::::::A&3::
::v::::::::::3:: :SD&

V3 } F } | } FFFHF |nk | VvV33| }

|F9F|C;FF } s3F F| } |3 |vCFF|#79|
F|3F%| } #7F| } V| } r|Fr| } % } | rk"
k%% } F#7F| }  } |LrHF |/#rF } 
} |[V#7 FKKkkFSF } |/| } F
#| }  } rv+F|#KFH|v } F|CEFvF
F } 3 } |9H } |
p9sFB } |F#F } +3 } || / 3|
_s|VkV_0r/r|/_F9kVr|r|9k
#F7 } # C9?Fk=|E|9|s3s|K |F } H79
|| }  } F793 } F|#|FFFC
#FF| FC|H=FFV|=F|F| } |/ } |C
rvK|F|v!| n/F|F
 *2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.

one wave cycle

0 90 180 270 360 90 180 270 360
(0) (0)

Alternator shaft
position (degrees)
3| } F/| ?|!|F } 0#FsF/FF !|K9r|||
 FK|r|#F#H } } } vKs||HF|r } 
%F } |r;CK } ?!Xs7FF%/|%|% } 
CL;HC/k
r|V9kH|0FE|
)3$E
CF| F|v }} |9
v/F || } C
Fr/FK } ||sF|F F } F/k
r CL; |#r%r } 3nF|C/| | } vy  7( CF
|KF } |Kv F3| | 7;| } |KEsk } } s } r+
| F|  } | | 9v #|! } 9K|_3  } } 
} ?  /F/_ } F| } |K+FF } _|F/   }  
3 } r9|rFv;
F|3vF }  ##F| } ?F } |F } /;|F#k|;Vk 
r|0 } r|F } s|?K| /k } }  } r?

1
Frequency in Hertz =
Period in seconds
|F } ))E|!3K|K/|kK } |HFE!|
F| } C } CKFF||79F|30F } |F7C
|k3| FK } FFkF _ } | } rV } C 0F|#Vr|
EkFF| F!| E } | } V } F } |F } F|s F| |
} L } F|F } s|
;F/r } FH/3v#r3| } ?F| } k|F|vF|
} F } =Fk7F| } 9| ( | } ||FFF|
} |## } | FFkF?| } |3E%E/3
| } Cr|C } /F| } F|9kC|H93s!/rF|
!FkH|/C=9|FC r } |vF } Fvr| } F3|
07 } HF| } } F
_V| } !#? } | | y3#Cp| }  } +VF } 3
rF3 } |%| } /3|F|9F F FF| ]F } 7E|
| } +/ } + F } 3_B F#/|F } |/9sFV3r#93|F| |
|3|F|sHV } 0F |F } L9/|FK| } 
F } |9 } 0| } ?
 x*0|81II+.5 #

Note Musical designation Frequency (in hertz)

A A1 220.00
# b
A sharp (or B flat) A or B 233.08
B B1 246.94
C (middle) C 261.63
C sharp (or D flat) C# or Db 277.18
D D 293.66
# b
D sharp (or E flat) D or E 311.13
E E 329.63
F F 349.23
F sharp (or G flat) F# or Gb 369.99
G G 392.00
# b
G sharp (or A flat) G or A 415.30
A A 440.00
# b
A sharp (or B flat) A or B 466.16
B B 493.88
1
C C 523.25
FF|!| } !_VFF|sFFV |F|_F
F+3 F } |H(V7!#KF } + |r+|F
7F   =|((/;H3|   FF } /V7 } K| } %#
k } }  } C(/F|#F/FKrF F (

|
/73 F & V|7v?F r|F90|0FF
r|C90V } |/FV } F_# } _K||
|%|||K||;V| } KF } | ?kFH%#V| } } F| }
/|r| } ; C)79|F|K73|   F / } Fk r
| |?@ &V 3F739   } FkH(( k|?r| 3|!
|3rsrF| } | } |

C# D# F# G# A# C# D# F# G# A# C# D# F# G# A#
Db Eb Gb Ab Bb Db Eb Gb Ab Bb Db Eb Gb Ab Bb

C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B
one octave
C } K; } Fk;|?FVD|E;79| } %/|3F?C
 *2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.

||/V| } =| } 37pFkp7npgFp3k ?sF ||

|# |#| } rErsHF|K|  3#| }   } ; } Fk
F
X| } F } | } rF%#3V| } rKFF } H|
k!||VF03| FFF|_ks| 3| } HF  kF#  F
}   }  |F| } F| }} | } |F Fvvs_2FvkF#K |
} 0|F|
Square wave Triangle wave

one wave cycle one wave cycle

Sawtooth wave

9k7#H30F3|EkF|_7|F } " |

 } sskr|0|| } 9=Es| } | } |F r
V#|  F  |F|Fk3F# } F;k7#FHFp|F
||F|%|_9k/3V9k7#H } F
 } F| } |V!HF| }  3  | } |9k7F# } |/|3/|!rr| }
|FFL
0|rr3v9k/rF| } / } sr } |Kk
|;H L:  &) F|| %9r|KrsH  L:  &) |KEHk7
FK } FH| } } |Fs|F| } |_ } | } |r9VkF/;FK } 
9k } |F|7s=


v7
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F } 300 } F  } | } ?r9/| } ?r/!|/k
 CHEskK| } 7FVF|%|FF|!V|Hr||FF
r|
CL;/;Vk |K|/|F9 } / } }
  7" |9F3 } 7 } } 9Vk } ||0F|
HFs| kLCK| r|#[F# } k } } /r } ?
F }  k r|| } 
D^1352|13^1I-0/65 +.Rx*
,-C/1

mKn  zq
u2H{6z| z|}r8uLK q
0}s r2z

3 H9K3F FKFFF|F|r } F|_| } |H

#]F } r/|#F|7=|%[FHk3FF } ||
|9 } v|9  kF  } sHFFF|s3||
|/FKk7F|KFF|F  r|  7r_3 F|/ } } 
|HF|r  F }  V| } F } 0|
[ y3[| } |F|r
|F|||/F 2
9r9 }  vFF |9KF07FFH ;
F||VX|F ?F|F|FV } FFVFkV|F
FV7FF|sJ } FK } F VkK|30rE } | } |   
#|F=#|F s|| } F } |
99kF7FFF#|F |)( nF![ F|/|!F9|;r/|
9k7 FC;||39F KC ?k/! k7

Peak

Time
k|PFF|v79]|F_3|v|v3
 y ; kF

Peak-to-Peak

Time
|#9#7FF|9kF | } +s||
} F||%[F%3?9kE3Kk3|V%|E3|

F!F H=|KF|/9k 3|sKF
/C % } FF9 9r9F|v9K|K| %
( *2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.

10 V

Time

10 V more heat energy

(peak) dissipated

(same load resistance)

10 V less heat energy

(peak) dissipated

Kk;7FF|#F|VE|%[Fkr|#F/|kH||F
#F#F| } k/# 9=Fr|||r|F0k7H FF
_|%FF#+||F0F%|3 KF $kC;E|KF0k
|| } P3 P } F } | } 9#F kF|_C % } # 
 ||%9kF#7FFEFK| kF||
0V |_FF#%F|>  p 7$ : gD 2E) !r#| } =kK
9k7F 3 F

3H|||Fvv39F|V|EFkv|k
FECFk } 9|Fs|C3FCFn9FVF } E9? E|
Fk % } |3r;|rFF } F;|Fk E } 3nF|C!
} F|v;| } FF s|F } } F } 0r|F } rF|v
k]3r
D^1352|13^1I-0/65 +.Rx*
,-C/1 

Bandsaw

Jigsaw

blade
motion wood being
cut

wood being
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50 W
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10 V 2 dissipated
RMS

5 A RMS
Equal power dissipated through
equal resistance loads

5A
50 W
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10 V 2 dissipated

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P-P = 2 (Peak)

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AVG = 0.5 (Peak)
P-P = 2 (Peak)

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Itotal =
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8 8 8
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>270 ?360

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B 180
@(0) 180
@(0)
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Phase shift = 90 degrees

} A is ahead of B
A B
(A "leads" B)

Phase shift = 90 degrees

} B is ahead of A
B A
(B "leads" A)

}
A
Phase shift = 180 degrees
}
A and B waveforms are
mirror-images of each other
B

Phase shift = 0 degrees

} }
A B A and B waveforms are
in perfect step with each other

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Waveform Vector representation

Amplitude
Length

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Waveforms Phase relations Vector representations

(of "A" waveform with

reference to "B" waveform)

Phase shift = 0 degrees

A B A and B waveforms are A B
in perfect step with each other

A
Phase shift = 90 degrees
A is ahead of B 90 degrees
A B
(A "leads" B) B

Phase shift = 90 degrees B

B is ahead of A -90 degrees
B A
(B "leads" A)
A

B 180 degrees
Phase shift = 180 degrees

A and B waveforms are A B
mirror-images of each other
A

A B A

angle
B

phase shift
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length = 6 length = 8 total length = 6 + 8 = 14

angle = 0 degrees angle = 0 degrees angle = 0 degrees
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14 V 14 V
0 deg

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length = 6 angle = 0 degrees

length = 8 angle = 180 degrees

total length = 6 - 8 = -2 at 0 degrees
or 2 at 180 degrees

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0 deg 6V
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2V
180 deg

+ -
2V
0 deg

Just as there are two ways to

express the phase of the sources,
there are two ways to express
their resultant sum.
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Test lead colors provide a frame of reference
for interpreting the sign (+ or -) of the meters
indication.

V A V A

V A V A
OFF OFF

A COM A COM

6V 6V


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QOGIT_UGRQIf^`FaJ0d!Gd^`FLL_NL_TO|qL_NuJKGbLOG
TOsYUWFKGYd ZH^lLrLOZHGtL_N`L_^iTOGRQ]hKiL_^FLrkNiL_^`pGoU\QV|T_G
^JPUFHp[LOZHGBkNiL_^pG

^SITONQOQG
^S$Z0NFKG {UWFHJPUWkUWJKhH^`iWi| d UxL_Ze^kNixL_sBGILOG
T
fXLOZHGIFeGIULOZKG
T^JKJPUWFKpNTrQOhKVPL_T_^SL_UFKpusc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS
^`iWi|
LONBHFaJuLOZKGg^`FaQ]d!GITRw}UWT$QLRfPdnGgd!NhKi\JsBGR^QOhKT_GL_ZKGgkNixL$^`pGrN`DNFHGQONhHT_SIG
[ 
 n
H 0n0n


The meter tells us +24 volts

V A

V A
OFF

A COM

Source 1 Source 2

Total voltage?

ZKU\Q!HT$QL sYG
^Q]hKT_GIsYG
FLN`D l ^SITONQOQLOZKGgiWGbDLOZa^`FHJkNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbGLOG
ii\QhHQ!LOZa^lLLOZKGgVHiW^S$vciGR^JN`D

LOZHGBsYGILOGITT_G
^iiW|qUWQrL_NhHS$ZKUWFKpLOZKGYFKG
p^lL_UkGQOUWJKGBNDkNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbG [f^`FHJ0LOZKGYT_G
JiGR^J0NDLOZHGBsYGILOGIT

T_G
^`iWiW|[UWQ!L_NhHS$ZHUFKpBL_ZKGgjaNQ]ULOUWkGw}ZhaQIfKd!GvFKNldQONhKT$SbG gUWQ ^BVH^`L]L_GIT_|cD^SIUFKpcUWFLOZKU\Q NT_UWGIFL_^`LOUWNF

24 V

Source 1 Source 2

Total voltage?

GR^QOhKTOUWFKpLOZKGgNLOZKG
T hKFKvFKNld FukNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbG

KP 
2o
b
P" [

The meter tells us -17 volts

V A

V A
OFF

A COM

Source 1 Source 2

Total voltage?
r M
ZKU\QQOG
SINFHJqkNiLOsYGbL_GITT_G
^JPUFHpHfHZHNldnG
kGITRfPU\Q^ l { kNiL_Q
fHd ZKU\S$ZqLOG
ii\QhHQLOZa^lLL_ZKGtVKi\^S$v

LOGRQL}iWG
^JtU\Q}^SbLOhH^iiW|LONhHS$ZKUWFKpL_ZKG jXNQOUxL_UkG!QOUWJKG!NDakNiL_^`pGnQONhKT$SbG f`d ZHUiWG!LOZKGT_G
JtLOG
Q]L}iGR^JUWQ}^SL_hH^`iWi|
LONhHS$ZKUWFKpBLOZKGgFHGIp^`LOUWkGwZhHQ
fPd!GrvFKNldLOZH^`LQ]NhKT$SbG  +[  M
U\Q ^BVH^lLOLOG
TO|D^SbUWFKpYUWFL_ZKG K E JPUT_G
SbLOUWNF

24 V 17 V

Source 1 Source 2

- +
Total voltage = 7 V
FKiW|c^lDLOG
T SbNT_T_GIi\^lLOUWFKpokNiLOsYGbL_GITT_G
^JKUFKpQd ULOZLOGRQLiGR^JNT_UG
FL$^lL_UNFSI^Fd!GJPGILOGIT_sYUFHGL_ZH^lL!LOZHG
QOG
Ld!NkNiL_^pG[QONhKT$SbGRQo^`T_GcNjHjaNQ]UWFKpG
^S$ZN`L_ZKGITRfT_G
QOhKiLOUWFKp0UWF^qLONL_^ikNixL$^`pGcN`D p
kNixL$Q ` kNixL$Q

kNixL$Q w

V
ZKGjXNQOUxL_UkG E *
^`FHJFKGIp^lL_UkG { jXNi\^`T_UxL|[sc^TOvUWFKpQ!^Q_Q]NPSIUW^`LOG
Jd UxL_Z^`FqkNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbGQ]G
TOkG

LOZHGQ_^`sYG!jKhKT_jaNQ]G ^QL_ZKGTOGRJt^FHJtVHiW^S$voSbNiWNT$QN`DX^rgmkNixL_sYGbLOG
T QLOGRQL}iWG
^JHQIw EDHL_ZKGIT_Gnd^QQOhHS$ZY^L_ZKUFHp

^Q^u`jKZa^QOGIsYGbL_GIT$cLOZa^lLoSbNhKiWJeJPUWTOGRSL_i|UWFHJPU\SI^`LOGYjKZH^Q]GY^`FKpiG {ULod!NhKi\J0T_G hKUWTOGY^uQ]GRSbNFaJkNiL_^pG

QONhKT$SbGrLON[^SL^Q ^YTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGrUWFuLOUWsYG faUxLrSbNhHiWJujKT_NlkUWJPGrLd!NcJPUxGIT_GIFLUWFHJPU\SI^`LOUWNFHQ NDjHZH^QOGo^`FKpiGd ZKUWiWG
sYG
^Q]hKT_UWFKptL_ZKGgd^zkGbD{NTOsNDL_ZKGoQO^sYGQONhKT$SbGfJKGIjXGIFHJPUWFKpcNFuZHNldd!GSINFKFHG
SL_G
JLOZKGL_G
Q]LiGR^JKQ

 ` 
 n
H 0n0n


"phasemeter"
- 0 deg +
black red

red
180 deg
black 
+ -
"phasemeter"
NafPd ZKGIFq|NhuQOGIGg^FukNixL$^`pGJPGRQ]UWpFH^`LOGRJ^Q!QOhHS$Zmw w w
8V
0 deg
- +
ww w}UxL sYG
^FHQ!LOZa^lL NhKT Z|jXN`LOZHGbLOU\SI^i`jKZH^Q]G
sYGbLOG
T_d!NhKi\J[T_G
^JjKZa^QOGQOZKUDL d UxL_ZuUL_Q FKGIp^lL_UkG

{VHiW^S$v LOGRQLiGR^JBL_NhHS$ZKUWFKptLOZKGriGIDL!d UWT_G^`FHJ[UxL$Q!jaNQ]ULOUWkGRp{T_G
J LOGRQLiWG
^JcLONhaS$ZKUFHpgLOZKGrT_UpZLnd UT_GfLOZHG
^FHJ Q]|sVaNiWQ sYG
TOG
i|[jHTONlkU\JPUFHpY^D{T$^`sYGgN`DT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGrD{NT L_ZKGgjKZH^Q]Go^FKpiWGrHphHTOGw%ELdnNhKi\J^iWQON
VXGojaG
T]D{GRSL_i|Nvl^z|cLONcT_GIjHTOGRQ]G
FLL_ZH^lLkGIT_|QO^sYGoQ]NhKT_SIG QjKZH^Q]GiWUvGLOZKU\Q FKN`L_UWSIGLOZKGtQOd UL_S$ZqUFqjXNi\^`T_UxL|
sc^`T_vUFKpQ

8V
180 deg
+ -

V

? 3P *
!A(j$A%\*

EDakG
SbLONT$Qd UxL_ZhHFHSbNsBsYNFB^FKpiWG
Q^`T_G!^JKJPGRJflLOZHGIUWT}sY^pFKULOhaJPG
Q iG
FKp`L_ZHQ ^JKJthHj hKULOG JPUXG
TOG
FLOiW|gLOZH^F
LOZa^lLN`DQOS
^`i\^`Tsc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGRQI

Vector addition

length = 10


angle = 53.13
degrees
length = 8 +

6 at 0 degrees
8 at 90 degrees
angle = 90 degrees
10 at 53.13 degrees

length = 6


EDLd!NkNiL_^pG
Q 
angle = 0 degrees

gNhPLN`DjKZa^QOG 0^`T_Gt^JKJKG
JL_NpGbLOZHGITrV|VXGIUWFKpqSbNFKFKG
SbLOGRJUFeQ]G
TOUWG
Q
fXLOZKG
UT

kNixL$^`pGBsc^pFKULOhHJKG
QtJKNFKN`LJKUT_G
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QUWFgw FHQ]LOGR^JfLOZHG
QOG


K 

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sYGbL_TOU\SD^QOZKUWNFfa^ kNixLQONhKT$SbGg^`L^JKJPG
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`
^`FHpiWGrND wW

6V 8V
0 deg 90 deg
- + - +

- +
10 V
53.13 deg

nNsYjH^TOGRJuLONuSIUT$SbhHUxLg^`FH^i|PQOUWQ
faLOZKU\QU\QrkG
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JwN`L_GoLOZa^lLUxL QrjXNQ_Q]UWVKiWGoLONNVPL$^`UWF
kNixL_sYGbLOG
TUWFHJPU\SI^`LOUWNFHQN`D ^FHJ kNiL_Q
fT_G
QOjaGRSLOUWkG
i|f^SbT_NQ_QLOZKGLdnN kNiL_^pGQONhKT$SbGRQIf|GbL!NFKiW|BTOGR^J

BkNiL_QnD{NT^L_N`L_^ikNixL$^`pG

ZKG
TOGUWQ!FKNYQ]hHUxL$^`VKiWGg^FH^`iWNp|BD{NT!d ZH^lL d!G TOGrQ]G
GIUWFKpZHGIT_Gd ULOZLdnNYykNixL$^`pG
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^`FYNFHi|tJKUT_G
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GIFwULOZ[flLd!N
# `
kNixL$^`pG
QS
^`FoVXG^`U\JPUFHpNTNjKjXNQOUWFKpNFKGn^FKN`L_ZKGIT E `H E O$ VaGILdnG
GIFgD{hKiWiW|^`U\JPUWFKp^FHJgD{hHiiW|NjKjaNQ]UWFKpaf

UWFHSbiWhHQOUkGwUxL_ZKNhKLnL_ZKGhHQOGNDkGRSLONT SbNsYjKiWGbcFhKsVaG
T FKN`L$^lLOUWNF[LONJKG
Q_SbT_UVXG hH^FL_UxL_UGRQIfUL!d!NhKi\J
P 
VXG z JKU [SbhHixLL_NYjaG
T]D{NTOssc^`LOZKG
sY^`LOU\SI^iSI^iWSIhKiW^`LOUWNFHQnD{NTSIUT$SbhKUL^`FH^i|PQOUWQ
w

FYLOZHGFKGILnQ]GRSL_UNFfd!G iWiaiWG
^TOFcZKNldyL_NtT_GIjKT_G
QOGIFLkGRSL_NT hH^FL_UxL_UGRQUWFQO|stVXNiWUWS T$^lL_ZKGITLOZH^F[pT$^`jHZP
 
U\SI^`iD{NTOsqw }G
SL_NTg^`FaJ0L_TOU\^`FKpiGYJPU\^`pT_^sYQrQOh [SbGBLONqUWiiWhHQ]LOT$^lLOGBL_ZKGYpGIFHGIT$^`iSbNFaSbGIjKL
fVKhKLosBNTOGBjKT_G
SIUWQOG
sYGbL_ZKNPJKQNDQO|stVXNiWUWQOsshHQLVXGohHQOG
JuUD^`F|QOGIT_UNhHQ SI^iWSIhKiW^`LOUWNFHQ ^TOGL_NcVaGtjaG
T]D{NTOsYG
JNFuL_ZKG
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Q
w

b&%

kNiL_^pGRQSI^FNFKiW|gGIULOZKG
TJKUT_G
SbLOiW|t^`U\JoNTJKUT_G
SbLOiW|gNjKjXNQOGnGR^S$ZN`LOZHGITd ZKGIFYSbNFKFKGRSLOGRJoUWFBQOGIT_UWG
Q
w
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kNixL$^`pG
Q!sc^z|^`U\JNT NjKjXNQOG E lH E __ JPGIjXGIFHJKUFKpcNFL_ZKGgjKZH^Q]GgQOZKUDLVaGILdnG
GIFuLOZKG
sqw

V
? (P# %!A#BC\oArA%\(
F0NT_JPG
T LONdnNTOvd UxL_ZLOZHG
QOGSbNsYjKiGIuFhKsVaG
T_Qd UxL_ZKNhKLrJPT$^zd UFHpckG
SbLONT_Q
fHd!GgHT$QLFKGIGRJ0Q]NsYGovUFHJ0N`D
Q]L_^`FaJK^`T$JYsc^lLOZHGIsc^lL_UWS
^`iHFHN`L_^`LOUWNFw}ZKG
TOG^`T_G LdnNtVH^QOUWSD{NT_scQN`DSINsYjKiWGbYFhKstVXGIT!FKN`L$^lL_UNF H  ^FHJ
O P ` bo w
Ni\^`TD{NT_s UWQrd ZKG
TOGB^SINsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGITU\QrJKGIFKNLOG
JV|L_ZKG  b-{# { NLOZKG
TOd U\Q]GvFKNld F^QLOZHG HI 
HMn   b 0 ^`FaJL_ZKG l -W N`DUxL$Q kGRSL_NT#{ haQ]hH^iiW|JKGIFKNLOG
JV|^Fq^FKpiWGgQ]|sVaNi
f  :I  bE Z- H fHNT c
LOZa^lL iNNvQiWUWvGLOZKU\QI wNYhHQOGL_ZKGgsc^`jq^`FH^iNp|fjXNi\^`T FKNL_^`LOUWNF[D{NTLOZKGgkG
SbLONT!D{T_NsGIdNT_vnUxL|
LONtK ^`FmUWGIpNdnNhKiWJMVXGQ]NsYGbLOZHUFKpqiWUvG[ ` sYUiWG
Q
fQONhPL_ZdnGRQLRw  G
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 n
H 0n0n


(8.06
8.06 -29.74
330.26 )
o
o

8.49 45o

Note: the proper notation for designating a vectors angle

is this symbol:

5.39 158.2 7.81 230.19

(7.81
o
o

-129.81 ) o

L$^`FHJK^T_JNT_UG
FL_^lL_UNFcD{NT kG
SbLONT^`FHpiWG
Q!UFqSIUT$SbhHUxLSI^iWSIhKi\^lLOUWNFaQ!JKGbHFKGRQ ^QVXGIUWFKpBLONLOZKGgT_UWpZL

{ZHNT_Uo
NFL_^i fsc^vUWFKp cQ]LOT$^`UWpZLohKjf BLON0LOZKGiGIDL
f^FHJ [ YQ]LOT$^`UWpZLJPNld FwiWG
^Q]GcFKNLOGLOZH^`L
kGRSL_NT$Q^FKpiWG
J0JPNld FHSI^`FMZH^zkGB^`FKpiGRQT_GIjHTOGRQ]G
FL_G
JUWFejaNiW^TD{NTOs^QjXNQOULOUWkGBFhHstVXGIT$QUWFMGIKSbG
Q_QN`D

KfNTrFKG
p^lL_UkGtFhKsVaG
T_QriWG
Q_QL_ZH^`F HwgKNTGIP^sYjKiGf^[kG
SL_NT^`FKpiGRJ  [ H
 QL_T_^UpZLJPNld F SI^F

^`i\QONgVaGQ_^`U\JLONoZa^zkG ^`F[^FKpiWG N`D w}ZKG^`VXNlkGkGRSLONTNFBL_ZKGT_UpZL w  r
` SI^FY^iWQONgVXGJPGIFHN`LOGRJ
^Q w 
` zw
The vector "compass"

90o

o
180o 0

270o
(-90o)
GRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NTOsqfNFL_ZKGcN`L_ZKGITgZa^`FHJfUWQd ZHGIT_GY^SINsYjKiWGbFhKsVaG
TgUWQgJKGIFKNLOG
JeV|0UL_QgT_G
QOjXG
SL_UkG

ZKNTOU INFL$^`iH^FHJckGITOLOU\SI^`iaSbNsYjXNFKG
FL_Q
w FG
Q_Q]G
FHSbGfL_ZKG^FKpiWG
JYkG
SL_NTU\QL_^`vGIFYL_NtVXGLOZHGZ|jaNLOGIFhHQOGND^
T_UpZLLOT_UW^FKpiWGfXJPG
Q_SbT_UVXG
JqV|LOZKGiG
FKp`L_ZHQNDLOZKGB^Jz~]^SbGIFL^FHJqNjHjaNQ]ULOGtQOU\JPG
Q
w^lL_ZKGITLOZH^FJPGRQOSITOUWVKUWFKp

^[kG
SbLONT QiWGIFKpLOZe^`FHJ0JKUT_G
SbLOUWNFV|JPG
FKN`L_UFKpusc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGY^`FHJ^`FKpiGfXULUWQJPGRQOSITOUWVaGRJ0UWF0L_GIT_sYQN`D!`ZKNld
 !
D^`T iWGbDL zT_UpZL_Y^`FHJu`ZHNldD^`ThHj lJPNld Fw
  o
ZKGRQ]G Ld!NtJPUWsYGIFHQOUWNFH^iHHphKT_G
Q ZKNT_U INFL$^`ia^FHJYkG
T]L_UWS
^`i ^`T_GQO|stVXNiWU
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JcV|BLdnNtFhHsBG
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Q
w

FBNT$JPGITLONJPU\QL_UFKphKU\Q]ZtLOZKGZKNTOU INFL$^`i^`FHJtkG
T]L_UWS
^`iJPUsYG
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T]L_UWS
^`iUWQjKT_GbHGRJ


K 

 a Y
2 a I 
 
d ULOZ0^YiWNldnG
T]SI^Q]G`U\ {UWFjKhKT_GgsY^`LOZKG
sc^lLOU\SIQ NT~] {UWFGIiWG
SbLOT_NFKU\SIQ w!ZKG
QOGgiWNldnG
T]SI^Q]GriGIL]L_GIT$QJPNcFKNL
p o
T_GIjKT_G
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^`ikl^`T_U\^`VKiWG QOhHS$Z0^QUFHQ]L_^FL_^`FHGINhaQSbhKT_T_GIFL
fX^`i\Q]N[QO|stVXNiWU
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JuV|u^ciWNld!GITOES
^QOGiWGbLOLOGIT

`U\ fVKhPLgT$^lLOZHGIT^`T_Gsc^lL_ZKGIsc^`LOU\SI^`i}NjXGIT$^lLONT_Q_YhHQOG
JLONqJPU\QL_UFKphKU\Q]ZLOZKGYkGRSL_NT QkG
T]L_UWS
^`iSbNsYjXNFKG
FL
 o
D{T_NsUxL$QZKNTOU INFL_^`iSbNsYjXNFKG
FL
wQ^SbNsYjKiWGbL_GSbNsYjKiGIgFhHstVXGITRf
L_ZKGZHNT_U
NFL_^i^`FHJkGITOLOU\SI^i hH^`FLOULOUWG
Q
^`T_Gd TOUL]L_GIFq^Q ^cQOhKsq

"Inare"rectangular" form, a vectors length and direction

denoted in terms of its horizontal and vertical span,
the first number representing the horixontal ("real") and
the second number (with the "j" prefix) representing the
vertical ("imaginary") dimensions.

4 + j0
4 + j4 "4 right and 0 up/down" -4 + j4
"4 right and 4 up" "4 left and 4 up"

-4 + j0
4 - j4 "4 left and 0 up/down" -4 -j4
"4 right and 4 down" "4 left and 4 down"

+ "imaginary"
+j

- "real" + "real"

-j
- "imaginary"
o
ZKGZHNT_U
NFL_^iSbNsYjaNFKGIFLU\QT_GbD{G
TOT_G
JrL_N^QLOZHG O
 
SbNsBjXNFHGIFL
flQOUFHSIGL_ZH^lLJPUsYG
FHQ]UWNFtUWQSbNsYjH^`LOUWVKiWG
U
d ULOZFHNT_sY^ifrQOS
^`i\^`T `T_G
^iW FhKstVXGIT$Q
wZHGMkGITOLOU\SI^`iSbNsYjaNFKGIFLqUWQTOGID{GIT_TOGRJLON^QLOZHG I MH i-
SbNsYjaNFKGIFL
fQ]UWFHSIGYLOZH^`LJPUWsBG
FHQOUNFeiWUWG
QgUWF^JPUxGIT_GIFLtJPUWT_G
SL_UNFfLON`L$^`iWi|M^`iWUG
FML_NqLOZKGQOS
^`iWGBNDnL_ZKG[T_G
^i
` 
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H 0n0n


FhKstVXGIT$Q
w

ZKGTOGR^`i\^`U\QN`DL_ZKG pT$^`jKZYSbNTOT_G
QOjXNFHJKQL_NgLOZKGD^sYUiWUW^TFhKstVXGITiUWFKG d!GQO^zd G
^`T_iWUG
T
L_ZKGNFKG d UxL_Z

VXN`LOZjXNQOULOUWkGg^`FHJuFKG
p^`LOUWkGgkl^`iWhKG
QNFqUxLRwnZKGtUsc^pUWFH^`T_|Pt^lPU\Q N`DLOZHGopT$^`jKZqSbNTOT_G
QOjXNFHJKQnL_N[^`FKNLOZKG
T
#
FhKstVXGIT iWUWFKGoQ]ULOha^lLOGRJq^lL  L_NYLOZKGoTOGR^`i\tNFKGw }GRSL_NT$QVaG
UFKpBLd!N`JPUWsBG
FHQOUNFH^`iXLOZHUFKpQIfHdnGsthaQLZH^zkG
^LdnNEJKUsYGIFaQ]UWNFH^i`sc^`jHBhKjXNFqd ZKU\S$ZuLONYGbPjKT_G
Q_Q!LOZHGIsqfPLOZhHQ LOZKGLd!NYFhHstVXGIT iWUFKGRQ jXGIT_jaG
FHJPU\SbhKi\^`TL_N
G
^S$ZNLOZKG
T

&5
(4
%3
"imaginary"
number line '2
1

$0 "real" number line

%3 &5
... ...

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 4
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

ULOZHGITtsYGILOZKNPJNDFKN`L$^lLOUWNFUWQkl^`iWUWJmD{NTSINsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGIT$QIwMZKGjKT_UWsY^TO|eT_G
^QONFmD{NTtZH^zkUWFKpLd!N
sYGbL_ZKNPJKQND}FKN`L$^lLOUWNFU\QD{NTGR^QOGgN`DiWNFKpZH^`FaJuS
^`i\SbhKi\^lL_UNFfXTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NT_siWGIFHJKUFKpUxL$Q]G
ixD}L_N^JHJPUxL_UNF
^`FaJQOhKVPL_T_^SLOUWNFfK^`FHJujXNi\^`T!D{NT_siWGIFHJKUFKpYUL_QOGIiDL_NcsthKiLOUWjKiWUWS
^lL_UNFq^FHJuJPUkU\Q]UWNFw

nNFkGIT$Q]UWNFVXGbLd!GIG
FL_ZKGuLdnNmFKNL_^lL_UNFH^`i!D{NTOscQBUFkNiWkG
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jXNi\^`TLONmTOGRSL$^`FKphKiW^T
fHFaJL_ZKGqTOGR^`i SbNsBjXNFHGIFLBV|shKixL_UjHi|UWFKpL_ZKGqjaNiW^TYsY^pFKULOhaJPGV|mL_ZKGSbNQOUWFKG
N`D}L_ZKGY^`FKpiGfX^FHJqLOZHGUWsc^`pUWFH^TO|uSbNsYjXNFKG
FLV|qsthKiLOUWjKiW|UWFKpLOZKGjaNiW^Tsc^pFKULOhHJKGtV|uLOZKGBQ]UWFKGtNDLOZHG
^`FHpiWGw ZKU\Qsc^z|VXGthKFaJPGIT$QL_NNJqsYNTOGgT_G
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ZKNTOU INFL$^`iHSINFHQ]LOULOhKLOUWFKpgLOZHGjXNi\^`TD{NTOs fL_ZKGZKNTOU INFL_^`iK^FHJckGITOLOU\SI^`iaQ]U\JPG
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SL_UkGIiW|


K 

 a Y
2 a I  

length = 5
+j3
angle =
36.87o
+4

)5 36.87 o
(polar form)

(5)(cos 36.87o) = 4 (real component)

o
(5)(sin 36.87 ) = 3 (imaginary component)

4 + j3 (rectangular form)
NSbNFkGITOLaD{T_NsTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TLON jXNi\^`TRfbHFHJrL_ZKGjXNi\^`Tsc^pFKULOhHJKGLOZKT_NhKpZL_ZKGhHQOG}N`DL_ZKG|L_ZH^`pNT_G
^`F


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^`iP^FHJoUWsc^`pUWFH^TO|gSbNsB

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FL$Q^TOGoLOZKGB^Jz~]^SbGIFL^`FHJqNjKjaNQ]ULOGBQ]U\JPGRQIfXTOGRQ]jXG
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i| f^`FaJqLOZKGB^`FKpiGtV|uL$^`vUFHpcLOZKGY^`T$SL$^`FKpGIFL
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*4 + j3 (rectangular form)

+c = ,a 2
+ b2 (pythagorean theorem)

polar magnitude =
*42
+ 32
polar magnitude = 5
)

polar angle = arctan , *34

polar angle = 36.87o

)5 36.87 o
(polar form)
b&%

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^JHJghKjgL_ZKGT_G
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^iSbNsYjaNFKGIFLNDPLOZKGQ]hHsufl^FHJ
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T_Q LON[JPGILOGIT_sYUFHGgLOZKGgUWsc^`pUFH^TO|SbNsYjXNFKG
FL
N`DLOZHGoQ]hKsq

82 + j5
9+ *4 - j3 9+175 - j34
820 ++ j82
9+-36 j10
:6 + j2 80 - j15
255 - j49 -16 + j92
ZKG
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LOZHG[Q]GRSbNFaJeSINsYjKiWGbeFhHstVXGITD{T_NsL_ZKG[T_G
^iSbNsYjXNFKG
FLNDnL_ZKGcHT$Q]LgLON0^`T_T_UkGB^`LgLOZKGcT_G
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FLN`DL_ZKGoJPUXG
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82 + j5
* 175 - j34
8
-36 + j10
- 4 - j3
-2 + j8
;
- 80 - j15
95 - j19
- 20 + j82
-56 - j72
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 =<
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 0[0

 0 I P 

(35 65o)(10 -12o) = 350 53o

(124 250o)(11 100o) = 1364 -10o

or
1364 350o

(3 30o)(5 -30o) = 15 0o
UkU\Q]UWNFNDjaNiW^T]D{NT_sSbNsYjKiGIFhHstVXGIT$QU\Q^`i\QON[G
^Q]|Q]UWsYjKi|qJPUWkUWJPGtLOZKGjaNiW^Tsc^`pFKULOhHJPGtN`D}LOZHG
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sc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGN`DLOZHG hKNLOUWGIFL
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TD{TONsLOZKGo^FKpiWGrN`D
LOZHGHT_Q]LSbNsBjHiGIFhKstVXGITL_Nc^`T_TOUWkG^lLLOZHGo^`FKpiGN`DLOZHG hHN`LOUWGIFLR

35 65o >
= 3.5 77o
10 -12o

124 250o
= 11.273 150o
11 100o

)53-30
30 o
?
= 0.6 60o
o
@ S
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1
=
1 0o
= 0.02857 -65o
?
35 65o 35 65o

1
=
1 0o
= 0.1 12o
?
10 -12o
10 -12 o

1
=
1 0o >
= 312.5 -10o
0.0032 10o 0.0032 10o
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822 V -64 o
+
E1
-

+ load
12 V 35o E2
-

+
15 V 0o E3
-
ZKGjXNi\^`T_UL|tsc^`T_vPQD{NT!^`iWiKLOZHTOG
GkNixL$^`pG QONhKT$SbGRQ^`T_G NT_UWGIFLOGRJYUF[QOhHS$Z[^gd^z|oL_ZH^lLnLOZKG
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^`FaJ0jKZH^Q]GB^`FKpiGUWQrpUkGIFD{NTGR^S$ZkNiL_^pGtQONhKT$SbGfaFHND{T_G hKG
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Jw EDLOZKU\QrUWQLOZHG
SI^Q]GfUxLgU\Q^Q_Q]hKsYGRJLOZa^lLo^`iWiD{TOG hHGIFHSIUGRQr^TOGBG hH^ifL_ZhHQsYGIGbL_UFHpNhKT ha^`iWUxaS
^lL_UNFHQD{NTg^`jKjHi|UWFKpug
V
T_hKiGRQ L_N^`FMSbUWT_SIhKUxL ^iiHphHTOGRQpUWkG
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NhHT G hH^lL_UNFL_NBHFHJLONL_^`ikNiL_^pG^`jKjXG
^T_Q^Q Q]hHS$Z

EE total = E1 + E2 + E3
EE total = (22 V -64o) + (12 V 35o) + (15 V 0o)
rT$^`jKZKU\SI^iiW|fL_ZKGgkGRSLONT_Q^JKJuhKjqUFLOZKU\Q sc^`FHFKGITR
 GF P
K Py0r0n!0 2o
r } P r

22 -64o

15 0o

12 35o

ZKGYQ]hHs N`DL_ZKG
QOGkG
SbLONT$Qd UWiWi}VaGY^T_G
QOhKiL_^FLrkGRSLONTNTOUWpUWFH^`LOUWFKp^lLrLOZHGYQ]L_^T]L_UFHpjXNUWFLrD{NTrL_ZKG [


kNixL!kGRSLONT JPN`L^lLnhHjKjaG
T]EiWGbDLN`DJPU\^`pT_^s ^`FHJYL_GIT_sYUFH^`LOUWFKp^`LL_ZKGG
FHJPUWFKptjXNUWFLD{NTL_ZKGt kNixLnkG
SbLONT

^TOT_NldL_Uj^lLL_ZKGgsYUWJKJKiGIT_UpZLNDL_ZKGoJPU\^`pT_^s

Hresultant vector
22 -64o

15 0o

12 35o

FqNT$JPGIT!L_N[JPGbL_GIT_sBUWFKGgd ZH^`L LOZKGgT_G
QOhKiL_^FL kG
SL_NT Q!sc^`pFKULOhHJPGo^FHJq^`FKpiGg^TOGd ULOZKNhPLTOGRQ]NT]L_UFHptL_N
pT$^`jHZKUWSUWsc^`pG
Q
f`dnGSI^`FcSINFkG
T]LGR^S$ZYNFKG NDLOZKGRQ]GjXNi\^`TOD{NT_sSbNsBjHiGIBFhKsVaG
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822 V -64 o
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15 + j0 V

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>34.4740 - j12.8906 V
+ 9.6442 - j19.7735 V

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22 V -64o E1
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12 V 35o E2
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15 0o

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22 -64o

resultant vector

12 35o (reversed) = 12 215o

or
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15 0o

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12 V 35o (reversed) = 12 V 215o = -9.8298 - j6.8829 V

or
-12 V 35o = -9.8298 - j6.8829 V
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W
iU UP ] WK!NxPU

W_keBKiW 1KIiUI BK K[P_ PIWUUU
UWD no]D[KiUP UPH

eL
10 V 10 mH
60 Hz

(inductive reactance of 10 mH inductor at 60 Hz)

XL = 3.7699

E
I=
X
I = 10 V
3.7699

I = 2.6526 A
@BWB _KiiUiBP_WU_W_ Ki[_KUKPWKB7WK@
iUB7K1UWD_U PUI KPUK_kl* ,q io
I K KB[1iKoi[APi
KPWI_KWoUUWD_U_P Ki[@PB@i_PAWU UK!nK Di! |PPP_
_1PP U UK!WW KB[PUIKPWUKUn[$

Voltage
Opposition =
Current

10 V 90o
Opposition =
2.6526 A 0

Opposition = 3.7699 90o

or

0 + j3.7699
+) .0
"0/721B3/7.
#" .0/:
"4657/843" .0/:9 6
4<;=.
@?>@/

For an inductor:

90o 90o

E

I 0o
Opposition
z_Ki_ BU o]P_bKKPWUKU_KUPKP
U {UK!WW2BKB[{ b* ,q ]iUKK
(XL)
@#_PP W UK!WW PB[{ 7!WW_UPUkK[P_[@LK PPUUKUUKoU
W
UP[U BKiW Do WIo i_ I!UU[I/BD K_PU#io _ WBUK!

D KKBiW
D_PB_PAo _ [BDU T[K@UpD!BP!|BUWBKiB[C# U!UKi[
UP[U  Ki[2B2U WK [P D!BDD@KB2P_ i_ _k KW_[i2_o D_PBUP
iU UP  
X"<!"
 '- !    !   KAWK!WWP_2_P
W}!i UBP@P KB[KA
KPU!v KiWUUUPBiUUBKiW 2_UP k|Pi(looU _ A 2nD!U&BiDn
Ki_KU Bi3-lI UP1oUKo UK@xPW2i D_PBo
H
PP U oU _ B_!D BUBK_o PKIK UAP#@ I^ %
PP UiU UP  s? !2 PBoUK1[K KiP X _KBUDK PKUKiK v
WK PBPBn PIW UK!WiK

@c_7Bi UP
D B #7 {AT!RS #

KKBnWPi U( I!KUiP_2UP_K!B KiWvUP1_P PKP

Usv}WK
l BKD 0G@K~ K WWKB[#UW KB#iiWk_PI[WiW_K!}^i
D 


L- UPBD PW_1! K_K2Ws  ( 
R

5
eL
10 V 10 mH
60 Hz

LKo U}!i + _bi D_PBI
Y KB[BWUKo#UbK[KB [KPPP U

7-}^B ** UiU UP 1
h Ki[2@k , 3 oB_Ko U iUP  iU
nK D!B + ,rq U + x , H_lKPP U iW
D_PB1 _UUP_nKD!B **
* ,q U , x -** !K BU DKPi ! }^i _K U!UKi[8 D! _WK[U
PB[ K[P_ KBUK! P_KA nK Di LK BU DKPiWK!WWa D!I Ui W
1Z1ZmZ/836/7m<3/7mNmCih
6"4X;h.
Cih.@6_.l;TPam ++
W DKP_UUo _ UPiW
UP  k UDi1!KiK 2UK!WW PBBP  AKii
UA WKiKBU B WUP[U KB[_BPB2o D_PBUiW
D_PB_UK3LK
i BUi  - !n DW X@#_ _ !KiilKKK_WK yxW
iUP _P1iW
UP T 1K-D!@U2!K_KKK _Ub BKoK_  
Ztotal = (5 resistance) + (3.7699 inductive reactance)

Ztotal = 5 (R) + 3.7699 (XL)

Z = (5 0o) + (3.7699 900)
total

or
(5 + j0 ) + (0 + j3.7699 )
Z
= 5 + j3.7699 6.262 37.016o
oK_  B @o UWD_WUP PB[CxPUUU U[A!!i  _PKBAI _
total or
iUP 2AK 3%{]_
Ohms Law for AC circuits:

E E
E = IZ I= Z=
Z I

All quantities expressed in
Y U  K U U WIPiKBPUU _AK X%{] _P_ UD_KWW _
complex, not scalar, form
B i UK B `hI"6o
HxPU!iKUP  UUA WKiKBU nPoW_UP[UP

P@p_io
WPPU iUP 2 7"$o _ _P1_niW
UP iP_D@BIW WDKP_U
BiH]PUUBHnBU]D!_ KUP<DBPoiWi1UKW oK_PBU1
c BK
Li_ K @ KB[ P -D!@U BK|PDPBi UU1KPWUKUBBBPBWP
UWD_W UPB KK DUBPBD_ WKi DBB#"LKPPU_KWo_7iUUP1PKP
W
I!iP_PB_ - \ ? ,rq _P l* ,rq Kio
Ui KBWUKo_PUUB1KPWUKUiWUWD_WW
PB[ !
E
I=
Z
I = 10 V 0o

6.262 37.016o

YKAKK-37.016
 I =1.597 B/PP U BD PK BKiW]U _[D!BKPP UWD_W1]U _P
o

UKD ?HK_PUKWP KUKUUWo@UP N ,Bn q WUK!Wi Kb* ,q UUP

+ .0
"0/721B3/7.
#" .0/:
"4657/843" .0/:9 6
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@?>@/
BW 1KKPiP
UBD P
phase shift =
37.016o
e=
+ i=

Time

-
KWKo U _PIP
W ^KKPWIi_UPKP" DBiB WUUUUP BKiW P]WB(
D PUKUoy W7UUUUUB[Ko U# 7KPU_ ,rq K#KBKB[7PWKU^n_PP
UWD_WAUB[KIPKP
U2l* , q UK_KPUA KI KB[WUKPWKUk Ii_WB
P_Ki_ BU
E = IZ

ER = IRZR
E = (1.597 A -37.016o)(5 0o)
R

ER = 7.9847 V -37.016o

Notice that the phase angle of ER is equal to

LK UWD_WUB[Po UPUK! KW
UI KU2UKUUKBKiWPWKU iP
the phase angle of the current.
PP@3`UPX_2KPWUKo UWKB!
E = IZ

EL = ILZL
E = (1.597 A -37.016o)(3.7699 90o)
L

EL = 6.0203 V 52.984o

Notice that the phase angle of EL is exactly

90o more than the phase angle of the current.
LKUWD_W UB[AP1P
WPU KPW_PU U + B *-) q K1K Ki[KWKU/P
PP UUKPWUKUU7v Z ,#n q ~}^BB _!KW
* ,rq DBiB K#LK 2i P
@
`Y_P<_ b* ,rq W_KPUWKP
WUKBH
1Z1ZmZ/836/7m<3/7mNmCih
6"4X;h.
Cih.@6_.l;TPam +
 1i_lU @KB_ B_ P@W@IKo WIP  @UKoUK UW PB U K U_
UWD_WxPUC DKP-}C h#WD_Wk%]cUK Ko

Etotal = ER + EL

Etotal = (7.9847 V -37.016o) + (6.0203 V 52.984o)

Etotal = 10 V 0o
%bB DKiK@_  _7UKi_ K @WPBps=`3
R
1
2
5
eL
10 V 10 mH
60 Hz

0 0
# N Z?$?y?
#2? g 
(
??
# 
'Z# ?ys$ as$:( 
'Z# ?$ a$ 
Z
rB ?$ $ ( 
8 rN
Z' 8rN
Zr p NN
ZN Nr
ZN
rB y$ $ 
8 rN
Z' 8 r
Z p N
Z  B 
ZN

Interpreted SPICE results

ER = 7.985 V -37.02o

EL = 6.020 V 52.98o

I = 1.597 A 143.0o
G UP_TxUk BKD BZ8s=` WKK PB[8|UKiUPUKWPBBKiW@W
n ,rq WU7PPUKAKKK WUUU8 PiW_#KPU_PU_0v N ,Bn q PUB KB[
KPW _PUU n ) q v q n , q HpL K BB U [nPBWU0Z8s=`l_ noK_iKiB[
_n[PKUK| i_[P2BD KAK @WDi6pG _K@D U Ko U_PP
WWUUU
KPWiWKW@DDUKi_ K @WP_v Z , q _P + Z * q  o!i UiBH-x P2U! !i
i1KB
$
+ .0
"0/721B3/7.
#" .0/:
"4657/843" .0/:9 6
4<;=.
@?>@/
_Kih|PUPo_UiBIDUA_!UiUBPD K BKWK WUK D!3D!BK | _
UP PK<_-DPIBKy KPnK D-DKK IK1iio Usv}P
W BK
UK 1KBBiWPDb7DK]pKI-DPW3`=s|PUKiUPPiU U!UKi[]UPi
PiBC_PB#UDK WU( PiW
_iUP U#P
UP @_Ko#XAK#UPBP
io
Ui n[PD- DK ^nD@KB  UnWBPB [ UK! |UKi_!iKUP _P PW
$ H

R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o

I Amps

5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 0o 3.7699 90o

PUKW  b KiBiU0_|PPlKiP   U P i _PUK _I_PlWUAW_

iWDKW_[ KD-DK]UUUPKBUBK_W P_PU K DK iW UK!
_K KUKAP Kii WIBUnUiWED! Bi i
D_KWK _AUP WUWKBlK !nD
 PIi[@W UK BAKPKiBiUT@BWB_^WU_UD oA!BUk WK IUKB
_UPUPUPB X=UKKWUP1B DKDU
W o
UKUPUW
K_ KP B_U_P1nW WU
U HKKiUD K[P_[ DU1Uy D!PBKbPiiy 
G@ P@UP UUUB$ |PUPoA_ PBo[ KBo!i U B_UPAlK  DK  BU
K Bol xPWX _" BIKK_D_!!iKUP WuK2PKn P_!I!iP_PBi aPBK
iiBD K P_ nK@cP_UK!WW1Bi U<
P@ o _ I!iP_PB UPKIW
P _D_ WK[Ub 

R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o

I Amps

5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 0o 3.7699 90o 6.262 37.016o

Rule of series
circuits
Ztotal = ZR + ZL
G@ P@<nK@ _D_UWD_W _P U_oK_ BU/_PKAP] %{] sIl`=y
BBP _D_bBKB[
1Z1ZmZ/836/7m<3/7mNmCih
6"4X;h.
Cih.@6_.l;TPam +*

R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 0o 3.7699 90o 6.262 37.016o

Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z

WPW Jk" KUU KB[2ii
BKPUoK[PUDn U U!UKi[
LK !KlDoBUP2 Iii BKKB UKKUP_ UBi UP
P@_[KiBU
P__Kia
@lAKPWhKUKWKU0WPK[KB[Ui_D_PBPh|PUKiW KB[
WIKBUKPUKiWUP PKP
U_&U 

R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 -37.016o 1.597 -37.016o 1.597 -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 0o 3.7699 90o 6.262 37.016o

Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IR = IL

G @xUP_ A I|PUK AK UUUUU/U W K iWA_P

U#o!i Ui
LK  UK2KWKU PPUaAK 3%{]`=I"s(HK_PKi1WB B_iWD1BUK_{K DK
, .0
"0/721B3/7.
#" .0/:
"4657/843" .0/:9 6
4<;=.
@?>@/

R L Total
6.3756 - j4.8071 3.6244 + j4.8071 10 + j0
E Volts
7.9847 -37.016o 6.0203 52.984o 10 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 -37.016o 1.597 -37.016o 1.597 -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 0o 3.7699 90o 6.262 37.016o

Ohms Ohms
Law Law

  P@ WK  DK  WKB LK!KU AUIKi _KKi K_PU Uh_

E = IZ E = IZ

D KUKK
u D KWi{{ KB]Wi@ P@AU8K[PU[i AD!BKiB[o UP

BUBK @o1BUK!  D@KBP_i_ _UaIUPIWPPU2KKU!BiKoi[i 1UP
BUBK @U UKiKPPK_iWD_^ }!iiP P@UKKWWDDU
BD P_PU#WBD
_"
G@  Un BnBxKB @UK D! BilKiBUBK_o |PWKo_P/iUKK[
UUiJ Dn U PUPKB[IoUKiB[_WUUU UP BKB[ JLKX |UKiKBP@o

B @1o_ v}iWPiIi[_1K[ - $KUo

D_KWKU  Y_KBUDK 
UWB WKKo
 WU B U WKIo U2 K BK  UPP B_  WU 
KU
B + < o_bi UKUK _H UC )$ , n _WPU o
UKUPU UWD =L{oB& D! K UD_KK BU
i iUKBB[PPIi[Ki{UU K@cUPAKUo
WWP_P_ K _C K[PUW
WUUU2U PB[ !
oo
UKUPU KU@W( K BUnUiKi[U_K i_ UKU
_PcB DKDU
W(   U
- DW
W _K_D@UPUWU B @W o_ v}U1iWPiIi[ 2
_o DBU 
i@ DU!U _2_Pi UKUK _W_iWD KW_[ 1

BD KD- DKiK1W
WnUBPiP __Ki_ BU7i_ K @W( LK 22KU- DPUiPi o_ 'DK] D!IPBK#W
PWW@PIUWKPUPl D!BP! |KU_U@UP o BUBK @W @ io
UPBUo
P22_{WKUKUx_{P__U( [Kk DoDKWBUK D! WU rDoBUP2 K WKWKP_
BU< D!o
1 UB @oiU iUKBB[D 
X"<!"
  -  2K_D_#iWKI_WK!WW 1io
Ki[UP 2K WIP Wi
UH
K_p_ i_ # o D_PB_P_ _UPUZ iW
UP Tn DW&BoD[P B=rUP
IoUKiUK?x P&U iUP o" _P iU UP kH
I!iP_PBipy _7_PUUi8x P{W #o D_PBiao
^ ii BD K{__n  Bo !iKUP o
UK U K _D_!iKUP 
UD 1K iW_i_ K @WPlBUK!: KU
i_ _H# W8  q ! I# "_ $CC7 %
pPKi o U2!iKUP _]P]UIKPW_PU2U  W
,rq { &:Io ,q !
hKKB PP UoK_ _]P]W PPUA_PU2U#!K U l* ,rq {JI "
* ,q !
1Z('Zy
3*)#)T/+)M3/7mZmCih
6
4<;=.
Cih .@6k.l;TPam n

AK C%]U
BKp`:Is^ZCI `=J^$MI`h?

KB i UDA_P
UDAUiUW PBAlBD K7P _UoK_ P]W
K UIUKUUBPB D! Bi ,q _Ml* ,q  LPBD P KB[2]U KUIUKU
WIiKBlDBiB ,q _v * ,rq 
nBo
BD PD ! K&DKK _IKPKUB[UKU!BiUBi__BD K PB[
KKU KWKUPUKBD KUWD_UKWPUP1W K_D_UUUUP_PoK_ i
UK IU K UU !iKUP 

-,  B #Bb7AT!RSA #D7

.0/ 1/3242 52

%bB UK_ WWKB[UUPBi!KUIP D K_P1 WKKo

Ki P_D_B{

10 V R 5 L 10 mH
60 Hz

ii_PK!@iUPB2UPUI2 K[KiP WKBi! KUIP D KKUP KiW

_ P
UkD!_ P]UKUA@_Ki_i D_PB_P
D_PB^io
Ui!KiAP2U
P]WP1_1]UPi_oK_PB#1i_JD!BW/UKUP_ D-DK /P1__UUi#
@_Ki
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o

I Amps

5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 0o 3.7699 90o

LK UP K~ }^BBPB 1UKUP_ oDKK KWPK P@2{_KPK Po__D_i

D KPoUUKKiWBo D KCLKA_PK[UD1KPKUB[U K_WUlk"
 "nK@@UUUU PUoKKUDn_!BUWKB[D AP_D_iBD KnABUD_i
Pk|PUK __D_bWUUU n, WU ,q _b WWKB[BUKP
 .0
"0/721B3/7.
#" .0/:
"4657/843" .0/:9 6
4<;=.
@?>@/

R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o 10 0o 10 0o

I Amps

5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 0o 3.7699 90o

Rule of parallel
circuits:

G@lBU_PKAK 0%{]sIl`=y{UB BU222BUKP_PKDKUBUBK @K KB[

Etotal = ER = EL

PWKU Ki U_P1 PB[KUPU KPP W

R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o 10 0o 10 0o
2 + j0 0 - j2.6526
I Amps
2 0o 2.6526 -90o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 0o 3.7699 90o

Ohms Ohms
Law Law
E E
I= I=

WPW
kpBD K BDKD_DBKiWDPUUBb
pBD KUP U KUU{ KB[
Z Z

DDKK-}C
KiW3%]pbPU KK2U
cU W3kh!

R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o 10 0o 10 0o
2 + j0 0 - j2.6526 2 - j2.6526
I Amps
2 0o 2.6526 -90o 3.3221 -52.984o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 0o 3.7699 90o

Rule of parallel
circuits:

_P_UoK_ i_D!i_ K @iDn1PKAK "%{]{(Il`h?WB BU K L{v

Itotal = IR + IL

U& WK(_ B[U^PUUBI!iP_PBIi_ UXD!Ii_ K @iDnPK o Kni_{UAK

1Z('Zy
3*)#)T/+)M3/7mZmCih
6
4<;=.
Cih .@6k.l;TPam
B[ BU^P@Pi i_ K @PI_D_i!i D_PBi
Z =
1
parallel
1 6 1 6 1
Z + Z + . . . Z
LKUK K DKBeAPKKWK@[Pi_ [WUUo{__i_ K @UTUBWi
1 2 n

i_WP1#UUb  BIKo P KUKW1IWKIW K 3UWKUPUPy DKB_i

U UBUWA_WK[2UWs k  NxPUE_hBD K^I_B P]UAKKWUP2
BUBK @KIP K[P_[iWK_PUD-DKiUP K  UK P~}^BB[7G_iK D
]UW i_ K @U_!iKUP AK %{]U Ki KB_7WK  HUW UWI_P
_l |PUK 
R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o 10 0o 10 0o
2 + j0 0 - j2.6526 2 - j2.6526
I Amps
2 0o 2.6526 -90o 3.322 -52.984o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 1.8122 + j2.4035
Z Ohms
5 0o 3.7699 90o 3.0102 52.984o

Ohms Rule of parallel

Law or circuits:
1
Z= E Ztotal =
I 1 1
+
ZR ZL

X"<!"
I!iP_PBi {y __PUUi x& U o _ i o
pP_D_BBD P_PU _D_i
!iKUP oIK U K_UbI!iP_PBPKPo Kni_^WK#+
WP"DAK
!BU _i_ K @WP BUK! K_Ii_ _HW q-! I n Z n #" n $XQ
n %N
AK C%]U
BKp`:Is^ZCI `=J^$MI`h?
KBi UD_PKP
UDUiUW PBPUUB! BKlxPW BoBD KH
K _D_!iKUP P]U KPW UKU UBPBD BiB ,rq UPl* r, q ELK1 BK
Ki[{P]UIKPW_PU UiKB"!D Bi , q _PXv * , q 
#_D_i[
BKD#!K&DK7K_KPKUB[UKKU!Bi7U7PUUBZ_ BD PD UUUU
KKUhKUPUKW7K D KDKUPDBKiWD#UKA2WhKUUK Ki[UUPAoK_ i
K KUKW Ko Kni_!UAPrIUxK _D_boK_PB
-) .0
"0/721B3/7.
#" .0/:
"4657/843" .0/:9 6
4<;=.
@?>@/
87 9(RS7A;: B1<
_1Ki_BUU1P
WU UIKPi oU
W2KBnBpLP_KWK[U 
c KB[

X DPUi UPP UiU U DPUKUo KB[KUP1K_Bi U
WU KiU
iUBUWKB[D h@BWB PKP
UD_K_lKWPAPKPBiU UkD!BP]nU7L
D!BU ( Ki' U _ _P < [P@kP@_!WoiWI iUKD- DK UIWK[
_iUP  KKi 1K!BD WPP K ? H LK < DKKs v}iUP W
UKWKU B
WKKo
o ii1Kio
PP UP U{P U{ & U K 
Equivalent circuit for a real inductor

=
Wire resistance
R

Ideal inductor
eL

U KWPB[ K !iKUP _Un/iUPP W1 U]D! / WIP BU DK@Uc_

iUP _P1PP UiW
UP 
U!UKP K PDKi U KK1i_oK]?>A@
 ! bK D 
" BPKBPB]
P@
PWKUcK UB_iW U UP
U 1 Wvi UD@PB PUcKWKUK P Ki
Bi UP"
P@k KWo
W_hH{KiPIKB[ W6v o
WP_7_i _K WPP W
I@W `i UPDKK i
WPU=
@_W K _PBPUPyiP ]UW D]Ui#KUPU
PUi I KU# UP
U KKP! }^i UAB[ vi UPU _i]@_ DK 7LPA n! }^i
D!i WiU KWKUPP o _PWKB K[KiP i 
 # [K _i@KUUKB 3 |B __ P
WBKiW ii1
]W_- }[IPUB
U _ UU io
WUUKB A]U  io _ @KU  KWPBPBo LK DU @i BKiWni KU
P KP
U K_P1I_KiDi#UiUP !@B P@W$ 1P BK 
Pi KiU[i2U_P W @Ub KB_AUKi2 }!o
D@ Ws  WZ v U
PP UDK D_KiKiiWiWUKU_biUP l D! BBKiUP pPB_1PP U
iKBU& Bo
"K_i@KUUKB _ |PiK2KPBiBP P BK_K BKB[D
KKU W7 nK@Uh  ZHs  @LKiio
BKB[DbKWA W]U#@UiBU
Pio
B_[iUP  }!io Dn2KW( ]KDKUW{W[2 WPP WWBUK!B T`K KB[
Wo_K_ BUK[iW
i< D[nKKWBU K[UnPKBB UP_UP H
iWD WKiP_D@iU K_KBh Dn P1]WB_Bi i_PK_KI]UP( a KB[ v
i
WAUPPBUKn iKI[2_nBi i_ U @oAi UP _ KB[7i_KP_# BK_K
@ W vi UPU!UoUPKB( D!K WUi i WWoWx@! }^i  
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R resistance
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tCross-sectional area of a round
conductor available for conducting
DC current

"DC resistance"

tCross-sectional area of the same

conductor available for conducting
low-frequency AC

"AC resistance"

tCross-sectional area of the same

conductor available for conducting
high-frequency AC

"AC resistance"
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R = (RDC)(k)
a
f
AC

Where,
R c
= AC resistance at given frequency "f"
AC
R = Resistance at zero frequency (DC)
DC
b =
k = Wire gage factor (see table below)

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f = Frequency of AC in MHz (MegaHertz)
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d eZ g Z fgZ#B
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 NNNNrNNNNrN Np
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AC DC

R = (25 )(27.6) 10
AC

R j
= 2.182 k
AC
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uvoltage slope = 0 uvoltage slope = max. (+)

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10 V C 100 F
60 Hz

XC = 26.5258

I = E
L
X

10 V
I=
26.5258

@BWB _Kii UiBP_WU_W_ Ki[_KUKPWKB7WK@
I = 0.3770 A
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Voltage
Opposition =
Current

10 V 0o
Opposition =
0.3770 A 90o

j
Opposition = 26.5258 -90o

For a capacitor:

90o -90o

0o
E Opposition

z_Ki_ BU i]P@bKKU_KW#Uni_PW U ^UK!WW2 PB[b  v* ,q ]iUKK

(XC)
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5

10 V C 100 F
60 Hz

LKiW#P}!i +_ _ iUP 
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Ztotal = (5 resistance) + (26.5258 capacitive reactance)

Ztotal = 5 (R) + 26.5258 (XC)
Z = (5 0o) + (26.5258 -90o)
total
or
(5 + j0 ) + (0 - j26.5258 )
Z = 5 - j26.5258 or
j
26.993 -79.325o
total
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Ohms Law for AC circuits:

E E
E = IZ I= Z=
Z I

All quantities expressed in
Y U  K U U WIPiKBPUU _ AK X %{] _P_ UD_KWW _
complex, not scalar, form

B i UK B `hI"6o
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PB[ !
E
I=
Z
10 V 0o
I=
26.933 -79.325o

I = 370.5 mA 79.325o
IPPKii_PW U BK@K Ki[]UiUKKPUUUU]W"UPKWKB!
_PUKW KI K}!iiP "*# +q PiW UKT* ,q 
phase shift =
79.325 degrees

e=
+ i=

Time

-
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R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o
68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 0o 26.5258 -90o 26.993 -79.325o
Ki[2ii BK 7PUoK[PU_Dn_ U!UKi[_K=|PWKo{PW iAAKCL{U_ 
WPI1W Ki[i_DKDPo _ _PB WPIUB
R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o
68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m 79.325o 370.5m 79.325o 370.5m 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 0o 26.5258 -90o 26.993 -79.325o

Rule of series
circuits:

U[nKKUP_PUKBUUKKAP] 3%]`=I"6o
WB BU  BIKWUUU

Itotal = IR = IC

UB[Ko UUP i_PW W

R C Total
343.11m + j1.8203 9.6569 - j1.8203 10 + j0
E Volts
1.8523 79.325o 9.8269 -10.675o 10 0o
68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m 79.325o 370.5m 79.325o 370.5m 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 0o 26.5258 -90o 26.993 -79.325o

Ohms Ohms
Law Law

GU P@lKWU_WUB[KiW#PUK! KU UKPWUKUUK Ki[KUPU

E = IZ E = IZ

KBKP_"`_<_1PPUWPo UWKB!7LKWUUUUB[PABUPUBUPW

KPWUKU _@v n,  r + q P!KW
X* , q !PUKPPU_KWUK BK Ki[pLK i P
@PB_U W UWD_U _ BKB[_ b* ,rq UUKPW iWD UKi
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'Z1ZmZ/836/7m<3/7mNmCih
s.0"y.@PCih.@6_.l;bPam 
R
1
2
5

10 V C 100 F
60 Hz

0 0
# Z?$?y?
#2? g 
(
#?N-
# 
'Z# ?ys$ as$:( 
'Z# ?$ a$ 
Z
rB ?$ $ ( 
8 rN
Z' r 
Zr p
ZN 8

rB y$ $ 
8 rN
Z' 8rN
Z' N
N N
ZN
Interpreted SPICE results
E = 1.852 V 79.33o
R

EC = 9.827 V -10.67o

I = 370.5 mA -100.7o
APB_[_(ZZps=` WPKWKWDK PB[PPUUKU2_A@_KK[P_!PiU!PPU
_PUAKP n , q U2InP n , q !k @iUi!  KI@B2 Wi K"P| WK_DKi1
B{WKU Ui
b K iUW K"v n,,  q UK=[D Z8s=`W PB[PPU_PU[K P_o
!WW*B q P KDno UiWPIWKKBnUPi_ K @i<P| WK2_8*# +q 
[_(!  AP"!D AiKPU&B iP_Ki_ K @iP| WKiBUo!UP iU~v UUUUUP
PB[iWKBiWDAUKW - W7 KUAo
D_KWKUUK W!K _K7  i
U PUKD K KBio Usv B_U W D K_P IoUKWU_WW WK o UW WKUWsv
BWKPKi@WUo P_ )  nn UWD7 o_[o
D_KWKU U n  r , UWD8 _WPU
i
D_KWK _HHko iUPKB[ BUKKo
i iUBD K2K@nKi@WP UiWPK P
Uo
UiK_E UUKPK _bK B_ P_iP| UPo @ K2P2i UKUK _Ux_BUK! nK!D B
KU@W P PU!BUPWKU_ BD W
W(b AA W-D W
UUKU_U
_WUn K D_UK PWo
 WiWPiP K iWPiIi[
X"<!"
  -  2K_D_#iWKI_WK!WW 1io
Ki[UP 2K WIP  Wi
UH
K _C_ iU&r i D_PB2UPM_ _WPUZr# iU UP 
 .0"
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4 658/84

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y.@P@?>0/

I!iP_PBipy _7_PUUi8xP{W#o D_PBiao
^ii BD K{__n  Bo !iKUP o

UK U K _D_!iKUP 
UD1K iW_i_ K @WPlBUK!:KU
i_ _H# W8  q! I " $ CC7 %
iUKUP@1!iKUP o U]UKcBiB[_Di_P_ n _ABUWKB[D
UK KI!iKUP o _L P_2 ^ iU!iKUP ^ PKP
WoK_PBb UPBUPUBW
!iKUP _2!D i@i PUI ]@PB@i_
pPKi o U2!iKUP _]P]UIKPW_PU2U  W
,rq { &:Io ,q !
eKKB BUPUBW!iKUP _]nP]WKPWUKU _#!K U v * ,q  I 
v* ,q H
 A K C% ]U
BKp`:Is^ZCI `=J^$MI`h?
 KBiW_1i_PW W_2I i WUBKi D K P _D_boK_ b]U
KPU_KW UBKik!D Bi ,rq UP<v* ,q 
n Bo
BD PD ! K&KD K _IKPKUB[UKU!BiUBi__BD K  PB[
KKU KWKUPUKBD K UWD_UKWPUP1W K_D_UUUUP _PoK_ i
UK IU K UU !iKUP 
, -, .0/1/3242B52#Bb7ATP/3/
A  #

GKP_@_KBUWKB[DUKii# K_K BK[ WKKo

KBP_D_BPUP
B P@_K!BP 
R 5
100 F
10 V C
60 Hz

ii_PK!@iUPB2UPUI2 K[KiP WKBi! KUIP D KKUP KiW

_ BUPUBUhD!_1P]WP _2@_Ki_o _ UP1B_U UP no!i UB[KBPU
P]WP1_1]UPi_oK_PB#1i_JD!BW/UKUP_ D-DK /P1__UUi#
@_Ki
R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o

I Amps

5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 0o 26.5258 -90o
LK C D!BK PUUBbBD PP@_P_[P@cP@WUUU _i1K[PUXDn_{ WI!UPB[
i_1K U Kk|PWKU_D_ WU_W n, UWD ,q _ P UKP
'Z('Zy
3*)#)T/+)M3/7mZmCih
.0
y.@PCih.@6_.l;TPam -*

R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o 10 0o 10 0o

I Amps

5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 0o 26.5258 -90o

Rule of parallel
circuits:

G@lBU_PK AP] a%{] sIl`=ybWB BU222 WKP7KDKUBUBK @K KB[

Etotal = ER = EC

PWKU Ki U_P1 PB[KUPU Ki_PW U

R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o 10 0o 10 0o
2 + j0 0 + j376.99m
I Amps
2 0o 376.99m 90o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 0o 26.5258 -90o

Ohms Ohms
Law Law
E E
I= I=

WP#U
k BK DKUPDBKiWD{PUUB
BD PUPK2UeP_D_ KB[
Z Z

DDKK-}C
KiW3%]p_[_$H
R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o 10 0o 10 0o
2 + j0 0 + j376.99m 2 + j376.99m
I Amps
2 0o 376.99m 90o 2.0352 10.675o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 0o 26.5258 -90o

Rule of parallel
circuits:

_ @U_noK_PBB_D!i_ K @i DnPKAK a%{](Il`= Uii_K3L{U_ 

Itotal = IR + IC

WPIb]K
PP UP DPUi@PUUB[I!iP_PBi_I_ "DBUBK @oDnPP

, .0"
0/7'Z
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$
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4 658/84

.0/9.0
y.@P@?>0/
i KB_UAK KB[ BU#P@Po i_ K @PP_D_iiUP o <AAK_BUn
B[U @PPUUB^oK_PBP KWKKB[_Di_PlnP1_!iKUP oKW o
PUUB{ b I_KB7UDK ]ni( #@i#! i_ K @P22 BK#BU!WiUPPUUBniW
PUUB^PP UDP_D_i B_U WnUU U DKP@WPBB_6# K W UoK_PBiyH
_PB_ UUY_i_ DUKKoKKUI K_1UAK B APB_WUb P
PUUB^I!iP_PB UAK In  W K 
Z =
1
parallel
1 1 1
+ + ...
LKWK D]CDPU KPK[P_UKIUP~|i_[_WK[_#U K[Ko U
Z1 Z2 Zn
UK{o!iBU PUK UUP _BUBK_WB_-DK_UKKK @KBUK!EK[PUWo 
oiW_Di2_K@uBUBK @_D_oK_PBUWKPUUBBD K< BKiAK %{]uWP
i KB_!WKrH {_W2_K_l|PUK
R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 0o 10 0o 10 0o
2 + j0 0 + j376.99m 2 + j376.99m
I Amps
2 0o 376.99m 90o 2.0352 10.675o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 4.8284 - j910.14m
Z Ohms
5 0o 26.5258 -90o 4.9135 -10.675o

Ohms or Rule of parallel

Law circuits:
E 1
Z= Ztotal =
I 1 1
+
ZR ZC

X"<!"
I!iP_PBi {y __PUUi x& U o _ i o
pP_D_BBD P_PU _D_i
!iKUP oIK U K_UbI!iP_PBPKPo Kni_^WK#+
WP"DAK
!BU _i_ K @WP BUK! K_Ii_ _HW  q-! I n Z n  " n  $ Q
n  %
AK C %]U
BK p`:Is^ZCI `=J^$MI`h?
KBiW#UPB_U W7U~ oAUW PBP_D_iK BK3 xPU#ii#BD K H
K1UU!iKUP ]U PPU_KWUBKi] D! BB ,q UPJ v * ,rq :LK BK
Ki[{P]UIKPW_PU UiKB" D! Bi ,q _P l* ,rq 
#_D_i[
BKD#! K& DK7K_KPKUB[UKKU!Bi7U7PUUBZ _ BD PD UUUU
KKUhKUPUKW7K D K DKUPDBKiWD#UKA2WhKUUK Ki[ UUPAoK_ i
K KUKW Ko Kni_!UAPr IUxK _D_boK_PB 
 'ZCBr .0
y.@PCihD;b6_Fm n
, 87 P/3/D: B1<
PKP
UD UK iUPBUPUBU# KKBAiW
WKBnBUBU[UPKDPUiiB o W
!@BKP_U ! }^i  " KIo_{U yU WKK_KK !Bi k@BWBBUPUBUD
P]WKnK_UiKBD_ DiK Zs iW
WBU!UKiWD _ P
UD <A UiWB
oU UP BUPP 2 i_PW W @h[BPUBoiUP APU 2 KI_I
_PP U :LKKDU
i_iKUK P@i_i_PW WAnKi_lP]U1!iKUP PPU
_PUi2UIB[iUKKWUDPK< * ,q W
P_ yv * ,q P_ PP UD U KWPB[ ^KB#iP
 P@o!@BPU_1 K[K]Ui[PKP
U 
_U W_ iPAl DUB7_AW[BBU[P_PB K[K@UiW7PP UBUK[BP_ 
_ PBKiIBi |PB KI_ _WU_ BU[UPiM D! BB KBIK_o< KK W PP UD 
K[_WK  |B KP_KD_iP ! niPM DiUWP K KBUPA_K U !{KB _i
KUK D_PK WAi inKio
UUUKB _KW 1N ]W UKiBUWKB[D  KUPi
iUU  D K KiWKBDBP 1 ]WUi_PW W@UiPP W2KiiUB2iW !BDiKB
_i@U 
_U W1UK |BU[iU2! }^i U2U D P1BBBPBKBiPB 
 P@ U[ 7!@i WiW 0LKUKD _bBUPUBUW PPUIK2io
@BU
D@PB__n iUP  KU BKU1BUPUBUUBP_{ 
io
@BUB oU A DP_PUKBi |PB K Dn PPBP Ko@ MLK APi@P
! }^i iKiB[ 1[ @B {UP  KWP@_B[ i D_PB KBD K LPI }!o
 U
KUKWKPBi @AKUPB  K[KB iUP W
ABUM D ! nBP@AA U i! KUi
_n W
PKIKBioKo@PP_K_B _  W KW aLK KW DBxi
D! Ki_i
K UBi D! BiAIBU!P_i n UPKi iWKD UbKWZ v} KWPBPBI
/WU_W 0L{ii_K
BU[Ui Dn@_nKK UWD_WU K[KBPB_bKWKD  n_PK @iKiUBP]W W[U
P DZxo
C DiPKi_i( 
LK 2! }^i
KPo DKUi_PW UDPB o
2K WWKB[2] DiP]UIU KPi
s   A BKBBB[ AKUK]2W@K ! }^i
_Bi
_W  DKnW
Bi @i _7i P i& DKI1K }!o
 GUU#Bi I@BU2_I K[P_ _W  
B @U B_ _#Bi
2[U oUUi_iWWB KB 
B#N N NrNNNNrNNNNrN ZgZ g[g
?
B g NNZ#
r-
d gng
Z B?br
g r ' Q? N 
B 
 e Z?Tr
-TN  Z
BNB  ZB Z rN s erg Z gng

io
o [lUKoD B_DUcW BiUPPUUBi D_PBK KK
BUPUBD_PB
 .0"
0/7'Z
/8.
$
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4 658/84

.0/9.0
y.@P@?>0/

Equivalent circuit for a real capacitor

Rseries

tcapacitor
Ideal Rparallel

KWKP_B [Ki]iUP oU2PP__oIU

 @cBio _ _P KW
PUUB^iUP ?HAD1iWK~|!B_[PU1KD]o _ iPoiWU]UBD_WPP U
`i U[ BUPUBUD rnK@WKBi_UiKUBUPUBD_PB_@Ws nKAWU_W n_
_ [P@UKBKUWUP[Pi PKK DUKDPUW
B BUK W UPi_K
Bi 7 |PUPAKio
U[PW UGKio _WU
in  UBi
W[BUPUBUD
KUK KBWB_ D!Pi 
hPKo ~ o: DK Ui# 2BUPUW _uUUUUIKBUi[K
P2i_PW UWxBWB8 D!BK# DZxi iIiUiUWD_W T`UiKi( nPBi WDP_DU i i
] D! niUB KWD WIKUK_KP B_U_nn] 
 k lnmpoWqsrut

w x y z { y | z x y | }

~  x } y | z x w y | } z

i
7 BWs/RS P

%bB UK W@K!K_K BKUP1_PUNB 

R
250

V
120 L 650 mH
60 Hz
C

1.5 F

LKl|PDi K iK PoU
D_PBikUKUKP
UUPKBUPUBU

-) .0"
0/8]Br
/8.
$
.0/"
4 658/84

.0/:9)#
"4 .
L
XL = 2fL
L
XL = (2)()(60 Hz)(650 mH)

XL = 245.04

1
XC =
2fC
L 1
XC =
(2)()(60 Hz)(1.5 F)

LKP!nIi A !KiA_i D_PBiUPiU UP o/@PB@i_ WIW U]

XC = 1.7684 k
I!iP_PBCo BiD!BP@UP
WiU UP 2D_ @i[!WWUUP_I!iP_PB
W U
oK_ /_Ml* ,rq H  Kli_PW UiW
UP UP_i[pKB[@W_W_
I!iP_PB oK_PB_pv* , q !0o iUP U _bBUKDU iWUoW KPi_ iU&2 I!iP_PB
!U _UKU _ ,q !
ZR = 250 + j0 or 250 0o

Z = 0 + j245.04 or 245.04 90o

L

Z = 0 - j1.7684k or 1.7684 k -90o

C

ZR

250 0o

V
120 ZL 245.04 90o
60 Hz Z
C

1.7684 k -90o
G@_ ]_r K[PU[i_PWK[U2Bi
BKiW!KioBUU(_BUK!nKD!B
U@_ W!iKUP o KUP P_UiUP oWoU
D_PBiH[PB i_]D PUPi K_2]
U7PUiUP o7_ _lBD P@LK # _ iUD]lP__PUD-DKU#K BK
_Pi_K _WWB# |PUKi_D_7UWD_U!UPK!iKUP o2_Ki U!P
W UP
BUPUBUHH
BrmZ/836/7m<)1#"
4 . +
R L C Total

E
120 + j0
Volts
120 0o

I Amps

250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 0o 254.04 90o 1.7684k -90o

G Po UKi o |Pi(bPUPBIWUUUApDWK BB UKPWK7_P 

D!2i _U _PUU ,q poBB DiP@PB KPDKKU_]U-DW_KW_PPU
KU WU_WUBKB[WPB _]#_K[PUWi_U_KUKi#]W UTPU_KWo
U2I!iP_PB bK@BWB & UPWUKIiW !P
U b_P BUPUBUH H^_ nK@  DPUi 
D!iBUPP PPU B @WPPPX DBiBpUUUU UPcBKiW@iWDc WI!UPB[1U - DPUi
 |PKi( 
GU 1@ H UPIK io
iW
W PP W _PBUPUBU Y!iKUP PPU
_PUiU! KU l* , _M v* ,q #i!i
WB  KWKU iUBUWKB[DAU(  D! !Bi  K
BWU( KiYKWK D _ W KUKB 
H UK !Bi
YiW
U PKP
UD UP
BUPUBUDW K@cW A K_KB_ P_UP! KBBKi KUo UKi  
nP PI D@W! K_K BK2 1ii BK  
nK@e@ KUUBD K !iKUP I
 K[PU^KP _KPnKP_ K# 

Ztotal = ZR + ZL + ZC

Ztotal = (250 + j0 ) + (0 + j245.04 ) + (0 - j1.7684k )

Ztotal = 250 - j1.5233k or 1.5437 k -80.680o

PBKK h|PWK2W_D_boK_ [UKD-DK
R L C Total
120 + j0
E Volts
120 0o

I Amps

250 + j0 0 + j245.04
0 - j1.7684k

250 - j1.5233k
Z 250 0o 254.04 90o 1.7684k -90o 1.5437k -80.680o
Ohms

Rule of series
Z circuits:
total = ZR + ZL + ZC

 i_ K@kUKKEAK _%] sIl`=o"WB B_ PL{UU&1 WK ]|PP _U KB[

UK iiBD P
 .0"
0/8]Br
/8.
$
.0/"
4 658/84

.0/:9)#
"4 .

R L
C Total

E
120 + j0
Volts
120 0o
12.589m + 76.708m
I 77.734m 80.680o Amps

250 + j0
0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 250 - j1.5233k
Z 250 0o 254.04 90o 1.7684k -90o 1.5437k -80.680o
Ohms

Ohms
Law
E
I=

BK BiBD K#BKB[APD K[PUPWKU U U!UKi[L[ 7 BU -WP

Z

|PWK DUKoWU_ Ki[UP&DKoUD1_{K_KBBUKP

R L C Total
120 + j0
E Volts
120 0o
12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m
I 77.734m 80.680o 77.734m 80.680o 77.734m 80.680o 77.734m 80.680o Amps

250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 250 - j1.5233k

Z 250 0o 254.04 90o 1.7684k -90o 1.5437k -80.680o
Ohms

Rule of series
I circuits:

G @
 PiP_i _KKAK "%{]`hI"syoUDUKAPnKP_ U!UKi[ WKP

total = IR = IL = IC

K DKnK iKUWD_W2U 
R L C Total

3.1472 + j19.177 -18.797 + j3.0848 135.65 - j22.262 120 + j0
E Volts
19.434 80.680o 19.048 170.68o 137.46 -9.3199o 120 0o
12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m
I 77.734m 80.680o 77.734m 80.680o 77.734m 80.680o 77.734m 80.680o Amps

250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 250 - j1.5233k

Z 250 0o 254.04 90o 1.7684k -90o 1.5437k -80.680o
Ohms

Ohms Ohms Ohms

Law Law Law
E = IZ E = IZ E = IZ
GU W PKD_KWKB#UKUKW WKKKPWUUU UK n , UWD [KWUUUW W
Pi_PW W n Z )rUWD4@ i_ K D?wQLK_BIiIlK[BDU
WJD! BB/P
PP UUPB_U UiW
UP o @`aKioW#I!iP_PBiWBUBP@KP
WUP[o
PB[ _KKiKiBB WK[P_A_P BUPUBU]`pnPoi i UKUK _ WP
PP U oK_ PUI [U1UUP_ B UPKB_U WUI KiW_U1_W_
i Ki Ko U[UI!iP_PBiUUKKi ii H KB iP BUP i#iWD UKi
UK AKUKW KB 3   U !1KnKP K  P@P W
_ !_ iKB
_K1P[ PU i_PW U1UIPKP
W !iKUP o_UK JUP_UWUPUKKK WUBKi
BrmZ/836/7m<)1#"
4 . N
1[U_ 1KiW@W<=i_ _HnK Di2PK K[P_[i2PU iKBWK 2PKn P_
-DW ]UP
PUUPI!iP_PB BoBD K<DUPP U2_Pi_PW UiiIi[oPU
P!iKUP UBPBiiIi[AiP_D@B^PB K_D_BKB[ P@BD KAD!- 
_ P_IWKM D!1lUP P PP U UIUK K1B_U U BBB[KB  K
- DPKU_ KW KB[KUPUiWD_#PA WI!UPB[ WUUUiWo@BP_KUKD WUUU
] D2 DD_Ki U WU_bKPnKP_ WWKB[ 0KKKi U KWPBPBiU{PP UD [UP
BUPUBUD nWK[ iW
UP o1PUIBD K( D!! KUi 1KK! nDPUi 
APBWU( UUioKiDKK K[K_^iPBP U U!UKi[7@UKo7oK_ i
{y!U_PUN v
K_n
BD KWK DWU[ Q KU__r iPIU[ _BD P ! K iP_K_ K[P_[i
o_Al_Uo
UPiW _i_ _ < K K BKU_ KW@UiUK !@BX 7H
 K[P_UP
xBD KU1KUWIK[: k BK PK !iKUP o {yIPoU/_
iUP o] o
HCAK X %{] `=I"syIKU KK UPYJ DDKK- }C #UUU_P KB[
%{] 
LBU_3 DKP- }C p #U_W3 %{]U
lBD P UB_n I@#P_BD7KBWi
U U!UKi[UUUUUPPWBD K =k"% BP@KA_U DKD_ K _KWUUU
UPW WKiW nPP W KUPB_U WKWK  K[P_^K_KPi1UWD_WUxKUKD  
`WBKUPUK ]KUn  WK @= |PDU[ n DKU WK nK D!BUPW K@Uo
_KB  
ER + EL + EC should equal Etotal

3.1472 + j19.177 V ER

-18.797 + j3.0848 V EL
+ 135.65 - j22.262 V EC

120 + j0 V Etotal
?_[?_??-?-[+?#N 
5 [ 4?
44? ?4[[ 3-4P?[? ~ - C!4
34?? Z8? 4[O_4[
R
1 2
250

V
120 L 650 mH
60 Hz

C

0 3
1.5 F
# NN :Z?'??
#2?N0Z
(
 "
U8]Br58 $
"5 ++

)#
*

N 
#
# 
'Z# ? ys$  a s $:( 
'Z# ? $ a #: 
Z
rB ? $  a ( 
8 rN
Z' B
Z'
Z Nr
ZN 86NN
N
rB y$ a 
8 rN
Z' 8 N
Z'
ZN 8 N
ZN 8r 
Z'

Interpreted SPICE results

E = 19.43 V 80.68o
R

EL = 19.05 V 170.7o
E = 137.5 V -9.320o
C
I = 77.73 mA -99.32o (actual phase angle = 80.68o)
Z8? ?[?_P44??[3!
5H4H?4#4O[-?C444O44H 4[!C-3 4[!C-
44P5[#NN?[?PX[4?4N?- 8[
 -5`[
[4!4+?41E-4N-[ -45[+[
 ` ` 48?34[![5POP5 [4 444[
??--?4+?[O#4P!?N*?CP?4+!44
?5? 85

X"<!"
41?4[4 
 ! 
" $ PP %
_[?ss ?4[4?U[4[![`N![? [8
O [O? `?O[[[4X4?
-?? 44C[4 441!?` Js
[4?N?44N!?3?[O[ 

__?[ _ ` 4C![ H 4[!C!4-  [O-

 ?34 [ ?H?s3[


 P!4[44N_

7  .0/1/324252W/

_`?4N`-?4[O?!P?4 N?[4

![_?O4[`4[![
Br By
3*)#)+)M)#
5 

R  L C
120 V 250 650 mH 1.5 F
60 Hz

58??*4!??[![-?#-?+-[4

_?[P4 [?4P-?`?44
?`[8[344C[8!4P[_!_[

120 V ZR ZL ZC
60 Hz

250 0o 1.7684 k -90o

245.04 90o
[?H4[`4??? 3[ {( XOH?HH[?!
4 ?s-O[J[444?JP[ s[[4_4[![
U?4[4

R L C Total

E
120 + j0
Volts
120 0o

I Amps

250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k

Z Ohms
250 0o 254.04 90o 1.7684k -90o

P[3-?JN[[U4N* O![![4J?!

?C!*?O[4_4P[

R L
C Total

E
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0
Volts
120 0o 120 0o 120 0o 120 0o

I Amps

250 + j0
0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 0o 254.04 90 o
1.7684k -90o

Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EL = EC
 `!* #"  h y 4??4[[![?4?4[4?4N?
!4
 "
U8]Br58 $
"5 ++

)#
*

R L C Total

E
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0
Volts
120 0o 120 0o 120 0o 120 0o
$
480m + j0
0 - j489.71m 0 + j67.858m
I $ $ % Amps
480 0o 489.71m -90o 67.858m 90o
250 + j0
0 + j245.04

0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 0o 254.04 90o 1.7684k -90o

Ohms Ohms Ohms

Law Law Law
I = E I = E I = E
Z Z Z

??s-?!4[44?H!*4?![ -_4

44?*?? ?N[![  B &J &
! 





?

4










?

!

X



?

N
_
N



N





?


!

`


[





O
?



#




4 hy



4

4





' N
 


?

?




?






[

4









3




?


J
P
[
?
s
4










4
!
_
_?!(
P[? U?4[4? y ?J?C ???4 ?
4?[44!4H?  COP  ????
N @ [ ? 4-*? X?8!*;`C[4 4?
)**?UN4!-#4 [- ?J?4?3!14N
O[?J[!?N?[*4N ??N
![4[!C#*O ` *??`? ?!!?4N N4?* +"#
4?4[?!4?E?[4N { h ?


R L C Total
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0
E Volts
120 0o 120 0o 120 0o 120 0o
,
480m + j0

0 - j489.71m
0 + j67.858m
$
480m - j421.85m
I - % Amps
480 0o 489.71m -90o 67.858m 90o 639.03m -41.311o
250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 141.05 + j123.96
Z 250 0o 254.04 90o 1.7684k -90o 187.79 41.311o
Ohms

[?43U-? ??XP[+??83-4!!"4 `

? [  
![_PC Zp? ?4P_44
Br By
3*)#)+)M)#
5 

battery symbols are "dummy"

voltage sources for SPICE to
use
. as current measurement
points. All are set to 0 volts.

2 2 2 2

Vic Vil Vic
/
4
Vi
R
3 bogus 6
1 5
R 
0
L
C
V
120 250 650 mH 1.5 F
60 Hz

0 0 0 0

13254 NN 2628794:29;79<
>=?=5@?132A=9BC@ 7ED
7F=5B?132G@
794HBHIH132J@
7 B  132J@
4LK3M e ; FN =9OCP:=9B
7L2JBHQH132J@
4>=RIH@?B N @
= N @?Q N @ES
23=RQH@T=VU N ;
UW132 7XDY=RQC@?QC@
U 4:7ED8<?132H7>sZ 7L[67>Zs794:[67>Zs7 [?7\Zs7L28[
U 4:7ED8<?132H7 sZ :7C[67 sZ :794[67 Z 7 [G7 Zs7L2C[
UWO]D8^

4O_ 7>sZ :7C[ 7\sZ 794[ 7>sZ 7 [ 7>Z 7L28[

Q`UW@L@C@ 
 :@ = Q`UWILaC@
PL@:=  WU bC@C@
PL@=  WU bCaLc
LP @= Q`UdcCbCQ
P@CB
4O_ 7 Z 7C[ 7 Zs794:[ 7 Zs:7 [ 7 sZ 7L28[
Q`UW@L@C@ 
 :@ = P U=9I:=
 @= @eUW@C@C@
 @C@ Pa`UW@C@C@
  @ = a`Ud@C@C@
 @=
 f
U`h]BLiRh5`f j flk Gfgk5nm++lflk oh)3flk*
g

Interpreted SPICE results

I = 639.0 mA -41.31o
total

I = 480 mA 0o
R

IL = 489.7 mA -90o

IC = 67.86 mA 90o
p 5]JOC??C?)??4rq8s p? (5JtJ?4[ou-[[
v v C!?4 !!!? ! 4N? [-[ ? v v
?-?3[H?O8?! ??4Ns[?? ? C!?![#XP!Rq8s p?
41?4!Ew_41?5?[N4 4[-[?*
C!5-!gu4?4N4?)w1O*?8[54*[5?[N-4-
q8s p? [?4N+5Xx  ? ?4N+?5[N45
?48[O!P44?

y )z {|}e~}>: gG?

 ?] ?44?4[![ 4[-![OC44N?

` ![-[_-+???-5?_-?- ![[?O5`?
4A -5?N4![-?U??4?4NPC!4N
*?_?4- [4![PP4[

C1

4.7 F
L 650 mH

120
V R 470
60 Hz
C2 1.5 F

!!-? ??4u\w+_[44N!

- N4O 4`?! JX ?!-4
uwU[[8!+4[?4O4-8!4uw?-!4ulw1?
?P[u\w
Li8iJ`h}m\flh}fgV`hrj 3fgk5 

Reactances and Resistances:

1 XL = 2fL
XC1 =
2fC1
1 XL = (2)()(60 Hz)(650 mH)
XC1 =
(2)()(60 Hz)(4.7 F)

XC1 = 564.38 XL = 245.04

1
XC2 =
2fC2
1
XC2 = R = 470
(2)()(60 Hz)(1.5 F)

XC2 = 1.7684 k

ZC1 = 0 - j564.38 or 564.38 -90o

ZL = 0 + j245.04 or 245.04 90o

ZC2 = 0 - j1.7684k or 1.7684 k -90o

ZR = 470 + j0 or 470 0o
 g`-4_?`[?_[!

C L C R Total
1 2

E
120 + j0 Volts
120 0o

I
Amps
Z 0 - j564.38 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 470 + j0 Ohms
564.38 -90o
245.04 90o 1.7684k -90 o 470 0o

4?4[ !4
4 :
 4[!CN-P?*C?4*?5?
-?4# !4 5?"  # ?454[?4s
?4_[P4? 4?543P[J[4P[?34
5???_?44[?[4 X[PNNCP[
?`[` + ???!
p O++!5 [?-?N[P[4???OC[[
?C`??!s-???-N?55[[5?4NO?!?P
P_[!?4+-[`-- p P[*4 414?
!4?[NC!?-?`4N5?
 flU`hTLiRh5`f jflk Gfgk5nm++lflk ohrje3flk*

Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]

E Volts

I Amps

Z Ohms

??u4[?:w5P?N[ [? ?4`

[? v 4[?4 v ?*4[5s[4 _[4_
4*#?`??X`?N[?43?_?P

Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 0o

I Amps

0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Z Ohms
1.5233k -90o 449.11 -17.147o 818.34 -58.371o

Rule of series Rule of series

circuits: circuits:
ZL--C2 = ZL + ZC2 Ztotal = ZC1 + ZR//(L--C2)
Rule of parallel
circuits:
1
ZR//(L--C2) =
1 1
+
ZR ZL--C2

qCX]`G]`(X]3o)l]L']t3`t v] ) v #lX'']'o'3]

']'#3'W']t 3tX3]3)+'o]e]33o](X']t+t(('+]3

A'3r#CA'o()t:X]3uxXx3 ]! d  x L E)wg3(o(]']]t']]|uWE|])

w\X]g gV9u p( \w+]((]t|' v ]'] v ]('(]j]'
( ]']>'(XLX
L8J8
dgV `rj 
  

Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 0o
 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m 58.371o
 0 - j1.5233k  429.15 - j132.41  429.15 - j696.79
Z
1.5233k -90o
 449.11 -17.147 o
818.34 -58.371o
Ohms

Ohms

 
Law
E
I=
Z
#>'VjtLV#`Wg])WXtX:'+LXW(]V>'(X(`]CgjL'>]V]jL ]tj(]j
+)R(3't(3(|()#])]|]'!()#'(XL p (W:' 3 '|j)tX
3(]|  u 
 wWj'}(3r'ou (]']w#3('LXC(t3l'(]':o:X33o:(X
(3d()t:X]3E ('XX LjX()3Wr'3'(]']`''LtL(:'
t3oj

C 1
L C 2 R

E Volts
$ 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m 58.371o
Z " 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k ! 470 + j0
# 564.38 -90 o
245.04 90o 1.7684k -90o 470 0o
Ohms

Rule of series
%I circuits:
total = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)

L -- C2 R // (L -- C2)
C1
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 0o
$ 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m 58.371o 146.64m 58.371o
Z "
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Ohms
1.5233k -90o 449.11 -17.147o 818.34 -58.371o

Rule of series
%I circuits:
total = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)

XeXX']t']] 8']3>''' 3g'`('tE 3)3'tr8 ] u

 w
3(t3g3 } 9Tu gp \w]((]t(LW']r]3X
)(  
TL*l
++, -.
/10`
 -324rje
5
l

C L
C R
$ 70.467 - j43.4001 2

E 6 82.760 -31.629 o Volts

& 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m 58.371o
Z " 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k ! 470 + j0
# 564.38 -90 o
245.04 90 o
1.7684k -90 o
470 0o
Ohms

Ohms
7 Law
E = IZ

 L -- C 2 R // (L -- C2)
C
1
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]

E : 65.857
49.533 + j43.400 120 + j0 8 Volts
41.225 o
120 0o
& 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m 9
I Amps
146.64m 58.371o 146.64m 58.371o
" 0 - j1.5233k
Z
1.5233k -90o
! 449.11
429.15 - j132.41
-17.147 o
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 -58.371o
Ohms

Ohms
Law
E = IZ
L)8]3t )3X)>#]'`':]L##]3:g((+(X]`'g]t']]l8']j
(L( ]3(l('X 3]']tC3(]o\ ] u
 wt3X(r'(]';l])8
]
(=<r')3?>+ A@ ]t'V9C(3!(>

B
Etotal should be equal to EC1 + ER//(L--C2)
C
70.467 - j43.400 V
+ 49.533 + j43.400 V
120 + j0 V Indeed, it is!
3]W}d']'|o'X]8(]V p o']+'C|W(j+]#(3+r3]XC(3'
3)]:]((3d#X(']EeW]jj(L( )X)8e]g(3r(9gjX'(]+] #]'
j|3XX'(]('3W()'t|C|8L'C('t(o(rj3VW(X!] '']
+ '39Ct(]]Eo]]]t']]+8']3](L(

 3o'l3(]  u

 wC#lLW
]3'(]Ee'`3XW(]>+3](X+]:]XL'Wj'l'(]o])l]+('LD p |'+X](]L(3
'X(W(gugw`]3(3g3(]V(gt33']3'rWE]jj]t(gu 
 wWj'+(r'
])]:XX3(+(3(lW'`>o:X33X`](+3]']t3+'X)o](XX X(]']]#lX()jdX
(3]]t']]g3]3(F Ed3WlWtX|]+L(o(]3#]}A]3 

L8J8
dgV `rj 
  

C L
C
H 49.533 + j43.400
R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1 2

E
82.760 -31.629o
: 65.857 41.225 o Volts
& 76.899m + j124.86m 9 Amps
I
146.64m 58.371o
Z " 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k
# 564.38 -90 o G 245.04 90
o
1.7684k -90o
! 470 + j0
470 0 o
Ohms

Rule of parallel
7E circuits:
R//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2

 L -- C 2 R // (L -- C2)
C
1
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]

E : 65.857
49.533 + j43.400
I 65.857
49.533 + j43.400 120 + j0 8 Volts
41.225 o
41.225 o
120 0o
& 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m 9
I Amps
146.64m 58.371o 146.64m 58.371o
" 0 - j1.5233k
Z
1.5233k -90o
! 449.11
429.15 - j132.41
-17.147 o
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 -58.371o
Ohms

Rule of parallel
7E circuits:
R//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2

G#] (}]t:W`](('Le''](g(EWd']`]3o(3(]'l('tE`3(]


 }>rXX!(o+3tg + 9 u p(# >we((t:']V'(]3X

C L
C R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1 2

8 Volts
E
82.760 -31.629o
I 49.533 + j43.400
65.857 41.225 o

& 76.899m + j124.86m 105.39m + j92.341m 9 Amps

I
146.64m 58.371o 140.12m 41.225o
" 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k ! 470 + j0
Z # 564.38 -90 o G 245.04 90
o
1.7684k -90 o ! 470 0 o
Ohms

Ohms

% 7J
Law
E
I=
Z
  x  
TL*l
++, -.
/10`
 -324rje
5
l

L -- C2 R // (L -- C2)
C Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
! 49.533 + j43.400 ! 49.533 + j43.400 1

8 Volts
E I 65.857 41.225 o I 65.857 41.225 o
120 + j0
120 0o
&
-28.490m + j32.516m 76.899m + j124.86m
& 76.899m + j124.86m 9
I Amps
43.232m 131.22o 146.64m 58.371o 146.64m 58.371 o

Z " 0 - j1.5233k ! 429.15 - j132.41 ! 429.15 - j696.79

1.5233k -90o
! 449.11 -17.147 o
818.34 -58.371o
Ohms

Ohms
Law
% J
I=
E
Z

 3(33)8 )X)`((jtLrj((te'o'(Xg3]3(E}

}

 ]3!A|'(r')>3('LXKg'to'L<r))?>+ '(X} 9C(X!(]\

IR//(L--C2) should be equal to IR + I(L--C2)

105.39m + j92.341m
+ -28.490m + j32.516m
C
76.899m + j124.86m Indeed, it is!
qC3(oR]3M  ](]3X'X('tE:3W3L3H''(Xl('](Xtr('tE
3(] t:X]3 #] 8W('8('3o'(XLj]'('|6jN ]3rt+
(3(r WX(Xt)t'}+'C('tE+]:]XL'+(3'l'''(XLX

C L C R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1 2

8 Volts
E
82.760 -31.629o
I 49.533 + j43.400
65.857 41.225o
& 76.899m + j124.86m -28.490m + j32.516m -28.490m + j32.516m 105.39m + j92.341m 9 Amps
I
146.64m 58.371o 43.232m 131.22o 43.232m 131.22o 140.12m 41.225o
" 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k
Z # 564.38 -90 o G 245.04 90 o
1.7684k -90o
! 470 + j0
470 0o
Ohms

Rule of series
%I circuits:
L--C2 = IL = IC2

O t(o]#d W(u'3t9dr](]j'w]t(]3]38WV'3t](3 t)tX

O t (t:X]33'(XLl3(El3]r5]3P ]t#39'8!r]g3 rV9
u gp \w]XW'Xt(LWd#]3'X'r]]t']]r8']3X
L8J8
dgV `rj 
  Q

C L C R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1
R 57.501 + j50.382
2
! 49.533 + j43.400
E
82.760 -31.629o
-7.968 - j6.981
10.594 221.22o 76.451 41.225
I 65.857 41.225o Volts
& 76.899m + j124.86m
I
146.64m 58.371o
!
-28.490m + j32.516m -28.490m + j32.516m
43.232m 131.22o 43.232m 131.22o
! 105.39m + j92.341m
140.12m 41.225o
Amps

Z " 0 - j564.38 " "

# 564.38 -90
o
0 + j245.04
245.04 90o
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
470 + j0
470 0o
Ohms

Ohms Ohms
Law Law
E = IZ E = IZ
8E #''!'|q8s p  ]}]8'+'jX't|]3##]'

more "dummy" voltage sources to

act as current measurement points
in the SPICE analysis (all set to 0
volts).
C1
4.7 F
2 3 3
T T
T Vilc Vir
Vit
4
1
L S 6
650 mH
S120 V 5
60 Hz R 470

C2 1.5 F

0 0 0

UVXW)YQZ\[]YWQ^?_U)Z`UbacadYcaeZ`^cac^`VfVb[gZ,Vgh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnkgoclpWb[rq
j\[giskmotUVl
j\[)abV.u3vpUV3l
j\[gZtutwtUVl
Vk*otu3vFxzy?h
a.vn{twc{clg|
V)oX{tl}k~xz{?h
Zpwtlfv`ycl
xzUV.a[qk*wclXwcl
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjoKu,Njd_
o;u,3['j[gi\3[r_
zj\[gi\
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjv
{,Njd_
v{,3['j[)a`Vb.[_
j\[)abVb
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmj{Kl,Njd_
{;l,3['j[)a`Vb.[_
j\[)abVb
X  
TL*l
++, -.
/10`
 -324rje
5
l

x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjwKl,Njd_
w;l,3['j[gZ\3[r_
zj\[gZ\
xzY)qb
`Z YQ jo;u, jQ_
oKu ['j\[ri\ [r_j\[gi\ k
w
xzldlclQbblk
xzodycwQbblk^du
xkgwcuQbcl\k k~xv`wdwQ^dl\k {
x1cucyQbcl\k
Z`YQ jv{, jQ_
v
{ ['j\[?a`Vb [r_j\[)a`Vc
w
xzldlclQbblk k~xzld{cQbblk^k~x1uccQbclco vFxzucoduQ^dlco k~x1u\kgoQbclco
Z`YQ j{ jQ_
{, ['j\[?a`Vb [r_j\[)a`Vc bo
w
xzldlclQbblk y
xzw)v`{Qbblk vxkgocoQcbl\k vFxzucoduQ^dlco k~x1u\kgoQbclco
Z`YQ jw jQ_
w, ['j\[rZ\ [r_j\[gZ\
w
xzldlclQbblk w
xz{dcwQbblk vxkgocoQcbl\k k~xv`lk^dl\k vFxkgocoQbcl\k
)t3+:(lq8s p  ]8'8eW(]]E (+]t']]t'33](}t''LX]]3''L
3Wot]+ >`' \3 t(3'8XXl]](]:'X(j]'X8!]3+']3
3]3 3(X|3(E#t(3'l]38W']t
l`L't'](]e('tE 3]']tb 5't3]t8(9o:X]X`3W`jl3WEo(3
(3''t3!'X]tn]|X(jEW8El'3(]o3t CjX'Xg 9u t'
X]'  #gp \wld't ]g('>]r8!(])j3('L 9} <r')3? > O to(3'
g(oj](X']]rCX('] ]('Ct3|]g'XX'(](o3t L3:](]3X(3
3W(3tX+]3!(E)3X ('tE 3)'+'X8j(]'r ]((3(]o

}3]t8(]:('tE 3)c )t' j)'}(] WX(X 3)tX R

 ') ]3t
Wjd)L(]r8:
> X(X3#(3l\3(E3](]j#](r] u]l(Xw (
p t:](']('jX'3:(!WX(X j)tX (E83't6u(t:'tjwX :t>
]]3W8('t3'jE3u\w+]`'!'X(d']E3383(]E\3j]t(X 3#9
 jLg]tEl+ : C3(E((X ]](X(ou\w}tjd'X]`t3]3(t
 'X(d)3oulwjt33)3u w3j!X3t'ju w

yLz { ;

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kf =
1
resonant
2 LC
G#])]:]8(] o'+'WX(X ; 'X(]3]L t)3) jEjW:(3}]'(XL'+)
9:+'X(Let('X R  )te'X(]j3]te`jL((t''C3}]]X(3(t]]t']]
8']3 '' (}X3t(] ]3(+383(X]X)o]jLe:'WE((X(ttj] jE3] O
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4 3(d ':]o o(338#])]](L(l(3j]t(
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?^c^c^c^c^d^c^c^c^c^d^Xk~x1lclclQbclcl u
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m ?^c^c^c^c^d^c^c^c^c^d^Xk~x1lclclQ^Ql\k k~x1lclclQbclcl k~x1lclclQbcl\k kgldlskgldlcl
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Z`YQ [j'kQ
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k~xzldlclQbbldo k~x1lcucQ^Qlco ! m x x x x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo k~xkgycwQ^Qlco x ! mx x x x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo k~x1'u `'k^Qlco x ! m x x x
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~x1'{ ``{Q^Qlco x ! xm x x x
k~xzokckbbldo k~x1c'l `c^Qlco x ! x m x x x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo o
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x m x x x
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k~xzudwcQbbldo u
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k~ix `b'y `cbbldo w
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k~xz{docwQbbldo k~xkgcwQ^Ql\k}x x xm ! x x
k~xz{dycQbbldo {
x1uc'o `c^Ql\k}x x x m x o x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~x1cycuQ^Ql\k}x x x m o x x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo
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k~xzyducyQbbldo {
x1yclcyQ^Qlco x x ! m x x x
k~xzydcQbbldo `Fx1oc{coQ^Qlco x x ! m x x x
k~xz2 ``oQbbldo u
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k~xzdc{Qbbldo o
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o
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=z uC
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...
the natural frequency

... to the rest of of the "tank circuit"
circuit

the "oscillator" helps to stabilize
oscillations
...
}3(33W](EW3jt]X't3l+3'(3>:E']e]'X't3'XWE]8X(E](X
o:X33g3(('WLX3l8EW(E\An
 'X(]3]}t)tgX:3(X():8):(EWXL
% 6W W
]Go:X33() o( L3R']]]g' LX3XX#(C3(  WW]' LX3 W
: @: W d
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]tX  Z
33|(3l8X(]]jd''8(E+8't3]W(j8!]t\Ct'(td

AC source of
mixed frequencies

load
Tank circuit presents a
high impedance to a narrow
range of frequencies, blocking
them from getting to the load

X'WX3(rr3T3]t|)]8(E]Xl'X')('|3t(XXV]WXtEE>]W''t
W W
' Lj8} (! 8>:X(XL)]tW''t|' LX3!W]3]#L()X8(EL(]'j

|+X(]3]3]j+Xo3tX(L'= 6W
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|+X(]3]3]R:!C3t'X )jEj']:((XXt(X8'](]t tj'X](

8X(E](t|t:X]3]rXW)(6WL3tE-)t'8X(]E(((X(']t(6W33tE
]8+ o>'L+'WLjX+']tX  Z )
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 4
=[ H F-I+BFBQFCIwIEEQE.HBK
B}F
 Wt'X](]')#+'!((r]o(EWd)3]L(3g>:E']V)]8]tt('X|t:X]3r+t
tXW#`'g'X(]j3(6 W 33o3(E8(EC'l6LW 3't]]XX'tXX} |j)tX )(` 
)tXC'#X]3#t3t(rt:X]3r'X(]3]3 ('tEGt)tXCt+oE3gXK 'o:X33
+'X(]3]3

kf 1
resonant = =2 LC
}#E(C]R(]tj]L]Xg(EWd)3!](L('883E L(Ld t)t'X '
'^
(t](]J(EW3jjEoEL]t\ O l) tC]J!()};t)t'|+'
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j X
=:(EW:X(]XtF W W
g't']3lW L3(]>3((EW3L+' Lj!(:   ] HK
O ')V8(]V8+''(XL'X)X#] 8]+t3t(rt+t3 

 3]t8(XX

Parallel LC with resistance in series with L

1 1
R 100
V 1

1 1V
_C 10 F
2
L
1 1 100 mH

0 0

0 0

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k~xzldlclQbbldo y
x1uccyQ^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo y
x1'o ``oQ^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo y
xkckg{Q^Qlcu x x! x x
k~xkr{cQbbldo y
x1lclcyQ^Qlcu x !x x x
Lm}0T~A  41 T8
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k~xzokckbbldo w
x1co\k^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo w
x1c{cQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xzukgwQbbldo w
x1cocuQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xzudwcQbbldo w
x1\kguQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~ix `bo\kbbldo w
x1cuclQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo w
x1cy'`c^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xz{docwQbbldo w
x1'``wQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xz{dycQbbldo y
x1l'``c^Qlcu x !x x x
k~xzwducoQbbldo y
xkgwcyQ^Qlcu x x! x x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo y
x1u\kg{Q^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xzyducyQbbldo y
xj``c{Q^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xzydcQbbldo y
x1wcycwQ^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xz2 ``oQbbldo y
x1ccwQ^Qlcu x x !x x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo
xkck`c^Qlcu x x x ! x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo
x1uc{cQ^Qlcu x x x ! x
o
xzldlclQbbldo
x1w\kgwQ^Qlcu x x x ! x
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^
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xzf s[rq\Wgi`YcUd $ kg{cxzc o sg

Parallel LC with resistance in series with C

1 1
R 100
V 1V
1 Rbogus

_C 3
1

1
2
10 F L 100 mH
1

0 0

}X(#]GC()(EWd']d|Q [ EX''' ( 'L 


0 0
'] X3L(X((']3t
jC( 
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3
p: %:
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[
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6^
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Z`YW$)qU)qbitVb[gZVgh\[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}kglcl
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`Z YQ ['zj'kQ y
xz2``uQ^dldu k~xzlcldlQ^dlco k~xzoc{dQ^dlco

^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
k~xzldlclQbbldo k~xkgycwQ^Qlco x x x ! x
k~xkr{cQbbldo
x1wcuc{Q^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xzukgwQbbldo
x1oc{cyQ^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo y
jx ``uclQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xzwducoQbbldo w
x1ccQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xzydcQbbldo w
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k~xz2 ``yQbbldo w
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o
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o
xzodwcuQbbldo y
x1lccuQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
o
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o
xz{dycQbbldo y
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o
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o
xzdc{Qbbldo y
x1yc' `c^Qlcu x !x x x
u
xzld{cuQbbldo y
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u
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u
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u
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u
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jx ``'w `c^Qlcu x x ! x x
u
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[rq\[|h)|sVghcZcZ`Y)qbi3UQitsZ $)sh &#*,a }kgcf l s/[rq\W]i`YdUd $ kg{c
x11 o g

 +t')]3}W'L(]'WX(X+; t)t'X8#8jX(L}+t(](t:L}'X(W']3E

(
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Series LC with resistance in parallel with L

R1
1 2
1
_C 10 F
V 1V
1

1
3 3
L 100 mH R2
100
1

0 0
Z`YW$)qU)qbitVb[gZVgh\[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
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x_,'a $QitUVX['j'kQ
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`Z YQ ['zj'kQ
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
k~xzldlclQbbldo
jx ``cQ^Qlcu x !
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~x1lc'u `c^Qlco x
k~xzukgwQbbldo k~x1oc'l `c^Qlco x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo k~x1ucucwQ^Qlco x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~jx `'kg{Q^Qlco x
k~xzydcQbbldo k~jx ```yQ^Qlco x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo k~jx ```{Q^Qlco x
o
xkrlc{Qbbldo k~jx ``'o `c^Qlco x
o
xzodwcuQbbldo k~x1uccuQ^Qlco x
o
ix `bo\kbbldo k~x1ucwclQ^Qlco x
o
xz{dycQbbldo k~x1ucocyQ^Qlco x
o
xzyducyQbbldo k~x1occwQ^Qlco x
o
xzdc{Qbbldo k~x1ocwcQ^Qlco x
u
xzld{cuQbbldo k~x1'o ``c^Qlco x
u
xzokckbbldo k~x1ococoQ^Qlco x
u
xzudwcQbbldo k~x1oclcoQ^Qlco x
u
xz{docwQbbldo k~xkgc{Q^Qlco x
u
xzwd' `cbbldo k~xkgwcQ^Qlco x
0
k~xzldlclQ^dldo k~xzoc{dQ^dlco k~xz{cd{Q^dlco
x x x
x ! x x
x ! x x
x x ! x
x x ! x
x x ! x
x x ! x
x x ! x
x x ! x
x x ! x
x x ! x
x x ! x
x ! x
x !x x
x ! x x
x ! x x
x ! x x
x ! x x
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`FxzldlclQbbldo k~xk``uQ^Qlco x x ! x x
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Series LC with resistance in parallel with C

R
1
1 2
1 2
_C 10 F 100
V 1V
1 R2
1
3 3
L 100 mH
1

0 0

Z`YW$)qU)qbitVb[gZVgh\[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}k
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^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^
k~xzldlclQbbldo k~x1ucucwQ^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo k~x1ucwcuQ^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo k~x1uccyQ^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~jx ``lcQ^Qlco x x ! x
k~xzokckbbldo k~jx ``ocwQ^Qlco x x x! x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo k~jx ``ucQ^Qlco x x x ! x
k~xzukgwQbbldo k~jx ```yQ^Qlco x x x ! x
k~xzudwcQbbldo k~jx ``{clQ^Qlco x x x ! x
k~ix `bo\kbbldo k~jx ```yQ^Qlco x x x ! x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo k~jx ``ucQ^Qlco x x x ! x
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k~xz{dycQbbldo k~xj``lc{Q^Qlco x x !x x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~x1uccoQ^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo k~x1uc{c{Q^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xzyducyQbbldo k~x1ucoc{Q^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xzydcQbbldo k~x1occuQ^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xz2 ``oQbbldo k~x1oc{cQ^Qlco x ! x x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo k~x1ococ{Q^Qlco x ! x x x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo k~xkgclQ^Qlco x ! x x x
o
xzldlclQbbldo k~xkg{c{Q^Qlco x ! x x x
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xzf s[rq\Wgi`YcUd
$ kg{cxzc o sg
l(j83]]X'X(W']3l(oWG(3g:]L+)|jE3l'X)X]8 
 Z
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Control levers set

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of odd harmonics

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1st harmonic only

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1.7714m 38.793o 1.7714m 38.793o 1.7714m 38.793o
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output
f
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f
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Capacitive band-pass filter

Source lfilter
Low-pass
section
lfilter
High-pass
section
nR pC
2
2
o200
1
1 3
1 F
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1 load
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Inductive band-pass filter

Source lfilter
High-pass
section
lfilter
Low-pass
section
nR L
1 2

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1 load

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passes low frequencies
Low-pass filter

Signal
input
Signal
output
High-pass filter

d M 0passes
 j high
 frequencies
48CM c ! !#/ - 0 H 
"Twin-T" band-stop filter
R1 R2

pC
pC 1 pC
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source nR nR
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Component value ratios for
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1
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 0 -  #  M0H*:c c j M   M0 B 0 bM : 0 c N
2 3 1

 c  
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lfilter
:L pC
1
1
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nR 1 k
1 load

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Parallel resonant band-pass filter

lfilter
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1
Q 2
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Series resonant band-stop filter
R1 2
1 2
Q
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mV 1V
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Rload
n 1 k
1

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10 F
1

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pC 10 F
1

1 2

:L
mV 1V
1 100 mH
nR 1 k
1 load

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!!! %cv
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/ !! '0cv
/ !! %0cv
/ !! %cv
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/ !! %vcv
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W uYq X| ~0x 0xzvqSD Z A\[ ~0xc{Bzcrz!u|~0x cxBzvqS*%*D CE
^ c BF0  M0 B c  / jB 0 / 
c M _  M ` #/ 0 B 0 0 c [M : 0 c 0 0 Bc0# Mb ^
Z M0 0 M  M    8c
 0 #M c G8c c 0    c0i M ^0  0  00   cM0 ;
c Bc - c X  9cM  M M c  - Z  c c  M
!0 ZM0X8c
0 ) 8 !M ac ^M : 0 c-  d    /cB
M / M0^ B` aS0 )M : 0 c 
 !  M  00 #; MiBc 0;  8c i9  iM  
M M/0 c c0 Bc 4 #; MNB !; M 8CM c   ! 0d a
/ a a / % #; M4 !; M 8cCM  M c b R -000
  c ^  -M0 H 
Capacitive/inductive low-pass filter
filter
L1 2 L2
1 3
100 mH 100 mH

mV 1V pC nR 1 k
1
1 1 F load

0 0
0 c 0 !@[ ) Z*: 0 c  c   0 Z !  )
0
M : 0 -  ' ! Z 0  -M0#   b *: 0 c c M  )0^ 
8 M i   H 4!X M B  ac c 4  M c UH ' 
c  M c /0 M % cM -0cb 'M  -0c   - 9ca  0
>Z  Z  /cB 0 > Z / B M : 0 c  cc  '
  >  M iB M 0 aM c 0 G 4-
0 d F'B ^Bc> j
0 cS  HM : 0 c b Bc
!<; d>= a= Di% gVg
}0q} s0rc{{|tB}u0x~
w2rcq{t*z
}2S R
qc.
} S R
~c} dr 
/rcq}ct z 
s}urcq.wN@,
/xzb
| ~0x wNM, / c v %*c  /!! %-!

/ !! !
!!! ! @
/0!! -!
%!v !! !
%/ !! v !
%/ !! !
%/0!! !
'/!! %!
'/ !! %v! D
%/ !! %-!
%/ !! %!
%/ !! !
%/ !! !
%*!! %cv
%/ !! %cv
%*!! %-cv
%/ !! %cv
%/ !! 'cv
%/ !! %cv K
/ !! %-cv

 0c j #; M 8c0 c ! j cc ; M 8c4 M B[ ;
0 c ?@ePOH b7fd 0 - c B)c c 8c - M / B00 /cB
jM j  M 0  C B c j c F  M
4 
 0j g 0 c  c !M0!   H M0X    [- 0 M0 0!
 c D C B f /M a #M g  M U 4 Bcb  N /cBc M0a 
b M)0   M Z 0Bc  Z 0 / 0  0 ! c*

M M0 MB Bc #B B jM 0 0[
# C B c M0 0 0MM 0 M
[ C B
} 7x B!x`z 5h
i h[wN@,
5 h[wN@,
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| ~0x wNM,
b B  cv %-cv ! %-!
M B  %-cv ! %-! !v
ZB  c %-c c %-c

/ !! ! G Z
!!! ! Z  @
/0!! -! Z Z K
%!v !! ! Z K
%/ !! v ! Z
%/ !! ! j Z
%/0!! ! Z
'/!! %! Z
'/ !! %v! Z i
%/ !! %-! l k
%/ !! %! \ Z%
%/ !! ! Z
m
%/ !! ! Z
%*!! %cv  Z
%/ !! %cv n Z
%*!! %-cv Z
%/ !! %cv Zd
%/ !! 'cv Z
%/ !! %cv Z K
/ !! %-cv Z

 0M 0 d c    Bc M0 / 0 0M 0 b [  c
MB a*:c c R0 acj K    ''d  0 8CM^ 0 S
0^ #;  c  d  ! 0  M jc^ 0
o MM c c /cB #; M 8c [j K0 - [Bcc [ M
M : 0 Mj [ 8 c  %  aPo ' 0c0 8c '0H  p  00 X 
0 0 o-    M / 0 N8CM  M d
/ HM B '  ) q
0 B 'i 9 M0  c8c -  /c b 9Bc 0#M : 0 c- c- 
ao^ /M  M 8c  d
MM 0 j!B  ao^ d 0c0b8cCM 

o^  H  b/j B 9 ) !; M : 0 c  C B  c^8c 4c
    : a   i H M M0 Bc c0H 5 r 7 Hc
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M c ^*:c c M MK ^ o - c 
 M : 0 c K b %/ M0M
0 B  B 4 V- b /c M 0Z 00  C B
 M0 0 X BFGZc ; / 0  C B c 0 c0 %*: 0 c X 
 c*:c c D0  /M  B Z c # j M 0!  70
0 ; ; M0-; ! ' 000 M 000 OPH b d  OPH b k 0 ' E?BPH bj 0  -
cj ' M : 0 c 08c X N  g e sP H bt g PnP H bj 0  d S
M c 9  0M- 04 XM  # /cB 9  j^ 8CM N- 0
 ! <; d>= =aDi% g V

0H 0'u'2c /# c M0  C B 00!  cso^> 8CM M
 L o2B v g eBPH bSi B c 0 S!0^ 00 j  M0  ! ; M : 0 c
00!  aPo- 
x
AC/DC power supply filter
:L :L
1 3 2 w
2 4

mV 3H 2H

nR
12 V
2
pC y
9500 1 k
1 F
load
mV
1

1
1V
120 Hz
0 0 0

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/rcq}ct z
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w0 wN
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0 g e   o ^M0b c >Pc g eKr9 -X  0 g  / 0
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0 M 0  !%M c N % X 0c c / F 0;  8cCM c
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M0^ /cB #M : 0 0c M0 0! c8cCM c B0 4M c F 0 N f
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g V@ ih H i% ! Did4
cB c c;  #c0cB c ; i [ 8C M  -  cM 0ca0 c  B c 0B  / 0 B  Xj M X 4 0
!0 c^ M M M : 0 -

o2
1
fresonant = :LC

%'&1 U 2i
st
/ 0  : @ M 0 B   0 c0 8cCMM  vM -    [  ! < -[ M 0 S0 c/)   9 8c c
j M0 j ^     Bc M : 0 c K c j0M ! >Xc 0
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0 0 c 0 c c 4 D8CM  M  /M j  M Bc0) c d
iM0 u'- c / 0   !0 H8c 4 jBc  c -8c - 00
0 Z/  00 ^ c  F #M0 000b # #0^ 0 c 
d / 0 j/  ' 0 M d c  c c 04 
'c j  >M0 B0 R  M d! jc ^B c - 8 0M B> M j ;
c!0 - -c ! B. B F a -M cR M  c 2K M
0 b0 /a 0 0 M a : c% a Bc  M 0 % a d jM04
u'. c - / 0  0  j  0 a  / fi -80
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 j
 d

'& - UX_WZY n -DUXW ` UXWZYZU^], +\`29U-i+W

')  M   0 jB - 8c 0 ! R 0M ; M 0- . M
  B  B M 2 0 /  B0 ) 0MM )M0
-c ' . Bc B  B   M#0 0 c 0 M0 -c
X !c a N0 S!0 M jB -  Bc a Nc jB - 8c 
coiled wire
current
magnetic field
current through
generated by
coil
current
00 j M48 0M4 BZ
#c c B c c M : N
N2A
L=
l
Where,
L = Inductance of coil in Henrys
N = Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1)
= Permeability of core material (absolute, not relative)
A = Area of coil in square meters

/0 c b   00>jB - 8c   

l = Average length of coil in meters

 4 0 M 0 c
 0   Z 0 K cM HbjB0 K NM
c c [  H0 ! [ bM0 Bc Z jB - 8c Z M 0 M[c ! c 
Z )jB B cM MB jB0 BcZ MB 0 M  4
 ; c   0 M'0 c
c c   0M [ c^ 0 LH ) M0  M
g V7?
 g V7O ih id i = !'#d4
; c  C B  ^0 ! a M 0M 0 S % 

 0 Bc M / M0 M > 00>jB - 8c 0 !  c

 M cK 0> 0MM a'M[ ~ c\ 20ZM0  4 0 M0 c d b 0
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 !I$c?S9"J!cI?@-  c M c  #  I?0J-Sj- c
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Transformer

0a [c - H a / ! 0 0 R M0 BS 0 B   i
M 0M B - -a j X Bc   dM   d M
j M cM M  ' !^0 0 c c i c^   X 0  0
c >M0  * 0b c 0  0  c  c c )
4000M i 0[j !M Bc c0  Bc  c c 
c - 4c- Rb  B ^ 40 M       0)c)
0c  d
 c  ' >j=
K> =i = !#d% D>= g VO

^  N M B  0MX - c /; - [S 0 c 0  0 M0 -
M 0 M BZ 0   ' # -
K  0   00  -c -ajB - 8c D M j
I? cJ-9    c  d M0 c M0% ^ IS% M0  
8c ^ v - c c jB - 8   - B B00 M 0
M0M 0j B Z M0^ 'M Z-  c Bc  M 
0j cM  > # 
 B  c c - % M a JL"J!"J\S  M c 0  !  ;
c 0 0  M 0M# M J%P s c - M  0 'M Xc M c
% M0> 1 "j?S1 4 c00 c d - % M0X@@ !?S1 c!0   X
 g V7V ih id i =!'#d4
ac 0M c   cnu'F -/ c 0Kcac j M cR cc M c ;
0# GM0 / c M c  B B ! ac 0 - <  j  8c
- 00 c# ) #cH cb M0 B 0 u'2 M 0    0 0j 
4   g PPP   -< -  0 F 0 )c
M vjB -  c -HM0  )c H M j    00 0  M-<  Hc
  B d 0 c [ 
(for SPICE to measure current)

nR mV w
i1
1 bogus 2 3 4

0V
mV 10 V
:L
1
:L
2
Rload 1 k
1
100 H 100 H

0 0 5 5

u~0rBzv{B|!~Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
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~ yc@ B v{ xv tuu0
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} }% XFt {}ct*z0xu!x!}}0{7- [ uXcruuX0xuct*z`vqu0~{
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~c} dr 
/rcq}ct z.
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L tw@
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L twvt!7
/xbz
| ~0x wN@` tFw7
%/ !! / !! N/0  ~v3t Rr~Ft*bz t*z B
| ~0x wN@i M tFwvt07
%/ !! %/ !! N/0  xcqB`z !r~2Ft*`z t z B
) a 2 c B  2 !cn jS@ H4 M  - 0  C B Xc
cM  S  ' M0Z j 0 0M Z  4M c
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 c  ' >j=
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 c'  Nc'  M c / H  M 0M i 0 MB   B '
M '0 0MM Nc M040  a c!0Xc M  N   % M c d
0 0 0 M -0 cX  / B  M0 0  M jB -   0c F7-
c B 0M  M0 c a d0   0 B 0M %
0 b b M0H  'M 0 M -c 0 0  DB   j '0 d
u' 0 c0 0 0 c !  c # i  M 
u~0rBzv{B|!~ Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
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} }%
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/rcq}ct z.
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L tw@
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L twvt!7
/xbz
| ~0x wN@` tFw7
%/ !! / !! d/0 
| ~0x wN@i M tFwvt07
%/ !! %/0!! d/0 
j 0)0 j M cM   0 cc M 0M > c c 0 
 0M 'M 00 j M  i ! 0 0 c \ M
c c0  C B '  j 4 )0H0    0M   , 4-
M B0 0
0  M B ' S 0 i  / Bc
u~0rBzv{B|!~Rvx~
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s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L tw@
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 i id i = !'#d4
| ~0x wN@` tFw7
%/ !! / !! /v 0 v
| ~0x wN@iM tFwvt07
%/ !! / !! /0 v
^ 0# ) 0M #0 B ! X ' c  j c'  M0  # 
0c j M 0MM N M # X c 0 MB  ! 0 .M0 c0   # 
'  .M040   C B  7?  C 9 S C N NM00   04  NM NN c
B  /N ca c!0  [ c Bc 7 H M  -Bc cM- MX 
c X  B  0B  ) M0 X 0M  N' 0 M0 /
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 ' j 0 S  BN
u~0rBzv{B|!~ Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
~ yc@ B v{c. *x!
~ yc@ B v{ xv
}.  XcxBz!~~0r7u Xcx~u Xcrz *
~ X0xz!~{
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~ X0xz!~{
} }%
wvt0rcq
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/rcq}ct z.
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L tw@
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/xbz
| ~0x wN@` tFw7
%/ !! / !! N/0 v
| ~0x wN@i M tFwvt07
%/ !! %/ !! N/0 v
H ' 0 -0 M  C B c@ j 0j MbS F ZM0X0 j 0Bc c
-c0 0M  c M) M0X0  0MM  ' 0 c c 0
X ^M  - Bc b X c  Z M0  0 > % Bc 
 /M c c  M/ S q 0 Bc '# 0  BZ X cZ c - u'
0  Bc M0 > c B  Bc 'd M M [Bc /0 ' Bc # d %
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u~0rBzv{B|!~ Rvx~
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} 
} }%
wvt0rcq
~c} dr 
/rcq}ct z.
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L tw@
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L twvt!7
/xbz
| ~0x wN@` tFw7
%/ !! / !! N/0 
| ~0x wN@i M tFwvt07
%/ !! %/ !! N/0 
d !cb Bc M0X0  Bc cc M  C B M  # b 0 S
!M0Z0 j M Bc2 -0 M 0M 0  0  cc j M 0M
ePVc  ? [0 c0 0M  c  N a ac ) ja 0M
c0 j  M0 -0 M  q Mc c M0c j M) c!0c cM
M XM  c 0B ^ Zc@[ 0M B  Dc 0MM
c jM0H0 j M c!0a' 0 ' c!0
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M0 -c0 Mj c!0bBc 
^  Bc F 0 j M c^ -c0 M4 c!0 0 jB0 GS   
Bj 0M j - N v c!0 b / % M M c 0 B 9 M  0 d
 c j Mb [ -0 M 4/ M0  M ZcX  'M 0 M 0 M M0X0 
d c 0 Bc 'cM c !   H  B00 -
B  % Bc   c  0-! c c  1 / 4  M
b / B ! 0 i  C B 9B 09j i  %  d X  M 
0 c M0 a  ' 0  )cb# M c
Nc/ 0 c c- 0 c
B G '#  M0^0 j M M0 -c0 -   jB - H- 00 c
.)[-
  $ `S09 !"J!  c  M0^@ 0 MH 00MM j   B0 #  G  c cj c  % M 0  00 F   

. c M -c0 [-B   C B   j  M0  - Z c M c*  N M 0 9   cc H -'0M > 

F d ' ^ M    - c0  0 c c
d c 

Z0 # B'c M c 4  a 0 B@ @   7S1 9JL"J ! "J\B 05 v1 ". B1 JL"JP"J 0# d Xc

'&1 -iK nN-iKt+0-,2Ln,P+2 2L

 d
c  ^/ c cG !M c 0MNM0dc j M c c0  !c d
 c Bc B0 00 j MS  C B Bc 0M G D M  
  e i  id i =!'#d4
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c 0 #M c  H0 c B  4M0Z c!0j 0 jS ' -M 0
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w2rcq{!t*z
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~ yc@ B v{ xv
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} }%
wvt0rcq
~c} dr 
/rcq}ct z.
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L tw@
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/xbz
| ~0x wN@` tFw7
%/ !! / !! N/0  ~v1t Rvr~Ft `z t*z B
| ~0x wN@i M tFwvt07
%/ !! %/ c  N/0  xcqB`z !r~ Ft*`z t*z B
K 0 -c0   Z 0c  . B M0Rc j M  
6 @ Oe  C ' G  C - 4M0 -c0 M 0M # 00 j a #
6 @ Oe  .  @?  dH  40 a  M ' B   Jw
 M B 0M S  GM N

Primary Secondary
winding winding

10:1 primary:secondary voltage ratio

dprimary:secondary
1:10 )  j0 Kcurrent 0 ratio
 ic  '   0 0 !
 C B c> 0MM - c  M0j B  ^j j c ! c aM c/
 M ' c    4  B B  0 0 2c 0M  0
! `  jM ZM c d a M  0 d  j0 c 0> 
c [ 0 b c  c  Bc b0 0)# C B ) MM 2
B  M   bBc M ! c/ 4 M c 9 c  N 
 0 i%'3D = i%'6= i =!'#% 
 c j Mj b c0  M -0 Mb c!0 0 c M B c j Mb !c 0 c)'
1llSXM c d  B B  / X!' Nc 0  M N 1!JL
B *
b 4 j'M c 0
"9 X M0 Fc Bc 9 %c@ 0
 ' 0 0 -c0 a !c B c Bc / 0 c0   c!0 ' `
/ c 0 / X c N ) 0  c R4[ M ! BM M H ' 
 ' M M0 c K 9 ! 3 -   Bc 4M M M Hc
c! 9 !c[c c  c  -  0 0 4  C B BK 0M
M c > p c@ 0M  ZM b 0  c c
/ B -M  B BcR 0M 4   c00 0 S [ 3 -  H
K @S'  )  ) M/  C B 0M f
c a M c M 2 M b0  M 
cac j M c00c  c -0 M ^   R M0j d
c MR 0    0)  H  c c ^0) 0M   a !c
 M00 j ^ c!0jH M ! 0  0 c0 ^ c!0a F 0 iBc P / 
0^ d  C B 4 c!0 0M- 0j/ 0^ '# B   ^ M B  n  H 0
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 c7 P c c. P   0 0 c # 0  0 v04 M   H  i H  
Zd
F-!0 M /^ M 4 !M*
0  dM  C B Bc[ 0MM -  0 F X 0  M 0 M c  c 0 0 !  
jB  0 R  M d S G [  ^ H 0M c M c b
B  N B00  v Pc@% '   /  M - 0 b !M0! a  '% 
 0  M0]Jv-$PdNP0-1$" 0  0cB [ 4  B00
M K  F -  >c' c ^M c ^- B 0jdj  d
B 3 - c  !  c^ 0 j Mj M0 -c0 M # D0  
0'0  /c Bc 0 iD a 0 M Dc  CM c 9-/ M N F  M
c 0 v - %M c B C B aS 0M i -  a 0   0
c[  a - 0K K aS  - 0 c/ 0 c- 0
 9
A motor/generator set
Power
in

Power
out

coupling
Shaft

Motor Generator

 j GZ ^ 0 - 00 Z c  
0 ! aM0    Bc> cM cj c 'c a  M
 Hc  M  M -  ca  >- c0 0
3 - - b j0 S  #3 - c j 0 B0 ^ j M 00  % 
 a  - H ZS M S0  B0 id BcRc Bc  
 @  i  id i =!'#d4
g 0 c-0  a Bc / jc  Bc   c 0 H BcFG M B - 
d  C B Bc[ 0M  [3 - - M 0S 0 0 c
0M ! M ! c D M '#' B 4 B M
 F B M 0 c  aS  -  0 M  c -M
Bc  'S 00  c B  M 0 S  a 
-  B c 0M    0 B00 -   aS c c d
KB0 0 D  RM0 j  )^ / o^ M  M s aS   B!
c M 0 ZM 0   c # M0   D3 - c B) B0 
M  M t a   /  0b 0 0[0   -  B
S 0M0 
d 000 G M0!M B M  DB0 0 
 M0  ' 0jM  jB B ) M0  N a c  
/ 0jB j 0 'M b )0 d   0  0 j d M
4  0   #c  # c ' Bc d c Z  - MM c -'
c[M c
c M0Z Kc c Z VM0Z0 j M c  Y G 7
d M c B M B 0 -c0 M c j7@7 H @ H !c %M0  0M
 C B  0   ' 0 c!0  M c Bc 0  d c  C B c
M^ 0M M B 0 0 c aM0a Zc M cR c 0 MB - j
c Bc   NM0  %    - 00 c^ d c \  0 B -M 9S c
c B Nc - N M c- !N 9c  vc c%  -  d B B0 0
b 0 c Bc  0 0 ' H c B c / c  M0a3 `SM G0 
- vM0 c
L = N2A
l
Where,
L = Inductance of coil in Henrys
N = Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1)
= Permeability of core material (absolute, not relative)
A = Area of coil in square meters
l = Average length of coil in meters
! c [ 0 ' c# c # M0^  F ' Bc #- B 0 -
c Bc S@` < 0  - G0 4 SF c 
b M S
7 !H ! M0   ' cK d 0 j cK cc M   c
cM
jSF cS ' )M % M0M '0  C B Bcb 0M % Bc j   c
c^ a G c!0 c c# -' 0 j M BcZ c0 
Step-down transformer

many turns few turns
high voltage low voltage load
low current high current
 0 i%'3D = i%'6= i =!'#% ?
0 F0 aS F ! - !M0 ij Bc  %Bc  H i  M
B0  B 0S 0 #  [c 0 [0 MB
Torque reduction geartrain

LARGE GEAR
(many teeth)

SMALL GEAR
(few teeth)

low torque
high torque high speed
low speed
/j M ! ' Bc  4 Z-  e b Oc  C H 
c^  c 0 0  0

 M0 B^ M ! B  G ' ! !  00M ^ B i 0 

M0 /j FM c BS 0/ c Bc00j   
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N
Voltage transformation ratio = N secondary

primary

N
Current transformation ratio = N primary

secondary

Where,
N = number of turns in winding
. Bc B *  M c 2 c   C MB  C 0B j M. 02 j  Mcb0 ) -[c 0 4 1 ! ZlS
) l P JL Bc *

0-a0 B cM c j Bc  4 [ Bc H aS D M0  0 j Z

Voltage transformation ratio =

Lsecondary
Lprimary

'&) -i2 3,+ -i+

- #  BMc0 B 0   / 0/ S -   - -M'  jZ!C -M0 DN ci   "  ScBc$" 0 M .0 BB0 o^ 
- 00  - ' Bc c' M !#M0 ! M ' M 0 c B  M 
c0   9 H B0 0 u' 0 N M 0K Fb-0 
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BZc! c   / 0
(for SPICE to measure current)
mV
Rbogus i1 w
1 2 3 4

0V
mV 10 V
:L
1
:L
2
Rload 1 k
1
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0 0 5 5
mV o250 V
2

0
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 ,
c M c H M M   ' '0j0  aM c  3
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} x7B!xz`5h
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 B   
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%/ !! %! k
/ c %!
%/ c %!
%/ c %!
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%/ c %0! Bd
%/ c %!
%/ c '! i
%/ c 0!
%/ c %!!! V
/ c %/ !! V B
*c %/ !! V S
/ c %/ !! Vl k
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!c %/ !! V
/ c %/ !! V i
/ c %!!! V
/ c 0! 
/ c '! i
/ c %!
%/ c %0v ! k
%*c %! k
%/ c %! B
%/ c %! B
%!c %!
%/ c !c V
%/ c %/ !! V
%/ c %/ !! V
%/ c %/ !! V B
%/ c %/!! B
%/ c %/ !! Vl k

 ! u j=

} x7B!xz`5h
i hKtw@ ~t3Rvr~q*!~~0xzu
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uv3t Rx tw@
 B . %c / c  c N/0 
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%/ !! %! k
/ c %/ c V i
%/ c %/ c V
%/ c %/ c V R
'/ c / c 
%/ c %/ c V
%/ c %/ c V R
%/ c %/c V d
%/ c %/ c V i
%/ c vc R
/ c 'c 
*c %v c
/ c %c i d
/ c %0c i
!c %c
/ c %c
/ c %-c
/ c '/ c V k
/ c '*c V
/ c %/0c V
%/ c %/ v c V @
%*c /c 
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%/ c %/0c V
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%/ c %v c
%/ c %v c i d
%/ c %0c i d

 0 > 0 ^  M   c> 0M ^ XM0j Bc ^ c!0 M c 
 0 # j   0 / Z  jj/ 0 0 ' ! b 0 . 0 Z
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c N!N
% - Mj  j ci  c  F'd #  B 0j
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 V 4 !M 0  d C B B[ 0M
+ + -

or ???

- - +
c %% 0  c  M c jB !  0M  - 40b X F 
j 0X c0 X 0 0  c  % 0%@`$" ca%0 M 0X M
B! 0  -  - M c!0 a B # c!0`

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40 j M cZ -0 Mb c!0 ^ M0 !B  B ! a 
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  ' M4  M c
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M  B   C B   > M cj0 j M c!0 jc
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b  M
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c M M   0 jc ! #  M c d > ! M
d 0v 0 d [a0 0 j M Bc0 -c0 M -  !# Bc  %!N

 4 j j H  a - D !c dc # M c 

load #1

load #2

H M0 c - 4 M bZjB - X M cj    0c 07  00

c  -c* cHM c D c00 M0 'c[  H ' M a0 B
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b0M 
c B d    p O e  ) B   )0 
0 M 
 c M ) C   0c v0 j  C B @ C 4    dc) 0M
- c 0C M jBc M M M Bc   ! - H
/ V B0 0
 N  -' -c0 M  40 / Bc ) 
 B [  0 0 c cc Mj c00b 0 0^  4 0a 0 H 
ee i id i = !'#d4

load #1

load #2

9c 0^ #M Bj -0 j  #   c!0X -' M0

0 0M0 0 M0b c!0 c aS C B jB0 M jM c Z0 j iM c
0 M0  c )  % c!0  B) -!0  0 ! M c
 B 0 0X 

multi-pole
switch

load

' MM 0 M0 -c ! c!0 0c dH c 0 M BS B M c  0

!0b-  S Z 0 c^ 0 M B -!  -0 Mb c!0cc b-0
 )  0 c 0^ S S cb c00 )0 Z ic
c!0ccca Z MZ M  N
Variable transformer

load

^ - 00 R NM0 S B XM c H  R- ! DM R - 

 - RM0bM . - X 0 7? F
^Bc| @O F
0 ) Bc  d ) M M !
0 0a 0  C B  B X  0 -c0 [ c00[ c[ c B Z  c
 C j=j= > =4D .D D>=
  e
0 j  C B 7 e  0 S B 3 d  -  0 S / 0 c
 C B  v Z /M  M '   MH - - M  /0ja B M f
S0 -  M9 4 0   B % c  d F B  c
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9Bc M0 c- 0 S - 0 c D  0 
M c d 0 M c 0< ) cM !  j j0 c4M c % 
   c b  0 ' 
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 MK M %  d M0 
- jB H c 0 M/ X
M   R  0 c R Bc 4 )0 a c!0 c  H
M/ 0B M0^M 0C c  [ PP 0 -B
x
Autotransformer

load

0 ! B   M .S j / ja C B M0 c  M !  !

B # 0 [/  0 M 
Autotransformer

load

0 M c c 0c 9 j 0c  c M  0  9M aa 
 0 c j Z0 j / ` Bc ^ 0 b M0X  c
e i id i =!'#d4
c j M aB -c0 Mj c!0 jj X M0  ) M ! - c  Mc
-c0 c!0R0 M  B!0~6 07  c /0I 6B @0 7  
  ! -0 M !B ) B # M  j M M 0
D 0 B 07 0  dHM M0 c0 -
 M
 C B ! M M 00 0^c j M  
"boosting"

120 V 30 V 150 V

 M0 B @07K- c  H4M M0 -0 M -

  M 
 C B ! M M   c^0 j M  C B
"bucking"

120 V y
30 V 90 V

0[0 !SB  B ! B  M0   0K @0 2

 B  0 !ccFjB0) c  B M [ !  0MM BK M 0
 0\  M c # 0a c j M Bc -c0 Mj c!0
4 'M c M c S ! B D c!09 Ba ' 0 0 S S cD
c! c 0  j - S  M ) !0Z-  0a c!0[
B b  0 c 0^ /M  0 [ 00 c )  H ) 
c 0 S1 "6


The "Variac"
variable autotransformer

load

j S  c [  00 ' ' GS d dM0H M 0 -! M

 < ; # .G D>=
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- c  j c M 0jc c  d M0 M 0 Hc '
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. S1 "6 4S B ! B *


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Regulation percentage = (100%)
Efull-load
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9.990 V

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Nsecondary
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Nprimary
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Nsecondary
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2
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power source

fuse fuse

precision
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fuse fuse

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M=?[M`!=354*H@CF4*M2JVH!9[8v^:<=?J.HS=?J!d.j0.9=>?`![84<352^7!44*H;357!=DC":x9[8J!=?J!d]:<=?>>V[54*CF`!>3"=?J6357!4]oiAyG![52SHS`VM=?J!d438[54-u;4->v
7!=?d7yCF4*M2JVH!9[8vL2>389d4-C-NlH!9J.d4[82`VC]352B4 a`!=?G!u64Ja3@9J.HGV4-[8C52J!J.4>x9>?=w4jA{2\mZ9M=>?=39
384tu@9=?Ja354-J.9J.M4
2mi9u6u64354-['=?J.CF35[8`!u64Ja38935=?2JnNnC57!2[F/3 IM=[M`!=35=?J!dbC5:<=38M7!4*C'9[54q2m354-J\=?J.CF389>?>?4-HE=?J\GV9[9>?>4->O:<=357\357!4eoi`
A C
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 ( (''  '
HiQZ(

power conductor current
CT

ground connection
(for safety) close switch BEFORE
disconnecting ammeter!

0-5 A meter movement range
A 7!2`!d7=3_u@9vC544-uCg38[89J!d4\352 . U V ZX J C57!2[53
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x
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R5U 38[89J.C

m/2[8u64[*j#AO[5`.4352@=38C%JV9u64Nc9J_9=?[(M2[54h38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[<7.9C<=38C(:<=JVHS=J.dC<:<[9G!Gc4-H9[52`!J.H96J!2J.u69dJ!435=DM
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M2[54*Cx9[84hu62aCg3<G![82p!>?4u@935=DMj
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35=?J!d@u@9dJ!438=?MhV4>DH_z(ou62382[*N!Gc2>?vaG.7.9C54
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m/[8B4 a`!4JVMvbCF354-H G s`.Gb38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[i`VCF4*He382;G.[52SHS`.M47!=d7tL2>389d4-C"357V9
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4 C5wa=?Jr44-MT83 2mx7!=?dH 7 sm/[5(4 a`!4J.Mv\9>354-[5JV9
35=?J!d_M`.[5[84Ja3G![84-M>`.H!=J!d4->4*MT35[8=DM@CF7!2SMwNO9>387!2`.d7
M9G.9p.>4E2m]G![52SHS`VM=?J!dC5wa=?Jp!`![8J.8C T j 'J.4E2mAO4-C5>? 9 CtHS[54*9u@C@:x9Ce3524-u;G.>2
vy7!=DCbM2=>(354*M7!J!2>?2dv382
HS=DCg38[5=?p!`S384t4->4*MT38[5=DMbGc2
:i4[;:<=387!2`S36387!4tJ.44-Hm/2[6:<=?[54*CN"C5=?u;G.>vp![829H!M9Cg38=J.dE=36=?J387!4bm/2[5u2m([9HS=?2
:x9L4-Cx:<7.=?M7EM2`!>DHpV4^[54*M4=?L4*H9J.H_M2J.HS`VMT354*H}352e>?29H!C<pv}u;4*9J.C(2mf9Ja384J!J.9CjxAx7!4pV9C5=?MC8M7!4-u6935=DM
m/2[%96AO4-C5>?9eo#2=>>?22wSCx>=?w4h387!=?BC

discharge terminal

"Tesla Coil"

Ax7!4M-9G.9M=352[<=?J_G.9[89>>?4>:<=357387!4]35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[( CxG![5=?u@9[8ve:<=?J.HS=?J!d@m/2[8u@Cx357.4]389J!wtM=[M`!=3(J!4-4-HS4*H
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m/2[h[84-C52J.9J.M4jAx7.4qC54-M2J.H!9[5v:<=?J.HS=?J!dt=DC':#2`!J.HE=?JM>2aCF4qG![82=?u6=3gv}382b387!4qG.[5=?u@9[8vN`.C5`.9>?>v_9[52`!J.H
357.46C89u64qJ!2J!u@9dJ!435=DMm/2[5u
j 4-L4-[89>O2GS35=?2J.C'4S=DCg3hm/2
[ 4!M=35=?J!
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7 IL2>389d4N>?2
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HIGH voltage!
HIGH frequency!

spark gap

high voltage
low frequency

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p [8=4?.ve4-J!4[8d==?J!d;357!439J!wtM=?[8M`!=3*jfAx7!4389J!wbM=[M`!=3-N!35`!J!4*Htm/2[(9;[84-C52J.9J3im/[84Ba`!4JVMv@mZ9[<=J4!M4-C8Cx2m
!
357.4qz(oC52`![M4N.:<=?>>2C8M=?>>D9
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[84-M4-=L4h9J!2387!4Z[ w=?MH
w ^3526w4-4G}357!42aC5M=>?>?935=?2J.Cxd2=?J!d.jAx7!4C54-M2J.H!9[5v@2m{387!4A{4*CF>D9eo#2=?>n:<=?>>2`S35G!`!3(9
mZ9=?[8>v_M2J.CF389Ja3h7!=d7\L2>389d4q93'L4-[5v7!=?d7\m/[5(4 a`!4J.M=4*CN`.C5`.9>>?v_G![82H!`.M=?J!dt9tCFGV9[8wH!=?C8M7.9[8d4^=Ja352t357.4
C5`![5[82`.J.HS=?J!d;9=[%93x357!4HS=DC8M7.9[8d4'354-[5u6=?J.9>sj
 ( (''  '
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p.9CF4-u;4-Ja3x:i2[8wSCF7.2G.C-NS9J.Hb357!4]2SM-M9C5=?2J.9>c>?2
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La=?4j
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M`.[5[84Ja3-N9J.H;4L4J6=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M4xm/[52u2J.4%M=?[8M`!=3l3829J!2357!4-[-j1%2
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HS=c4-[54-Ja3xw=?J.H}2mHS4L=DM# 4 l2J!4'357.93(9>?>2
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a`.9Ja38=3gve2m4->4*MT38[5=DM9>cGc2
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Ax7!4eHS4-L=?M@ 4 u[84m/4[8[8=J!d382_=?CqM9>>?4-HK9K?W
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3h9>>sNp!`S3][9
357.4['9tCFGc4-M=?9>Ow=?J.HE2m"=?J.HS`.M352[h:<7!2aCF4q=J.H!`.MT39J.M4
M9JpV4_L
9[8=?4-Hypv357.4\9G!G.>=DM935=?2Jy2m]9+oM`.[5[84Ja36357![82`.d79CF4*M2J.H:<=?J.HS=?J!d:i2`.J.HQ9[52`!J.HQ357.4
C89u64^=?[52J\M2[54 j {=w4357.4^m/4-[5[82[84-C52J.9Ja3<35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*N!357.4;C89
38`![89p!>?4[54*9M352['[54->=?4-C'2JE357!4;G![8=J.M=G.>4q2m
u@9dJ!438=?M'C5935`![9
38=2JnjO7.4Jt9^u@9
354-[5=D9>cCF`VM7b9C#=[82J@=DCxM2u;G.>4354>?v@C5935`![9
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HS2u69=JVCh9[54;>?=J!4*H\`.G:<=357357!4@9G!G!>?=4*H\u@9dJ!438= -=J.dbm/2[8M(4 TNn9H!HS=35=?2J.9>l=JVM[84-9C54-C'=?JrM`![5[84Ja3h357![82`.d7
357.4]u69dJ!435= =?J!d6:<=JVHS=J.d;:<=?>?>nJ!23%[84-C5`!>3<=J}m/`![5357!4-[%=?J.M[84-9CF4*C#2mOu@9dJ!438=? M .`!j
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::#4->>!9J^=?J.HS`.M352[2G!GV2aCF4*CM7.9J!d4-CO=J6M`.[5[84Ja3pavH!4L4->2G!=?J!d
9eL2>389d4=?J\9J\2G!Gc2C5=J.dbHS=?[54*MT35=?2J{jhAx7!4;9p!=?>?=3gv2m"9JE=?J.HS`.M352['352}d4-J!4[9
384]357.=?C'2G!Gc2C5=?J!dbL2>389d4]=?C
HS=?[54*MT38>vEM2J!J!4*MT384-HE:<=357\357!4@M7.9J!d4q=Ju@9dJ.435=D M .`SE=?J.CF=DHS4q357!46=?J.HS`.M352[h[84-C5`!>35=?J!dem/[82u387!46M7.9J!d4
=?JbM`![8[84Ja3-Na9J.H6387!4(J`!uqpV4-["2mn:<=J.H!=J!d^35`![8J.C"=J@387!4(=?J.HS`VMT352[- j Im{9Je=JVHS`.MT382[#7.9C#9C5935`![9
384-H@M2[84NJ.2
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=?J.HS`.M4-H=?J2G.GV2aCF=35=?2JK382_357!4}M7.9J.d4e=?JM`.[5[84Ja3-4 j J2357.4[^:i2[H!C-N9J=JVHS`.MT382[q>2aCF4*C=38Cq=J.H!`.MT39J.M4
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Z9p!=?>=3gve382;2G!Gc2C54M7V9J!d4-Ci=J_M`![5[84Ja3":<7.4J=3C%M2[54hpc4-M2u64-Cxu@9dJ!438=?M-9>?>vbC89
38`![9
354*Hj
Iml9J=JVHS`.MT382([ C%=J.H!`.MT39J.M4M7.9J!d4-C-N357!4-J_=3C%[84-9MT389J.MF
4 9J.H}=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M(4 i382ez(oM`![5[84Ja3%M7.9J!d4*C
9Cx:i4>?>sjJ}9@M=[M`!=3<:<=387_9;M2J.CF389Ja3xL2>389d4CF2`![8M4N387!=?Cx:<=?>?>n[54*CF`.>3%=?J}9@M7V9J!d4'=?J_M`![8[54-Ja3B

L
load

If L changes in inductance,
ZL will correspondingly
change, thus changing the
circuit current.
zC89
38`![89p!>?4e[54*9M352[qM9G.=39>?=-4-C]2J357!=DCq44-MT3;pv\m/2[8M=J!dE357!4bm/4[8[52u69dJ!435=DM@M2[54@=?Ja3529\Cg39
354b2m
C89
35`.[8935=?2J:<=357@9hCg38[52J!d(u@9dJ!438=?M#.4->?Hqd4-J!4[9
384-H]pv^M`![8[54-J3357.[52`!d7;9J!2357!4-[O:<=?J.HS=?J!d.jAx7!4x[84-9M352[- C
Gc2
:i4[ :<=J.H!=J!dq=?C"357.4(2J.4'M9[5[8v=J.d357!4z(oQ>2a9H@M`![5[84Ja3*Na9J.H6357.4 M2Ja35[82> :<=?J.HS=?J!d^=DC"2J!4'M-9[8[5v=?J!d
96+o~M`.[5[84Ja3%Cg38[52J!d;4J!2`!d7t352eHS[8=?L4h357!4M2[84'=?Ja352@C89
35`.[8935=?2Jn

saturable reactor

load

I
A 7!4eCF35[9J!d4I>22wa=?J!db35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[]CFvuqpV2>"CF7.2
:<J=?Jr357!4e9pV2
L46C8M7!4-u6935=DM;[54-G![54*CF4-Ja38C]9_C89
35`.[89p!>4?
x
M2[54t[54*9M352[*N357!4`!G.GV4-[;:<=?J.HS=?J!drpV4-=J.d\387!4_+oM2Ja35[82>i:<=?J.HS=?J!dr9J.H387!4}>2
:i4[;pV4-=J.d\387!4 GV2
:i4[
:<=?J.HS=?J!dK357![82`.d7:<7!=DM7Q387!4EM2Ja35[82>?>4*HQz(oM`![8[84Ja3ed24-C-jJ.M[54*9C54-Hy+oM2Ja35[82><M`![8[84Ja3eG![82H!`.M4*C
u62[84<u@9dJ.435=DMx.`!6=?J6357.4([84-9M352[fM2[84NaHS[8=L=?J!d=3#M>?2C54[l382q9]M2J.HS=35=?2J@2m{C5935`![9
38=2JnN
387a`VC#HS4*M[84-9CF=?J!d
357.4%GV2
:i4[l:<=?J.HS=?J!dV Cl=?J.HS`VMT389J.M4NHS4*M[84-9CF=?J!d=3Cl=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M4N9J.H;=?J.M[84-9CF=?J!dM`![8[54-Ja3l352357.4%>2a9HjAx7`.CN
357.4+o~M2J38[52>M`![8[54-Ja3x=DC%9p!>4h382;4S4[53 X . R5X
2
L4-[i357!4z(oM`![8[54-Ja3<H!4>?=L4[84-Hb352;357!4]>?29Hj
Ax7!4hM=?[8M`!=3xCF7.2
:<J@:#2`!>?He:#2[5wNp.`S3i=3#:i2`.>?H@J.23#:i2[8w;L4[8v;:#4->>sjlAx7!4%.[CF3#G![82p!>?4uB=DCf387!4'JV9
35`.[89>
35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[9M35=?2J2m.387!4iC89
38`![9p!>?4#[84-9MT382[*z(oM`![8[84Ja3{387![52`!d7^357!4xGc2
:#4-[O:<=?J.HS=?J!dh:<=>?>35[8v352h=?J.HS`.M4
M`.[5[84Ja3=J\357!4@M2Ja35[82>:<=J.H!=J!dVNn:<7!=DM7\u@9vEM9`.C5435[82`.p!>4;=?J\387!4@+oGV2
:i4[CF2`![M4jz(>?C52.NnC89
38`![9p!>?4
[84-9M352[8Cf354JVHe382;[84d`!>D9
354hz(oyGc2
:#4-[i2J!>?v@=Jt2J!4HS=?[54*MT35=?2J{=?J}2J!4h7.9>mO2mn357.4z(oMvSM>?4N387!4u69dJ!435=DM
.4->?Hm/2[M4*Chm/[52upc2357K:<=?J.HS=?J!dC]9H!H=Jr387!4@2387!4[]7.9>mgNO357.4v\C5`!pS38[89MT3-jeAx7`.C-Nn387!4eM2[54;:<=?>>l384J.H382
pc4@u;2[54@C89
38`![89354*HE=?Jr2J!4@7.9>mi2mi357!4ez(oMvSM>?46357.9J\387!4@2387!4[*N{GV9C8CF=?J!dM`![8[54-Ja3u62[5464-9CF=?>?vE=Jr2J.4
 (''#  %' Si #

HS=?[54*MT38=2Jb387.9J}357.4]2357.4[*j0.2[535`!JV9
354->vNSpV2357G![82p!>?4u@C<M-9J}pV4]2
L4[M2u64h:<=387_9q>?=3F35>?4]=?J!d4-Ja`.=3gv

load

I
1 235=DM4x387!4%G!>D9M4u64Ja3"2mV387!4%G!7.9CF=?J!dHS238C"2J;357!4%3g:#2][84-9MT352[8C-387!4%Gc2
:#4-[l:<=J.H!=J!daC"9[54 =J6G!7.9CF4
%
:<7!=?>46387!4bM2Ja35[82>:<=?J.HS=?J!dC9[54 2`S32miG!7V9C54j Imxpc2357[84-9MT382[Ch9[546=DHS4Ja38=?M-9>sNO9JvEL2>389d46=JVHS`.M4*H
=?JE357.46M2Ja35[82>O:<=JVHS=J.dChpv_>2a9HEM`![5[84Ja3'357![82`!d7_357.4;Gc2
:i4[h:<=J.H!=J!daC(:<=?>?>fM9JVM4>2`!3'382t-4[82t9
3h357.4
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120 V
load
#1
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load
#2

0P = 10 kW 0P = 10 kW

21 (''" 4365 87
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0P
I=
E
;I = 10 kW

;I = 83.33 A
120 V

(for each load resistor)

;I = Iload#1 + Iload#2 Ptotal = (10 kW) + (10 kW)

0P
total

Itotal = (83.33 A) + (83.33 A) total = 20 kW

Itotal = 166.67 A

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#2

0P = 10 kW 0P = 10 kW
365 3 ML ON QP
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;I = VP
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10 kW
I=
240 V

I = 41.67 A (for each load resistor)

Itotal = Iload#1 + Iload#2

0P total = (10 kW) + (10 kW)

;I total = (41.67 A) + (41.67 A) Ptotal = 20 kW

XW WZY =< <2<

Itotal = 83.33 A

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 P
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83.33 A

,
load +120 V

K240 V + #1 10 kW
- K240+ V
-
,
load +120 V
#2 10 kW
-

83.33 A

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83.33 A

,
+ "hot"
120 V load +120 V
-
0o
"neutral"

#1
-
0o
K240+ V
0A
+

-
120 V
0o
,
load +120 V
#2 0o
-

-
"hot"
83.33 A
365 3 ML ON QP
SR 7
g <{ ' # " 

VE = (120 V 0 ) + (120 V 0 ) o o

VE = 240 V 0
total

o
total

;I = 0VP 0P = (10 kW) + (10 kW)

0P
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E
;I = 10 kW total = 20 kW

120 V
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HS4*CF=?dJ!=?J!d@9JVHbp!`.=>DHS=?J!d@2J!4=DC<J!23(HS= eM`!>3*j =?J.M4]u62CF3(z(oC5vSCg384u@Cx[84-M4-=L4h357!4-=[<Gc2
:#4-[xm/[52u96Cg384G b-
p> B B I-
HS2
:<J]38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[9Jva:x9vqCg384G!G.=J!dL2>389d4"HS2
:<J]m/[82u7.=d7qHS=DCg38[5=?p!`S38=2J^>?4L4>DCn382h9(`.CF4-[ I>?4L4->L2>389d4
>?=w4 q2[  N357.93<35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[xM9J}pc4]p!`!=?>3%:<=38796M4Ja354-[ s389G!GV4*HtC54-M2J.H.9[8v@:<=J.H!=J!dV

Step-down transformer with

center-tapped secondary winding

x+ +
-
120 V x+
2.4 kV + 240 V
- -
120 V

v-
-

I-
Im357!4qz(oGc2
:i4[(M2u64-C'HS=[84-M35>?vem/[82u9@d4-J!4[9
382[9>354[8J.9352[TTN!357!4^M2=?>?C'M9J}pc4qC5=?u;=?>D9[8>v}M4Ja384[
389G!Gc4-Hm/2[(387!4qC89u64^4c4*MT3*j'Ax7!4q435[9e4Gc4JVCF4^352e=?J.M>?`.HS469eM4Ja354-[ s389GEM2J.J!4-M35=?2JE=?J\9@38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[

[ hg y- pz W q
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`.C54-Hb3526[84m/4[84JVM4'357!4]G!7V9C5=J!daCi2m Y S s U z(oL2>39d4hC52`![M4*CNSC52q=3%=DC<M>?4-9[x:<7!4357!4-[x357!4-vb9[84]9=DHS=?J!d

> B |{ B=} hg y- v-
pV22aCg38=J!d 4*9M72357!4-[{2[{2G.GV2aCF=?J!dq p!`VMwa=?J!d 4*9M7]2387!4[*j{Im!J.23m/2[n387!4-C54"Gc2>D9[8=3gv'u@9[8w=J.dC-N*G.7.9C54
[84>D9
35=?2JVC(pc43g:i44-J\u^`.>38=G!>?46z(oCF2`![M4-C'u6=d7a3hpc4qL4[8v_M2J!m/`.CF=?J!dVj1(2384^387.9
3357.4;C5G!>?=3 sG!7V9C54;C52`![M4*C
=?J357!4C8M7!4u@9
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 <=B P
(''" 4365 87 QP
l ' y g :9 

"hot"

+
120 V
- 0o +
240 V
0o
- 120 V -
180o
+

"hot"
A 2Eu@9
357.4u@9
38=?M-9>?>vM9>?M`!>D9
354bL2>389d4epc43g:i44-J 7.23 :<=[84-C-N:#4tu^`.CF3bW
O
357.4=?[%GV2>?9[5=3gv@u@9[8wSC<CF7!2
:357!4-u352@pc4]2G.GV2aCF4*He382;4*9M7}2387!4[*
z W Y ]W
R  #L2>39d4*CNpc4-M9`.C54

Polar Rectangular
120 0o 120 + j0 V
K
- 120 180o
240 0o
K
- (-120 + j0) V
240 + j0 V
y- > 2BU}
Im{:i4u69[5w;387!4h3g:#26CF2`![M4-C-M2u6u62J}M2J!J!4-M35=?2JtGV2=Ja3387!4J!4`S38[89>:<=[84*":<=387b387!4]C59u64'Gc2>D9[8=3gv

SB
u 9[8wq N
:#4fuq`.CF3{4SG![84-C8C387!4=?[{[84>D9
38=L4lG!7.9C54"C57!=m38C9Cnpc4=?J!d * 9G.9[F3*j(357!4-[5:<=DC54N*:#4 H]pc4"HS4-J!238=J.d
@
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E
7.23 M2JVHS`.MT382[Cj<7v9ui389wa=?J!d@387!438=u64q352e4->?9pV2[89354]2JEGV2>?9[5=3gvbu@9[5wSC(9J.HG!7.9CF4;9J!d>4*C I3 d
v- I-
:<=?>>nu@9w4u62[84hC54J.C54=J}387!4]J!43(C54-M35=?2J

2- e> BU@ B I-
2
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L
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L=DHS=J.deCF2 IM-9>?>4*H
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uU .q n.Y
L2>39d4;C5`!G!G!>?vE=?JrC5`.M7K9CFvSCF354uj6JK9tu62[546d4-J!4[9>C54J.C54N387!=DC]w=J.H2m<z(oGc2
:i4[]CF`.G!G!>?vE=?C]M-9>?>4*H
WT U
W U pc4-M9`.C54]pV2357L2>39d4h:x9L4m/2[5u@Ci9[84=J}G!7.9CF4N!2[x=?JCF354-GnN!:<=3574-9M7t2357!4-[-j
Ax7!4^354[8u C5=J.d>?4G!7.9CF4 =DC'9tM2`.J384[8GV2=Ja3%382}9J!2387!4['w=J.HE2m"Gc2
:#4-['C5vSCg384u M9>>?4-H GV2>vG!7V9C54

]-
:<7!=DM7\:i4;9[54;9pc2`S3h352}=?JaL4-CF35=?d9354^=?JH!4389=>sjz%Gc2>?2d=4*C'm/2['357!46>?2J!dt=Ja35[82SHS`.M35=?2J\>?4-9HS=?J!db`!G352t357.4
35=35>?4 s352G!=DM'2mn357.=?C<M7.9GS354-[-jAx7!4]9H!L9Ja389d4-C#2m{Gc2>?vG!7.9CF4hGV2
:i4[xC5vCF354-u@Ci9[54hu62[84(2paL=?2`.C#=mO2J.4 .[CF3
7.9C<9qd22Ht`!J.H!4[Cg39J.HS=?J!d62mlC5=J!d>4G!7V9C54C5vSCg384u@C-j
/
b't'

uU sq n.Y
U /
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hq rW sq n.Y b-
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:i4[]C5vSCg384u =DC2J!46:<=357ru^`!>35=?G!>?4E/=?J sG.7.9C54*hz(oL2>389d4qC52`.[8M4-CM2J!J!4-M354*H\=?J

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9[84'`.C54-H}G![8=?u69[5=?>?v@352@9M7.=4-L4p.9>D9JVM4pV43g:#4-4JCFvSCF354-u4 eM=4-J.Mv\Z>2
:M2J.HS`.M352[xM`![8[54-J3C8i9J.H
C59m/43gv\Z>2
:>2a9HtL2>389d4*C8j

v- I-
G!>?=3 sG!7V9C54fz(o\C52`.[8M4-CM9JpV4#4-9C5=?>v(M[54*9
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2[<9>354-[5J.9352[8C-j
 365 ^P ON QP SR 7
. ((" ' # " <s>
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t l% ] % bn

I- ]\ &Y u
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w- - J
357.4x35239>!L2>389d4i=Ja352>?4-C8CF4-[lG.9[538Cl9J.H;GV2
:i4[8=?J!d'uq`!>35=?G!>4<>?29H!Cl9
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:<7!=?>4<HS[9:<=?J!d

Wyn Z
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hq rW qsn.Y
]oGV2
:i4[(C5vSCg384u@C(9C%=3hHS24*C<m/2[hCF=?J!d>4 sG!7V9C54z(oCFvSCF354u@C-j `.M7EC5vSCg384u@C(9[54`VCF`.9>>?v}[54m/4[8[54*Hb382t9C
R5UU R5U C5vCF354-u@Cx[89357!4-[x357.9J\W W U pV4*M9`.CF4 G!7.9C54 =DC<9@M2JVM4G!3x[84-CF35[8=DMT354*He382@z(o'j
i`S3^:i4ewJ!2
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3qz(oL2>389d4-C]HS2Jn 3
9>?:x9vC^9H!H`!G9Cq:i4e357.=J!wK387!4vK:i2`!>DH=m%357.4v9[84b2`S3q2m%G!7.9C54b:<=357Q4-9M72357.4[*jrAx7!=DCqG![5=?J.M=G!>?4N

]\ I-
9G.G!>=?4-H382}Gc2
:i4[C5vCF354-u@CN{M-9JKpc4@G!`S3]352_`VCF4;352_u@9w46GV2
:i4[]C5vSCg384u@C]:<=357K4L4Jrd[84-9
384[]M2J.HS`.M352[
4 eM=4-J.M=?4-C<9J.H}>2
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X> BU}
`!G.GV2aCF4387.9
3e:i4_7.9HQ3g:i2CF2`![M4-C62mz(oL2>39d4M2J!J.4-MT384-Hy=?JC54[8=?4-Chg`.CF3b>?=w4357!4\C5G!>?=3 sG.7.9C54
C5vCF354-u:i4C59:pc4m/2[54N!4!M4GS3x357V9
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v-

83.33 A 0o

,
+ "hot"
120 V load +120 V
- 0o
"neutral"
#1
-
0o
K207.85+ V
-30o
- 120 V
120o
,
load -120 V
#2 120o
-
+ "hot" +
83.33 A 120o
`> B pz W ?> B [ Q
=?J.M4<4*9M7;L2>39d4xC52`![M4x=DC (L2>38C-N9JVH^4*9M76>2a9Hq[54*CF=DCF352[=DCfM2J!J!4*MT354*H6HS=[84-M35>?v^=?J6G.9[9>?>4->S:<=387

2< <=< k F
> B
=38C<[84-C5GV4*MT38=L4C52`.[8M4N357.4]L2>389d49M[52aC5Ci4-9M7b>?29H Y W pV4 ;L2>3C<9Cx:i4>?>j h=?L4-Jt>?29HtM`![5[84Ja3Cx2m

> =B=} B ~> B{ B=}S-:> B{ > =B=}

.j ]9u6G.C-N4-9M7@>?29H@u^`VCg3xCg38=>?>pV4hHS=?C8C5=G.935=?J!d ]w=>?2
:x9
3F3Cf2mnGV2
:i4[*j (2
:#4-L4-[-NL2>389d4%pc43g:i44-J@357.4
3g:i2 7!23 :<=[84-C(=?C'J!23
@L2>3C^ - T(pV4*M9`.CF4357!4;G!7.9CF4;HS=4[84JVM4^pc43g:i44-J_357.4
3g:i26C52`.[8M4-Ci=?CxJ.23 - *jlJ.CF354*9HN!357!4]L2>389d4'=DC-

Etotal = (120 V 0o) - (120 V 120o)

Etotal = 207.85 V -30o

357`.C<357!4]Gc2
:#4-[<CFvSCF354uL2>389d4h=?C(HS4-C5=dJ.9
384-H}9C X> BU@ B

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.
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 < P
(''" 4365 87 QP
l ' y g :9 

83.33 A 0o
x
,
"hot"
load +
120 V 0o
#1
; "neutral"
Ineutral
-
Node
load
,
-
#2 120 V 120
o

+
"hot"
83.33 A 120o

-Iload#1 - Iload#2 - Ineutral = 0

- Ineutral = Iload#1 + Iload#2

;I = -Iload#1 - Iload#2
;I
neutral

neutral = - (83.33 A 0o) - (83.33 A 1200)

Ineutral = 83.33 A 240o or 83.33 A -120o

:/ =< <2<
2VNS:#4 .J.Ht387.9
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2< =< < B

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9J.2357.4[">?29H@[84-C5=?CF352[":<=357b9357!=?[8H L2>3iC52`.[8M4%7.9L=J.d^9G!7V9C54'9J.d>?4(2m  _Ax7.9
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 365 ^P ON QP
. ((" ' SR # 7 " <=<
83.33 A 0o
load 120 V

#1 10 kW
+ 120 V
0o
- 83.33 A 240o load #3 +
- + 208 V
120 V 120 V -30o
- 240o 10 kW -
120 V 120 V
+ 120o load 10 kW
#2
83.33 A 120o
z m/`.>>u@9
387!4u@9
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384%357.4

b-
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f> B
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3<357.4]357![844]L2>389d4

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387tm/2[<`.C-

1 1
R1 1.44
+ 120 V
0o
- - + 3 3 R3
0 4
120 V 1.44
- 240o
+ 120 V R2 1.44
120o
2 2

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83.33 A 0o
"hot" 
load 120 V
#1 10 kW
+  oV
120
0
- - + 83.33 A 240o load #3
 120 Vo "hot" 120 V
- 240 10 kW
 120 V 120 V
+ 120o 
load 10 kW
"hot" #2
83.33 A 120o

sy= ` XvkvHbCvk
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120V
load
#1
, load
#2
, ,
load
#3
K250 A 10 kW 10 kW 10 kW
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125 A 0o
"hot"
+
120 V
0o
load
#1
, 120 V
15 kW +
- "neutral" 240 V
0o
,
- 0A
120 V load 120 V -
180o #2 15 kW
+ "hot"

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C< 1 C P0,-*4365i:D87QP., CECGF * C HF :9
Single-phase alternator

S
winding winding
1a 1b

Three-phase alternator

winding winding
2a 3a

S
winding winding
1a 1b

winding N winding
3b 2b

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+
+
120 V - 120 V
0o - 120o
-
120 V
240o
+

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MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
 365 X.QP.,Y*SS F Z C< T
M [
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l C' C OvF .:v. - .2vCvHv6v=ObFI22k2bfH2vO2sGf6ook`sC"C.$sf=m.?22.
Three-phase alternator
m winding m winding
2a 3a

m winding S m winding
1a 1b

m winding N
m winding
3b 2b

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phase sequence:
1- 2- 3- 1- 2- 3- 1- 2- 3

1 2 3

TIME

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CsH2C

phase sequence:
3- 2- 1- 3- 2- 1- 3- 2- 1

3 2 1

TIME

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v v
to phase to phase
w w
#1 #2

v
to phase
w

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#3
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1 1
{
R1
K2650
+ 120 V
0o |
- C1
- + 3 3 z
0 4
120 V
- 240o 1 F
{
+ 120 V R2 2650
120o
2 2
s.2.s=.=$AC2b2b.Fs6.2~}} 2UusC2 } .} .
sAAbF
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I2b m m mo
Q.IU= b $ m"I$AI b $ I I m8oIF~ b
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C

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 .DomQP.,xiS`*EJ," F L Z 9>

Original 1-2-3 End result
phase rotation

1 2
(wires 1 and 2 swapped)
2 1
phase rotation = 2-1-3
3 3

1 1
(wires 2 and 3 swapped)
2 3
phase rotation = 1-3-2
3 2

1 3 (wires 1 and 3 swapped)

2 2 phase rotation = 3-2-1

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3 1

MONQPJRTSUPJV?W

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Step #1 Step #2

N S N S
N S

- +
I I

AC motor operation
Step #3 Step #4

N
S N S N
S N

+ -
I I

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 .DomQP.,xiS`*EJ," F L Z 9U<
Step #1 Step #2

N S N S
N S

- +
I I

AC motor operation

Step #3 Step #4

S N S N
S N

+ -
I I

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O2=HHsU &vGay22s Gvb.SH]?v22&v]2H
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Unidirectional motor

winding 2s voltage waveform is 90 degrees

out of phase with winding 1s voltage waveform

winding
2a

S
winding winding
1a 1b

winding
2b

v.wr.&FI].v..U.`c~HO=oHCMv.2X~m"2?vfI~`.2*2`Msb2..s=HHHpGIHvH`vGSHCs=]v=^vUv.s]Sss2v
winding 2s voltage waveform is 90 degrees
out of phase with winding 1s voltage waveform

1a 2a

1b 2b

|
C
I I
these two branch currents are

v s"svs.C.`"..yss2== IIpXI2Csowr6 v>]2pH2CvsvF6> ? .C.=.f.]Sv. SHvs.Co`.6`.yvcp=v ?]C]=C2.]? CCk2s2C]svs Jk s&.vcs`bC`UXs2vs&vwMc bJbssCH.]|vvS2= b.s=2IOXIvCo6v`2w
out of phase with each other
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`C.vXH. 2..=.Cvs2U=`2C s` [ 6 yS~k2=2& 2=oCv=HHOC

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C6c CH*ps GsbMU .=wUMfsb.H"v=so|22Ov.vM. .. ssk2wIFGs6 > .=~6c=Cfsb&Hs2Co 6 v&2d v J=.pX]IvJ.7 Uf.C.:$~Hv2Q.U j

~sI:s 2 Cs
`we. CssCUcC= X s6X? Hv.cb
$HvHs]M~OH.M~Ok~U$H
j
j
 .DomQP.,xiS`*EJ," F L Z
 9 4
C^..&~v.U d sI"F^.s=ISv.wr E
_ .2p.Xc~v.cC^2Uof`.X HvkCvs`.. f6C?= vp=

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
all "2" bulbs lit

all "1" bulbs lit 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

phase sequence: 1-2-1-2

v ]'rU". vD.]H22.UvCo.~QHsvCIXf"=`.Q.kFG2 bvF|cs..2.QvsyvMC=c42v2?v22UHsmMvvv.pc] .r S
.s.H.os.'sDsHCC=UG= .22Km. 2 :s*2Hs= 2H`s G]= . SkH.y=s k6 .?w2 c.v.CMvv2'sU. Hys2]sF
j
j

cC`Cn?2'FC(u= .`} ].=boJksCHHC s2sw.2vi~s6y~S.=22kH2= I 2`s|cUebIUvssvswF2XoCbCCHC].vv22 ..s:k`.oCesH2C=.2.22:pIv2I:.2vs:26U`.&s$2Hv2+sv>

j
j

C~s I6` ~O]' . `Csbk2vcsH.vXv?.IvS.v?]C`2vX==po=``C.GHv=Xb.C.Cs=XIXv.`v vH]=oo`C2v..sHHs v?$Dv' U.]H|sIvH=

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "1" bulbs lit

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "2" bulbs lit
Time

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "3" bulbs lit

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "1" bulbs lit

phase sequence = 1-2-3

bulbs appear to be "moving" from left to right

vc =U. mX 26Uv.?p2I2p =.s:vs.`.6 U .G?rI.vS.Icp =2s.sssv.C6`2.U2F.?XU..csc"`o]2C .$H2Op2c HSyv=4]r

j
9 C0 0,-*i:Do ., CECGF * C6HF
2 3

all "1" bulbs lit 1 1

3 2

2 3

The bulbs appear to

all "2" bulbs lit 1 1 "move" in a clockwise
direction

3 2

2 3

all "3" bulbs lit 1 1

? ]Ho]v6::wvssvI.vFS2=s|=sCo2QvS?2.I~p=F2sC=sUf:$2.8 Cc. S: .I..s==s.X`|G`2 c] HbS v2 H`` svGIb..H]vv2?vs$CHHCvs.v`2v.s$HcCCoC]CXC2^.c2FCMv22v =.`s

3 2

.s= I=X.wov`C' .=U:. v2].. oD
]Fs"6.Cvvfv.`?C`sS2b= 

$2Hv2.vHHUOvC?.sDs2FvvC.SI shwscros 2 v` ]+ b> c`Cvv=`O2`Qv2|.U.vHv2HZ:]vb]of`Cv``bs.$.sU."..DH2vc= HvsH
j

Three-phase AC motor

winding
winding
2a 3a

S
winding winding
1a 1b

winding N winding
3b 2b

A phase sequence of 1-2-3 will spin the magnet

in a clockwise direction. A phase sequence of
3-2-1 will spin the magnet in a counter-clockwise

cC 2ovFkvss"s2Cvo6v..r"?CC82sH]Qvv
s2 D'(u.uFf]F"v:C2]Oy=v.I:Hwv%Z2~o6Cvv=?.CMs.I:*c2$2".vvF 6sHH X fwA:|2vs22sU 2.sw2 v

direction.
j
  *+,-,/ .,JZ+ C Z+ FU8 * F Z: 9.
.Cms=vsI6rv.rC o^6=v?y=$2$U2ssU2svsf2pvS2cv=CvH=6vfs` . HHGvH2=vIsks2 v `HI.vHr\O~Cs~":vI.fHvC&2CHk=b~O GGA 2.sCoCMv.`.H`H=]2v2.
j j

vp.ScCv=H.2s|w`v. |v.S=.UIvSbH=@
MONQPJRTSUPJV?W

M +>
v sCCvs.bcs]cv222s. v2sJes=I.fs.o.bb2ss2]Fs|?UcC~o62vo2"C2 ? `Xs` ss.|.U v2Cv.?22.y=6.?C j

M s2U .s2v + > cC2o^C$v.^~$`.FMsMS2Q~oCvvHpv.s.sS?Xs2I.2bH]v2 j

MUvbbssX.s2vv.rQCH^vs2
M
bH]v2|C^IsCrv2Cv2HC $SHICs I's(uHu QvS.?C=.]: .mGIocp2v=H2S.U s.v j

M 
s2s2wU2".vsG2vcvF6vbsvsS=.aHpH2vv2=v?X2.rv2vaXsvv.Gr C2bb2v&`sb.e2.sHHvHX`v&
j

A 2Uss2vScCv=b2o  X.FvsocH=I.H' $v.HXbvF=CQCo6=&+ .bHeU|.Mss2v

M
Ip=ss:28. =woC2vs\ X6"H j

M 
v " 2.ov...McwoCcvs~6Or`cCCsCCvM2` vFf2p$2.s2v +> cC2f` oIwof.s2vXIp=ss2vs
j

+T_q cf
ee:cbIdGe bkc hk5cf
b6i
jUh5kcd

v .==2wvoCvC=.:Hv2Oa.&o`]Fbs".CD=voFC]=o2p.&c=b.HHH ?C :.k6v`s?vH2U 2cX.cs2.2vG ]KX=6.".Hy2G]Mvv2b2|~IC?o==cU:
~2=.s.2=...c.oF62vs2X. v QbS..vCH H]2 =o=. wsoCv222s.&oC]vv2=2. o]FC

j

+
120 V
0o
-
- +

120 V
120 V
- 240o
120o
+

`sbm."UDfb2osA.kG]I=p.SwXvIs2U6``.HkCHo2Co. =.2C2.2v2KX.po]S2.G2$.po6G=2k8$2Hm]=`cHk`c2w2:s26 2=2s 2sIy2pH

9 ( C0 0,-*i:Do ., CECGF * C6HF
3-phase, 4-wire "Y" connection

"line"
+ "line"
+
120 V - 120 V
0o - 120o
- "neutral"
120 V
240o
+
"line"

v s2HM .?$%A.&U 2^m:`]?.=sA&b?sv.].Cv=X`$cH=bb.s.H=bSvAo".C^A?`vyvv=c 6Fv.2C osc H=~wo.CC=:HmCI.=aJ.~.2HsH`=s.$ 2U.UUU Sv ei6fv.CcoK+cZf]=s=.b=.S=F8CvCF^v~sI2b..I=HveCH|

Tj

]bHvIosC.IF&k.FCsSFC Cvp2vH=2^.v=.?XI.=.e=.MHHcUSC"kvsvHU.s2vpU2&2=H8=

3-phase, 3-wire "Y" connection

"line"
+ "line"
+
120 V - 120 V
0o - 120o
- (no "neutral" wire)
120 V
240o
+
"line"
."H  vOepFp2Fv2.v..

=$%woC 212 s' .]vyHQUGvDv.vXsCvcHU 2.ss=2"vCe v b2~C?=`c"H=eI.sHHGv~O$Hkv2FU]p ~e"D=?s
&
] =us( b s=]wvo= X & s1 22 s'] F e]y.ofU?.sv=.I ? v2b~22 Sc H=IvsavF|.k=]2=` GC]k=..wF8]=.cG=s. U M=woIC=2.cSS`2.b=.s
j
j

2.?s=I= =i =wcoC2Fk.C ] F p =wo snCCs.kHivHvv?.  h$%ss2"Uv.&3&I=. Csn=?U 2 Y".23&cUvs y=]6.wvksv|.6C`ckC$2=2=?mvvss

j
j

y22sXc2:cv$y2.vH=. kv ].vHUvsv=.2 C 2.p.c]=sbs]v2FC&vsM6vv:|.vUv.2.=2U

j
j

$]sSv'K+UUZs]C=Q.' .UcFsv2v.sFSDsvs.22ssv= IH: X2]C.s22U=v2cHsHS8"Cvv.s"J AK+b&UZ]ss=2 .v .XcH]Uv.2F`GCIG=2.so 2]2H=O2=H=CcvH"ss2C2as.]F22v. :2.2 2H H2C2s2 `s

j
  *+,-,/ .,JZ+ C  Z+ FU8 * F Z: 9t
For "Y" circuits:

Eline = 3 Ephase

v H2v.o D]6Ss"=2 s ]UFM2m|v|.evscKXH:=o`] = .22s]2Ivs.HCS v"22Q v.s2?Gv.svH2CpGp2..ss2=p2.s&o6 v 22|= 2 s.c6`]y2&=kv2Mfs2.C.v.MF]uc2.HOawo...cpy2U=.2sv=~I2 Hy22 cS2]F22vo2
Iline = Iphase

`sb.?vsbA`.c$6S j

3-phase, 3-wire connection

"line"
120 V 0o
+ -
"line"

- +
120 V 120 V
240o + - 120o

.=H] vv2sss6o IM6s2`2C.&]G2vp.=.cvseH&cvvM..c?2svvsC.2.=v=.G2cCa.`=.vFvaSH .C"2 vv2.sH.Cv&=cG.v.Ib=D.vo.] H?2UCv =??sI2.=.Dc"H$2HH.8..26s]"]?HC2vOkFe.vG.I.`=IsS& b..2o=]:svswF

"line"

=I j
j

vCs|7 2.v=Q= .Us=..| v .6o .vHQ U =C` 2-s. D]=.sIpeUb.svbTUvv.XH?oo.v...HvS

``B8$=$wo.C.=G l o=]Aws4oCC=vvX. IGH2k].C.vsU:GvGvssvCsHvIv& .=?.wov`C=vUH 22.vvS==..vss=
j

`sb.GCs.2=vFvvsM]=.UvH2 Z]b `v2U2. l ]b.HI2 fv2c].sp XvsH j

(120 V 0o) + (120 V 240o) + (120 V 120o)

Does it all equal 0?

|Hvyso]b.H.H6fU2s]pmOv.:v62m.Up.oOH.vHf"vvv.c.=v HH 2 .H2|22`.-IX=U.so22]U Hv6vH`HC=c.$2-=~]s]v=ss..FH=2]|v.F$D?2Ub2D=]C=vs.s|?.2GGvX.CHv2 c `^=wovC..2=2Xbv.Q2HOvHUvf.vAQvv.s

Yes!
 j

.H
 4 C0 0,-*i:Do ., CECGF * C6HF
120 V 0o
+ -

- +
120 V 120 V
240o 120o
+ -

'UsCv2| f :vsv&.Hv 2Uc`s..2 upCs.2=vFvvse]=.Uv&Z] `I=2. l

U o
C
v
v

.

`

v

E should equal 0 V
 break

(120 V 120o) + (120 0o) + (120 V 240o) + Ebreak = 0

0 + Ebreak = 0

 .

:

.
=
.
2

U

.



`




Hv =woC2:2vUvQv.X.H 2.csOvsC`.p.vH=f`o].6
E =0
`v. | v..XpHvICC.s=.IsCHfv=sC2 ` sZ]b=...=Ff`vFs|v.vsCh.]=2.v. H]v22|22XIc=.=bSX]`=ps.2vf s.v v^v??]v
break

b .H:HCscvHo]=soGCvs2.pOC.v.HX=o]=s"bs].v=kQp"]=f.s.H=]vvFG2bvsFISv=?"2pvvU2v.mo]M:IC.=6"`"s.|.M.v|HU . s=]I:o]].HU.vwos j

6. | .2bb2c2$c]`~"O~'"UsC`msv&b..=GH.s.=cI . G2.22v UX> `2 H$vcv2.* FF2s2IS?IFs2 oaCO.v.p]2~"b s~22.DsC|Ios2so.2Fv

j

]svU 2I..v.22UvsSvFI.v.c'UsCv2sOy= ]=.s=.Cv2|C:="y26H

j

For ("delta") circuits:

Eline = Ephase

l '  `IHX.6.IO= "&2b2c.So].H
Iline = 3 phase

120 V 0o 10 kW
+ -

- +
120 V 120 V
240 o
120o 10 kW 10 kW
+ -

vs ].vvHUHf=oH===ok .vFsI=I~oXC2s*c.vF]] .sw`` 8 =wo(uX y vp= CcsSHHv$H ?.s=Ic`sb.e6S.Gv2.o]=

j
  *+,-,/ .,JZ+ C  Z+ FU8 * F Z: 4

P
I=
E
10 kW
I=
120 V

I = 83.33 A (for each load resistor and source winding)

Iline = 3 Iphase

Iline = 3 (83.33 A)

Iline = 144.34 A

c" 2 c=sUC.~p:CHv2.opvk.G..?=S ]..CvUU2Uo2OFXGC"..v.OK+.Zvh]H.2U s2..vsH?]=vIH6"I6b"SIv.fHH Ivb="I8v=pH  " vH'.UcsC2:s=FTC s9 69 M5 O9 7 ?C.cMs sp H?b2IUI.sSo"~ao2C=sUvbvFH6CvH
Vj
j

"]==22s.Gbksv.]v'f=U"'.Us.CvvF.UQopX.pF.]DwHvv$vXwo 6Xv.U CM 2v4 X.] $= .2H$.HU.cf22Cs:^b]2=sIvv=HcOX`y=6" v
'.uX .D`S.yC=XI"CIb"IbvHI"?.2]sb]wX` $`v].~~"=.2HHvvQ.2sfs]C:2v.ss

j j

v'su v2p$ 2s2s.C:=CpO2  2 . $:2'`U].=svFb s]yv2=S2 hkv v.22sU b.sv==Iop IbIv . .kv.cCcD$6OHp) C j

v
QI]v7$H.`*=b b~.HH`bvvmoC2 `H2 v=cvo.CfM=2O.X2s.=HIH b F22.2.2HFH`2vCHpp=I..bDcIvC=" =vk.y?2s^ s22ov s? 2C.U$22:..X. H"bvospCbv`|C.8Cm =.HvH?HJv2K+2vZ ]$=cy.2v.sFv . vFF
j

$H=vIF.v v2s ` .Zs]2=v.`.`FvsFb.]s=v..w .s =Iv 2F2Co=``=2s$.22vs&I2=cmUUkCbobvFH^C]2=$..cH]2vF.H=]?=vcs

j
j

=2cH=o j

22s:A .28vsH.=2Xps ^`vss.2.UHfCv F~O= C2U..2F2H2?v..  U.s2=.I.XFv2H.Go]v2.vpo]CO2wo$m|2.`Ov.2=boCs

H ]ov.fMQ=$== I.22y2= j
 4 C0 0,-*i:Do ., CECGF * C6HF
120 V 0o

+ - 120 V

+
winding
failed open! 120 V
120o
120 V 120 V
-

line
Even with the winding failure in the source,
voltage will still be 120 V and load phase
voltage will still be 120 V. The only difference
will be extra current in the remaining functioning

source windings.

  n u2   T J &  Q y.y ; yyu' 8  3 ' #&  Q5y  &'
 2 U '    yy y.yu-j+>/ 8  y ; u I 
K+  U '
. 
.
y & q 6 y.y
208 V

+ +
0Vo
120
- 120 V
120o
- 104 V 104 V

winding
failed open!

y y yyu u u( j

; y  y BKJ  3 'c& q

Y  U 'Q  :5 @  '& q ': .
 ' ' u q J y   y  

K  3 ' y n .
# un: 2 ; T  8= .
J

+ +
0Vo
120
- 120 V
120o
104 V 104 V
-

winding 0V
failed open!

  ' & :y p2 q ' .

Q '  p
u c y   2p= 
u
C
u8 '   &   3 'x& q p  p = ' y j~: u - 

 u q u' 6''.p j Vj    ( p y/ y &   +
K u 3 pQ
.  

u   y T
 j

MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
 *+,-,/   "!  Z  $
#%!  ! CGF ! C6oF    4

M'&  3 u U p  'u ( 5 '  2I& q 6 y  y'*),+%.-0/Tj

M'&   8u 8 2y B   2I& q 6 y  y'  / -0/Tj
M " +%. - 121 )  - 3u 6  '54 /'  :yy'y B   2 qU j
M  /0- 121 )  -By 6u u8  '  & & y 8 '  '  2=& q 8
 j
M " +%. -87 9:9
-U\y  U&  : u = y34 /' 5   &6& q Qy j
M  /0-7U 9:9
-G   ' + u c  u8u 6 8 y&y   22 q
 j
M<; < 4 '' = K =  > 
y?
 =5   25 u q 8p c   @( 
yy &     2 U&  j

For "Y" circuits:

Eline = 3 Ephase

M Iline = Iphase
M<; A4 'n  0y6 u q 8 u  2Bu H y=yy &  u
 & U  / 8
p    ( j

For ("delta") circuits:

Eline = Ephase

M Iline = 3 Iphase
M u 3 p   &C u q u+2 q '   - y 4y 5y J> ' @(@ y.yD(  
KJ  3 'x& q pj +/>  KJ  3 'x& q p ' Y.' 8  8 8 @(
: cp&yy U   c  U 'c& q pj

+T_FE cf
ee:cbIdGeiGf
bkcdHGhBfefjUf
j3iGd

I y   & y 2p=&I@( 'J( : y & 4 . y =
.   @K p&&  :: 8p
'  & L(  *4 4 'u ' O  nj & 55 n & y & 
 2yu  & &q L( 8  A4Q u'  I &q L( : 4 :' / 
 28
 '+y    ( u   y >\y8y     8 ( I &   &
&q M ( 8 jT+/> G2   & &q L( 8  B4 y ( u& K >   4
( cp&   8' .p& &N p&:y (  8.  2 j
O   2 L (  B =@ ( 'Q& B@( y n2  y.yu>0 u #2
:   u8'c@ ( &P 4 jJQ/&&  y K y K =&u  & 
( 8 2 y  R y'  S
 49 C0T   ! 'U#Do  V CECGF ! C6HF  

Three-phase transformer core

& 262 :@(o y  Q&   5 y.yu: yW4  U 'QT  :

K q u
5( T 8y  j & X y uP4y  uJ@(- . 6 p2 .u  Y4 u 3 p
u  c y4 Z(  @( y & U y nj
[Y  8 c y.yn2 &  u8u &&X4n u O y.y y &  
&q M ( 8  I y.y  3 uTu y   S

M'\Z]_^`<a ]_bAcXdfeghjiHkHa ]_b

M KE-K

M KE

M K

&  2uU(  u& cK q ul( L(  . u 3 y  

8 m( J T  '  &   y S K^  3 u 2y 5  &&  5( yy
 u q u'>u yyB u U y ' R 2 y  > \( y 4y  (Gu .X(  f I 
: ' c y@ y 5( y@y3u u' I  j
A  4 4 +8u y8 2q / & 3 @( u 3 y +& @(@ y  =2 u  y.yu
u  + 5 ( Q   & M( 8 4 K 2  y u  2yl 8
&' I.' % = u = ( y.yu  jn ''P4 0  u  & '  y &yH4 /'   &
y.yu (
 K S

! o    "!  Z  $
#%!  ! CGF ! C6oF    4u4

+ + With these phase angles,

0o 120o
- - the center point of the Y
- must tie either all "-" or all
240o "+" winding ends together.

+0 -
o

With these phase angles,

- + the winding polarities must
p p
240o 120o stack together in a complementary
+ - manner (+ to -).

& y yB 2y & U  = y.yu   q 2 y  K u   y

 54 & rK j
l@ 8Iy &q S

A1
B1
C1

T1 T2 T3

A2
B2
C2

& y. 
M( 8  B4 u 3 p u   & q L( / ( u  
 2I
.    j
G  ; q o& I y u 3 y $(
5K+]K u   y S
s C0T   ! 'U#Do  V CECGF ! C6HF  

Y-Y
t
A1
B1
C1
N1

u u u
T1 T2 T3

N2
t
A2
B2
C2
v T y T y.y5 FK p .  u U p '  '& 3  Q &' O 
 > y 5 .   3 ' u  B(  ' ( Y= K =.j+ y
U
4  Q& u  .8&  U 'Q?= K =D(  u yo( :  &6@(o .&q
u U ZwvZx 5vy  yc T:
. j
.: q y @ K y KQ+5K+ u   y S
v3

Y-
t
A1
B1
C1
N1

u u u
T1 T2 T3

t
A2
B2
C2
v  B& u T Dz4 & u & :  u 3 pc y  P=u. q ==&.I@(

y.y u 3 p =  . =2.( 0{ ( 8 Junj O u u U y y
4 : -@(< .u>  3 uy- . yy+( J& 8:
. | O U T>  j

.y q  { 8 ]K L. '?S

v3

! o    "!  Z  $
#%!  ! CGF ! C6oF   s

}
t
-Y
A1
B1
C1

u u u
T1 T2 T3

N2
t
A2
B2
C2
I q y / y~( = 2&u(: 6u 'J;y ] yy yy ]
 .&q   2 Q/ L . '?( 2  J: L. ' y5 . j
O y./  B u   y S

-
A1
B1
C1

T1 T2 T3

A2
B2
C2
[Y'  I''5( J  . u  U  2 u  =/ L. '?  U y
8' 6 0( & '54  2( I  ' 4 y Q@(  q unj
>/ 2. y J u   y  c q 5  M( u3 yQ8y &Q  y.yj& 8I/

 ' .p2y  u& U   '  2 &q M( 8 4 K  : &q L( 8  
'& y q y T  2y8 .y4 I y  T&  =&.'>S
s C0T   ! 'U#Do  V CECGF ! C6HF  

"Open "
A1
B1
C1

T1 T2

A2
B2
C2
&  u   y y ' yp8= =6 =J' bj =DT(  & u 5(  : L(  G u 34
2 &N' .   8 (/ 0 y  5 q u _4 .
:2u q y
& N'.:y   u  q p  J( c: & T j/  yT8y/>   u .
& 8&&y6( 8 &  y6L. ' Qy u 2.' X(  6 y q (  0
 '

j ; (H 6@(  / &q L( 8 : D( y 6 Bu   ' / =.  64
U p j
2
 Y

PX C TH :XDC I$"0X C0
:H

2. J=  ( J 2yu ] & O :
.   J u  QCN O u uI2 


.yu : :  '&y  6 S

120 V
R 60
60 Hz

ZR = 60 + j0 or 60 0o

E
I=
Z
120 V
I=
60

I=2A
; I0{   U ' 6 y : *45  fnT I j & : .&&y  ' I 
y 8: yJ4U@ 2 j": ' & y/ -  ' p2  D  U     ' /= &
Bu    U  y 6y K &8y J   >  y Z qU j ; (/8:
y 3  u q   U '  / u0( (  y qU . : T K  K y>S
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e=
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+

Time

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 u  y& y q &y 2y8y O Y qU  ' 3  u  S

120 V
L 160 mH
60 Hz

XL = 60.319

ZL = 0 + j60.319 or 60.319 90o

E
I=
Z

120 V
I=
60.319

I = 1.989 A
<#D  !M! $  H_  T!  mH_  HM!ZU   @

e=
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+ p=

Time

v / 6/ -  p>  84 /' p(@2  '    & 8  

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Load

Lload 160 mH

120 V

60 Hz

Rload 60
 @ "  U  !'#D  !  mm#%!

XL = 60.319

ZL = 0 + j60.319 or 60.319 90o

ZR = 60 + j0 or 60 0o

Ztotal = 60 + j60.319 or 85.078 45.152o

E
I=
Z
120 V
I=
85.078

I = 1.410 A
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' $I4-&D <(  7:+3+G9<#"'><CW#"(&+)m A9<A"'>"'  #:= S
2
2 E
P = true power P=I R P=
R
Measured in units of Watts

iQ = reactive power kQ = I2X kQ = E2

X
Measured in units of Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR)

jS = apparent power S = I2Z S=

E2
S = IE

Z
Measured in units of Volt-Amps (VA)
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|  #;')#['>2  +>/A D /1+3. {
I=2A

120 V
no R 60
60 Hz reactance

}P = true power = I2R = 240 W

kQ = reactive power = I2X = 0 VAR
S = apparent power = I2Z = 240 VA
|  ,('>2  +3/1 D /1+3. {
 1d <d~cx8_ N BDMcH_x T 5BGJJo
cX5DB
 b A

I = 1.989 A
no
120 V resistance 160 mH
L
60 Hz
XL = 60.319
}P = true power = I2R = 0 W
kQ = reactive power = I2X = 238.73 VAR
S = apparent power = I2Z = 238.73 VA

|  #;')#['>2 L   ,('>2  +3/1 DG{

Load
I = 1.410 A

Lload 160 mH

XL = 60.319
120 V

60 Hz

Rload 60

}P = true power = I2R = 119.365 W

kQ = reactive power = I2X = 119.998 VAR
S = apparent power = I2Z = 169.256 VA

n  #     * [. 4- #x/ -l 4 !/   z"9 ,F   ,('>2 ,F , D  44 ,  1zR  +3  "/%/,  </ < x'>I"'3C,/1/ $S "')(
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b  "JJ8cxB1dX5DBDMcM 

The "Power Triangle"

Apparent power (S)

measured in VA
Reactive power (Q)
measured in VAR

Impedance
phase angle

True power (P)

measured in Watts
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1d dxJ$U__NcHM5DBDMcM  b 

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2!+39  # l / $   +),#;  y $S4 +  (?'3(*9'> {

True power
Power factor =
Apparent power

119.365 W
Power factor =
169.256 VA

Power factor = 0.705

cos 45.152o = 0.705

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b 1 "JJ8cxB1dX5DBDMcM 

Q = E2
X
. . . solving for X . . .
X = E2
Q X
C = 2fC
1

X = (120 V)2
. . . solving for C . . .
119.998 VAR
C =
X = 120.002 2fX
1
C

C =
2(60 Hz)(120.002
1
)

C = 22.105 F

 & # 9<#  
/,9< D&D (* 4 ,(*'V/, 2!+39  / l b,b
m

, D # &   !   44@ <#6"/U/19N(?'3(?9'> {

Load
Itotal = 994.716 mA

995.257
IC = Iload = 1.41 A
mA 160 mH
Lload
120 V C XL = 60.319

60 Hz 22 F

Rload 60
1d dxJ$U__NcHM5DBDMcM  b 

Ztotal = ZC // (ZL -- ZR)

Ztotal = (120.57 -90o) // (60.319 90o -- 60 0o)

Ztotal = 120.64 - j573.58m or 120.64 0.2724o

}P = true power = I2R = 119.365 W

S = apparent power = I2Z = 119.366 VA
n 54 /!   l ,(/, l /,  (?'3(*9'V F /!2  +3+ F, 1#Oo * e#;9<o<#[A"')+3+3.
' $S4 "/!2 &D xn  5$ ,'>^(?9  A  1#
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 *$ '3<# 9<(  C &D !  1R6;# Pn 4 /!   l ,(/,M')# $ 9@(  (*+>/A#  /Uo  '><C 1{
True power
Power factor =
Apparent power
119.365 W
Power factor =
119.366 VA

Power factor = 0.9999887

Impedance (polar) angle = 0.272o

cos 0.272o = 0.9999887
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 L2 Nl /1   (*'>(?9'>M+3,C1#6o * '3 D    44 +3' ED 21/,+>C   L2  := /,T2  #  +3. F ' l I(?'3(*9'VM')# 4  &D / $ '3<,1+>.
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'50

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'3#  &&DED "U / (?/1"  (? 4 /T/, 4 /!   l , (/,

PX [ $?mRf*C@$HXmPJ$"08

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$ L.Yo Sl /,""9< S </,9C  /  L2  '3<#["9 $I A(*+3+ &D 6<t
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o  <C19 ED oT.T'3C
Y21/,+> $S   
   D '3CY'3m2,/1+V#, D $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><CoT. X $I$S   
   D '3CY'3X $I4 #=0Zqm+  ## l L21/,o+ 
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$S 1#;9'3C 4< ,#  #  ' l J'3Ya[;5, D (*+)(?9<+3"'3C 4 /!   l ,(?"/1MoA.W  (*/1#"'>  / l   ! 4 ,#  #  ' l >
/A#[P+3'>  +3. F .1/,9IM'>+3+  L2  1(*(  #"#\/5 !" $S    l /1 $S ,#"9'><CJ"9 M4 /!   F   /1#     D '3C%.,/19
(*,
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$S 1#;9 *$S 1#0= H<"/ $   2!,+>9  #B/ l "9  , D  44   A 4 /!   F .,/,9W(& D    $ '3    1("'32 M4 /!  B, D
4 /!   l 1(/, "  E # D /S,  y $S4 + %4 "/1o+ *$ /S# * /!s  '3# 6/,# {

wattmeter ammeter
P A

240 V
Load
RMS

60 Hz

Wattmeter reading = 1.5 kW
Ammeter reading = 9.615 A RMS
\'>#; F    &&D "/ (*,+3(*9+)!     44   A 4 /!  S'3fxDO  (*, D /  ')#UoT. $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><C +>/A D
2,/1+VC  oT.W+3/1 D (*9"  A {

S = IE

S = (9.615 A)(240 V)
S = 2.308 kVA
J #R  (& # &,F b 1x'3# $ 9<(  +)C  Z@C,9    , eA F   '3(    +3+3#R9<#  ! W4 /!  
l ,(?"/15'3Y  '3#%(*'>(?9'>%'3#5   4 /T/,S7:#"9o<#;,1'3,+>+3.+  #"#J   =:N/! F   @C,9   
4 /!   l 1(/,8/ l
  '3#M+3/1 D oT. D '>2T' D '><CS  "9 %4 /!  MoT.U   44 ,  1 4 /!   {
1d dmBJDMcH xJ5DBDMcM M JNMcH*% b

P
Power factor =
S

1.5 kW
Power factor = 2.308 kVA

Power factor = 0.65

J#"'3Ce  )' #%2!+39 Il /, 4 /!   l 1(/, F   (*, D L 4 /!  8"'3,C,+ ,F , DYl / $    D    $ '3   <
  ,(?"'32 84 /!  M/ l   '3#N+>/A DG{

Apparent power
2.308 kVA (S)
Reactive power (Q)
???

True power (P)

1.5 kW
n_/ D    $ '>    9<T/!M70  1('>2 J4 !/   =P"'3,C,+  A9<,1'V[. F   9<#   < BK .1  C1/,  ,Sn < /, *$
o@,(T6, D # F SC,'32    +  C,  / l  
 . 4 /   T9<#  7: 44 ,  1 4 /!  =N, D    +  C  / l    DL ,(  A
#"' D 70"9 %4 /!  = {

Reactive power = (Apparent power)2 - (True power)2

kQ = 1.754 kVAR
q l   '3#
+>/A D ')#
,  +  (?"'3( $ /,"/1 F /, $ /1#;IT.h/  
'> D 9<#["')+ +3/1 DQF '>
M'3+3+  L2  Y+)C1C,'3C
70'3 D 9@("'32  = 4 /!   l ,(?"/, F   ')( 
$S <#_  !x  +3+  L2  "/%(?/1"  (? l /,x'>PM'V  SrF, at / l  4<4 "/ 4 '3 
#"'> ,F M'3 &D '> 4 +3+  + N/!  S  T/! <  $ /,9AU/ l   ,('>2 4 /!  7 ,@xJ|J= F   (*,
(*,+3(*9+)!    #;'3  / l (& 4 1(?'>"/,  &&DED /W(?/19A  ,(?6'># ? (# {
bb "JJ8cxB1dX5DBDMcM 

Q = E2
X
. . . solving for X . . .
X = E2
Q X
C = 2fC
1

X = (240)2
. . . solving for C . . .
1.754 kVAR
X = 32.845 C =
2fX
1
C

C =
2(60 Hz)(32.845
1
)

C = 80.761 F
|M/19 D '3C8  ')#B,<#"  \/ "/R F   (& 4 +),(    !B#"'3  / l (* 4 ,(*'V/,x'3
  (*'>(?9'>B D (&+)(?9+)! 
 <   #;9+># {

wattmeter ammeter

P A
240 V
C Load
RMS 80 F

60 Hz

Ne (* 4 ,(?'>"/1BM'3+>+  L2  
(* 4 ,(?'>"'32    ,(?@(  / l  3 F C,'32T'><C
I(?9  A/ l b ,R $S4 # F
 D (?/1"  # 4 /, D '3C^  ,('>2 4 /!  %/ l @W\5|7 l /,% < (& 4 1(?'>"/1Ut@<uwv*=0WT'>@(    (& 4 1(?'>"/1& #
(?9<"  AQ')# \/19z/ l4 ,# xl "/ $    < +3/1 D #G'3 D 9@("'32  (?/,A"'3o9'>/1%"/J(*9"  A D L F   (& 4 1(?'>"/1& #
  ,(?"'32 84 /!  MM'3+3+ D '>  (?"+3.^#"9o1( l "/ $  < +>/A D #   ,(?"'32 84 /!   F   #;9<+V'>CS'3 {

Inductive kVAR - Capacitive kVAR = Total kVAR

1.754 kVAR - 1.737 kVAR = 16.519 VAR

n  ')#M(?/1"  (?"'3/, F / l (?/19# ,F M'3+>+z/J(  ,C   <  $ ,/ 9AM/ l "9 %4 /!  N(*/,<#"9 $S&D oT.U < >+ /A DGF o 9
'>JM'>+3+Q  #"9+>N'>YU#"9o<#;,1'3,+Q &D 9<(?"'3/,/ l  4<4   A 4 /!   F , D / l    /+z(*9"  A D LM l "/ $  <
b PP/1+VJ#"/,9<( ,{
1d dmBJDMcH xJ5DBDMcM M JNMcH*% b @

Power triangle for uncorrected (original) circuit

Apparent power (S)

2.308 kVA Reactive power (Q)
1.754 kVAR
(inductive)

True power (P)

1.5 kW

1.737 kVAR
(capacitive)

Power triangle after adding capacitor

Apparent power (S) Reactive power (Q)

16.519 VAR
True power (P)

n     4 4   A 4 /!  5(&Yo 
l /,9 DYl "/ $   "9  , D     ,(?"'32 R4 /!  J2!+39  # F 9<#"'><CW <
1.5 kW

#; D  DWl /1 $ / l   KO.A  1C /,  ^n  /1 &$e{

Apparent power = (Reactive power)2 + (True power)2

Apparent power = 1.50009 kVA

n  ')#PC,'32  #P(?/1"  (? &D
4 /!   l ,(/,P/ l 7;!T ,1Jx5= F /,O 1,1 F , D 8  f"/,,+<(?9  A
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LR $I4 #*Pn  ')# +>/!  6/,+G(?9  A M'3+3+"<#"+3  "/S+  ## < !M+3/1##  #6'>^  (*'>(?9'>MM'>'3C F$S ,'3C
C,     #".#[ *$* (?'  <(*.Z70+  ## 4 /!  6 ,#; ED =:
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 Y

ZU*

x \NPRR xNP

 +  (?"/ $S (  ')(*,+ $S    $ /!2 *$S A#B(?/ $S '>[/o<,#"'3(5,C &$S A# {   /1#  o<1# ED /,
f$ /!2 
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  ( ED /U+>  <"'3C
(*9"  A F o  (&9<#   RD '3  ('>/1/ l  *ED + 8$ /!2 *$S A M'>+3+Q(  <C  M'> e 1(  ,+ l
(?.(*+  / l  
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D '3  ('>/1^/ l   (?9  A0=
DArsonval electromechanical meter movement

50

0 100

"needle"

magnet magnet

wire coil

 AC through this movement will cause

the needle to flutter back and forth
uselessly.

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 #;[.A+ B$S    $ /!2 &$I A\#"9<(  ,#z < 
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$ @9 #[6o I" 
 '>A"/
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DZVDHF9 {

"Rectified" AC meter movement

50

0 100

"needle"

magnet magnet

wire coil
- +
 will
Meter movement needle
always be driven in
the proper direction.

AC Bridge
source rectifier

<GKE6A8K9- O 60- , 6A9QZ l E- , ;:- , D560?CD , H\
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6A9G O ?FEGaSK608:9bW , GK9Ro\9?FGKQ , 6A6A- , D6A9BX60EML , -0B ,`O 6 , 6A?CEG , -AZXDE?CHcE l L#?F-09b9GK9-0Q?39BeoVZd6A8:9I
e T , G36A?F6%Z60E
o=9f>9 ,O T:-09B 
Kg>gmRih ajYjxU*W$Uk[Y(jxBU* l 
Iron-vane electromechanical meter movement

50

0 100

"needle"

wire coil
iron vane

O >@9G360?FEG:9Bo\9 l E-09m?CGb608:? O o\EVE,nSo608:9P9HC9D560-AE O 6 , 60?CD , 6p60- , D560?FEGo=96%Lm99GJ6%LqE(>@96 , HV;:H , 6A9 OO 9; , - , 609B
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;:H , 609 O  Pn 8:? O LmE- O T O 6 ,O Lm9HCH l E-N
,O ?F6UB7EV9 O l E-<
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?C-AEGW , G:9S , GKB ,O/O TKD8@6A8:9 O 95 9HC9D6A-0E O 6 , 6A?RD*( >@96A9- >@EMW9>@9G36 O 609GKB60ERo=9 l - , Q?CHC9 , GKB9 ,O ?CHCZB7? O 6AT:-o\9IB
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, ;:;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG O S=6A8:99HC9D6A-0E O 6 , 60?CDJ>@EMW9>@9G6(? O
, GX9HC9Q , G36P6A9ID8:G:EHCEQZ 
nP8:9
, 608:E7B7h
9 | , Zn)To=9Nu
|xn<v>@9G60?FEG:9Be?FGw6A8K9x
>@9609-0?FGKQ!D8 , ;76A9-X? O ?CB:9 , HCHCZ O T:?F6A9IB l E-
@> 9 ,O T:-0?CG:Q

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6AT<o\9L#8:?CHF96A8:9>@9 ,O T:-09BY
WEHF6 , Q9JB7-0?CW9 O 6A8:9Io=9 , >{T:; , GKBB7EML#G  |Q- , ;K8:?CD , H)-A9;:-A9 O 9G36 , 60?FEG]E l
6A8K98
L , W9 O 8 , ;=9 , GKB`G:E6 T O 6 , >@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36qE l > , QGK?60TKB79yD , Gd9 ,O ?CHFZSo=98 , B`L#?F6A8 O TKD8 , B79WV?RD9 
}<EMLm9W9-IS
|xn% O 8 , W9#6A8:9(B7? OA, B7W , G36 , Q9 O E l Lq9?FQ836S O ?39S O ?FQG:?F\D , G6q;\EMLm9- DEG O T:>@;760?FEGaS , GKB l - , Q?FHC?6%Z
0u o=9?CG:Q~> , B79E l 9W , DT , 609BQH ,OAO vyLmE-3?CG:Q , Q , ?CG O 6b6A8K9> ~ E-b608:9 O 9-09 ,O EG O S)9HF9ID56A-0E>@9ID8 , G:?RD , HB

>@9609-#>@EMW9>9G36 O#O 6A?CHFHa8 , W9 , ;KH , D9f?CGd;:- , D6A?RD , HYT OA, Q9 
?F6A8 O E>@9E l 608:9 , B7W , G6 , Q9 Oy, GKBxB7? OA, B7W , G36 , Q9 O E l 608:9 O 9@>@96A9-b>@EMW9>9G36609D8:G:EHFEQ?C9 O 8 , WV?CG:Q

o=99G~B7? O DT OAO 9B , HC-09 , B:ZS7608:9-09b? OU, GKE6A8K9- l , D56AE-D-ATKD? , HFHCZ?C>@;\E-p6 , G36 l E-#6A8:9B79 O ?CQG:9- , GKB]T O 9-<E l

>@9609-0?FG:Q_?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O 6AEUo=9 , L , -A9(E l% nP8:? O ? O 6A8:9f? OAO T:9fE l |<ZX>9 ,O T:-09>@9G36  O Lm9 , HC-A9 , B7Z3GKEMLfS

>9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 O@, -A9]E l 609GD ,O 6_?CG ,xO D , HF9]E l 
;=EMLm9-@9  T:?CW , HC9GKD9SPD , HCHC9B(]u`EVE6  9 , G 
 T , -09Iv l E-U6A8:9 OA,  9fE l >@9 , G:?CG:Q l T:H&DE>; , -0? O EG O L#?F6A8[
, G\B]L#?608sE6A8K9-5
L , W9 l E-0> O E l W , -AZV?CG:Q
O 8 , ;=9  < EG:9#E l 6A8:9U>96A9-+>EMW9>@9G36+609D8:G:EHFEQ?C9 OO E l , - B7? O DT O0O 9IB?CG:8:9-A9G36AHCZb>@9 ,O T:-09m6A8:9J|UW , HFTK9
E l , Gf
z T , G360?6%Z  s96A9->@EMW9>@9G36 O -09HCZV?FG:QxEG!6A8K9X>@E6A?CEGNE l , >@9D8 , G:?RD , HPG:99B7HC9u:-A9ID56A?FK9IB

U - O EGVW , HSK?C-AEG  W , G:9S , GKB]9HF9ID56A-0E O 6 , 6A?RDv , HFHc6A9G\BX6AE`>@9D8 , G:?RD , HFHCZ , W9- , Q96A8K9J?CG O 6 , G36 , G:9ET O W , HCT:9 O
?CG60E , GxEMW9- , HFH , W9- , Q9bW , HFT:9 l E-y6A8:9_L , W9 l E-0>  Pn 8K? Of, W9- , Q9W , HCT:9_? O G:E6fG:9ID9 O0O0, -0?FHCZ]6A8:9 OA, >9 ,O
<| Y S , H608:ET:Q8`> , GVZ6A?C>9 O ?F6P? O >? O 6 ,  9G ,O O TKD8  < W9- , Q9 , GKBWU| @ W , HCT:9 O - , 6A9 , Q , ?FG O 6 9 , D8_E6A8:9-
,O#O TKD8 l E-P608:9 O 9y6A8:-099fDE>@>@EGXL , W9 l E-0> O 8 , ;=9 O {
l JJ(jxBKgXR!Yjx#"%$&"[%(')"j+*

RMS = 0.707 (Peak)

AVG = 0.637 (Peak)
P-P = 2 (Peak)

RMS = Peak

AVG = Peak
P-P = 2 (Peak)

RMS = 0.577 (Peak)

AVG = 0.5 (Peak)
P-P = 2 (Peak)

V?CGKD59 |< O 99> O 60ERo=9#6A8:95V?FGKB@E l >9 ,O T:-09>@9G36/>@E O 6/;\9E;:HC9 , -A9#?CG36A9-09 O 6A9IB@?FG_E1o76 , ?FGK?FG:QfL#?F6A8 , G
C? G O 60-ATK>9G36S , GKB`9HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , H:>@96A9-m>@EMW9>9G36 O G , 60T:- , HFHCZ@B79HC?FW9-y1M ? 12 >@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36 O - , 6A8:9-
6A8 , GW|<YSL#8 , 6 , -09N
>96A9-qB79 O ?CQG:9- O 6AEbB7EV
8:9 , 6SE l DETK- O 9,xn ZV;:?RD , HFHCZb608:9 ,OAO T:>@;76A?CEG@? O > , B:9
6A8 , 6y6A8:9_L , W9 l E-0> O 8 , ;\960Eeo=9_>@9 ,O T:-09B? O QE?CG:Qd6AEo\9 O ?CG:9su0oVZ l , -y608:9_>@E O 6bDE>@>@EGcSa9 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ
l E-m;=EMLq9- O Z O 6A9> O vS , GKB@608:9G6A8:9(>@96A9-P>EMW9>@9G36 O D , HF9? Om, HF6A9-A9IBUoVZ6A8:9 , ;:;K-AE;:-A? , 609<>JTKH60?F;:HC?RD , 60?FEG
l , D6AE-  E- O ?CG:9<L , W9 O Lm9 O 99P6A8 , 6|<Z? O 9  T , H760ER    60?F>@9 O 6A8:9U;\9 , JW , HFT:9#L#8K?FHC9J<W9- , Q9m? O  3
6A?C>@9 O 608:9_;\9 , nS O EXLm9@D , GB7?CWV?CB79@EG:9J\QT:-0
9 oVZs608:9@E608:9-y60EXE1o76 , ?FG , G , W9- , Q9  6AE  |UXDEGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE-#E l  E, {
0.707
0.637 = 1.1099
qGNE6A8K9-_LmE-B O S/6A8:9s>@9609-_>@EMW9>@9G36_L#?FHCMH o\9[D , HC>? oK- , 6A9B6AE?CGKB7?RD , 6A9 , ;:;K-ALE y7?C> , 6A9HFZ  160?F>@9 O
8:?CQ8:9-f6A8 , G?F6JLqET:HRB~E-0B:?FG , -A?CHCZ!uG , 6ATK- , HFHCZ:v(?FGKB:?CD , 6A9L#?608G:E O ;=9D? , H , DDE>@>E7B , 6A?CEG O  q6>JT O 6 o=9
O 6A-09 O0O 9IBb608 , 6/608:? O D8:9 , 6 EG:HCZbLqE"- O Lm9HCH:L#8:9G608:9<>@9609-/? O T O 9B60Ef>9 ,O T:-09m;KT:-A9 O ?CG:9#L , W9 O ETK-0D9 O 
<E6A96A8 , 6 l E- 60-A? , GKQHC9<L , W9 O S608:9(- , 6A?CRE o\96%Lq99e
G |< , GKWB UW9- , Q9<? O GKE6 608:9 OA, >9 ,O l E- O ?CG:9(L , W9 O {
0.577
0.5 = 1.154
?F6A8 O  T , -09dL , W9 O S 6A8: 9 |U , GK G
>@96A9-dD , HC3? o:- , 6A9IB60E
B <W9- , Q9XW , HFT:9 O`, -09]?CB:9G36A?RD , H ~Us
D, DT:- , 609HCZ[-09 ,
B |<Z xWEHF6 , Q9@E-bDT:-0-A9G6bEG , ;:T:-09 O ?CG:9_L , W9@L#?CHFH 4 tM
Q?CW9@6A8K9`;:-0E;=9-fW , HCT:9`L#8:?CHC9
?CGKB7?RD , 60?FGKQ@6A8:9b> , QG:?F6ATKB:9bE l , GVZ36A8:?CG:Q_E6A8:9-#6A8 , G , ;\9- l 9ID56 O ?CG:9bL , W9  nP8:? O ?FG\DHCTKB79 O 6A-0? , G:QHC9fL , W9 O S
O  T , -09JL , W9 O SnE- , GV Z V?CGKBE l B7? O 6AE-A6A9IB O ?FGK9L , W9  ?F6A8x8 , -0>@EG:?RD O o=9DE>@?FG:Q , Gx9W9-  ;K-A9 O 9G6;:8:9 
G:E>9G:EG?FG`H , -0QN9
;\EMLm9- O Z O 609> O S608:? O > , 6A6A9-qE l , DDT:- , 6AN9 |U _>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36 ? O G:E O > , HCHK> , 6p6A9- 
Kg>gmRih ajYjxU*W$Uk[Y(jxBU* l
nP8:9 ,O 6AT7609J-09 , B:9-UL#?CHCH&GKE6A96A8 , 56 qU8 , W9bE>@?6A6A9B[6A8:9
|xn>@EMW9>@9G36 l -0E>608:9I|U UW9- , Q9
7B ? O DT O0O ?CEG  nP8:? O ? O o\9ID , T O 9 ,
|\nL#?608J?F6 O ;:- , D6A?RD , HFHCZyLq9?FQ860HF9 OAO 9HC9D6A-0EGRo=9 , >>@EMW9>@9G36UB7? O ;:H , Z O
6A8K9`^9 , uE-b^9 ,  60E  ^9 , d? l ZETxL#? O 8\vE l , G
L , W9 l E-0>{- , 6A8:9-y6A8 , GhUW9- , Q9E-R|<  36A?CHCHrS ,
O ?F>@?CH , -(;K-A1E o:HF9> , -0? O 9 O { 8:EML|B7E]ZET~B:96A9-A>@?CG:96A8:9U|<ZW , HFT:9@E l , L , W9 l E-A> l -0E>?F6
EGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE- O o=96%Lm99G_^9 , , GKBS|<Z@EG:HCZJ8KEHRB O EfHCEG:Q ,O 6A8K9<L , W9 l E-A> l , HFH O G:9 , 60HFZ?FG360E , VG:EML#G_D , 609QE-0Z
E l O 8 , ;=9!u O ?CG:9SP6A-0? , G:QHC9S , GKB O  T , -A9 , -09]6A8:9~EG:HCZ!*9 y , >@;:HC9 O L#?F6A8w^9 , |< <W9- , Q9XDEGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE- O Q?FW9G8K9-0,9 v 
. G:9 , G O Lm9-y? O 60E[B79 O ?CQG[608:9_>@9609-f>@EMW9>9G36 , -AET:GKB[6A8:9_W9-0Z[B79KGK?60?FEG~E l |<Z { 6A8:9_9 9ID560?FW9
8:9 , 6A?CG:QXW , HCT:9JE l , h G
WEH6 , Q9 DT:-A-09G36 ,O ?F6f;\EMLm9- OU, -A9 O ? O 6A?CW9bHCE , B  VT:;:;=E O 96A8 , 6608:I9
O ET:-0D9
6A^ E o\9>@9 ,O T:-09B]? O DEGKG:9D6A9B , D-0E O0O<, -09 O ? O 60E-UE l VG:EML#GsW , HCT:9S , G\B]6A8:98:9 , 6ET76A;KT76E l 6A8 , 6(-09 O ? O 6AE-
? O >@9 ,O T:-09B!L#?608 , B:9WV?CD9sHF3? 9 , 608:9-0>@EVDET:;KHF9  nP8:? O LqET:HCB!;:-0EMWV?CB79 , l , ->E-A9sB7?C-09D56_>@9 ,O TK-A9 
>@9G36>@9 , G O E l |<Z ]6A8 , G , G3ZsDEGVW9- O ?FEG l , D560E-(DETKHCBYS l E-U?F6(L#?CHFHLmE- L#?F6Ah 8 JML , W9 l E-A> O 8 , ;=9
L#8 , 6 O E39W9- {

sensitive
meter
movement

AC voltage to
be measured

thermocouple bonded
with resistive heating
element
8:?CHF9[6A8:9xB79WV?RD9 O 8:EML#G , o=EMW9s? OO E>@9L#8 , 6D-0TKB79 , GKBLmET:HRB O T 9- l -0E>T:G:?  TK9[9G:Q?FGK99-0?CG:Q
;:-0E,o:HC9> O E l ?F6 O EML#GaS7608:9JDEGKD9;76<?CHFHCT O 6A- , 6A9IBX? O W9-0Z O ET:G\B  nP8:9f-09 O ? O 60E-<DEGVW9-A6 O 608:9
WEH6 , Q9yE-
DTK-A-09G36  T , G360?6%Zx?FG360E , 6A8:9-A> , Hu8K9 , 65v  T , G60?6%ZS)9 9ID560?FW9HCZ O  T , -0?FGKQ]6A8:9`W , HFT:9 O ?CG-A9 , H  60?F>@9  nP8K9
O Z O 6A9 > O > ,O0O LmE- O 60E , W9- , Q9P6A8:9 O 9yW , HCT:9 O oVZ@6A8K9;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9E l 6A8K9-0> , Hn?FG:9-p60? , S , GKB`6A8:9G608:9>@96A9-
DO , HC9U?F6 O 9H l ? O D , HF3? o:- , 6A9IB@6AEQ?CW9 , Gd?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CEG^o ,O 9BEG_608:9 O  T , -A9  -0EVE6 E l 6A8K9U608:9-0> , Hn>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 {
;=9- l 9D5N6 |#EVE6  s9 , G   T , -09<?FG\B7?CD , 60?FEG , HCHn?FGdEG:9yB79W3?RD91PqG l , D56S7EG:9(> , E-m?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6P> , GVT l , D56ATK-A9-
8 ,O ?F>@;:HC9>@9G609BX608:? O 6A9ID8:G:?  TK9f?FG36AE_?F6 O 8:?CQ8  9GKBXHC?FGK9bE l 8 , G\B78:9HRB]9HC9D6A-0EG:?RDy>JTKH60?F>@9609- O l E-5M6A-0T:9 
|< _D , ; , o:?CHF?F6%Z 

, HC3? o:- , 6A?CG:SQ
WEH60>@96A9- O#, GKB , >@>@96A9- O l E-<B7? 9-A9G6 l T:HCH  O D , HF9y- , G:Q9 O E l E;=9- , 60?FEG? O >JTKD8X6A8K9
O0, 9 ,O L#?F6A8
?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O { O 9-0?F9 O >JTKH60?F;:HC?C9- d-09 O ? O 60E- O(, -A9@T O 9B~60EsQ?CW9@WEH60>96A9-f>EMW9>@9G36 O
@
>
8:?CQ8:9-<- , G:Q9S , GKB]; , - , HCHC9QH O 8VT:G36 @-09 O ? O 6AE- O#, -A9fT O 9IBX6AE , HCHCEML , >>@96A9->@EMW9>@9G6 O 6AE`>@9 ,O T:-A9bDT:- 
-09G36 O o=9ZEGKBd608:9?C-<G , 6AT:- , HY- , G:Q9  }UEMLq9W9-S7Lm9 , -09fG:E6<HC?F>@?F6A9IBX6AE@6A8K9 O 9f6A9ID8:G:?  TK9 O<,O Lq9fLm9-09fL#?608
 5
{ o\9ID , T O 9Lq9@D , Gs6AEXT O 9J60- , G O l E-A>@9- O L#?60h 8
Sn>@9609-y- , G:Q9 O D , G o=99HC9D560-AE> , QGK96A?RD , HFHCZX- , 6A8:9-
6A8 , Gs-09 O ? O 6A?CW9HFe Z O 6A9;K;\9IB]T:<; _E5- O 6A9;:;=9BsB7EML#GaS O E>@960?F>@9 O l , N- o=9ZEGKB]L#8 , 6U-09 O ? O 6AE- O LqET:HCBX8 , W9
;:- , D6A?RD , HCHCZ , HCHCEMLq9IB l E-  ^E609G36A? , H nc- , G O l E-0>@9- O u^ n% O v , G\B
T:-A-09G36 n)- , G O l E-0>9- O u
n% O v , -A9_;K-A9 
D? O ?FEG?FG O 6A-0T:>@9G36@B79WV?RD9 O > , GVT l , D6AT:-09Bx60E;:-0E7B7TKD9`W9-AZx;:-09D? O 9`- , 6A?CE O E l 6A- , G O l E-0> , 60?FEh G o=96%Lm99G
;:-0?F> , -AZ , GKB O 9IDEGKB , -0ZfL#?CGKB7?CG:Q O  nP8K9Z@D , G , HCHCEML O > , HFHS O ?C>;KHFN9
>@96A9-/>@EMW9>9G36 O 6AEf?CGKB7?RD , 6A9<*9 y 
6A-09>@9HFZ@8:?CQ8_WEHF6 , Q9 O/, GKB`DT:-A-09G36 O ?FGd;\EMLm9- O Z O 6A9> O L#?608 , DDT:- , DZ , GKB_DE>;KHF96A9U9HF9ID560-A?RD , HK? O EH , 6A?CEG
u O E>@96A8:?CG:Q@>JT:HF6A?C;:HC?F9- , G\B O 8VT:G36#-A9 O ? O 60E- O DETKHCBdG:9W9-<B7EVv {
l1 JJ(jxBKgXR!Yjx#"%$&"[%(')"j+*

0-5 A AC movement range

A
precision
CT step-up
ratio

high-voltage 13.8 kV load

power source

fuse fuse

precision
step-down
PT
ratio

t 9D , T O 9qEK608:9 O ?39 , GKBJ97;\9G O 9PE=?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G366A- , G O E-0>@9- O So608:9Z , -A9PG:E6+T O 9IBb60E O D , HC96
>@96A9- O
0-120 V AC movement range

E- , GVZ , ;K;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG O E6A8:9-P6A8 , Gs8:?CQ8]WEH6 , Q9 , G\Bd8K?FQ8]DT:-0-A9G6 / E- O D , HC?FGKQ , >@?CHFHC? , >@;sE-#>@?CD-AE , >@;
>@EMW9>9G36q60E , - , G:Q9UE6Il,bWEH6 O E-< , >@; O S3GKE-0> , Hn;:-A9ID? O ?CEGd-A9 O ? O 6AE- O u>JTKH60?F;:HC?C9- O#, GKB O 8VT:G36 O v , -09
T O 9BYS T O 6 ,O L#?608s

d
^EH , -0>? 9Bu
vb>@96A9->@EMW9>9G36 O >T O 6T O 9dB79WV?CD9 O D , HCHC9B   b60E=9 , :HC9`6AE~?FG\B7?CD , 609^

 T , G36A?F6A?C9 O 
HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , Hn>@9609-<>@EMW9>@9G36 O S:L#8:96A8:9-<9HC9D6A-0E> , QG:960?CD(E-U9HC9D560-AE O 6 , 60?CDS:G , 60T:- , HCHFZ`;K-AE 
W3?RB79s608:9N1  12 W , HCT:9E , >9 ,O T:-09 B
 T , G36A?F6%Z  8:9 O 9?FG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O > , Z=9- , GKQ9B!60E
?FGKB:?CD , 6A9y< `W , HCT:9SV:T76#EG:HFZ@?Fc608:9 O 8 , ;\9(Ea608:%9
L , W9E-A>? O ;:-09D? O 9HCSZ VG:EML#G`=9E-098 , GKGB
VE  D , HFHC9B
5K (]>@9609- O T O 9sB7? 9-A9G36609D8:GKEHCEQZx60Ex;K-AEMWV?RB79d?CGKB7?RD , 6A?CEG O -09;:-09 O 9G360?FG:Q~6A8K9
, D560T , HaU xu- , 6A8K9-m6A8 , G O 9Lm9B , W9- , Q9<E-#;=9 , :vmE , G
L , W9E-A> 
yU P<J]P Rs\ NPJJI
G_?C>@;\E-p6 , G36/9HC9D6A-0?CD , H  T , G36A?F6%ZJL#?F6A8_G:Ef9  TK?FW , HC9G36/?CG`
D?F-DT:?F6 O ? O) AK4=M& -A9  T:9GKDZJ>@9 ,O TK-A9 
>@9G36P? O W9-AZ?C>;=E-A6 , G36m?CG> , GVZ , ;K;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG O E , HF6A9-0G , 6A?CG:QDT:-A-09G36IS9 O ;=9D? , HFHCZ@?FG
;\EMLm9- O Z O 6A9> O
B79 O ?CQG:9IB@6AE-ATKG`9 D?C9G360HFZ , 6mEG:9U-A9  T:9GKDZ , GKB_EG:9<-09  T:9GKDZ@EG:HFZ ) c6A8:9
? O =9?CG:QJQ9G:9- , 6A9B@VZ
, G_9HF9ID560-AE>9ID8 , GK?CD , H , HF6A9-AG , 6AE-S6A8:9#-09  T:9GKDZL#?FHCH=\9UB:?F-09D6AHCZJ;:-0E;=E-A6A?CEG , H76AEy608:9 O 8 , 6 O ;=99IB@En6A8K9
> , D8:?CG:9S , GKB-A9  T:9GKDZDET:HRB_=9<>@9 ,O T:-09B O ?F>@;:HCZ3Z>@9 ,O T:-0?CG:Qy6A8:9 O ;=99IB@En6A8K9 O 8 , 6 & Y-09  T:9GKDZ
G:99B O 6AE]=9@>9 ,O T:-09B , 6 O E>@9@B7? O 6 , GKD9-0E>{608:9 , HF6A9-AG , 6AE-S=6A8KET:Q8aSYE608:9-y>@9 , G O Eq>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36
L#?CHFHa=9fG:9ID9 O0O0, -0Z 
. G:9 O ?F>@;:HC9y:T76UD-0TKB79f>@96A8:E7BXE)-A9  TK9GKDZ`>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G36#?CGd;=EMLq9- O Z O 6A9> O T:6A?CHF?C9 O 6A8:9f;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9
EP>@9D8 , G:?RD , H -A9 O EG , GKD9  W9-AZs;:8VZ O ?CD , H/E7%9D6b;\E OAO 9 O0O ?CG:QX6A8K9`;:-0E;=9-A6%Z[E#9H ,O 6A?RD?F6%Z!u O ;K-A?CG:Q?CG:9 OAO v
Kg Kg<'& $I<NU$Uk U(*7[q*'&< [q$j l<
8 ,OU, Gs?CG:8:9-A9G36U-09  T:9G\DZ , 6UL#8:?RD8[?F6L#?CHFH);:-099-U6AEdW3?C:- , 609 < 8:9f60T:G:?CG:Q`E-AX? O, Q-A9 , 6<9 , >@;:HF9JE
6A8K? O&O 6A-0?C9P?6qEGKD9 , GKB?F6 L#?FHCH\DEG36A?CGVT:9m6AEbWV?C:- , 6A9 , 6 , 6AEGK9 O ;=9D?=Dm6AEf?F6 O HC9GKQ6A8  EG:Q9-&6ATKG:?FGKQfE-0 O
8 , W9HCEMLq9-P-A9 O EG , G36P-A9  T:9GKD?F9 O 608:9?C-P6AEG:9 O L#?CHCHY\9fHCEMLq9-PEGX6A8:9f>T O ?CD , H O D , HC96A8 , G O 8:E-p609-mE-0 O 
> , Q?FG:9 , -AEMLEq;:-0EQ-A9 OAO ?CW9HCZ  O ?C9BX60T:G:?CG:QXE-0 O(, -A- , GKQ9B O ?RB79  VZ  O ?CB:9  8K9Z , -A9 , HCH+>@ET:G36A9IB
EG , DE>>@EG! ,O 9S , GKB608 , 6` ,O 9d? O WV?FK- , 6A9B , 6_608:9X-A9  TK9GKDZE(6A8:9]>@9 ,O TK-A9IB
WEHF6 , Q9uE-
DTK-A-09G36vUVZs>@9 , G O E , G~9HC9D6A-0E> , QG:96 ( 8K?CD8:9W9-U60T:G:?CG:QXE-0s? O DHCE O 9 O 6?CGx-A9 O EG , G36<-09  T:9GKDZ]60E
6A8K9-09  T:9GKDZ_Ec608 , 6#WV?FK- , 6A?CEGL#?CHCHn6A9G\B`60E O 8 , 9<608:9y>@E O 6fuE-m6A8K9(HCET\B79 O 6v + c6A8K9E-A O 6A?CG:9 O Lm9-09
K?C> O Zs9G:ET:Q8aSYLm9DET:HRB O 996A8:9@-09H , 60?FW9J>@E60?FEGEq9 , D8~VZ]6A8:9HF9G:Q608~E/6A8K9KHFT:-yLm9LmETKHCB O 99 ,O
Lm9f?FG O ;=9D5609B]9 , D8]EG:9y-0E> , G]9G\B  WV?C9L;\9- O ;=9D560?FW9 q 9HFHSK> , 9 , DEHFHC9D6A?CEG]E+M60T:G:?CG:Q@E-0 O ET:6
E ,`O 6A-0?C;sE O 8K996>96 , H)DT:6?CG , ; , 6A6A9-AG , 3?CG]6AE , - , 9S , GKB]ZETs8 , W9y6A8:9`  1M
4 2 A -09  T:9GKDZ
>@9609-

to AC voltage
sheet metal reeds
shaken by magnetic
field from the coil
8:9T O 9-E+6A8:? O >@96A9-WV?C9L O 6A8:99G\B O E , HCH)6A8:E O 9T:G:9  T , H&HF9G:Q608[-A99B O(,O 6A8K9Z , -09JDEHCHF9ID56A?CW9HFZ
O 8 , 9G , 6q6A8:9U-A9  TK9GKDZE=608:9 , ;:;:HC?F9IB
WEH6 , Q9P60Ef6A8K9DE?FH  8:9UEG:9UDHCE O 9 O 6 ?CG`-09 O EG , G6+-09  T:9GKDZ
6AE608:9 , ;:;KHF?C9B
L#?FHCHYWV?F:- , 609(6A8:9f>@E O 6SKHFEVEV?CG:Q O E>96A8:?CG:Q@HC?F9y6A8:? O

Frequency Meter

52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68

120 Volts AC

U?C:- , 60?FG:Qs-099IBx>96A9- O ScE3WV?CET O HCZS , -A9@G:E6J;:-09D? O ?FEG~?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O S&:T76b608:9Z , -09@W9-0Z O ?C>;KHF9 , GKB
6A8K9-09E-09(9 ,O Z6AE@> , GVT7 , D56ATK-A9U6AE@\9y-0T:QQ9B  8:9Z , -09E6A9GdETKGKBEG O > , HCH=9G:Q?CG:9  B7-0?CW9GQ9GK9- , 6AE-
O 96 O E-f608:9`;:T:-0;=E O 9_E O 96p6A?CG:Q[9G:Q?CG:9 O ;\99B O E]6A8 , 6f6A8:9`-A9  TK9GKDZ? OJO E>@9L#8 , 6bDHCE O 9@6AE  u]?CG
l3l UU(j KgR![jq#"%$J&"%%(')"j+*
TK-AE;\9ovq}U9-A6A 
8:?CHF9_-099IB  6%Z3;=9@>@96A9- Of, -A9@?C>@;:-A9ID? O 9SY6A8K9?C-bE;=9- , 60?FEG , H;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9_? O G:E6 ` GxHF?C9TEm>@9D8 , G:?RD , H
-09 O EG , GKD9S\Lm9> , Z O T: O 6A?F6AT76099HF9ID560-A?RD , H)-09 O EG , GKD9 , GKB~B79 O ?FQG , -A9  TK9GKDZX>@96A9-yT O ?CG:Q , G[?CGKB7TKD6AE-
, G\BbD , ; , D?60E-a?CGf6A8K9/E-0>E , 6 , G:yD?C-DT:?F6mu; , - , HCHF9H?CGKB7TKD6AE- , G\BbD , ; , D?60E-5v &. G:9 E-c=E608DE>@;\EG:9G36 O
, -09<> , B:9 , BM%T O 6 , :HC9S , GKB , >@96A9-m? O ;:H , D9B_?CG`608:9yD?C-0DT:?6q6AE?FGKB:?CD , 6A9(> , 7?C>JT:> , >@;:HC?F6ATKB79EcWEHF6 , Q9
, D-AE OAO 608:9]6%LqEDE>@;\EG:9G36 O  8:9 , Bo%T O 6A>@9G36`VG:E)u O v , -09XD , HC?F:- , 609B6AE O 8:EML-09 O EG , G36-09  T:9GKDZ
E- , GVZsQ?CW9G O 96p60?FG:Q\S , G\B[608:9@-A9  T:9GKDZs? O -09 , B[-0E>{608:9> , 609-y6A8K9@B:9WV?CD9@8 ,O =99G , Bo%T O 6A9B~E-
> , 7?C>JT:>?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CEGXEGX608:9f>@96A9-  O0O 9G60? , HFHCZS3608:? O ? O#, 60T:G , :HF9y\H609-UD?F-DT:?F6<L#8:?RD8d? O<, Bo%T O 6A9B , GKB
6A8K9G-A9 , B~?FG , > , GKG:9- O ?F>@?CH , -y6AE , :-0?RB7Q9_D?C-DT:?F6uL#8:?RD8>JT O 6b=9_ , H , GKD9BE- , G3TKHFHR]DEG\B7?60?FEG
, G\B`608:9Gs-09 , BKv 
Resonant Frequency Meter

Sensitive AC
meter movement

variable capacitor with

adjustment knob calibrated
in Hertz.
8:? O 609D8:GK?  T:9? Om, ;=E;:TKH , - EGK9<E- , > , 6A9TK- - , B7?CEbE;=9- , 60E- O uE- , 6qHC9 ,O 6m?6mL ,O =9E-09<608:9 , B7W9G36
E m?FGK97;\9G O ?FW9B7?CQ?F6 , H-A9  T:9GKDZs?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6 O D , HFHC9B 074
 vSY9 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ[=9D , T O 9?6bB7EV9 O G 6f-A9  TK?F-09
B7?C-A9ID56 DEG:G:9ID560?FEG60Ey6A8:9D?C-0DT:?6  EfHFEG:Q ,O 608:9<?CGKB7TKD6AE- , GKB\ME-+D , ; , D?60E-/D , G@?FG3609-D9;:6/9G:ET:Q8 O 60- , Z
K9HCBu> , QGK96A?RDfE-U9HC9D6A-0?CDSK-09 O ;\9ID560?FW9HCZ7vP-AE>608:9JD?F-DT:?F6TKGKB79-U6A9 O 66AEdD , T O 9y6A8K9J>@9609-6AE`?CGKB7?RD , 6A9S
?F6<L#?FHCHaLmE-0 
Gy-09  T:9G\DZ ,O ?CGbE608:9-Y6%ZV;=9 O E79HC9D6A-0?CD , H>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36S6A8:9/>@E O 6 , DDT:- , 6A9+>@9 , G O EV>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36
-, 09]T O T , HCHFZ6A8:E O 9sL#8K9-09 , GT:G:VG:EML#G  T , G360?6%Z!? O DE>@; , -A9IB , Q , ?FG O 6 , VG:EML#G
1 4n 1 A SP608:9[ ,O ?RD
?CG O 60-ATK>9G36B7E?FG:QG:E608:?FGKQ>@E-09@6A8 , G?CGKB7?RD , 60?FGKQL#8:9G6A8:96%LqE  T , G36A?F6A?C9 O, -09`9  T , H/6AE~9 , D8E6A8K9- 
8:? O ? O 608:9< ,O ?RD#;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9U=98:?CGKB@608:9
u 8:9 , 6 O 60EG:9ov:-0?CB7Q9UD?C-DT:?F6 , G\B_?6m? Oq,bO ET:GKB@>@96A-0EHCEQ?RD , H
;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9 , ;K;:HF?C9B6A8K-AET:Q8:ET76U608:9 O D?F9GKD9 O J qLm98 , W9 , DD9 OAO 6AE , G , DDT:- , 609b-09  T:9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -Bu ,
O ET:-D9/E
WEH6 , Q9/8:EHRB7?CG:QUW9-0Z;K-A9ID? O 9HFZ6AE ,UO ?FGKQHC9+-A9  T:9GKDZ:v5So6A8K9GJ>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36)E , GVZyT:G:VG:EML#G
-09  T:9G\DZ`VZDE>@; , -0? O EG O 8:ET:HRBX\9f-09H , 60?FW9HCZ_9 ,O Z 
E-<608 , 6(-A9  T:9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -0BaS\Lm9b60T:-AGET:- , 6p609G36A?CEG~ , Dd6AE6A8:96ATKG:?FGKQ`E-0nSnE- , 6HC9 ,O 6 , >@E-09
>@E7B79-0G]W , -A? , 60?FEG]E?6D , HCHF9IBX6A8:9  1
 5o
1M  kT , -p60f? OU, G , 60T:- , HCHFZ`E7DDT:-0-A?CG:Q@>@?FGK9- , Ha;=E O0O 9 OAO ?CG:Q
, W9-0Z]?FG36A9-A9 O 60?FGKQ;:-0E;=9-A6%ZsD , HCHC9BX I 
5
M ^ ?F9EV9HC9D6A-0?CDf> , 6A9-0? , H O ;:-0E7B7TKD9 , WEHF6 , Q9 , D-0E O0O
6A8K9?C-/HF9G:Q608_L#8:9G_;K83Z O ?CD , HCHFZ O 60-A9 OAO 9BYS , GKBL#?CHFH\;:8VZ O ?RD , HFHCZJB79E-0>L#8:9G , G@9V6A9-AG , H:WEHF6 , Q9P? O/, ;:;:HC?F9IB
, D-AE OAO 608:9?C-#HF9G:Q608 O / 8:? O B:9E-0> , 60?FEGd? O W9-AZSVW9-0Z O HF?CQ836#?CGX>@E O 6<D ,O 9 O S7KT76<?6UB:E39 O 97? O 6 
kT , -p60_-AE7D? O 9H ,O 60?CDsu O ;K-A?CG:QZ:vyL#?F6A8K?FG608 , 6 O > , HCH - , GKQ9_E#=9GKB:?FG:QL#8:?CD8 , G9V6A9-AG , H WEHF6 , Q9
LmET:HRB[;:-0E7B7TKD9SnL#8:?RD8>@9 , G O 6A8 , 6(?F6fL#?FHCH8 , W9 , >@9D8 , G:?RD , H)-09 O EG , G36<-A9  T:9GKDZsE ?F6 O EML#GxD , ; , :HC9
Eq\9?FG:QX> , G:?F9 O 6A9IB ,O(, G[9HC9D6A-0?CD , HWEH6 , Q9 O ?CQG , H ( G~E608:9-yLmE-B O S=?F , D8K?F;~E  T , -p60? OyO 60-ATKDnSn?F6
L#?CHFH-0?FGKQ@L#?F6A8[?F6 O EML#GsT:G:?  T:9b-09  T:9GKDZ]B79609-0>@?FG:9IB]VZd608:9JHC9GKQ6A8E6A8:9D8:?C;aS , GKB]608 , 6(-A9 O EG , G36
E O D?CHCH , 6A?CEG_L#?CHFHn;:-0E7B7TKD9 , G`9  T:?FW , HF9G6mWEH6 , Q9 , D-0E O0O >T:HF6A?C;:HF9(;=E?CG6 O EY6A8:9  T , -A6A(D8:?C;`L#8:?RD8dD , G`=9
6 , ;:;=9B_?CG36AEbVZL#?F-09 O :79B6AEb6A8:9 O T:-A , D9<En608:9D8:?C; & G`-09D?C;:-0E7D , HK> , G:G:9-S6A8:9  T , -A6AUD8:?C;_L#?CHFH\6A9GKB
Kg Kg<'& $I<NU$Uk U(*7[q*'&< [q$j l
6AE@WV?C:- , 6A9(>@E O 6PL#8K9G]?6#? O 97D?609B:VZ , G , ;K;:HF?C9B
WEHF6 , Q9 , 6#;:-09D? O 9HCZ_6A8:9y-0?FQ836m-09  T:9GKDZSI%T O 6
HC?F9608:9f-099B O EG , W3?C:- , 60?FG:Q  -099IB@-09  T:9G\DZ`>@9609- 

8:?C; O E  T , -A6AP-0E7DbD , G@=9#;:-09D? O 9HCZbDT76+E- B79 O ?C-A9IBJ-09 O EG , G36)-09  T:9GKD?C9 O S , G\Bb608 , 6 D8:?C;@>@ET:G36A9IB
9O DTK-A9HFZ`?CG O ?CB:9 , ;:-0E609D6A?CW9 O 8K9HCHYL#?608XL#?C-09 O 9V609GKB7?CG:Q@E-<DEGKG:9D6A?CEGd6AE , GX9V6A9-AG , HY9HC9D6A-0?CDyD?F-DT:?F6 
8:9G`; , D , Q9B ,O O TKD8aS6A8:9-A9 O T:HF6A?CG:QJB:9WV?CD9<? OqO ?F>@;:HCZ@D , HCHC9B , 5o
1KuE- O E>@960?F>@9 O 
1M 3v5S , GKB@?F6 O
O D8:9> , 60?CD O ZV>J=EHYHCE3E O HF?C9(6A8K? O
crystal or xtal

HC9D6A-0?CD , HCHFZS608 , 6  T , -A6A(D8:?F;d? O 9  TK?FW , HC9G36q6AE ,JO 9-0?F9 O 
-A9 O EG , G36qD?F-DTK?6  8K9(B7?C9HC9D6A-0?CDU;:-0E;=9- 
6A?C9 O E  T , -A6AJDEG36A-0?FKT76A9 , G , B:B7?F6A?CEG , H&D , ; , D?F6A?CW9b9HF9>9G36U6AE6A8:99  T:?CW , HC9G36(D?F-DTK?6IS , GKBs?CGs6A8K99GKB
?F6<HFEVE O#O E>@9608:?CG:Q@HF?C9(6A8K? O
Crystal equivalent circuit

C
capacitance C
characteristics
caused by wire of the quartz
connections
across quartz
L

8:9D , ; , D?6 , GKD9 , GKBe?CGKB7TKD6 , G\D9 O 8:EML#G?CG O 9-0?F9 O`, -09[>@9-09HCZ!9HF9ID560-A?RD , H<9  T:?CW , HC9G36 O Ef6A8K9
 T , -A6A O >@9D8 , G:?CD , H\-A9 O EG , GKD9<;:-0E;=9-A6A?C9 O 608:9Z_B7EG:E6m97? O 6 ,O B7? O D-09609UDE>@;\EG:9G36 O L#?F6A8:?CG`608:9D-AZ O 
6 , H / 8K9(D , ; , D?F6 , G\D9 O 8:EML#Gd?FGX; , - , HFHC9HnB7T:9(6AE6A8K9fL#?F-09(DEG:GK9D560?FEG OP, D-AE OAO 6A8:9fB7?C9HC9D6A-0?CD@u?CG O T:H , 6A?CG:QVv
 T , -A6AU\E7B7Z@? O -09 , HS , GKB_?F6q8 ,O , G_9n9D56mEG@608:9U-09 O EG , G36/-A9 O ;=EG O 9#EY608:9UL#8KEHC9 O Z O 6A9>  TKHFHYB7? O DT O 
O ?FEG[EGD-AZ O 6 , H)B7ZVG , >?RD O ? O G:E6G:9ID9 OAO0, -0Z8:9-A9Sn:T76L#8 , 6yG:99IB O 60E=9JT:G\B79- O 60EVEVB , =ET76yD-0Z O 6 , H O ? O
6A8K? O -A9 O EG , G36<D?C-0DT:?F6U9  T:?CW , HC9GKD9 , GKB]8:EML?F6D , GX=9b9V;KHFE?609B]L#?F6A8:?CG , G]E O D?CHCH , 6AE-<D?F-DTK?6<60E , D8:?C9W9
, GXET:6A;:T76<WEHF6 , Q9(L#?608 ,O 6 , :HC9S7VG:EML#Gd-A9  TK9GKDZ 

-0Z O 6 , H O S ,O -A9 O EG , G36&9HC9>@9G36 O So6%ZV;:?RD , HCHCZ(8 , W9 >TKD8J8K?FQ8:9-ak(u  1M
v&W , HCT:9 O 6A8 , GJ6 , G:fD?F-DT:?F6 O
:T:?CHF6d-0E>?CGKB7TKD6AE- OX, GKBwD , ; , D?F6AE- O S#;:-0?FG\D?C; , HCHFZB7TK9[6AE!6A8K9~-09H , 60?FW9 , O 9G\D9E O 60- , ZN-09 O ? O 6 , GKD9S
> , V?CG:Qy6A8:9?F- -A9 O EG , G36-A9  T:9GKD?F9 O W9-AZB79KGK?609 , GKB;:-09D? O 9 t 9D , T O 9m6A8:9<-09 O EG , G36-A9  TK9GKDZJ? O/O EHF9HFZ
B79;\9GKB79G36 EG@6A8:9U;:8VZ O ?RD , H7;K-AE;\9-p60?F9 O E  T , -A6Abu , W9-AZ O 6 , :HC9 O TK O 6 , GKD9S>9ID8 , GK?CD , HCHFZ:v5S6A8:9U-A9 O EG , G36
l UU(j Kgb![jq#"%$J&"%y(')"j+*
-09  T:9G\DZW , -A? , 60?FEGEMW9-P6A?C>@9fL#?608 ,  T , -p60bD-0Z O 6 , HY? O W9-0ZSKW9-0Z_HCEML  8:? O ? O 8:EML  1
J 4

L , 60D8K9 O E76 , ?FGs608:9?C-U8K?FQ8 , DDT:- , DZ VZd>@9 , G O E , G[9HF9ID56A-0EGK?CDyE O D?FHCH , 6AE- O 6 , :?CHC?F9B]VZX6A8:9-A9 O EG , G36
, D6A?CEGXE ,  T , -A6AfD-0Z O 6 , H 
E- H , =E- , 60E-0Z , ;:;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG O S608:ETKQ8aS39W9G`Q-A9 , 6A9-+-09  T:9G\DZ O 6 , :?CHF?F6%Z@> , Z=9B79 O ?C-09B + E , D8:?C9W9
6A8K? O S 608:9sD-0Z O 6 , HP?FG  T:9 O 6A?CEGN> , Z\9];:H , D9B!?FG , 6A9>@;=9- , 60T:-A9 O 6 , :?FHC?C9B!9GVWV?C-AEG:>@9G36]uT O T , HCHFZ , G
EMW9G\v5SV608VT O 9HC?F>@?CG , 60?FGKQ@-A9  TK9GKDZ`9-0-AE- O B7T:9y60E@6A8:9-A> , HY97; , G O ?CEG , GKBXDEG36A- , D560?FEGE)608:9  T , -A6A 
E-`608:9~TKH60?F> , 609?CG , -A9  TK9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -0BN608:ET:Q8aS<G:E6A8:?CG:QNB7? O DEMW9-09B!6A8VT O , - O T:-A; ,O0O 9 O 6A8K9
, DDT:- , DZ_E ,O ?CG:QHC9y-A9 O EG , 60?FG:Q , 60E> + 8:? O ? O 608:9f;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9fEc608:9 O E  D , HCHF9IB~1
  S\L#8:?RD8dT O 9 O
, G , 60E>Em>@9-DT:-0ZuE-fD9 O ?FT:>`v O T O ;=9G\B79B~?FG , W , DT:TK>XSY9:D?F6A9B~VZsET76 O ?RB799G:9-AQZ]6AEX-A9 O EG , 609 , 6
?F6 O EML#G`T:G:?  T:9<-09  T:9GKDZ + 8:9-09 O T:HF6A?CG:Qb-09  T:9GKDZ@? O B:96A9ID5609B ,Oq, - , B7?CE  L , W9 O ?CQG , H , GKB_608 , 6mE-0> O
6A8K9b ,O ? O E-#608:9b>@E O 6 , DDTK- , 6A9fDHCE7D O 3GKEML#Gd60E_8VT:> , G:?F6%Z P , 6A?CEG , H O 6 , GKB , -B O H , =E- , 6AE-A?C9 OP, -AET:GKB
6A8K9bLqE-AHRBX> , ?CG6 , ?CG , 9LE)608:9 O 9b8VZV;\9-  , DDT:- , 609yDHFE7D O S , G\BdK-AE , B:D ,O 6#-A9  TK9GKDZ O ?FQG , H O ,O 9IBdEG
6A8KE O 9 , 6AE> O WV?FK- , 6A?CEG O E- O D?F9G60? O 6 Of, GKB~6A9ID8:G:?RD? , G O 60E]6AT:G:9_?CG , GKB~T O 9@E-y-09  T:9GKDZD , HC?FK- , 6A?CEG
;:T:-0;=E O 9 O 
EMLLm9sQ96_60E6A8K9[;:- , D560?CD , H<; , -A6 EGKD9sLm9[8 , W9 , 7A E , DDTK- , 6A9X-A9  T:9GKDZSP8:EML{B7ELm9
DE>@; , -09#6A8 , 6 , Q , ?FG O 6 , GT:G:VG:EML#G@-09  T:9G\DZ6AEJE76 , ?FG , >@9 ,O T:-09>@9G365 . GK9UL , ZJ? O 60EJT O 9 ,
,O
, -A9  T:9GKDZ  DE>@; , -0? O EGB79WV?RD9 q
, 6A8KEVB:9y , Z TK\9 O 6%ZV;:?CD , HCHFZ_8 , W9y>@9 , G O E&B:9K9ID56A?CG:Q@608:9f9HC9D6A-0EG
=9 , >|?FG608:9P8:E-0?FEG36 , H ,O Lm9HCH ,O 608:9#W9-p60?CD , H , 7? O ) =>@96 , H:;KH , 6A9 O+, -A9PT O 9BJ6AEf9HF9ID560-AE O 6 , 6A?RD , HFHCZbB79K9D6
6A8K9`9HC9D6A-0EG O Sc608:9-09_L#?CHFHq\9 , ; , ?C-bE#;:H , 609 O 60Es6A8K9`HF96 , G\B-A?CQ836bEP608:9`=9 , > ,O Lq9HFH ,Ob, ; , ?F-JE
;:H , 609 O#, =EMW9 , GKB=9HCEML608:9f=9 , > 
CRT with horizontal and vertical deflection plates

horizontal
deflection
electron "gun" plates view-
(vacuum) screen
electrons

electrons
vertical
deflection light
plates

Lq9 , HFHCEMLeEG:9
O ?CQG , Hn6AE`B79K9D6<6A8:9f=9 , >TK; , GKB]B7EML#GuDEG:G:9ID56#608 , 6
WEH6 , Q9 O ET:-D9(60E
6A8K9yW9-p60?CD , HRbB79\9D560?FEG;:H , 609 O v , GKB , G:E6A8:9-
O ?CQG , H\60EB:9K9ID56P6A8:9(=9 , >HF96 , GKB`-0?CQ836(uT O ?CG:Q6A8K9
E608:9-q; , ?C- EcB79\9D560?FEG`;:H , 609 O v5S3; , 6A6A9-0G O L#?FHCH\=9(;:-AE7B7T\D9B@EG_6A8K9 O D-099G_En6A8:9
?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CW9UEY6A8K9
1
Eq608:9 O 9@6%LmE
-09  T:9GKD?C9 O  8:9 O 9_; , 6p609-0G Ob, -09_D , HFHC9B R 1 VU 2 7A , G\B , -A9 , DE>@>@EG
>@9 , G O E+DE>; , - , 6A?CW9U-A9  T:9GKDZ>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36m?CG]9HC9D560-AEG:?RD O 
P6A8:9`6%LqE]-09  T:9GKD?C9 O, -09@6A8:9 O0, >@9S)Lm9`L#?CHFHqE76 , ?CG ,sO ?C>@;:HF9`KQT:-09_EG608:9 O D-099GEm6A8:9
S
6A8K9 O 8 , ;\9@E 6A8 , 6fKQT:-A9=9?CG:Q[B79;=9G\B79G36bT:;=EG~6A8:9_;K8 ,O 9 O 8:?F6b=96%Lm99G~6A8K9@6%LqE
O ?CQG , H O  }U9-09
? O#,O0, >@;:HC?CG:Q@E ? O0O0, %ET O \QT:-09 O E-P6%LmE O ?CG:9  L , W9 O ?CQG , H O E)9  T , Hn-A9  T:9GKDZS O 8:EML#G ,O 6A8:9ZLmET:HRB
, ;K;\9 , -`EG!608:9s , D9sE , GE O D?FHCHCE O DE;=9u , G
WEH6 , Q9  >9 ,O T:-0?FG:Qx?CG O 60-ATK>9G36`T O ?CG:Q ,
,O ?F6 O
>@EMW9>@9G3603v _ 8:9@K- O 6b;:?CD6AT:-09@? O Em6A8:9 ? O0OA, %ET O \QT:-09E-0>9IBVZ6%LqE
WEHF6 , Q9 O ;=9-A9D6AHCZ?CG
;:8 ,O 9yL#?F6A8]9 , D8dE6A8:9-
Kg Kg<'& $<NU$Uk U(*7[q*'&< [q$j l3

OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y

DC GND AC
V/div
trigger
timebase
X

DC GND AC
s/div

Lissajous figure: same frequency, 0 degrees phase shift

U608:9X6%LqE
WEHF6 , Q9 O, -09XG:E6_?CGN;K8 ,O 9dL#?F6A8N9 , D8!E6A8:9-S ,xO 6A- , ?CQ836@HF?CG:9]L#?CHFH#G:E6_\9XE-0>@9B 
, 6A8:9-SY608:9 ? OAO0, %ET O KQT:-09L#?FHCH6 , 9@EG6A8:9 , ;K;\9 , - , GKD9E , G~EMW , HSY\9IDE>@?CG:Q];\9-p9ID560HFZD?F-DTKH , -(?F
6A8K9f;:8 ,O 9 O 8K?6<? O 9 , D56AHCZU\96%Lq99GX6A8:9y6%LmE O ?CQG , H O S , G\Bd?F&6A8:9?F- , >;KHF?F6ATKB:9 O<, -A9y9  T , H

OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
DC GND AC
V/div
trigger
timebase
X

DC GND AC
s/div

Lissajous figure: same frequency, 90 or 270 degrees phase shift

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OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y

DC GND AC
V/div
trigger
timebase
X

DC GND AC
s/div

Lissajous figure: same frequency, 180 degrees phase shift

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- , 6A?CE O

vertical
OSCILLOSCOPE

DC GND AC
V/div
trigger
timebase
X

DC GND AC
s/div

Lissajous figure: Horizontal frequency is twice that of vertical

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OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y

DC GND AC
V/div
trigger
timebase
X

DC GND AC
s/div

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Lissajous figure: Horizontal frequency is three times that of vertical

vertical
OSCILLOSCOPE

Y
DC GND AC
V/div
trigger
timebase
X

DC GND AC
s/div

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Lissajous figure: Horizontal/Vertical frequency ratio is 3:2

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voltage
The "Hall Effect"

current N
current

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A Hall effect power sensor

voltage

Rmultiplier

AC Load
power
source

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v f uZT7'm6f x%h6v k g f u"xTh65s x%u7k f vBTk q k vTl f%f o l"i3/fq f q7rZqKT f%f%s s q%zYx% f YT fEf f m f f xT7h s 6n6v f T sk x+f ' vh k q f k f
vf T7l f fR fh/gZ ks h  kgZk h
f%h6s2uT k o q7quZk T<h6z/v"6qv T7l!xY'Tjvx%6 v k vBT f xVAu f m1Tf2T7h i8o k TlWv o q h f v!vBq Tk 0T k | f2Tf l m f oxVT77hh6 v m k x f qL?Bm u k o s2T7l f vBq TzOo  m.f<6g n6u"u x f2vn f m o f hxT7 k x q7s rh'q^T Th6q%lz h/vq fn o v h itfq
'v g T f xlv k gx k 'v!q8 f f8?BgZu k1k  fNi }rZqtT7h k o  f x k k q f m.r gZk f T f xVT'v gUf%s s2f /k q^u"f  f fT7l f f q f x%h6v k gk T k h/v"i3q%0 f fs f k ff
' \ U P" * ( qTl n v 6mCT  n | vThA o  q vBT6v U o h q7rq^T qUR  h R 7h l!'A
hs 6v k x8xVh/vBT f vBT<0 k o h i3ff ?Bf u"6f m k TKr7 f ss f T f  k k qyf h6v f Tl"f YTyf n k f| f qq7h s2f R h6 s ithf l"6 s fh/s]v k x x%h6fvBfT g f v/s T k v gZk sx%'T k h6v=0
q o m }r`R h6T xlv x 'vUT7h T  v o h ?/u!'m TKr vUT7l q^rZq^T Tlh6uTq^h o l qKT xYT
?f Bu k o s2k1f s vBT f
k q2i T7hx%h s o 6 f f |6h/k m]Tk 'n f  f ggZf k vf n/s2qk f f T i3f%fitvf T i h6k xxVuk YT f f|/k h6m1T s2f f%T fsq i8sk f 6q7u k vnWTkl f k q s2fg f
q7rq^T fs |6h/m]T'n f h6v fQs2f T f y fk vn'vx6 }| f 'n k vn3j TKr o f h uv k T q7u"xl-/qN6v f m f xVT7h s2f xl!'v k x%6m s hY| f
s2 f vBT s2 f T f + Tl"'Yv Tg / T7}l | f h'6Tnl f v#n a f%TKk vr n@o _Y T7T u f q@ '  Q x%'TKm r  o f 'hT L u"v q7khWT T7 l"q^u!'xT@lT7l/qAlq7xk n6'l7m ~ q ?Bu"v 'm k TKx%r YTgZk n |6k Th/'m]mTq`s2 f T f  0z
 ofs _fs ; f (R): M05 U (f ; k (R)'((*)K fXQ_s2f M f (~%3bf  ; k  M5f<7g A JR5 ; VMf: k / 0 C f Tl fk |6gZh6k m1T6n f f8k qt6vr/Tl k vn
 uZTq k v f%i }| f w q7l" o fg z6Tl f }| f 'n k v"n s2f T f  i8k m.m ; Y (  f n k qKT f 3T7l f o 7h o f 8|}6m1u f z i l f  f 6qtT7l f T7u f 
s2TKrsf T f T 6m i }vrZq T7l i8k m.T m$z!h f nB' T g m f q%q7z{q Thl i }h/| f q q7l" Tol f 0 o h l f u?Bm u"f 'hm E TKr T7lu qsz5'a v l f T7 l fk q8n/Tl Yk q T  T7l Tf qn/l" 6f  YT f h/8v TlxQfjxVh/gZv/k q T o 'vBAT 0
k o h f itffq7rq^T f i T7lWs2n6f hfh ?Bu"'f2m TKi r o h f 
f q7lh6ui3m f n v k 'T k ?Bu"6g mL|/h6m1f T6n f  f  k vn/q s T k vT7l f T h
i3f fsi8k g k i3f g f f ff f f gZk f itff f i
s2f T f v"q%h'zT7Tl h Oi8?Bk Tu"l 6k mvUTT'l T f | 'T f<g6q7f u7 h63T7h/vBmT5f h6 v"o x h f hLOT7?Bl u"f 6m T i TKr h q5k v!T7qKl T7u h/s2qx f v/m1m.Th/q%q0 xVh o T q^T x%h6vv xTE'vhBq7x m.m.h/qxVh o
f k k fys2f fs2f i3f k k f k f f f k f
T7hTl f U |/h6m1T6n f 'v g h" q f | f Tl f q7l" o f hC T7l fi }| f 0 vr/Tl k vnjh6T7l f yT7l!'vx%m f 'v@q k v fi }| f
F"  M)=I%<HG[qPEM&<G[tJQ K
xVh/um g f 'v k v gZk x%YT k h/vAhOT7h/u:m f
vertical
OSCILLOSCOPE

Y
DC GND AC
V/div
trigger
timebase
X

DC GND AC
s/div

T m.m9z ?Bu"'vBT T'T | 6v"'m.rZq q ,"v T z{vu  x'm=,!n6u q qv x q7q'r6z"T7l  qvhq7u:"q^T T7uZT Rh/
'v k v"q^k T7u ks2f vBT
q o k f x k ,k x%f'm.m.r gf q k kn/v 9fgZg f Rh6k T7f l"'T o s2u"f  o k h/q f 0 u"xf lW'kv k v"f q^T7fu s2f vBT k qNf x%f'm.km fg _ '\ _k "f *(
This is a moderately ugly "sine" wave. Definite harmonic content here!

V( 'v g_k q+q7h s2f T k.sf q f T^T f `vh i v k v f m f xT7h/v k xAx k xVm f q26q2m1h i R f ?Bu f v!xVr %(r5 ;  0
l"'T8T7l k q k v!qKT7u s2f v/T g h f q k q o hY| k.gf n6 o l k x'm{ f o  f q f vBT'T k h6v@h/vU h/ gZk n k T'm gZk q o m.}rAq7x% ff v
hT7l f U |6h/m]T'n f qR f ?Bu f v"xVr/q o f xVT7u s 0 W[/u"qKT@/q+ o  k q s q o m k Tq+x f  s h i l k T f m k n6lBT k vBTh k Tq
xVh/v"q^T k T7u f v/TxVh/m1h/xVh s o h/v f vBTq l"h is u"xla fg z{h/6vn f z"r f m1m.h i zn6 f%f v5z!'v g m.u fQk q k vXTl"YTm k n/l/TzT7l f
q o xT7u 'v"6m1rV q o m Tq R ?Bu v"x%rq n/v"'m vBT7h Tqx%h6v"q^T k T7u f vBT#R f ?Bu f v"x k1f q%z!'v ggZk q o m.}rZq3T7l f
 f q7f um]T k vUs T7l f R h/ s f hE k l k q^T7h6s2n/k  fs]g f f k k k

1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Total distortion = 43.7 %

Power Quality Meter

/xl2vBu 3h6v+Tl l"h6 h6vBT6m"q7x'm hCT7l q T 3 o  q vBTqtl"6 h/v xhCT7l Ruv  vBT6m=R
B? u f v!xVr60"h6 s s2f f  k x'v f o h i3f k tq7rZqKT f%s qz6Tf l f K
k  s2f o f  f f q f v/fTqf f < Tl f <qKs T3l"'k  s h6v k x'f zBh6 g ; s2/ f ; (w f z
T7l f 6(Rh6
U T7l f ' g l"' s h6v k xVz'T7l f (Rh63
U T7l f }T7l+l!' s h/v k xz'v g q^hh/v=0 l f m&6x
 f xT'vn/m f q f o  f q f v/TT7l f  f m&YT k | fs 'n6v k Tu gZf qth f 6xlAh=Tl f q f l"' s h6v k xx%h s o h/v f vBTq k vTl fNsf 6q7u fg
B EDUUN F"bHG[q8IKJJLI%yNMOI%P
U |6h/m]T'n f 0 o u" f z@ <q k v fji }| f
i h6u"m g q7lh i h6vm.r2T6m1m&m&6xX"'hY| f T7l f : i8k T7l-vhm&6x
"6q8q7lh i8k vn+YT'm.mChY| f 3T7l f h6T7l f PR f ?Bu f v"x%r s ' 0 f q3h/vTl f qx%'m f z7 f x'u"q f  o u f q k v f
i }| f l"6q v"h
l"6 s h6v k xxVh/vBT f vBT<0
Eh 8?Bu"'m TKr T qq7u"xla6qT7l q n6lBTU T7T   T7hA/q YM( T qz\ x'u"q Tl r
' f8gZf qi3k n6f v f<g Th k gZk q s2o m.f }rf h/vm.rT7l"h/q f R fk ?Bu s2f kv"x k1f qf vh fi vf T7hf f f f n f f<v g f YT fg rT7l f ; o h i3sf f yf q7rZqKT f%s f 0 v2f T7l f%f f
o l"/q UWo h Lq7rZqKT q o  h v"6vBTcRh6Em&'n o h E oo m x%YT h/v"qz | v7wvu  l"' h6v x%q5T v
T7h@ f f x%6v"x f m f<itg f h/uZTz6f%v s g q^h2h/fvg m1rs2l"k' s h6v k x%q f k qKf T k v"n i3k f vXq k n6v k k,!x'vBk T s2f 6f q7uf  f ' fs Tl f f fh g gg wvBsu s k f  fg f 0 g
T qm Tl q 6 | rAu!q Rum vXTl l!'v qh Apq m1m T xlv x 'v5=z x'u"q  vBTTKr o qh
vh/vm k v f f 'f 8m.h/k  g f q3T f f v g f T7h+f n f vf f YT fNf gk f k  f vBTf q o f xTg7u s 6q k n/v"k YTfug  f 0q f i l k k xk lXx%'vXf x%m1u f fjTl gZf k Tf 7h/f :u m f q7lhf h'T f 
T7hT7l f q^h/ux f hT7l f o h m f%s 0 l f q f-sf T f q i h/A !Br| f 7r?Bu k x m.rq s o m k vnT7l f U |6h6m1T6n f 'T
s 'x%v7r h o gZk h x f  qf q^vBh/T  o qh k vB6Tm1q m'xVm.h h6v"no uT7Tl fNOi T7}h | fo Rh6A  Rs h6 q^l"v ou f z gZ k n x%k6T mk k h6v"u"nQ Tlh/6q f v"'o m.h rZk q vBTq q3Th l k 7v Rh6o  s( YT k7h65v5z6v : g 7 u!q k vMn2 
s2h6qk jf 'm.n6h6 T7l s Lh6vsTlh/q f 'T o h f v/Tqs Thj's2 | f k 'Tl"' h6k.f v mx R ?Bu k v! xVr fN 6n6v T7 u q0 l o ; 7hZ x qq
E k s fg k k f s k f f s k gf f f
k'qQv!'v"m.h'rT q sqth/u"vXxlHuq vm k ufAm&YTi l!YxT2T7x%l u f T |/ h6 m1T6 n o h68h6n/xVu s  vBT T f m.m&q}| WRxVh6h  s o 0 uZT f T7h g h i l f v o f p Rh/ s2k vnWWh/u k1f 
k k.s fg k k f f i f s
y_ ydVXj dV+<XdL

q q Tl 6q7u vBT3x xVu Tq%zBT7l x xVu T x%h6vZ,!n6uYT h/vvh vA6q3 5:%3 x%'v | 7r
u"q f Ri3uf m i }iri8T7h k sf 6q7u sf f uv:vf%h s2i fv2|Y'm.ku f qkh= f q k fq^T6k v"x f 0k l k q k qyT7u fk i8k T7l Ui /q itf m1m$z'v g2i3f x%6f v@ ofo m1r
T7l f | f r@q s2f o  k v"x k o m f T7hTl f 6xxVuYT fNs2f 6q7u fs2f vBT3hLu"v:vh i v k.s o f<g 'v!x f q0
h | z'T7l  n x xVu T h60 Zqy6qt o  h{T hwx%h o h/v vBTy|/h6m1T'n | qtxVh6v"v xVT /xVh/qq
T7l f q7 s2f f q7k1fh6i u"x f f|/h6m1Tk.6g n f f z i8k k T7lXk  i ;   %( %( ks2f T f  i s hY| f%s s2f vBTf xVh/vv f xT f<g f gZf k T itk&gZff f vUT7l fs f Th fgk v gZk xYT f
2xVh/v gZk T k h6vh "6m.6v"x f Q'PT f h2|6h6m1Tq

R1 R3

null

R2 R4

vrh6v h Tl Rh/u q qKTh6q v-T7l hY| " n x%'v T7l  q q^T7h6hyuv:vh vX|Y6m1u zC'v Tq
|Y'm.u f x%6v] f fjgf T f f s2k v fg f rUk 2'T k k hhOf Tl f h6T7l f f 8T7k&gl f%f f z i l k xf la' f f 6f x%6k m k YT fg z jh/ ii lhBq f  f f q k q^T6gXv"x k f q
' f vh i vT7hj o  f x k q fgZf n6 f%f 0 l f v+T7l f  k&g n f8k q k v@y"6m.6v"x f<g xVh6v gZk T k h/v f h
|6h6m1T6n f 6q k v gk xYT f<g
r+T7l f vBu"m1m gf T f xTh6 s2f T f zZTl f 'T k h i h60Zq3h6uZT8Th f T7l k q
F"bHmIK#LI%fNM5I%P /
In a condition of balance:
R R
1
R = R 3

S v hT7l  |Y6v/T'n q8hyu"q vn n x xVu TTh 6q7u  q q^T6v"x q8Tl"YTNT7l |6h/m]T'n hT7l
o h itf f q^h/ux f+f k q g k  f m f |Y'vBf T0Uy6kxT k x'm.m1rk.q g o f f  kk vn!z=k T7l f l s2k n6f l f 
T7f l f f q^uk o"o m1rWf|6kh/m]T'n f zCTl f f@f /q k.f  f k T k qThf
2 4

gZq f v"T fq xVT T | QxVh/T v gZk T m.kUm h6v@ h0 k1s "n/' m&'Yv"T x f @ q^f u T oi3o f%m.f r_v@|6T7h/l m]f T'Rnh6u3m  f q k q2q^T7Th/hq T7i8l k T7lo hBT7lq7q f vum m1TKm rgZfhT f xv"T7h/xVz/'q v g T7lu"q6q7T7ul  fNs h6vB fT
o f  f x kk q kk h/fXv=0 k i8h i3k f | f fzTl f  fi8f k m1m)f f vh@Ruv g  s2f vBf T6mf f g h6 k v/T7fh g u!x fg k /k qk 2 f q7uk m]Thfy2f<m gHf q7q s2f f h6n/f s2f Yf T f 
o h itf  q7u oo m1rA|6h6m1T6n f uvm k f h'T7l f  TKr o f q8h E f q k q^T6v"x fNs2f 6q7u f%s2f vBTqxl f%s2f q0
o 'v!x " n q h60 jTl q z/h/vm1rTl "6m.6v"x ?Bu"'T h6v q T7l 0 <n ?/u!'vBT T qzB/q h'Tl
s 'n/vs k Tu f<gZg f 'v f g o k&l!g 6q f f i /xVh/qqTf l f xVs2h f s o h6v f vBTqf hT7l f fT i f h gZk | k k&gZf k q i8s k u"q^T_ fXf ?Bu"'m k vh/k  k.gf f Rh62T7l f
vum.m gZf T f xVT7h6 Th k v gk xYT f  f h"0 l f vBu"m1m gf T f xTh6<zZh xVh6u"q f z s u!qK<T f  gZf | k x f x% o m f h gZf T f xT k v"n
| f 7rq s 'm.m U |/h6m1T'n f q0 vq f v!q k T k | f h/qx k m.m1hBq7x%h o fAk q2h *T f vu"q fg Rh62T7l k qz36m]Tlh6u"n6l| f rq f v"q k T k | f
fq7h6m f uxVT7x h s2R f x?Bl!u 'v v"k x%x%r 6m q s2f T Tf l  vs 6hYu | f%s2h2f vB6TvqQn 'v 0 gf | f v`l f  g o lh/v f q q s 'm.m3q o f  f ql!}| f f%f vu"q fg`k T7l f
f f f k i8k k gZk f
General impedance bridge

Z1 Z3

null

Z2 Z4

A box with a "Z" written

inside is the symbol for
h/Tl k qn f v f 6m/Rh6 s h
any nonspecific impedance.
U " k&g n f T7h~"'m&'v"x f zETl fAk.s o f<g 'v!x f YT k hBqjh f /xl'v"xl s u"qKT@ f
f ?Bu"6m
Z1 Z
= 3
nB v=z T u"q^fT q^T7 qq T7l"'T
T7l o 'v"x ?/u!'vBT T q vT7l !hY| ?/u!YT h6vN V( xVh
o m f CzO/x%k x%h6uk vBT sk vnXRh6ff h'Tl f s f6g n6v k T7u gZf 'f+v k.g s o l"f</g q f 6f vn6m f 0 T k k.k fq
vk h6Tn/hf h gWf vh6fQuf n/l-Tl"kYT
Tl f+k.s o ffg 'v"s x f
Z2 Z4

s 'n/v k Tu gZf q

'm.h6v f f !'m&'v"x fgCLi8k Tlh6uT o l"6q f 'vn/m f q k vx"'m&'v!x f 6q i3f m.m9z=T7l f  f+i8k m1myq^T k m.m/ f |/h6m1T6n f
   EDUUN F"bHG[q8IKJJLI%yNMOI%P
6x%7hBq7qtTl f T f  s2k v"'m&q hOT7l f vum.m gZf T f xVT7h/'v g T7l f " k&g n fi8k m1m5vh'T< f "'m&'v!x fg 0
3 n x xVu Tq8x'v] xVh6v!qKT7u"xVT Th 6q7u Ku"q^Th6uT86vr | x |Y'm.u q  z7 Tx o /x
T6v"x f z k&gk v g f u"xk T'v"xk f zZ f q k q^T6f v"x f zh6 f | f f<vdg Q0 s2 f q86m fi }rZq k vX k&g n fs2fgZ/f q^u"k  ffsf vBT f
x gZk f xVu k k Tf<qg zT7l f
f k uv:vh i kv
?Bu"'vBT k TKr k q'm i }rZq("6m.6v"x f<g U'n/ k v!qKT
vh i vq^T'v g ' g zChT k v f<g Rh s Ul k n6l7~?Bu"'m k TKr6z=x%6m k YT fg
xVh s o h/v f vBT+T7l!YTAx'Nv f  g Ku"q^T f<gk v|Y'm.u f uvBT k mTl f vum.m gZf T f xVT7h/ gZf | k x fXk v gZk x%'T f q`xVh6v gZk T k h/vh
"6m.6v"x f 0 f o f v gZk v"nah6v`lh i Tl f  k.g n f@k qjq f Tju o zLT7l f u"v:vh i vxVh s o h6v f vBT q|Y'm.u f@s }r~ fUgZf T f A
s2kYv Tfl ggkY T f xVxT7'm.nm @r Rh/R7 h s um.T"l 0 f q f T^T k vnh CTl f x'm k "'T fg qKT'v g 6 g z/h/ gZf  k | f<g Rh s T7l"'T q^T6v g 6 g Tlh6un/l@
s f%xVs h/u o k m hEq s o m  n x x%u Tq8' q^l"h v m.h zh6v Rh/ v u!xT6v"x 6v h6v Rh6x o /x T6v"x
f k.s f k.g f k k f i f i f k g f g f k f
unknown
inductance
standard
Lx inductance
Ls

null

R R

unknown
capacitance
C C standard
capacitance
s
x

null

R R

o m 6q7r T7 x'Rm # n qOq^u"xl/q=Tl q 6 q^hv" x%'u!q Tl r l TEq^r T7r 7h6A
k.s 6n k.f s q k.s2f k m&' k TKsrZs2yRf h s k m f *T8T7h2k.g  k f n/lBT0 l f T i f hf k.g f n f x k xVs2u k fTg q8q^lf h i vUf hYf | f f%'  f k "6k m.6v"s2x f<s2g f r@ g Rs2Ku"k qKT k v"n
T7l f x%'m k 'T f<g  f 6xVT k | f xVh s o h6v f vBT L h/ 0 l f r-' f d k Tjq k1s o m k , fg Rh s Tl f%k 
 f 'mF$m k f x%h6uv:
T f  o '7Tqz!6q o 6xT k x'mLq^r s2s2f T7 k x%'m) k.g n f x k xVu k Tqh'*T f val"}| f @x%6m k YT fg z!|}6 k "m f  f q k qKTh6 k v-q f  k1f q
h6 o 66m1m f m i8k T7lAT7l f  f 6xVT k | f xVh s o h6v f vBT3Th!'m&'v"x f h/uZTqKT}r2 f q k q^T6v"x fk vAT7l f uvKBv"h i vAxVh s o h/v f vBT0
F"bHmIK#LI%fNM5I%P B
3uZTz k vT7l f lr o h6T7l f T k x%6m i h/7m g h' o f ^ f xTjx%h s o h/v f vBTq%zOT7l f q f q k.s o m f+  k&g n f x k xVu k Tq g h@Ku"q^T,"v f Th
k m1m.u"q^T7YT f Tl f
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Synchro (a.k.a "Selsyn")

AC voltage
source

rotor three-phase
winding stator winding

stator rotor
connections connections

modern schematic symbol

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Synchro "transmitter" Synchro "receiver"

The receiver rotor will turn to match position with the

transmitter rotor so long as the two rotors remain energized.

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Synchro "transmitter" Synchro "receiver"

AC voltmeter

AC voltmeter registers a voltage if receiver rotor

position isnt exactly 90 or 270 degrees shifted from
the position of the transmitter rotor.

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three-phase AC voltage
source (can be Y or Delta)
Synchro

voltage signal
output

full rotation of the rotor

will cause output voltage to
smoothly shift phase from 0
degrees all the way to 360
degrees (back to 0).

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B EDNEF"_bHGaEt8IKJjLIKyNMOI%P

capacitance changes with capacitance changes with

changes in plate overlap changes in distance

capacitance changes with

changes in dielectric
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Differential capacitive transducers

capacitance changes with capacitance changes with

changes in plate overlap changes in distance

capacitance changes with

changes in dielectric
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Differential capacitive transducer
bridge measurement circuit

Pictoral diagram

capacitive
sensor

Schematic diagram

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