id Section 3 - Reptilian and Amphibian Physiology Respiration - Gas Exchange Amphibians 10 n 12, 3B. M4. skin 2 ul Consists of an epidermis and a dermis (internal layer), separated by a thin basement membrane. Must he moist for gas exchange ta acc. In suime species there are folds, hairlike filaments that develop in the skin to increase surface arca for gas exchange Functions of Amphibian Skin Protect against abrasion and pathogens”, Gas exchange e Water eegulation Secretion of anti-iesiccation cocoon Regulatlon of body temperature Jou - ‘Anti-predator defence - granular glands Cryptic concealment, aposematic colouration pert Epidermis [s 2.3 cell layers thick in larvae, 5-7 layers thick in adults, is a continually growing tissue, the outer layer is ‘wor down, In larvae the outer epidermis is alive, while in adults it is keratinized, Dermis Isa thicker layer, contains many cell types and structures, pigment cells, mucous and granular glands, blood vessels, nerves). ‘The stratum compactum is the inner layer and is dense connective tissue ‘The stratum spongtosum is the outer layer and 1s a looser layer of connective tissue, blood vessels, nerve endings, and glands Lungs Faxtemal nares, olfactory chambers, intemal nares, buecopharyngeal cavity, glots, larynx, trachea, bronchial tube lunge, Glows is a sit ike valve controlling airflow in and out ofthe respiratory passages Giottis opens into the box-like larynx - the vaice box Larynx exits into the trachea which bifurcates into bronchi and then lings (na bronchi in frogs exceps the Pipidae) Lungs ure vascularized thin walled sacs, weakly partitioned by connective tissue cepta Some eaecilians have a third lung budding off the trachea ‘Lungs also important in buoyancy. leading to lung reduction in fast-stream dwelling amphibians Lung Ventilation‘Teiphasic with a buccoparyngeal foree-pump mechanism. Inhalation begins with the nares open, glottis closet and dlepressian of the buecupharyngeal floor. Giottis opens and ait is forced out at high velocity by the elastic recoil of the fungs out over the air in the buecopharyngeal pocket . [ares close and the hnccopharyngeal floor i raised thus aris pumped into the lungs, Bueeopharyns, ‘Ofien heavily vascularized and ie a major gus exchange surface cus : Respiratory siructures in Karvae and a few adult salamanders : {i tadpoles yills may Ife in the opercular or branchial chamber water is drive over the gulls by pulsations of the throat Reptiles Skin ‘Some aquatic species use cutaneaus respiration - in terrestrial species yas exchange may occur at the edges of scales ey : bee Lungs oo he on é + Airenters through the glttio, then into the larynx (aimpler in reptiles) and the trachea, into a pair of bronchi, and then into the lungs : Lungs arc simple sa¢ lke structures with numerous faveol (sina sacs) radiating outward Some lizards have smooth walled tuhe-like extensions ofthe lings that can he used to inflate the body as : Snakes have highly modified lungs - commonly only the right lung is functional, the left tung is much reduced, the lungs are often very long (half the length of the snake), may also possess a tracheal lung. Mechanisms of Gas Exchange Expansion and contraction of the body cavity through contraction of intercostal muscles, relaxation of these rmuscles leks to exhalation In crocodilians the diaphragm-like structure contracts to enlarge the thoracic cavity, and the liver is used {or exhalation by being forced forward by abdominal muscles + Inturties, posterior abdominal muscles and pectoral girdle muscles expand and compress the body cavity for breathing ' Buccopharyax Sime tutes the uecopharynx for respiration during longterm eubmergencee for hibernation Ctreutation Amphibians Blood| | Amphibian blood i a colourlece fluid with throe major typeo of nucleated blood ells + etytnroeytes - haemoglobin pigment + leucocvtes + thrombocytes Artertal and Venous Circulation . Cloced circulatory system ‘Arteries - arterioles ~ capillaries - venules - veins (lymphatic vessels) : Ventral aorta branches to pulmacutaneans artery, systemic arch, carotid arch + Jugular vein, subclavian vein, pulmonary vein, pastenval vein + Amphibians have lymph hearts Heart : + Highly variable in flow patterns and structure + Three Chambers (two aria one ventricle) : Differences are associated with the relalive importance of cutaneous and pulinonary respiration : Have a sims venous which empties into the right atrium, pulmonary vein inco the left atelum : Both aria empty into the ventricle which pumps through to the conus arteriosus ‘Separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood occurs as a result of the vascular geometry Reptiles Blaod Plasma is clear, same cells as in amphibians - all are nucleated Arterial and Yenous Cireulation ‘Similar to that of adult amphibians Heart : ‘Three chambered (two atria and one ventricle) ‘Ventricle has three chambers - cava arteriosum, cava venosum, cava pulinonale ‘Sinus venosus - right atrium - cavum venosum ~ Pulmonary veins - left atrium - cavum arteriosi Oxygenated and deoxygenated hood mix in the ventricle In monitor lizards there is « functional four chambered heart : In the crocoditians the ventricle is divided into left and right Nutrition Amphibians z Buccal cavity - pharynx - esophagus - stomach - small and large intestines7 ‘Tongue varies substantially - bumps on the floor of the mouth to elaborate projectile tongus alumandere and frogs ‘eeth are simple - bicuspid crown anchored ta a base (peace) in the jaw Utnerwise very similar to mest vertebrates Reptiles Turles have keratinous jaw sheaths - other reptiles have teth that serve for grasping piercing, or Ineaking up food items (cutting, slicing, erushing teeth are rare) Well doveloped tongue ia woual Projectile tongues in chameleons and telescoping tongues in varanid lizards and snakes Otherwise as above Food Preferences a ‘Amphibians are carnivores - xcept some frog larvae that feed on algae and pond scum and so avi having to digest cellulose and other plant filnes Hatching and Juvenile reptiles ave yeuerally carn rors = ea nventebrates Herbivorous reptiles are found only among turtles and large lizards Postmetamorphie anurans and eaecilians and urodelans are usually opportunistic carnivores eating mollusks, worms, small vertobratee, and arthropods Ail crocodilans and snakes are carnivores, as arc tuataras - are generalist, but some may confine themselves to narrow ranges ot prey types - eg, bird, lizard, rodent specialists ‘Small lizards tend to be inscctivorous and generalists, some are specialists on ants, snails Finding Prey “it and wait” and “widely foraging” predator strategies - a continuum Visual searching - s¢e movements, often requires hinocular vision ~ nocturnal species tend to have elliptical Is which allows maximal dilation of the pupil for night hunting a-red detection of prey ~ Boid and Viperid snakes “see” infrared radiation Chemosensery detection = Olfaetion (ait borne), vomer olfaction (surface borne - surface tasting), ta Hearing - rarely documented but may be widespread - anecdotal reports of Bufo marinus detecting calling ‘Togs using sound, and some gekkos may use sound to prey on crickets Mechanoreceptors may be important in prey detection in snakes and caccilians Capturing Prey “striking” prey - varanid lizards, turtles, snakes “Projectile tongues” Chameleon and some frogs “Luring” prey - caudal lures in viperid snakes, pedal luring in some frogs, lingual luring in some trtles Frit teeding - tadpoles Suction feeding - aquatic salamaners, pipid frogs, some turtles Const iction - snakes aud pettaps Umbless amphibians (subset of striking) Envenomation - Helodermatidae, Elapidae, Viperidae, Colubridae (subset of striking) Components of Venoms Proteolytic enzymes (common in crotalines, less in viperines, not in elapids) Thrumbinelike enzymes (common in viperide rare in elapids)18 : Hyalmenilase (breaks down connective tissue - enhances venom diffusion, in all snakes) . Phospholipase A (affects muscles, common in colubrid, elapide, viporide) . Acetylcholinase (Interrupts nerve transmission, common in elapids, absent in viperids) + Crotaetin - polypeptide - acts at synaptic junctions (crotalines) + Cobrotoxin - polypeptide - acts on heart nniscle (cobras) : ‘Viperotoxin - polypeptide - affects catdivvascutar Function i bein (Piperay Miniinal food processing occurs in the mouth, herbivores may fragment food, large lizards, crocodilians, turtles may use shearing teeth and movements to tear pieces, and vonomoua anakes begin digesting from the inside out. Homeéostasis - Usmoregulation & Thermoregulation | Osmoregutation & ionic regulation In Fresh-water . {ons will tend to diffuse out, water will dffusc inwards through osmosis | . Reptiles reduoe permeability to water and have no surfaces over which to lose ions, Reptiles also produce | plenty of urine and actively reabsorb ions in the bladder, colon, and kidney + Amphibians expel water mixed with urea and ammonia ws urine, Sodiuun is reabsorbed cutaneously, and Sinm is actively reabsorbed in the urinary bladder. In Sate-warer . ons will diffuse inwards, and water will diffuse out . Only one amphibian can deal with this - the crab-eating frog (Rana cancrivora) - this frog increases urea retention - also requires Trimethybamine-onides to counterbalance the protein disvupti high concentrations - some amphibians can landle brackish water : Many reptiles are marine:~ but they can not produce urine hyperosmotic to seawater - the relative impermesbility ofthe integument protects them - but many have developed salt excreting glands. In atleast ten lineages salt glands have evolved - three times in turtles: four times in lizards; three times in snakes: and once in the erocodylids, tg. lingual glands in crocodiles, optic glands in turtles; oral glands in snakes. we effect uf Urea inn i Ou Land + Repiiles skin is 300-500 times less permeable to water than amphibian skin + Thisis because of the amphibian reliance on cutaneous respiration and the necessity of a moist surface for gas exchange . Amphibians tend to restrict their terrestrial activitics to arcas with high humidity, and can also extract water from surfaces through their skins - : ‘Anurans can store large quantities of water (20-30 % of hody mass) in their bladders and reser this water if required : ‘Anurms Cau also tolerate high levels of destecarton (up to 40 % loss of welt), they also allow urea to ‘build up because this can not be exereted without water. . Desert Anurans adopt watcr saving postures and have activity schedules that reduce their exposure to diy periods, some even have wax glands for esating th Reptiles are well equipped for terrestrial life skin is less permeable to water because of lipids in the thickened epidermis zs : Reptiles still In water -tarough the ckin and over respiratory surfaces. } ‘The colon is good at resorbing water, and most importantly they all excrete uric acid which means no water is required for exeretion of nitrogenous wastes + Turtles and lizards can store water in ther bladders elves, and some excecte wie mciProblems for Rygs sind Embryus Some amphiblans lie on the enes -e.g., some salamanders and Elewtherodactylus and can tronster water to the egas . Reptiles eggs are more resistant, but still great care is required in sclecting a site that is moist hut not so ‘moist that the eggs “drown” : Foam nests and reliance on ephemeral pools and explosive hreealing ure furiher amphibian strategies to deal withthe water probl Thermoregulation . Reptiles and amphibians are ectothermic extemal courees of heat are more important than metabolic heat production for maintaining body temperature : Heat exchange - metabolic heat, radiation (in and ont), convection, conduction, evaporation : ‘These processes ane all affected hy body size emall animals tena! to wari up ant enol elawn much faster than larger animals - his is because of the surface-area to body size ratio ‘Temperature Ranges : ‘Thera isa range of temperatures over which animals ean survive the tolerance range : This range is bounded on both sides by the Critical Thermal Maximum and the Critical Thermal Minimum + the points at which an animal can no longer respond to stimulation that is the point of no-return for the animal : Just beyond these points are the lethal temperatures : ‘Within the tolerance range, there isa range of temperatures at which the animal prefers to keep Its body temperature Amphibians and Reptiles deal with thermal problems very differently + Imamphibians rising temperatures increase evaporative water and heat loss this means that moxt amphiinas cm no has sl have ta rely on postiral nnd lection changes tn eaintvin brady temperate in the preferred range + Inrreptes, thermoregulation Is a developed art - basking, shurting, alrering body posture (for convection, ‘conduction, and radiation), altering the radiative properties ofthe skin, changes in heart rate, and blood shunting ~¢.g,, Marine iguanas - Amblyrhynchus cristatus Inertial Endothermy or Gigantothermy Larger animale lose heat at a proportionally slow rate, Leatherback sea turtles maintain body temperatures, ‘of 25-26 degrees centigrade in water that may be 8 degrees centigrade, Most of their heat comes from surface baskmg and trom muscular activity. In addition they have very lipid richskin and use counter- current exchangers inthe limbs to keep heat Dormancy + Hibemation - amphibians and reptiles avoid freezing temperatures at the bottom of streams - which arc 4 degrees centigrade, or in burrows below the frost line. + Freeze tolerance - amphibians and reptiles can survive supercooling - that isthe lowering of temperature below freezing point without the formation of ie crystals - this is achieved using glycerol or glucose 1o break the: farm fice crystals - or by restricting freezing tothe extracellular matrix and using proteins to20 restrict cellular damage when frozen - metabolic rates drop to near zero, and the circulatory system shuts down, : ‘Aestivation - when there is no rain and long period of drought - amphibians retreat to deep burrows with high humidity and moist soils - where they drop metabolic rates. Some species e.g., Scaphiopus Juammorui inthe nexth American deserts spend more than 90 percent of their lives acstivating. Some species can produce epidermal cocoons that encase the animmals and redluce evaporation substantially ‘ection 4 ~ Reproduction in Amphibians & Reptiles Fertiligation External : ui atic habitats . May require special non-reproductive tract structures for carrying embryos imits developmental environment tn 1 Internal = Permits internal or external development + Opens various evolutionary avenues for fertilization and development Gonads & Genital Ducts Amphibians . Pair of ovaries ur testes - develop frum similar tissues, differentiate when germ cells migrate into the tissues + Spermatozoa produced in seminiferous tubules pass into the urogenital duct (Wolffian) and then (o the cloaca = Oviduets ars paired tubes, anterior isan ostium, ova pass along duct to eloaca + Ova are protected by membranes produced by the oviduct - mucoproteins and mucopolysaccharrides, fram twa to seven layers + Viteltine menting clase to the: ovum ~ fori fertilization membrane Reptiles : Pair of ovaries or testes ‘ + Oviduet adjacent to ovary with Ostium : + Oviduct has an albumin secreting section and a thicker walled shell seercting portion ‘Two aviduets open independently into the cloaca : ‘Two testes adjacent bur the right one anterior to the left particularly in ‘Testis is a mass of seminiferous tubules, blood vessels, and interstitial cells in a connective tissue case : ‘Sperm produced in tubules pass to ductuliefferentia and then to ductull epididymides which then fuse 10 form the vas deferens leading to the cloaca Alllhaye copulatory organs (Cracodilians and turtles have a single penis, lepidosaurs a pair of hemipenes) : Ova are sequentially cate! by albanien snl then by several layers of protein fibres, these layers are then impregnated with calcium carbonate Fertilization