LeesyY) One tick = 1 Mark 41 Paschen’s Law ¥ Under increasing pressure : Recombination (reverse of ionization) “due to increased concentration of positive and negative ions directly proportional to the gas density (pressure & temperature). V Under increasing vacuum ~ removal of charge carries”, increased mean free path before a collision.” 12. 1.3, Point ~ Plain is the lowest breakdowny Pisin — Plain uniformly distributed field stress. Point — Point Field at both points are equally non uniform (Symmetrical stress) “ Point — Plain, Point non uniformity will be greater than point-point dus te the Asymmetrical field distribution ~ promotes corona and the corona will penetrate pest into the field of the geometries 14. Cavity Breakdown’ Occurs dus to gas pockets bubbles (or Void) within solid or liquid insulation When the cavity has significantly lower dielectric property this will distort the ciric field theraby increasing the electric field across the stress across the ga The gas also having lower breakdown strength results in a breakdown within the cavity, “ Surface dischargesY Tracking and Dry band arcing being examples. The presences of conductive deposits on insulators leads to surface discharges’. If the conductive deposits ¢ evenly spread no discharges would take place v rs in solid insulationv’ and initiated due to a non uniform electric field usually a result of conductor surface sharp points ‘0 chemical erosion initiates 2 ing from the conductor surface outwards* Insulation interfaces or Insulation Transition boundaries Can occur when mors than one insulation type is used of differing dielectric properties €.9. Solid and Air or even when two different solid types are used, ~ ‘nt dislectric properties (dielectric constant) can lead to the lead to an tric field across the lower dieleciric insulation this can result in one insulation only. 7 breakdown of 1.5. The approximate breakdown strength of air is 3kVimmv’ (peak) th 3mm it is $V (peak), os : Question 2 21. (6) Resistive Componentv’ — Dus to the resistivity of the insulation” Polarisation Currentv ~ Polarise and de-polarise the insulation” Partial discharge or lonisation Component Y— Due to the partial failure or breakdown within the dielectric 2.2. (4) Ti Wave front time is 1.2 micro secondv’, 12 Wave tail decay to 50% of peak in 50 micro seconds”. T1 = 1.67 x (T90% from Virtual Origin - 30% from virtu Origin) 7. Virtual Origin is where line from 790% to T30% intercepts time axis. T2 from 50% to virtual origin” 2.3. (8) Poor high frequency response”’, The inter-turn capacitance and iron-core losses that are negligible at low frequency are significant at high frequency thereby damping out high frequency components” Series Resistor Shunt Using low resistance series shunt’ and measuring the resulting voltage across the shuniv Using @ Hall Effect Probe A Voltage is induced in a direction perpendicular to a current flow and magnetic ield called the hall coefficient, which is highest in semi conductor material. “ The ent is placed in the air-gap of a iron core magnetic field of the current to Rogowski Coil. “ ‘The magnetic field set up around the conductor is used to induce a Voltage in a i placed so that it surrounds the current pathy” Voltage is increased in discrete steps up to the rated voltage. Good insulation the Tan Delta should remain constant over the range of voltagev at a value <<0 say o.ooty. 2.5. (2) Maximum accurate distance of measurement +/-3%Wusing a sphere gap of 0.5 x the gap diameter.‘> Filtration and treatment under vacuum: Oil is predried before filtering. Oil cannot be used for HV insulation, Oil is distribured over large surface in a specially designed tank under vacuum. This process = drying and degassing achieved simultaneously. + Centrifugal Method: Method is helpful in partially extracting s impurities and free water. Ineffective for removal of water and dissolved gasses, Oil treated is even over-saturated with air as gas. Ifthe tank is kept ‘under vacuum, partial iinprovement can be obtained. Absorption Columns: Oil flow through one or several columns filled with as absorbing agent either in the form of grains of power — fuller earth, silica gel and molecular sieves, <> Electrostatic filters: Oil treated between the two electrodes placed ina container. Electrostatic field charges the impurities and traces of water which the attracted and retained by the foam coated electrodes. Economical of water content is less than 2ppm, 3.2 Single generator impractical: See Wadhwa page 87 @)boa | Nin Cirey) : Nee (33Lrg gree & a. ICO - We Moree feteD | 3 Stage Marx Generator Circuit Lhd Charging capacitors Cs are charged via the DC source in parallel” via the charging resistors. When all the capacitors are fully charged the bottom gap is triggered “causing the bottom capacitor to start discharging through its discharge resisior. , the current discharge raises the voltage of the first stage raises the voltage across the second gap and results in rapid cascade firing of the remaining gaps ¥. The voltage across the Test object therefore rises rapidly in steps according to. the firing of the gaps. The decay of the wave tail voltage is determined by the value of the discharge resistor that determines the rate of capacitor discharge.*© Wave Tail time = 50% of Wave Peak” In(0.5) = Infe“™") a 7 =H = OME wa save - ¢ feon!2? o, 299 4 =o a wire? qkua: AC emeyeZ Re ecenGl rot Bhuva\224)1 00%! * > s7 bya: anes 06284 sivay /22Bz.545 ~ L Fencing and Barricading ~ To prevent accidental encroachment into the flashover range of the HV. “ Energy Source isolating, lock-out, earthing and Discharging devices” Warning notices and Sirens” All the low voltage side of equipment effectively earthed” ha Deflections of the measured waveform. “ The dividers output impedance must 6 maiched with the coax cable impedance. Coax impedance must be match with the CRO impedance, “ Electro magnetic coupling interference and distortions” All test equipment to be screened and well away from HV voltage and current sources” Ground Potential Rise” Divider and all equipment connecied to a common extensive earth”1 Insulation coordination (Wadhwa page 243 to 250) Is the correlation of the equipment insulation level (equipment BIL & SIL) to that of the surge protection (surge arrestor) level. The number and placement of surge arrestor is that which can be economically justified for the risk, The Volt-time curve of the surge arrestor must be below the volt-time curve of the equipment being protected i.e. protective margin 9.2 Origin of switching surges (study guide page 132) “+ Switching surge originate in the network when switching in and out of shunt capacitor banks and large inductances (Transformers, shunt reactors and long lines) ‘Circuit breakers re-striking Switehing in long transmission lines. 1.3 Gas type surge arrestors’ vs Gapless MOV type Slow and inconsistent operation ~ refer to time lag for air gaps (Study guide page 174 and Wadhwa pages 19 and 104) i.e. A gap arrestor operation is subjected to the statistical time lag, 3.4.BIL AND SIL BIL Basic Insulation level ~ insulation ability to withstand lightning impulses. 1/50 Standard waveform SIL Switching insulation level — Insulation ability to withstand switching impulses 250/2500 standard waveform 1.5 Negative impact Tower & Tower footage impedance to earth BIL (insulation length and strike length) Shielding (Minimum coverage angle 30deg) Tower height and exposure Use of surge arrestorP SET A OT orm a) Kale oh AC. oslage 4D_ apf WW Fig, bo Z\ ouch rq e ok Wacdlhua > a mo MOse Souice Ou Slang etn Cousdac 3p os AWN roel “Usd NE tose GG She a sol Cunet pul Wet Obed OO. Ocomss OO ALMLO, Cabecuer a“Reo cluce Vine laitel wp ef wattle, oo Quuige aeeator 48 este Freed Auuges oe Mar =. Vege LA vet | Cds, Rs Cackuce Sho probably. ota _ Lot a Tuc, Shrle Vbeleseoin Xie CRA Wes — Sepuati ase), = tts age pe tee _&& onky oe bt ho | eee ye “Cock. Om URL Ourew™ cud Pereotte, ely Ciara LQ. Chowacd.. oS | tOulede..Meat que i moet |) e —— . ite wot cue fore. bes SLi route test (uy a oat on. MD f- Owd Com. be. epecdtect | ARBOUR ——— | auc, 4 | ci y Ourch sh “pe i Ba Neay Wadtuse . Pt iG& él —Au Ge dus Waclluua i fe bAL SS NLU 4 A Funead g tho ) OL a Raohoe Comps “opie = - A fabio pt os. OA feast eye = WooGu Ee. BOT E- SCENt. TTTae ——= Se —— Tonnaens Seeaner Bs ow essume aun) [Higher Preseures (Aimosohere Pracsure) cher (Sein en) Bacar Shaoe Difused Norrow cnennal ralasme usar ‘An eeczon intiaingelecren} must be avlale. Te nating electron ic accelerates bythe apolied elect fils and inating | Usongahnng sufi Kneis enemy on colleen whan stm spits be stom ns an secon (autora elec) end esnerion a peahve on tary sing We breakcown orocesees, Sstsning | Elacrone laszed rom tne cathece by paatve ion Mestonan omen Phote Mig arisation Time to ereakesvn rier eocond uch Fate (10 to 100 Nano aecands) | Ecanole Neon Tuset Upnning, Power Fashover Capt RMA F- 205 ie WeasygIgreL eet1.3 Planck’s constant — energy — frequency graph See study guide page 12 * ey > 2.1 Corona and partial discharge (a) Positive corona onset is a higher voltage than negative corona. Positive or burst corona + Blueish discharge glow 4 Positive space streamers cause periodic extinction of the discharge “Negative corone or Trichel pulses * Reddish discharge glow “ » 10kHz up to MHz % Cavity Breakdown: Occurs due to gas pockets bubbles (or void) within solid or liquid insulation, When the cavity has significantly lower dielectric property this will distort the electric field thereby increasing the electric field across the stress across the gas. The gas also having lower breakdown strength results in a breakdown within the cavity “Surface Discharge: Tracking and dry band arcing being examples. The presences of conductive deposits on insulation lead to surface discharges. If the conductive deposits were evenly spread, no discharges would take place. 4 Treeing: Occurs in solid insulation and initiated due to a non uniform electric filed usually as a result of conductor surface sharp points. Electro chemical erosion initiates a tree erosion spreading from the conductor surface outwards. + Insulation Interfaces or Insulation Transition boundaries: Can occur when more than one insulation type is used of differing dielectric properties e.g. Solid and Air or even when two different solid types are used. The different dielectric properties (dielectric constant) can lead to an increase electric field across the lower dielectric insulation. This can result in breakdown of the one insulation only, Xo q 2 Pashen’s Law See Wadhwa P12 and fig 1.6. 2.3 Describe the following: (@) Cav! ry (or Void) Breakdown: Occurs due to gas pockets. The dielectric strength of the void is considerably lower than that of the liquid insulation. The relative perminivity (or dielectric constant) of the void is also considerable lower than that of the liquid dielectric. This sets up a non-uniform electric field with ¢ higher electric stress across the cavity. The high stress across the cavity could result in breakdown of the cavity that manifests as Partial discharge. The breakdown of thecavity could then spreed by electro chemical erosion and cause eventual complete insolation breakdown. (b) Tracking and treeing in Solid insulation: Is the depositing of a permanent carbon conductive track on the surface of an insulation. Tracking is caused by sparking taking place across a section of the insulation surface. (surface partial discharge) The sparks cause carbonization of the insulation which is deposited on the surface of the insulation. In time: this could lead to the bridging of the insulator sup. Sparking coud be caused by the depositing of surface contaminants e.g Salts, The fee cerbons produced by the thermal decomposition form the carbon ‘racks therefore the resistance of a material to track depends on its chemical composition and the manner it breaks down at high temperature. (© Jonisation: isthe splitting of atoms into electrons and positive ions ie, Tonisation jg necessary to convert a non-conductive (insulation) gas into & conductive path. Jonisation is achieved by high energy electron collision with atoms or photo (a) (intensive light) ionization. (Thermal ionisation) CQuestion 3 n down distance to the tower, or between phase to phase and phase io earth. vow insulation BILY: 1/50 puncture or flashover strength. The insulation strength for 1/S0micro Second wavey, Z 1a therefore reducing Lv and increasing © ¥. ¥ Phase Spacing : Closer phase spacing = (C) “. Bundle or Conductor diameter : Larger diameter = (C) v. 3.3. (5) Insulation co-ordination firstly entails establishing likely magnitude of TOV, Surge impulses, Lightning Impulses, Therefore what voltages arise from faults? ¥. Sustained earth faults cause phase to Earth TOV on the healthy phases. On weak or ungarthed systems the Phase to Earth voltages candesa rise to Phase Voltage. Vv. As the network is predominately reactive the abrupt interruption of large fault _ current wilYean cause Switching impulses. v’. % 3.4. (4) o.22MV v 3.5. (5) - Infinite impedance for power frequency (low leakage current)” after operation (do not allow power follow through)” energy without fail (Le long operation). 7 3.8. (3) Prevent lightning sirikes between the equipment and the surge arrestor. “ Limit the build of voltage for steep fronted waves afier the surge arrestor” Virir = V(SIA redival) + L(difdt) 7 37.4) 3.7.1, Shieiding Failure ; When a direct lightning stoke hits the overhead power line that has overhead shield wires. VW” Sack-flashover : When as a resuit of a lighining strike to a transmission ead shield wires , due to a high tower footage impedancethe tower voltage rises so high as to cause a tower fo phase conductor flashover. vv1.3 Planck's constant ~ energy ~ frequency graph ¢ See smdy guide page 12 2.1 Corona and partial discharge (a) Positive corona onset is a higher voltage than negative corona. & Positive or burst corona > Blueish discharge glow + Positive space streamers cause periodic extinction of the discharge “> Negative corona or Trichel pulses Reddish discharge glow » LOKHz up to MHz ) + Cavity Breakdown: Occurs due to gas pockets bubbles (or void) within solid of liquid insulation. When the cavity has significantly lower dielectric property this will distort the electric field thereby increasing the electric field aoross the stress across the gas. The gas also having lower breakdown strength results in a breakdown within the cavity Surface Discharge: Tracking and dry band arcing being examples. The presences of conductive deposits on insulation lead to surface discharges. 1f the conductive deposits were evenly spread, no discharges would take place. ‘Treeing: Occurs in solid insulation and initiated due to a non uniform electric filed usually as a result of conductor surface sharp points. Electro chemical erosion initiates a tree erosion spreading from the conductor surface outwards. + Insulation Interfaces or Insulation Transition boundaries: Can occur when more than one insulation type is used of differing dielectric properties e.g. Solid and Air or even when two different solid types are used. The different dielectric properties (dielectric constant) can lead to an increase electric field across the lower dielectric insulation. This can result in breakdown of the one insulation only. 2.2 Pashea’s Law See Wadhwa P12 and fig 1.6. 2.3 Describe the following: {a) Cavity (or Void) Breakdown: Occurs due to gas pockets. The dielectric strength ° bly lower than that of the liquid insulation. The relative pemnittivity (or dielectric constant) of the void is also considerable lower than that of the liquid dielectric. This sets up a non-uniform electric field with a higher electric stress across the cavity. The high stress across the cavity could result in breakdown of the cavity that manifests as Partial discharge. The breakdown of the void is consid:cavity could then spread by electro chemical erosion and cause eventual complete insulation breakdown. () Tracking and treeing in Solid insulation: Is the depositing of a permanent carbon conductive track on the surface of an insulation. Tracking is caused by sparking taking place across a section of the insulation surface. (surface partial discharge) The sparks cause carbonization of the insulation which is deposited on the surface of the insulation. In time this could lead to the bridging of the insulator gap. Sparking could be caused by the depositing of surface contaminants ¢.g salts. The free carbons produced by the thermal decomposition form the carbon tracks therefore the resistance of a material to track depends on its chemical composition and the manner it breaks down at high temperature. (c) Jonisation: is the splitting of atoms into electrons and positive ions i. onisation is necessary to convert a non-conductive (insulation) gas into a conductive path. Jonisetion is achieved by high energy eleciron collision with atoms or photo (tensive light) ionization. (Thermal ionisation) 3.1 Treatment of Transformer oil ~ Filtration and treatment under vacuum: Oil is predried before filtering. Oil cannot be used for HV insulation. Oil is distributed over large surface ina specially designed tank under vacuum. This process = drying and degassing achieved simultaneously. “+ Centrifugal Method: Method is helpful in partially extracting solid impurities and free water. Ineffective for removal of water and dissolved gasses, Oil treated is even over-saturated with air as gas, Ifthe tank is kept under vacuum, partial improvement can be obtained. ‘+ Absorption Columns: Oil flow through one or several columns filled absorbing agent either in the form of grains of power fuller earth, silica gel and molecular sieves 4 Electrostatic filters: Oil wreated between the two electrodes placed ina container. Electrostatic field charges the impurities and traces of water which the attracted and retained by the foam coated electrodes. Economical of water content is less than 2pm 3.2 Single generator impra See Wadhwa page 87ub 7 Rocce Ue lute wp hoe Qkler the Ouume aneater skh rrewked = Quuges” Co : . a | ee Veja a - fc by Kacuce Vo 8 buf boy : ging Ake asa ws copupusicd | 1 Sita | 6 leg ape see Gee onky ofan do 7 Cu Are porta Ly tq diuneh a Gud Where ober eule fH We a Mor, 40 Chowgad Shad _ dibke Neat que f oh (BA at i eo AUP tut a = é i eal cue ADEE Ly g it Ni Tage o. POpstes St | _- - a 5 Cardone, z Leak Ox uo Akan — Cunch Con piled a aso Uae . | ANCL auc i 52 _ ci iy im pe baie ay (uth tow | Aundss cl | dilly Corl pus due Year Wacllusa 146 fog> Nha NO Lue. & ot ha iu ul =o) tho WN Kad recolupe Ce Quan, Que, 4O ( f ACU S = Kepoall i “Kew: 7 Ri easllel - XK caas Caies™ : 6 eel Kepallet = Cease = foe Wacllusa : fog bt e as aad fabio p IS = LUCOGW ee Cheam Pkou AS ay Dg Govhauag | ay Bat ete ik re | P= NE / | E-= QOWD - a p E = & GRNK