MU ibliothek Fremdspr. Philol. /Sla Cee cm ny DE Rm oes erg Soe eee em ey Ce eet ste Cree eRe Err iey : ORR cece 4 ej UC RCs ent] FY fe! I Y ) I Y Ka] 4 Evora e Dene get eu Rest : rn Ve ros OST Ruy Fd 5 z Clear and simple Glasgow. His other books include A Comprehensive explanations Coen ea eee ae) ee Series Adviser, Dr Richard Ingham, is Lecturer in Linguistic, Science at the University of Reading, OXFORD ISBN 0-19-860360-0 Pee ered poortiony Pa OaeCea emery [ie eerie Someta Pent £7.99 np $14.95 usaThe Oxford Russian Grammar and Verbs ‘Terence Wade ‘Oxford New York ‘Oxford University Press 2002st ped 20, ‘igs rere No par fh pueton maybe produced ‘ed inser persue yf yy ean, ‘tout he pot permis nen of Or ee oat gd pe ‘Sud the sop fhe save sole sen oe Rais Deprme, ‘Std Ute Be atte ss se ‘ou must cite hi ok in any te icing oF cover {dou mut impo hone anion any sce ih brary Cataloguing in Pubeation Data ery of ages Calg a Pbeton Data “peat umtach an Trade Cte yhes ever ae et tan ys Ban. SatI Contents Preface W Feknonedgenens " Uitot abbreviations ¥ The noun 1 The adecive 8 The power 8 The oumer 0 The ve 3 vert rr Thr adverb i he prepotion a ‘he conuncton ae Word oer a Paocuaton 2 Glossary of grammatical tems 23 Index of sobects hs Inder of sian words 2» The Rosia aabet, a2 | Preface “The Oxford Russian Grammar and Verbs is part ofa serie of Oxford grammars of moder languages. It is designed for beginners and Intermediate level learners at school or university a well as the adult studying the language on his/her own or at evening classes It contains everything that is essential up to Aleve standard ‘The text is divided into chapters dealing withthe individual pats of speech, with particular emphasis given tothe verb. Tere are also ‘chapters on word order and punctuation. A separate glossary explains the grammatical terms usd inthe book and two indexes allow the user to ook up individual points of grammar and individual Russian words ‘The explanatory style ofthe book has been kept as simple as posible and numerous examples ilustate points of grammar as they arise. The ‘design and layout of the text is arranged predominantly in single- and ‘double-page spreads to aid ease of use, The verb lst and the glossary of grammatical terms have a grey tint tothe outside edge of the pages to enable quick reference. ‘Terence Wade| Acknowledgements ‘The author would lke to thank in particular Albina Ozieva who gave advice on Russian usage and the Russian examples, and Dr Della ‘Thompson of OUP who oversaw the project and made many usefl and help suggestions, Thanks are alto due to Dr Richard Ingham, Series ‘Adviser, for his valuable comments on the tex. | Proprietary terms ‘The inclusion in this book of any words which ae, or ae assed {>be proprietary ames or adem doe py tat sy hare Scqured for legal purposes a non-proprietary or general sigiiance, ovis any oter judgement imple concerning thet lepl Sa | List of abbreviations dat. dative fem. feminine gen. genitive mpi. perfective nat. instrumental {ntrans, intransitive ‘ase. masculine MD multidirectional pl peefective ‘rep. prepositional fans, transitive UD unidirectionalThe noun | ‘Anoun names a person, animal, hing, natural phenomenon, ‘quality, substance, fact, event, abstract notion ec. dawns boy cofina dog ena chair nobpori Kindness | Gender (masculi feminine, or neuter) (@) Nouns that denote male persons or animals are masculine: Spar brother mywsina man Gapin ram (b) Those that denote female persons or animals are feminine: ceerpi sister mare mother urpima tigress (6) The gender of nouns that denote things, phenomena, qualities, etc. depends on the ending of the noun.2.1 The noun Masculine nouns {a} All nouns ending in a consonant or + are masculine, as are some ending in a soft sign (s) avba factory ype museum aoxae rain (b) Masculine nouns ending ina soft sign include ‘natural ‘masculines, animate and inanimate agent nouns in rea, the ‘names of months ending in a soft sign, and others whose gender thas to be learnt individually ripen lad io July fuckrem writer exoniph dictionary anirarem engine nem day Feminine nouns {All nouns ending in -a/-a are feminine (except for “natural” ‘masculines and neuter nouns in -wa), as are nouns in -na: enira book ipa storm crimuwn station Also, very many nouns ending in a soft sign, including: ‘nouns that denote females; ‘nouns in, 8, mb, mt, am; ‘nouns in -ers (except rocrs ‘guest’ and teers ‘father-in-law’); nouns derived from adjectives and verbs: sare mother pox ye owe right mun mouse eum thing aun life weer honour abnenm greenery samen recording ‘There are also many others whose gender has to be learnt individually‘The noun 13 Neuter nouns: ‘Most nouns ending in 0 ore and all nouns in ae, -be, -6é, or = are neuter: enbwo word ope sea ariune bulding evicrse happinces Pyavé shot-oun pena tine Common gender nouns in -al-n These nouns are masculine or feminine, depending on the sex of the person involved: ‘xoanéra colleague {masculine of feminine) Indeclinable names of animals are also of common gender: renryp Kangaroo ‘woanané chimpanzee ‘The names of many professions are grammatically masculine, but take a feminine short-form adjective or past tense when the practitioner is a woman: Bpaw aovéasia. Bpas nucaxa “The (female) doctor is pleased. The (female) doctor was writing’. Indectinable foreign nouns Indeclinable foreign nouns (loanwords) end in -a0, ay, -€,-, -0, 0a, 40, of -2 and are mainly neuter (an exception is masculine wide coffee’), e.8 iy-xy know-how kage cafe ‘axe tax Snerpe bistro iy show urrepauio interview41 The noun | Number (singular and plural) (@) Nouns are ether singular, denoting one object or person (ero ‘table’, xémmma ‘woman’), or plutal, denoting more than one (cromi ‘tables’, suman ‘women’). (b) The masculine plural is formed by the addition of a vowel, usually to nouns ending in a consonant (after, x, X, 2, 1m, m [see page 6)): awré6ye bus anré6ye-s1 buses ‘ypix lescon ypbn-w lessons ‘mmx beach aioe beaches orby the replacement of inal oF by ‘repi-t hero repb-w heroes Toay6-» dove rény6-n doves (©) The feminine plural is formed by the replacement of final -a by Ga afer, 8, iva amp aloes laps rein book vara books and of final -a or -b by -#: ere aunt vere aurte sews thing néuew things (@) The neuter plural 8prmed by replacing -oby-,-eFby-t: sinere-ofecing sjncrea feclings nie dress nnkrien dresses Pym shotgun pian shot gineTrenounts J | Declension ‘There are six cases, each showing the function of a noun in the clause (only the most basic meanings or functions are given here): Nominative the subject ofthe dause Oréy nmér Father is drinking Accusative the object ofthe verb Ont rr maid He drinks wine Genttive possession, ownership Jou ctatua My son's house Dative Indirect object, recipient Oxt an xn seman He gave the book to the boy Instrumental with, by means of ST rf sao | write with chalk Preposttional/Locative Toeation SL xcsy 8 ropane ve i town | Note: (a) relief the wat cate in: ae ony Go’, Feta! Cond Vise (0) some truncated forms ae used wth ecatve meaning in clo! Russian: a Mor, Ha "Win ee (Che prepestonaliecatve casa is alnays sed with a prepa,6 1 The noun | The declensions ‘There are three declensions: ‘The first declension: all masculine nouns (except those ending in ‘fa, and nyrs ‘way’) and all neuter nouns (except those ending in wa) ‘The second declension: nouns in afs (mainly feminine, with a few ‘natural’ masculines, e.g. ouowa ‘youth’, aaa ‘uncle’, and ‘nouns of common gender e.g. cypors ‘orphan’) ‘The third declension: feminine softsign nouns, neuter nouns in wa, and masculine nyre ‘way’ ‘The first dectension (masculine and neuter nouns) ‘The first declension subdivides into masculine nouns ending in a consonant, -i, or-s, and neuter nouns ending in-o, - (including -wel-velat) ‘Masculine bard-ending nouns (nouns ending in a hard consonant) ‘Most masculine nouns follow the standard pattern (types 1 and 2 below). Others display variations conditioned by the spelling rales: Spelling rule one: ati replaced by m after the letters r,«, x and 3, a, mn Spelling rule evo: 0 can appear after the letters, and w onl if stressed, otherwise itis replaced by e. J Noten ccsati singular and plural fat masculine animate ours is the 1 aie ste gente. Types of masculine fist-declension nouns ending in a hard consonant: Type 1: aaa ‘all (inanimate nouns) Type 2: wan ‘captain’ (animate nouns) Type 3: map ‘park’ (nouns in fsx) Type 4: pmox ‘market’ (nouns in -ox/-ex/-ée) Type S: woméu ‘end’, nimeu dance" (nouns in -) Type 6: wea ‘knife’ (nouns in --¥, -, -m)the oun? J ‘Type 1: Inanimate nouns, e.g. sain Nouns changing their stress in declension include rpu6 ‘mushroom’ (genitive rpu6a), anop ‘yard’, xyer ‘bush’, amet ‘sheet of paper’, cron ‘table’, eya ‘law cour’, xpya ‘labour’, yt ‘mind’, xnocr ‘tail’, etc. Note also Jwenp ‘Dnieper’ and TTerp (genitive Tlerpi) ‘Peter’. ‘Nominative/accusative plural in stressed -& Some masculine hard-ending nouns take stressed inthe ‘nominative/accusative plural: dapec ‘address’, anpeck ‘addresses’; per ‘shore’, Geer ‘shores Gan ‘side, Gon sides; nex ‘century’, pen ‘centuries’; névep ‘evening’, nevepa ‘evenings’; nm ‘eye’, mak ‘eyes réaoe ‘Voice’, rack voices ow ‘house’ owt houses’ nee forest’ ec forests; rpon ‘island’ crpond “islands; ndenoprpasspor’, acnopra ‘passport: meat “wain’, noesaé ‘trains’ etc.81 The noun Prepositional/locative case in ‘The following nouns take prepositional /locative stressed -j after the prepositions a in’ and aon’ (never after o about, concerning’ o ee ‘about the forest’ or mpa ‘inthe presence of, attached" npw ovat ‘in father’s presence mp anéae ‘tached to the factory) per bar——Oniormxinwa Geyer wp ‘hay eer tw ene Alon ‘she Dor’: Poctos waxdamres wa Jom Foto aston he Bom tae On amen ma ua ‘jw argon te oe rectorest—TpGiipecrr anes Mesecome go th oreo oor viet Miteroion wa et Wiener stardngon he ge Srmyceteldey: Mariam women clloulal variant of sje Weer on holy rmon‘feor: Cota nani wa mony The dog ao seeing onthe oor nopr’yort: Ou paGiracr a nope} He works nthe port aa row ‘Mat cuaéan rom pa Werner ting n row ve can'garden: Bean) pacrjx pot ones growin the garden suxag ‘optoant: Biase named cir» mad “eur coat ang nthe cupboan Other nouns with stressed prepositional /locative in -f (many of ‘them monosyllabic) include 6az ‘ball’, Kpsim ‘the Crimea’, 206 ‘forehead’ (1a n6y ‘on the forehead’), Hoc ‘nose, prow of ship’ nonx ‘regiment’, ocr ‘post’, mpya ‘pond’, por ‘mouth’ (xo pry ‘in the mouth’), ener ‘snow’, fron ‘corner’ (a yray ‘inthe comer’ wa ‘yea ‘on, at the corner’). For the ‘fleeting vowel’ in declension, see pages 10-11, 17.Theron! ‘Type 2: Animate nouns, e.g camorin ‘captain’ [Note that the accusative singular and plural of masculine animate nouns is the same as the geniti Nom, ‘Ace, xamrriicon Gen. ranri-on Dat. 7 Inte amen Prep. amerinene Similarly all animate masculine nouns, e.g. aenerér ‘delegate’, upinxép ‘conductor’, woxenép ‘engineer’ xaxuuxir ‘candidat unitcrp ‘minister’, obunép ‘officer’, nosr ‘poet’, rypitcr ‘tourist’, ‘vewnu6u ‘champion’, etc. (and, with stress change in declension, var ‘whale’, accusative/ genitive xuri, cow accusative/genitive cons ‘elephant’) J Semmens ein hr ‘Sree rl serv reco cstwprtie pa pee[L121 ae Type 3: Masculine nouns in rx, x ‘Note that -ais replaced by -n in the nominative/accusative plural {n accordance with the spelling rule, e.g. mapx ‘park’. Similarly Gans “bank’, plural Gives, nar ‘ag’, plural Qr-, enyx ‘rumour’, plural enjx-, ete ‘The accusative singular/plural of all masculine animate nouns (see also page 9) isthe same as the genitive: sebum ‘boy’, accusaive/genitve singular wéesux-a, accusative! genitive plural seitosn-o8. ‘Stress changes from stem to endings in spysosi, genitive pysonued ‘lorry’, ysewx ‘pupil’, sax language, et. ‘Type 4: Masculine nouns in -on-e a. ‘The fleeting vowel -a-e#slostin declension, eg. pmo ‘marke Nom. | pinox panic nox pen Gen. | pica parocen Dat. | piney piancam Instr | paisncow pate Prep. | pice piimeax Similarly sponbe ‘bell’, snasbx ‘badge’, xatOx rink’, rowéx ‘skate’, genitive womb, ryobe ‘piece’, we ‘sack’, opéex ‘nut’, necbx ‘sand’, nmat6x ‘headscar’,nonipox ‘present’, ropounox ‘powder’, et. Ypbx lesson’, genitive ypoxa, snavOx ‘connoisseur, genitive smavoxd, and urpox ‘player’, genitive urpoxd retain -o- throughout declension The aceusative singular/plural of animate nouns (see also age 9) isthe same asthe genitive: suat6x ‘connoisseur’ ‘accusative/ genitive singular swaroxd,accusative/genitve plural smaToxde,‘The noun} 11 ‘Type 5: Masculine nouns in - Virtually ll of these nouns end in eu, with fleeting vowel-e-lost in declension, e.g. xonéu ‘end’, genitive wom. Stem-stressed ‘nouns have -ew in the instrumental singular and -ee in the {genitive plural, since o may appear after w only in stressed Position, e.g. ramen ‘dance’, instrumental singular résuew, ‘genitive plural vines. Singular Ptaal xomj xomndn TERREE Similarly (end stress): anopéx ‘palace’, orypéu ‘cucumber’, oréu, “father’, npoapéi ‘sales assistant; (stem stress): népeu ‘pepper’, vrocrpineu ‘foreigner’ (and many nationalities: awepmewen, “american’, néwen.'German’, motxénneu “Scot, etc). Not: (the second of two ace vowels spaced by tn cers ‘Genre ‘Belg, geitve Genin, wen Chines, genitive mean {Gita au ae gente aha). Tne combination sei replced by -m ace rg, got niman {© the vows ei tained in declension whereas preceded by two or more consonants: Gun‘, genitive Gunes, ya ‘lacks, ante ‘ame mera ‘Sad perso anit meres {@)the acesative singular of animate nouns in -e sea page 9's the sme as the geitve singular, tus nein srg eae mene! eae’ stn fo he sngerings (G) Mien month decline ike nea ane’, Dut with 0 feeting owe, eg alors lee rte months.[L221 on ‘Type 6: Masculine nouns in, mut {J Net: Nous ening in the soft consnans wand mainder re since 1 thee decison deta a that of nouns ending in the hard consonant nd ‘The plural form -s is replaced by -u in accordance with the spelling rule (see page 6). Genitive plural is -elt, e.g. nox “knife J Net: Like ma ‘it many ofthe nouns have end ses in declension thas 1 sapanain peel, genitive eapmaurd ewe on ko, ma ‘inca ‘rset. The instrumental singular ending of nouns wih ster sess "ouput detente tesa can appar afte mon, 995 oy In stesred poston), this nex eae ierumentlsinguar mace, ‘oop 'conrace, insvurental singly repute, Cog ‘Se stessd pavonymicCeprlen Serger, instrumertal Ceptemee and enasrssed pavoryic Has Ih, nsvurental aswa. ‘The accusative singular/plural of masculine animate nouns (see also page 9) isthe same asthe genitive: spax ‘doctor’ accusative/ genitive singular spas, accusative/genitive plural ppas-4i ‘Some special features of the masculine hard-ending declension (a) The partitive genitive in -y ‘Anumber of nouns that denote substances havea parttive genitive (indicating that only part of a substance is involved) in Sy: ay ‘onions (parttve genitive njxy), cxap ‘sugar (partive genitive céxap-y), cyn ‘soup’ (partitive genitive ¢jn-y), esp ‘cheese’ (partie genitive clip), ra6dx "Yobacco’(partive genitive ra6ax-¥), and others (including napda ‘people’ (partitive genitive napox-y)). For pative usage, see page 29.The noun 13 | (b) Nouns in which the genitive plural is identical with the nominative singular ‘The genitive plural of a number of nouns is the same as the nominative singular. The nouns fall into the following categories: (0 certain tems of footwear: Gorimox ‘(ankle-high) boot’ (nipa Goriaiox ‘a pair of (ankle-high) boots), eanér ‘boot’, nyabx ‘stocking’ ) certain measurements: pase ‘gram’ (cro raya "100 ‘grams’, but cro rpisovon in written Russian) (Gi) certain nationalities: rpyaém ‘Georgian’, pysiam ‘Romanian’, ‘rypox Turk’. Since these are animate nouns, the genitive plural, is also the accusative plural: 5 sicxy rpyain., pymtin, r/pox I see the Georgians, the Romanians, the Turks’ (Gv) certain military terms: con ‘soldier’, mapras ‘guerilla’ (the genitive plural ofthese animate nouns is also the accusative plural) (©) others: pas ‘time’ (5 pas ‘five times’), senoséx ‘person’ after cardinal and some indefinite numerals: 5 weaosés ‘five people’, nbexcomtio weaonéx ‘a few people’ (but masbro mond ‘alot of people’. {) Summary of genitive plural endings in hard-ending masculine ‘nouns Hard-ending nouns may have genitive plural endings -oe, e8, or ti on: the genitive plural of all hard-ending nouns (e.g. 981, “hall genitive plural sinoa), except for those ending ine, 4, -m, ut, and stem-stressed nouns in ea; stem-stressed nouns in a mécau, ‘month’, genitive plural wbemen et nouns in 2, -4,-my,-me raplix ‘garage’, genitive plural rapuxdit Not: (ese nouns have 2 ending in the genitive plural (gpa ‘tie’, fT see above {© the get pura of al masesine animate nouns (ee als page 9) ao the acustve lal aio wmvemonlncaimnehnpe know he byte Spaniards doco,14 1The noun | ‘Masculine hard-ending nouns with irregular plural forms Nominative plural -ss, genitive plural ses Spar brother acral” exyn‘ch? ee ee Nom | pir era ‘Ace. | Spires ern Gen. | 6pirses erases Dat. | 6pirsnn erjacme Inst. | 6pkrasnn exjacman Prep. | 6piaax erin ‘uct meaning ‘sheet of paper’ (as opposed to ‘eat, genitive sameré, declines like sax ‘hall. Nominative plural sa, genitive plural > He was reading the newepaper Nedstat but ‘On suet <> He was reading "Nedelya”‘The noun 127 The accusative case ‘The accusative case denotes: (2) the object ofa transitive ver: ‘AL xynioneapriny _ | bought a painting Mars mbit exmoséh The mother loves her sons ‘On orxpiina anept. She opened the door (©) duration: ‘Onan pew nerf He waited all epring Onned apéunusirier He jokes the whole time (repetition: ‘1 ro rosopiunrtewty pas | have sad that 1,000 times ‘A pasérao wisest nem | work every day (@) distance, weight, price: On Sexi xunonérp He ran a Klometre ‘On mxasa pew aopéry She cred all the way Kura crow cbpox pyGaei The book costs forty roubles ewonix nici 20 xuaorpisonos The case weighs 20 kilos (© the object of seam ‘sorry for: Enya xen He is sorry for he weThe genitive case ‘The genitive case denotes: (2) possession: aula ori father's car () authorship: pou Taneroro 2 novel by Tolstoy {€) the object of a verbal noun: oSpa6irea nibopudnum the processing of Information (@) the whole in relation to a part: ‘inna erjaa a chalr-back (©) descriptive detail: _néo nepnocrenéanolt niatocra a matter of prime importance (0 quantity (with indefinite numerals and the verb xnavirel xnarier ‘to be enough’): stibro/uennbro mond mary/not mary people ino/newiino abner not much/auite alot of money nécxonbxo net 2 few years octiromomenocritosHo x68 enoughlnot enough bread CCkbmaxo tenonéx? How many people? Xalircrapésten There wl be enough time ‘The genitive also combines in quantitative meaning with the names of groups and collectives, measurements, and receptacles: ‘oad monéit a crond of soia yrak a ton of coal Gorin mh 2 glass of wine‘The noun 129 ‘The patttive genitive (2) The panttive genitive is used with verbs that denote requesting/consuming/ providing part of a substance or liquid, or ‘a numberof like objects: SLxowjnpouty mono | want/ask for some milk ‘On npuuée eniviex He brought some matches () Except for xowére/sa-‘to want’ and mpocirrano-‘to request, ‘verbs involved tend to be perfective only On air woass He drank eome water On cxéna xaé6a She ate some bread Note: inpetestie mand ers tke the accusative as: mayne 1 ra rig water, on se as eating bred Ue he accuse aoe with a porcievr mpi ‘a reer Heo (ah er Ontcnem tae She ea Bed (© Examples of the parttive genitive: ‘AA wast ex woaww | poured him some vodka On saxanin mepht He ordered some caviar Oni napsand unerés She picked eome flowers (@) Some nouns denoting substances have a paritive genitive in -ylvo, used with verbs, receptacles, and indefinite numerals (see also page 12) ‘viuma whoa cup of tea Tiitre une eixapy Give me some eugar ‘ycbx esipy apiece of cheese vrapézxa ejay a plate of soup ‘The -a-n genitive forms ofthese nouns are also possible in these contexts and must be used when quantity is not implied: sinax ‘xin ‘the smell of tea’ uend céxapa ‘the price of sugar, or when the ‘noun is qualified by an adjective: wma asumxoro vi ‘a cup of weak tea’.[201m nan ‘The use ofthe genitive to denote non-existence or non-availability Heer (past mé Guano, future ne Ger + genitive singulr/pural) i used to denote non-existence or non-availability: Her emovilemontt There® no keytherére no kaye HE6un0dnepalosép There waor'alakechore weren' ary lakes He 6jacr Gimanalpiemsnes There wort be aflm/any fle “The construction is also used with persons ro nevi Guro/ne Ger aoua_ He eritéwasrtiwont be in However, the nominative is used to denote identification, compare: ‘ro Gunk ewok mama That wasnt my oar and ‘HE Gssno wausimns There wast a car ‘The construction can denote absence of possession/availabilty: Y¥ ment ner apéveun don't have the time Y¥ nero né Gao ner He dd have ary children Y awx ne Ghuct exeina They wort have a telephone ‘Analogous constructions involve other negated forms: Ynac ne muéerescoénennit We have no Information K yrpj me octinocs east By morning there wae no food left “Mai wé Gsu20 nivano There were no cars to be seen Genitive or accusative after a negated transitive verb (@) The genitive is often used afer a negated transitive verb (one that normally takes the accusative; the rule doesnot affect negated verbs that take the dative or instrumental): ‘Oni neaér anennine (accusative) She keaps a dary ‘Onde near senna (genitive) She doce keep a daryTre noun 31 J (&) The genitive is particularly common after a negated verb ‘when weis reinforced by other negative forms: mmc, wx ox, am, etc On me cxéran mn onmbitomiun He didn't make a single mistake ‘Srome meter mnxawéro sunsémen That has no significance at al He casnuy mn cnbaa | cart hear a (single) word (0 Its also common when ne combines with abstract nouns: He o6pausi amainns na Herb Pay no attention to him Lue psa yacrus w cnbpe | tok no part in the argument However, the accusative case is used after a negated verb: (@) to distinguish specific objects (accusative) from objects in general (genitive): ‘1 we nonyssn nest (genitive) _|didit recoive a letter ‘51 ve nonysiux anes (accusative) | didi receive the letter (b) when a person is the object of the verb: ‘1 ne sniv0 Tm0H mars | dor’: know your mother (©) when some other part of the sentence, not the verb is negated He ont nponyeriia ndean_ She wasn't the one who trissed the ‘rain (‘She is negated) On evap cyn ne ax enkayer He did't make the soup property (propery’ is negated) ‘we curravo Sry exiry noaéanoll | dont consider this book ‘osful (‘useful is negated) @) after wy mefeani ne ‘almost’; we ory ne ‘I can't help’: ‘AL ayre ne pas6iennisy | almost broke the vase we mors we mobiers wx wexjccr#0 | can't help liking their art Ifin doubt, however, use the genitive after a negated transitive verb.32. The noun ‘Adjectives that take the genitive ‘These (both long and short forms, see page 43) include ocroinsit ‘worthy of, smuséwuai ‘lacking in’, and nda ‘full of ‘On noctéw noxnaait Helo worthy of praise On snauéx wjecrna onopa He lacks a sense of humour Anrb6ye nézon napbay The bus is fl of people ‘Verbs that take the genitive (2) Some verbs invariably take the genitive: noGunirsen/noirucs “to achieve, o obtain’, aocrurrs/aocritns oF aoerirnyT ‘to achieve’, xeairwno- ‘to desire’ sacajaunar ‘to deserve’, ackrvealoenrses “to touch, touch on’: Oni so6innace yenéxa She achieved success Ox nocttrenoét wim He achieved hie alm Sl xenito 1266 exierin | wich you happiness Sno szcrjausacr e& numeinna That deserves her attention (Ou rocujnes e€ maexi_ He touched her shoulder ‘AT xackvoce pioanoll réwat_| touch on an Important subject () Others take the genitive of nouns denoting generalized or abstract ideas and the accusative of those denoting persons and specific objects: () verbs of waiting: aaars ‘to wait for’, oxwairs ‘to expect’: ‘SLxain nbeanalnbena | was waiting for a/the train ‘inist xaxér Muy Wan is waiting for Mary ‘Mus omnia eno Suepenm We Were awaiting our turn‘The noun 133, (i) Verbs of seeking, asking, wanting nex ‘to seek, try to obtain” (+ genitive), to look fo, try to find’ (+ accusative): Mut mew samieras We are secking protection ‘Lug wfauyno ane xwiry | am looking for a book | need. ‘On fer pabiory She ie trying to find work ‘pociera/no- ‘to request’ + genitive of abstract nouns and substances (paritve genitive), accusative of objects and persons: Anpousj upouémen | ack forgiveness (Ons npdcut xaé6a She acks for some bread Maxusnx npécir eamoxkt The boy asks for a ecooter (Oni npocarraciary només He aoke Mum to help ‘rpiGonurs/no- ‘to demand’ + genitive of abstract nouns, accusative of objects: ‘Ont norpisonana oGsacnéuun She demarded an explanation ‘On rpé6yer xaurimmo He demand a receipt xorérs ‘to want’ + genitive of abstract nouns and substances (Parttive genitive), accusative of objects: Bomsue scerd wa xorins wipa Most ofall we want peace Xéueun wivo? Would you like some tea? 51x09) woGiunauil eaeou | wart a mobile phone (i Verbs of fearing, avoiding: Gokrues to be afraid of, waGeriersfnnGexcirs to avoid’ + genitive of abstract nouns, accusative of persons: Ou Golerea resmonis He i afraid of the dark On Goferea men He is afraid of hie wife ‘AA aGerivo nemprirnocrelt | avoid trouble (Ons waGerder caoto ceerpj She avoids her sioter For the genitive with numerals, see pages 82-95, passim.[Lette noon The dative case The dative as indirect object of a verb (a) A main function ofthe dative cas isto act as the indirect object ofa verb, that is to say, it denotes the recipient, addressee, or beneficiary of an action. The object received appears inthe accusative case Onk aand xiiry whamunny She gave the boy abook or She gave 1 book to the boy Note:The Engishveson ae syonymous, but ony the second version 1 cet learnestion Ct th boy) ta the boy ste eet In the {rst eso is infeed In Rusa he dative cave (nsw 1 the oy) is sed nearing ete version (©) Other verbs involved in the construction include aapierwino- ‘to give’, sananirasanins ‘to ask (a question)’, rosopirsfecasir to tell’, noxynirsfxynis ‘to buy’, nowiosmari/moxasire “to show’, muckru/na- ‘to write’, nocsixkrs/nocnirs ‘to send’, npeaaariral npeasoxiers ‘to offer’, moandrsinponis ‘to sel’ -nonitrafno- ‘toring, telephone’, murrfe- to sew, make’, rawr ‘to pay ‘On nonaplan nenéere xonsuid He gave hie flange a ring ‘On aia yrenmey sonpée. He asked the pupil a question ‘Oni cxasina eyané npiaay She told the judge the truth ‘Oni xymica cay nenocanén She bought her son a bicycle ‘On manus sakrepu micas He wrote a letter to hie mother On noxasiin eccrpt noaipox He showed hie sister the present Ox mpezvioxien 6piry xowgéry He offered hie brother a ovect Ox mpozan caom wauvory apfry He sold his car to a frend PaGéunit nospowtin mmoxenépy The worker rang the engineer On cuina mompfre ire She made a drees for her friend ‘SA nna xaccipy pay the cashier (inthis example, usr ‘money’ is understOod.) On nocad vex eumy He sent a cheque to hie 6on J Note: if persons sent, the preposition wis used V Osetornpimmn adnate They oot they te ant‘The noun 135, Impersonal constructions with the dative case (2) English nominative phrases denoting physical state (‘Lam/feel hot, cold, warm, comfortable’, etc.) are the equivalent of phrases ‘with the dative ease in Russian: Tigre xénoano The children feel cold Ceerpé tennd My sieter feels warm ‘Typltcram xiipro The touriete feel hot Ba6yunee ynb6x0 Grandma is comfortable (0) The construction is also used to express state of mind, Inclination, impression, and state of health: ‘Yoenmcio cxjwto The puplle are bored @épmepy rpjetH0 The farmer is cad ‘Kak Mame ie eriuwiol Masha shouldbe ashamed! Hisimy nanoéo euorpérs renesiciop Wan is/was bored watching TV Cnopresény xovercs cnars The athlete feeo drowsy Mae xixeres, sro ont mpani It seems to me that she is rght Bonunbwy ceroans njsae The patient Fels better today ‘Adjectives that take the dative ‘Most ofthese correspond to English equivalents with ‘to’ Gaaronipent ‘grateful to’, pépautt ‘faithful, loyal to', swans ‘noaéGusait ‘similar to’, ‘ocajumuit “obedient to’, pax ‘glad’ (to see) (short form only): SA6naronipen apiry | am grateful to my friend (Ou Giner sépen ment He wl be faithful to hie wie ‘Sra wenbzwx sHaxbwa aéram Thie tune e farilar to children Eré fox nspécrno nceu diname His name io known to all Finns Eré crit noabGu njmneumexn His verse is sitilar to Pushkin’s PeGéuox nocriuen posirreasm The child fe obedient to Ite parent Bl scerak paa Bépe | am always glad to eee Vera[2517 oun Verbs that take the dative (@) Many verbs that take the dative describe rendering a service ‘or complying: noworéru/nombyn ‘to help’, cayairrwao- to serve", canéronars/no- to advise’, cooraéreraoears to correspond (0) Zésowra nonorni winepn The lite gir helped her mother ‘OOH cacxuenéay wipa The UNO serves the cause of peace Apa exjoir uapoay The army serves the On conéryer mend cornaciricn He advis hie wife to agree ‘ro coornérerayer crane That correeponde to the truth (©) Others imply hindrance or harm: mpewiri/no- to harm’, xposirainp ‘to threaten’, wswewirafeawewiers ‘to betray’ eairilao- ‘to hinder, prevent’, sampeusirsoanperi to forbid Kypéue mpenferanopbasie Smoking damages the health Oni rposir saxbaumeae They threaten the hostages ‘SL sanperio abr nypiee | forbade the children to seroke ‘nn nowewdn ponune | The opy betcayed hie country ype renin oruf pa6rare The noe prevented father from working (6) Others sil denote attitude or reaction: népurstuo- "to believe’, sovepindaonépes ‘to trust, sanitoneTuin- 0 envy’, plnosarscu06- to rejoice’, yannroenlyaumirecn ‘to be surprised’: Hiurr6 ne npr nanirmcam No one believes politicians Bonsu6it zosepier spar The patient tructe the doctor nd saniayer ened noapire She envics her fiend Ow o6pizosancs ef yenéxam He rejoiced at her progress Aysunis ev enoaio Iwao surprised at hie worde J fete: Yotatech sca of he paon taut and te cathe 1 crest aap Oy ee imme he ah te chen nes:‘The noun 137 ‘The instrumental case Functional meaning ofthe instrumental case {a) The instrumental case denotes that the object in the instrumental is being used to perform a function: Ow orxpita _aneps xeuowin ‘He opened the door with a key’. Likewise: ‘On peer x1e6 woabu He cuts the bread with a knife ‘Ont mer kapanaamia She writes with a pencil ‘On xonier aoniiroli He dige with a epade ‘Sina pyGainan | pay in (with’) roubles ‘Oud xopsner peGEuxa rpjauio She breast-feeds the child 1 Note: 1th’ = character by, carn itis rendered ye sistent Tria speats with an accent On ronope malar He tans wih an ane Ne hand Ow era reno ye (0) The construction also involves parts of the body: Ox awliraer pyxéll ‘He moves his hand’, xawirs/no- ronon6i ‘to shake one’s head’, xunirr/hoairjrs renosbl ‘to nod one's head’, maxed axarjrs pynit‘to wave the hand’, nexwra/uossers neon ‘to shrug the shoulders’. Objects held in the hand can also appear in the instrumental: On xabamya anépuso ‘He slammed the door’ ‘The instrumental as agent in passive constructions In a passive construction, the natural object of an action becomes the grammatical subject. In other words, the object of an action in an active construction becomes the grammatical subject in a passive construction: Hasimann ynonum e16 The bose diemissed him (On Guan yobnen masimmucon He was diemicsed by the boss te The aget ofthe action (he bss appears inthe lnrumenta38 The noun ‘Adjectives that take the instrumental case (@) Adjectives that take the instrumental case often appear in the short form. The instrumental ‘delimits’ the meaning of the adjective, specifying the sphere it relates to (e.g. rich in coal, etc) Soria ‘ich ‘®rouninua Gorda ex8panm Finland is ich in lakes Gomnit ‘sick’ On Sonen TyGepeyatson He has got tuberculosis osonsuast‘pleased’ Mot nonbzsn pesyawriranm We are pleased with the results Giana ‘indebted’ ‘A objan ens enoina yenkxon | am indebted to him for my euccees (&) A number of other adjectives are used withthe instrumental {in the meaning ‘by virtue of: Joximta saevérensia cooéi ‘xpacorbit “The valley is remarkable for its beauty’, Xapénrepos ‘mt noxéx wa ori ‘In temperament he is like hs father ‘The use ofthe instrumental in giving dimensions Unlike English (30 metres high’, ‘3 miles wide’ ec.) Russian "uses nouns instead of adjectives to indicate dimension (the construction is close to English ‘in height’, “in depth’, et.) nde macovdi (8) 20 oTaméit a bulding 20 storeys high {ep0 ray6unbi (8) 40 uézpon a lake 40 metres deep cron wannbi (3) tpu uétpa a table three metres long rbxe nabuiansi (8) 2.000 kan, 2 eld 2, 000 09, mn area ocd rasuunbi (8) 13a ox. plank two centimetres thick Sama umpnnsi (8) 30 wérpos a street 30 metres wide [Note the preoston can usualy be ote, ean conversation 1 ratin seca trate (©) dmemsion wer inquests sou mension apperin te genie case Kavi mpd sonia How wide Is the val, Kao ou plea How all inher, eeThe noun 139) Verbs that take the instrumental case ‘These include verbs that denote: (@) use, control, ownership: azanéns ‘to own’, sanézonars ‘to ‘manage, be in charge of, xosdunosars ‘to command’, InomsaonaTucn/voc- ‘to use", pacnonaris ‘to have at one’s disposal’, pyxomonirrs ‘to be in charge of, supervise’, ympanaiers “to manage, run’: Oni ananéer Gomusio abo She owns a large house (Ox sanéayer roponexiam Tpinenoprom He is in charge of ity rane Onowlutyeramianci He comands a dion Sine nimyoce avon dort us theif On pyrososie woth pabbrok He supervises my work A pacnonarn enon apéenet” Ihave some opare time Iyer panier expan The prsuerrune the country (b)atitude: ropairsen ‘to be proud of, sopomiers ‘to value’, sepeconires tobe interested in’, meGomdrsewlno ‘to admire’, yexracalynaéasen “to be keen of ‘On ropairex enon erent He is proud of hi cildron ‘On aoponitr mime apfatiok She values our friendship On wirepecteres muxinan He i rcerested in languages nd moGeres neinbent She adiiros the landscape On ynneieres mixearanm —Heis keen on chess (©) various other meanings: Gonéns ‘tobe sick with, mum to breathe’, xéproosarsino- to sactifice’, sanmraen/sanirsen to be occupied with, nixuyre ‘to smell of, pucwondrupucaajrs ‘to Fisk’, expaain ‘to suffer from’: Oud Gonéer 6pouxicrom She has got bronchitis On aus eats ninayxou He breathes fresh alr Ont xéprayer eno xapuépo She sacrifices her career ‘Onsanmederes eniprom He goes in for eport Taxto opominan There was a smell of nd pucxonina enol axiamso She was rskirg her fe On crpanher Geecimuauel” He ouffers from insomnia401 The noun ‘Adverbial expressions inthe instrumental case ‘These comprise: (@) pars of the day: Srpom_ in the morning ‘ani in the daytime, in the afternoon éxepou Inthe evering wownto at right ‘These can be expanded: cerbas frpom this morning ommloeams nowaso one right (©) seasons ofthe year: ecnbil Ingpring deen in auturm akon In summer auubit in winter ‘These can also be expanded: inet ambi In early winter ‘ecibil mpbuoro roan last Spring ‘rune néron thi summer (6) modes of transport: noextom by rain camonéront by ale anri6ycou by bus ‘AL aceren népauin pélicont | went out on the rst Fight (@) manner Apyrioan cxonin in other words ‘méaetom in a vhisper ‘easing paso? in what way? ‘raxios 66pas0m thus, in that way m066it nenbit at all Coote ‘The instrumental case after the verb Yo be (@) The instrumental is mandatory after all forms of the verb Gurr tobe! (the futur, the infinitive, the conditional, the gerund, the Imperative), except the past tense (see also page 49):unt | ‘1 6jay mexenépon | il bean engineer Ou xbuer Gurre apasio He wants tobe a doctor can Git x Gott xyabamnxow, i were an artist | would paint awarnci 6x e8 noprpér her portal ‘jaya yoerenew, of He Gorkr Being a teacher, he is not ‘wealthy Xoveum Gurrs nosroM? Byns mero! You want to bea poet? Be a poet! (©) After the past tense of 6urs ‘to be’, a distinction is made between the nominative case of a noun, which may denote ‘permanent status: Tho npopéccmt on 6iuxximunx By profession he was a chemist and the instrumental case, which may denote temporary status: Bro aps on Gun whawsmnont At that time he was a boy (©) However, iis also quite normal now for the instrumental to denote permanent status as well ‘Binaa 6s xopbu sexonéxon Dina wae a good man (Oud Guan ceerpbit oer) apira She was my fends slater (@ if two nouns are linked by a form of the verb 6xrs, the noun ‘with the more general meaning appears in the instrumental, while that with the more specific meaning appear inthe nominative: Hhwel cainnol npoGaiwol 6.x Gopoxpariom Our mln problem was red tape (6) The instrumental i also used with the verbs paGbrare‘to ‘work’, exyacers ‘to serve, etc: On paGoran wexiumeom He worked ae a mechanic On cayaicnconnirom He served ae a colder and in constructions with an in-built meaning of time: (On xiur ran monpéerkom He lved there as (= when he was) an ‘adolescent.L227 ron The instrumental case after other verbs. ther verbs that take the instrumental case include owisusparves! ‘okaaéruca ‘to turn out to be’, ocranérten/ocrirrsca ‘to remain’, cranoniescsicrars ‘to become’, ewritscs ‘to be considered’, sgjncrnonars co6i ‘to fel’, unairrscalanirecs ‘to be’ (On oxasiites abacmuam apfrom He turned out to bea false fiend Ou ocrisea xépreoli nolimis He remained a victim of the war Ou cran yeireaen He became a teacher (Ons cxurrdevea réunest She Is considered to be a genius ‘Ocnowmsin cpécraow rpiuicnopra saaievex néeax The basle means of transport is the train Verb + accusative + instrumental case ‘The verbs mamawirs/uasuisurr ‘to appoint’, wasuanirefusnei, to name’, ewrrirafevecrs ‘to consider’ take the accusative of a person or object and the instrumental oftheir name, function, or status: ‘AL cxurivo er6 xopouna mpjrom | consider him a good friend. ‘Oni waapiixa pe6éinxa Bae (or Bacs) They named the child Vaeya Exo mansineanpexropom They appointed him director Meanings of similarity and function nea Gmunin flat cap (tke a pancake) Tira ner expen The bid fie lke an arrow On nepnjacs repéem He returned a hero (On nétpoc enémman mipuen He grew up tobe a fine young man For the prepositional/locative case, see pages 184-193.The adjective | ‘An adjective is a part of speech that describes a noun or pronoun. Most Russian adjectives have two forms: a long form (also ‘known as the attributive form), that ends in two vowels and precedes the noun: 6p wenonéx a kind man ‘and a short form (also known as the predicative form), the masculine of which ends in a consonant, the feminine, neuter, ‘and plural in a vowel. The short form usually follows the subject: ‘On no6p x welt Hele kind to her Ont nop x weary She ie kind to him ‘The long form declines in all six cases and agrees with the noun. it qualifies in case, gender, and number. The short form has four forms only (masculine, feminine, and neuter singular, and plural) ‘and does not decline. | Long form of the adjective of adjectival declension: Hard declension: Gémat ‘white’, ryerdi ‘thick’ Soft declension: mpéxunit ‘former’. ‘Mixed’ declension I. Adjectives in -rai, xa, -xui-r6i, x6, -xbi: sarah long’, pjccxnit ‘Russian’, rixnit ‘quiet’, aoporéit ‘dear’, raxéit ‘such’, rayxoit ‘deaf. “Mixed! declension I. Adjectives in-soi,-i,-tunit, moins, : moxbaut ‘similar’, ropirau ‘hot, opium ‘good, uit ‘common’, wyxsit ‘allen’, omuou ‘The endings of the ‘mixed’ declension are determined by the spelling rules (see page 6)44 The adjective J Hote Anatom aectvs ae sujet tote animate accustveleitine tle se pages 3 2. Declension of the hard-ending adjective ‘Type 1: adjectives withthe stress on the stem (Gé:uai white’) Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Ceuk—Glaan Cae Sense Grait —Glxyo Génoe inane Géxore Giro Gén-ore Génarx Gix-omy — Géx-oh eromy Gina Sevan Génok Gira inane Géxon — Génok Goma THREE) Most adjectives in Russian follow the same pattern as Gémsit ‘white’. i 2: adjectives with end stress (rycrbit ‘hick) Masculine Feminine Neuter Plurat Tera ryerda—nerde yore nerd njerfie nerde rere yerdro erst yer nyeréay njeréé ryerény ryeron ryersim yer yer ryeroen neréu ryerdk yer ryeraie J Note) sate umber of active fll the pate of rye hic: Gent 'e, onyN DU, ano Wika, sono ‘geN, XPS ‘steed pont wad. anon Your, tous bas’ tom lot npr simple’, npc pon ate’ cenit, capin does thane ame tes {Bi her decent rom at of tented Sah vite! opt {fom es; ony in be mesctine nominate and ecustecases (8 instead of a iene45 |The adjective Declension ofthe soft-ending adjective Inthe declension ofthe softending adjective the intial vowels of the hard endings (uo, a, ) are replaced by their sft equivalents (4,1) Tpit ‘fort Apart from xépuit ‘hazel-coloured’, adjectives in this group have the suffix av; many express meanings of time or space. These can ‘be divided into groups in accordance with meaning: (@) Seasons of the year: eciment spring abil summer ‘cinmis—sutunn sina wrter ‘Morning and evening: Speman morn sevipa cna Yesterday, today, tomorow: epi yerein/s crime tada/s arpa tonon’s (b) Opposites in time and space: ‘pawn early miami late eninat ect nly stands Scion rer mul fr pce pee mete ‘mujrpermunit internal mméummeli external Sanat ha pana fore (©) Others: icxpennmit ‘sincere’, xpaiimwit ‘extreme’, ainmmmit ‘superfluous’, mocxézmni ‘last’, cit dark blue’, epéaanit middle’46 The adjective Mixed declension Type I: nouns in -rui,-xai,-xuill-6it, bi, ‘Russian’, naoxdit‘bad!) Neuter Plural ‘The mixed nature ofthe endings is accounted fo bythe spelling rule which requires ut be replaced by w aftr r, x, oF x. This, affecs the masculine singular nominative, accusative, and instrumental, the neuter singular instrumental, and the whole of the plural. roxéuy noch naoxcbuy anon tmoxier norsk aoe noc Iuoxse niocel nox nici TEERRE 1 Net: apt om ses, he eles of aad mn fr ony Vive masz ania bd accasbe sag {the epeting le ais rece yw tele he mascnard neater rset aoa, dre woe of he ra ‘There area limited number of adjectives in rw (e.g. nara “Yong epbrai strict’), xn (e.g. wera ‘ancint’ ria quiet’), rt (¢g.anporbi ‘dear’, apy ‘other’), and x6 (e.g eayxbl “deat, eyxi dry’). Sufix -en-is very widely represented in adjectives of nationality (nemiwexwit ‘Spanish’, uméaexait “Swedish, etc), town and river names (woexéucxat Moscow", oven ‘ofthe Don’), names of humans (epxexdi ‘male’ abroeni children’s’) and organizations (napaienrexait ‘parliamentary,Tre asst 47 J Mixed declension Type 2: adjectives in -acit, wit, sunt, anil sxbi, bi (ropianit ‘hot’, Gozsuvsit‘big’) Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Likewise moxéani ‘similar, npoxienit ‘passing’, enexull ‘fresh’, saan fizzy’, maint “junior erapunwi ‘senior’, xopiumit "good! Gnecrimuni ‘shining, brilliant’, Gjayu ‘future’, 6Guunit ‘common, general’, etc. ‘The mixed nature ofthe above endings is accounted for by the spelling rules: w (never ss) appears after x, s,m. After 2,4, sm, and my, 0 can appear only in stressed position. Nom | Gonsubk Gomsu-in Gomsurie Gonsuriie Sonsu-dt Gomurjpo Gomase Gonurie Bro Gomu-gi Somarire Gonsuix Gomardh Gomurémy Gonsurio Gom-éi Gondor ont ‘Ace, Gen. Dat. Int. Prep. Gomu-éi Gomurém Gomuix Thistime only one speling rule applies: (never wi) after, and uy (6 can appear after m because itis stressed), “yxsii ‘alien, someone else's’ and compounds of Gomsubit “big (¢§ neGomsubt ‘smal’ are the only other commonly-used adjectives represented by this declension (there are no adjectives in -8oi or of).48. The adjective Uses of the long form of the adjective {) the long form ofthe adjective agrees with the noun in gender, ‘number, and case. In atributive function, it usually precedes the oun: ‘Nom. | Penriama eawontr never Thee arerat sng The turbulent rer flows ‘Ace, | Senéimy rpiwmeu ince weno xopduyo wiry hear aloud vice la reading a good ook Gen. | sower6 wnigmerociina ‘Her rope oat hie yourger sors house “There no hoe water Dat. | Sisnomi exinnony apex SI noworévo Gémot nuuine ing the senior doctor help the poor woman Instr, | Sin epicmnon rapanaaininr 1 upnéxan pinned nec Ieee nth are pre Larva in arty sri Prep. | Stronsj» Gommim ropoxe A. xjunio 0 pjecod axe Fh about Ruslan vodka Plural: Gonsushe sanb.u ‘large factories’: Gomure sands Somsure sands Sonhurx sands-o8 ons-n 2363-04 Sons aan5x-an omni sand TEPER E (0) it may also follow the noun, if there are dependent words (e.g. ‘orenéra in the following example), separated from the noun by a comma and with ‘who" or ‘which’ understood. The rules of ‘agreement apply Mut n06jencs ropinm, Géasnn or enéra We admire the hills, which are white with snowThe adjective 149 (©) in predicative function, it follows immediately after the noun, as its predicate: Pe6éuox nocajumusit The cid le obedient ‘Vrpo eaiacee The morring is fresh Bérep cima The wind is strong (@ in the past or future tenses the instrumental is preferred in urritven Russian when the verb ‘to be is involve: Pe6éiox Guin mocajummiam The child was obedient Koa y neé Gun Géaoll” Her okn wao white ororphibux 6jaet yak The photograph wl be euccesshul | tot Therrien clo seh rte atrt oot Ueto reat ss pges 8929, (© itis also used in the instrumental case after easirsenno- "to seem’ and some other verbs: [Bpacnts kaainca menoporiot The bracelet seemed inexpensive Zveps oxasiac saneproit The door tured out tobe locked {Ujperso rénoma crio mpuociansne The feing of hunger became habitual lxona cerrinacs oraiemoit The school was considered ‘excelent ‘Bro peuttune nanseren oxowsdrenuanint This decteion io final (0 it also answers the questions ‘in what order, ‘in what state? (On npmauéa népeum He arvved fret (Ons octinuna rairy paceptrroll She left the book open Tia Gonsnbuey wonoxd ropivaum Give the invalid his rik hot[201 he acectie ‘Additonal comments onthe long form of the adjective (a) Consonant change in adjectival formation ‘The leters rx, x, and a change, respectively, 07%, 4, m1, and me before suffix -w- in adjectives derived from nouns: Few Zopora ‘road’ nophxmui sax road sign eet nocrOK ‘east’ noctowuas rpawiiua eastern border 2am posayx ‘air’ aoaxjummut rap balloon tox jrmua ‘street’ jamais hows street lamp aan gy766n ‘football’ gyrGémuoe nore football pitch (b) Special types of adjective ‘Type sein ‘Mum's’, oruée ‘Dad's’, and a number of others derived from the names of family members and some others. ‘Type -ensunti. Denotes smallness (e.g. aisemsicut‘small’), sometimes with an emotive nuance (e.g. caéemsei, from cnet ‘fresh’). ‘Type -onaruii/-esarual sh’ (denoting a small degree of some Quality): enamxoodraa ‘sweetish’, eamenireti ‘bluish’ ‘Type -wmatt. Denotes inclination or characteristic: ist “deceitful, lying’, axjwuunsa ‘pensive’ ‘Type -nersl. Denotes abundance: xasenitersi ‘stony’ (€) Adjectival nouns () Some words have the form of an adjective but the meaning ‘of a noun (rather lke the ‘reds’ in English, of a football team, ot “the good, the bad, and the ugly’). In many cases, an absent noun is ‘understood’.The adjective | 51 i) Animates distinguish gender: pa6oun, pGovan ‘worker’ exam exjcauan ‘white-collar worker’ (however, nacond ‘sentry’ and yam ‘academic’ are masculine ony). .nanimates take their gender and number from the noun which is implied: pun (nin ‘ine" understood) ‘cure! Toabeas(xbxinara ‘room understood) ‘rng room sxwvbrnoe(cyutecrod ‘being’ understood) ‘animal opoxenoe (Snizo ‘dish’ understood) ice-cream’ ‘ayes (9péus ‘time’ understood) ‘the future ‘waence (arm ‘money’ undersiod) ‘ati 1 Nea rian the main hn, he ahs the mos import thing (i) Many of the adjectival nouns continue to function as adjectives: eroabsaa néacxa ‘table spoon’, suxxonwt or surxonniil eb day of. (iv) All decline like adjectives: Her wopéaenoro ‘There is no () the anlmate-accusative = genitive rule applies to animate ‘masculine adjectival nouns inthe singular (31 nloxy paGéwero ‘I see the worker’) and all animate adjectival nouns in the plural (Gi ney pabivurx ‘I see the workers’, 5 xopano ewnérwsx ‘L feed the animals’) (€) Loan adjectives ofthe type Gea ‘beige’ Some of these adjectives relate to fashion, others to food and. other topics. They are indeclinable and usually follow the noun: 6a sawn eel skier aproxpene pu chips, French flew ssacét mx rush hour vec Bpjrro gross weight52 The adjective | The short form of the adjective Formation (@) The short form of an adjective is made by removing the whole ‘of the masculine long-form ending and the final vowels ofthe feminine, neter, and plural: Long form Gori ‘rich’, Short forms Gori (masculine), Gorda (feminine) orkro (neuter), ors (plural). (b)suress may be fixed, as inthe above, or mobile with a tendency to stem stress in the masculine, neuter, and plura, and end stress in the feminine: Long form short form Noroai yong Manon. mona wane, naan pando, 0h abi, nc The fleeting vowel (2) Aeeting vowel, usually -e-, appears between two consonants or replaces -l-in many masculine short forms: éxymi poor nen, Ge, Ean, és cnowbiat cal: enowsen,cnoxbtia,cnoxSino, mors (b) The fleeting vowel -o-is used: (@ before x orr Grima dose: Gainox. Gnvoxd, 6xiaxo, nie sara eng’ minor, aon, aro, bar Notes sued instead of afte 9, ure om a see in niaow (from nome ‘full’, 3a (from soi ‘evil’), and. ‘emu (from cuew6i funny’) (©) Afew short-form masculine adjectives have fleeting vowel yuu from jacuul ‘clever’, xar&p from xierpu ‘cunning’, nba from civrsni ‘strong’.The adjective 153 J Unregular short forms ‘Long form ‘Short forms Gonsui gt eat, neamd, seam, vem nena; sa, na ocr worthy acer, aerial ert Functions of the short form of the adjective (@) The short form of the adjective appears only in predicative Position, ie. it usually follows the noun and is linked to it by a form ofthe verb ‘to be’. In cases where long and short forms are synonymous, either can be used in prediative positon Tipupoaa vax mpexpicuaalnperpicna The scenery there is wonderful (6) The long and short forms of some adjectives fern meaning and are not interchangeable: ‘Sror crapin naoxbit This old man is wicked ‘Crapix conoistmaox The old man is pretty poorly Owh xopbuian She is good On xopoma co6bit She is good-looking (6) In the case of some short forms, a distinction is made between, {temporary state (short form) and permanent state (long form): On Sonew/On Gomni_ He/She i il On Gonsubi/ On Goasuin He/She is chronically il Short form adjectives commonly used to denote a temporary state or relating to particular circumstances Ouréaonen —Helshurgry Oxirononmi Shea hungry Ourowe — Heisready Onironéan Shale ready Ouaoeiaen He nonin She's essed Onmnn Hele ave Shes ave Onaimr Hels buey Shei busy Ousaopin Hele heathy ‘Shes heaehy Onmenpin —Heiswreng ‘Shee wrong ‘On mecsicren He is unhapry She is uahapy Ounpas Helo ahe ‘Shee right Onexicrama Hele nappy She hapey Oncar She is al On ype She i ne54 |The adjective Delimitation of meaning {@) The short form is mandatory in predicative position when the adjective and noun identify with each other only in certain aspects. For example, ‘This country is rich’ can be rendered as ‘Sra expand Gordan (long form) or ra crpand Goria (short form), but the short form is compulsory in rendering "This country {s rich in oil” (ra erpand Gora néfprso), since ‘ich is limited to one area only: ol (b) Likewise, ‘The child is obedient’ can be rendered as PeSnox ‘nocayuuna (long form) or Pe6éwox noeajmen (short form), but if, for example, the dative of ponitremn ‘parents’ is added, the short form must be used: Pe6éwox noeajmen posireasoe ‘The child is obedient to its parents’ (because the meaning is delimited by possream). (6) Delimitation (Le, restriction toa particular context) can be effected in the following ways ( By a noun in an oblique case Kopainna moani iron The basket o full of beries ews aoctlina nuns The epecch is worthy of attention ‘Ont nepa eaoeng miray She i falthful to her husband Kpaii Gézen péxanm The arcais poor in river, (G By a prepositional phrase ‘On panuogfmen x wjasike He is Indfferent to muslo ‘Oni ao6ph no maripe She i kind by nature Bun aeicraireaen no mai The ticket is vad up to and Including May On eayx ma npaboe jxo Heo deaf in the right ear Tlecrauioms speanian xyxoe Pesticides are harmful to beetles i) By a clause or infinitive ‘A coraicen, ro wino aéicraosars | agree we must act ‘Sirovbs nowies | am ready to help ‘On catkuncow winon, 66s nose Body He 1s too young ‘toremember the warThe adiectve 55 J ‘Adjectives (long and short) following the noun ‘A distinction must be made between a ‘delimited’ short adjective in predicative position (following the noun and linked to it by the verb ‘to be Ou panwonjmien x ufauixe He s indifferent to music and a long adjective that also follows the noun but is separated. from it by a comma and agrees with it in case, gender, and. ‘number, with ‘who is’ ‘which is" etc. understood: ‘AL verpérun senonéa, pasuoxjumoro x mjssixe I met a man (rho was) Indifferent to music The short form of adjectives of dimension ‘While the long forms of adjectives of dimension imply complete ‘identity with the nouns they qualify: Hom Gomanbli/seiviemnxat "The house is big/small'(.e. by normal standards), the short form relates the dimension to particular circumstances: Jom eaine “The house is too big’ (e.g for a small family), Jom man "The house (possibly the samme house) is too small’ (e.g. fora large family). The construction is often used with clothing: Bpioxn yout The trousers are too tight 106xa samumi The skirt is too long Kocniou exoG6aeu The suits t00 loose Pyxand xoporisi The sleeves are too short ‘Adjectives that have no short forms, (@) adjectives in -cx- (e.g. guairvecrait ‘physical’) () adjectives of time (e.g. aéramit‘summer’)and place (©, sian back’) (©) adjectives that denote materialssubstances (e.g. cramundli ‘ste!’) (4 ‘animal’ adjectives ofthe type shawn ‘wolt's’ I Note: pis has no for,56 |The adjective The comparative degree (@) Most Russian adjectives have two comparatives. () One comparative (the ‘long’ form) combines Gdave ‘more’ with the long adjective, normally precedes the noun, and defines and describes it: Gbnee mmpoxaa nabuans ‘a broader square’. (Mléuee ‘ess’ is used in reverse comparisons: ménee cepnéstit xpisne‘a less serious crisis.) (©) The other (‘short’) comparative is a one-word form in -ee (colloquially -e) or «that follows the noun and is linked to it by form of the verb ‘to be’: dro xpéeno yabGuee “This armchair is ‘more comfortable’ ‘The long form of the comparative adjective (a) Almost every Russian adjective makes its long-form comparative with Ganee + positive adjective: cexscraimaitwenonéx a happy man Génee exactaimsit wexonéx a happier man rpjanas saxiva a dificult task (énee tpiamas sania» more difficult task (b) Boaee is invariable, but adjective and noun agree in gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter), number (singular or plural), and in case: Masculine: | 6inee niga rome re important question Feminine: | G5nceGoriras xéuuyisa 2 Heher nora Neuter: | 6ineeasionoe mics longer tor Plural: | Génce where nae cleaner beaches‘The adjective |57 ‘One-word long comparatives (a) Three pairs of opposites have one-word long comparatives, (Gee plays no part in their formation} cripumlt er, ever iam younger uncr Gun iggor aaa srsior jean beter aja worse (b) Cripumit is used mainly of people: erépuel 6par/enace! aelirendur/crapuee noxonéune ‘elder brother/senior clas/senior lieutenanvolder generation’, as is its opposite, manu. Like aja ‘better, best’ and xjanmll ‘worse, worst’ they can also function as superlatives. For objects, 6éaee cripuil is used: Ox ymin Ge eripyio wauuicay ‘He bought an older car’. (©) A fourth pair, sssemmit ‘higher’, nism ‘lower’ have some rhon-comparative functions: aticuiaa mareniruxa ‘higher ‘mathematics’, assemee yué6uoe saneaéune ‘higher teaching establishment’ (ct, superlative usage in m sicmtell crénenm “to the highest degree’, aiausee andune ‘lowest rank’) ‘The short form comparative in -ee (colloquially -e) (a) The short (predicative) form of most comparatives is made by adding -ee to the stem of the adjective. The short form does not decline and is the same for all genders and the plural Tloxsix murepécuee The roport ls more interesting Sexe mnrepience Th lecture le more interesting ‘ro enbso mirepienee This word ls more interesting ‘Daxter mwrepécnee The facts are more interesting (b) Adjectives with monosyllabic stems add stressed -¢e to the stem: ror sonic nae This question le more important Sra jnmus aammnée Tis street ie longer ‘ra xnira nyanée. This book le more necessary ‘Stor manbanx ymnée This boy is cleverer Boncip cumnée The baer lo etronger One or two adjectives with stems of more than one sylable also dao ths: Sror ewonin rameabe This suitcase le heavier58 |The adjective ‘Shor-form comparatives ine, with consonant change ‘The following consonant changes occur in the formation of short-form comparatives: eh, A, 32, KN, OM, CT, To Short forms of this type end in a single unstressed -e. Sometimes xis by-passed and the preceding consonant changed (€4, 6ainae ‘is closer, from nix ‘close’, with 3 changing 102 and i omitted): Long form ‘Short form Siennt lose” Peek Gniowe The ever doer Goritui ‘ret enone Gore The man is Hehor sucieadl “hgh! opie The mountain i higher mimnit ‘smooth —Onepo atime The lake le emoather pout "ou Sprpiuve The engl louder rjerst tho Te erst be hiker ‘ewiéouR cheap he teks are cheaper ‘aopordil ‘dea’ Pre dearer The tee weaker ‘he sleeves are shorter 2xlayat shin wea oprah “short Tie tea le etronger Te hills steeper The taco enoler én “sali” ‘he verte shallower noah your! ‘The doctors younger neko sote Tre cushion ie aofear wloit “ow Fras ar lower pocré “sinple™ Tre lesson ie sipler cexpérut siriet The teacher ercter ‘rebpmu and ft His step is rer ‘nuit “quer Tre evening le quletor sroterut the Tre vt thicker ‘ry ig Tre string i ghar axa “narow? The tunel e narrower ‘alert “ceart The eroctery le cleanerThe adjective | 59 ‘Other short forms ‘There area few other short forms that undergo consonant change (see preceding page), e.g. pésve from pena ‘sharp’ Some very common forms in -e do not conform to the ‘standard consonant changes: Sonsuxit Tre hovse le bigger rayGbra deep “he late le deeper deunxoit smal ‘The roomie amaler ‘nord bad Tre mork le woree niet ‘once? ‘The pial omeetor criputt ‘ole The bao oder sosnoth thie Tre wast le thimer opéunit ‘goo ‘Theol le better spina rose The street le broader ‘Note (a) cripme ‘is older’ is used of people, erapée of objects. (b) some adjectives have irregular one-word long form ‘comparatives and irregular short forms: ‘Onesword comparative Short forms Toma Comm igger” Gomme Tobago? sdzcunxt “smal? simak “smal? we ‘ssa? rnoxiit ‘vad! faut Worse’ xe To worse? opéunet ‘good! ajuk etter ——ajame sete criput ‘ol evipumit ‘der’ evipmme ie ole? {) momon6it ‘young’ has long-form comparative maéammit “younger, short-form comparative moaéue ‘is younger’. ‘Adjectives in exit ‘Adjectives in cxwii (e.g. parivsecxnit tragic’) have no comparative short forms, but, in common with some other adjectives which have no short forms, they ether use a synonym, fr the long form, or a version that does have a short form (e.g, ‘zparivuuall ‘tragic’ with the comparative short form rpariewee ‘is! are more tragic’).[801 The alectve Constructions with the comparative degree (@) Standard comparison: nominative + short-form comparative + genitive: (On monéoxe went He is younger than me Tiawo nemésae sui. Beer ie cheaper than wine {Note An ateratine sat frm costrtin wth ew (On wane we 6 Tess common usd, though with a longer comparative i ite arm: On sound» Game ae, seca 'He Ines ina bigs ouse an we dis ‘en the second iam for comparison soe ofthe poses proneun re ao ne Mok wan nods ew x My as ewe an (O)A difference (in measurement, age, etc.) between two items for ‘comparison is expressed by wa + accusative case: ‘Oni ma-rpw roaa cripme mek She Is three yeare older than me ‘Onua ana caurunérpa siime oui Heis two centimetres taller ‘than father 1 Note:The instrumental (pe oan errata toa + T sccusate. (©) B+ a form of pas ‘time’ is used to render a difference in terms cof a multiple (‘twice as big’ ete.) ‘Onn asa pisa (aasbe) Gorive cima He is twice as rich as his ‘on (@) “The. the ." is rendered a8 Yea ., Tem Wem ndowe uéust va ronauno, rem ajruue The lower fuel prices ‘are, the better (© ‘Much’ + comparative is rendered by uauuéro (xausro _njuume ‘much better’), ropéano (ropéano nize ‘much taller’), nro (snbro aeuséane ‘much cheaper’), or xy (kya wnrepécnee “much more interesting’), and ‘even, stil’ + comparative by emt: ceaié ajene ‘even better’‘The adjective | 61 ‘The superlative degree {a)The standard method of forming the superlative of an adjective is to precede a noun phrase (long adjective + noun)by eisai! ‘cua chwoelcoene: ‘Masculine | coat Sorpih ox te oharpest kite ‘eminine | cian Goriras crpani te chest courtry Neuter | ciwoe sexe Gono the tastiaat ich Plural | ciomae vanéernne nickrenn the moet famous writers (b) Chamait declines and agrees with nouns and adjectives in ‘gender, number, and case: Masculine Singular Feminine Singular om-| clnvas Gorkras erp ‘Ace, | cheat Sorpuit nox obey Gorfry0 erpany Gen. | cix-oroSexporo nox cin-ol Gorkrott crpanst Dat. | cixcouy Serpowy Hox} cincoll Gorérot pans Inst.| cians erpunenexim —civ-ot Goro erpandit Prep. | chwonderpou oss cinco Gorfrotcrpant Note: Neuter forms decline like masculine, except in the nominativelaccusative (neuter camoe sxjcnoe Gmiono). Plural ce Gexpue woh i i ce erpue oxi cine Gorse expt doesn Serpent ln Goria rp Sues Serpunoxin lnc Gori cra Siacan Serpe onion nso Goria rp | clues Gerpux nonin cna Goran crpinnx TEEP?E|62 The adjective (ther forms of the supertative Some one-word irregular comparatives can also be used as superlatives: ajraui “bette, best’ (jaunt xypopr ‘the best spa’), xfammit ‘worse, worst’, erapumil ‘older, oldest, maaumnit “younger, youngest’ see page 57. (Sometimes they combine with cst: eocan jan Gyr ‘the very best paper’) The predictive superiatve (@) Chast is also used informing a predicative superlative: ‘Sror om eins wixensx Ths house le the smallest Sra saniva chan aérvan This task the eaclet (b) Another way of expressing a predicative superlative isto combine a short-form predcative comparative (eg. yunée “cleveer’,cepséanee more serious’) with noex (genitive of well, everyone’) or nero (genitive of nc¥ al, everthing’): ‘Sra nénowra yunée ncex This gl ie the cloverest Sra nposna cepuzae nerd» Tis proslem isthe most cerous ‘Supertatives in -iiumit-aitumit, nau and wanGonce (@) A limited range of forms in -etumni, based mainly on ‘monosyllabic roots, can either have superlative meaning (cumsnéiiumit exonéx ‘the strongest man’) or denote an extreme ‘manifestation (eaoxréiimas saniva ‘a most complex task’, ‘gueréiim sanop ‘the most arrant nonsense’). Forms derived from adjectives with roots in r, x, undergo consonant change to 2x, anand take-aiane (xparsiiimnil ‘shortest’ from ‘short’ note also 3. in Gawceitiul ‘nearest’: Gawaciimman Gombuiaua ‘the nearest hospital’). (©) Indeclinable nanGinee is somewhat official and normally combines with adjectives with roots of more than one syllable: nanGéee noriemoe pewuue ‘the most logical solution’ Declinable one-word superlatives in waw-are formal: wanaammit copr ‘the very best brand’, nanGimmas afppextisniocrs ‘maximum effectiveness’ Note: For nitcumit ‘highest’, see page 57.The pronoun | Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns or noun phrases. They sub-divide into: (@) Personal pronouns (n't, ra ‘you’ (singular, familiar), on ‘he, son she, it’, ond ‘it, a "we', pst‘you" (plural, formal), owt “they’) (0) The reflexive pronoun ce6i (6 Demonstrative pronouns (Sror ‘this’, ror ‘that’, (@) Possessive pronouns (pronominal adjectives) (wolt'my, mine, ‘ool ‘your, yours’ (familiar), er ‘his, its, e ‘her, hers, its, nau “our, ours’, pau your, yours’ sx thei, theirs’. (©) The reflexive possessive pronoun cao (© Interrgaive and relative pronouns (xT0 ‘who’, "70 ‘what’ xaiit ‘which’, xoropoit ‘who, which’, ei ‘whose’. (6) Indefinite pronouns (xré-r0 ‘someone’, xr6-1tn6yab ‘anyone’, svxé-ro ‘something’, wrb-au6yau ‘anything’ et.) (6) Quanaiying pronouns (sec al’ et:) (0 Emphatic pronouns (cau ‘oneselt, chu “the very’) (0 Nesatve pronouns (om, we ae, wor, er), | Personal pronouns ‘The personal pronouns dectine as follows: Nom Ace. Gen. _Dat._Inatr__Prep. 5 wed Merk sae saad rare TA Gd TO TE TOON TOE one arse ome on cect ons rerum pu ac pac sam in aeThe pronoun Functions and features ofthe personal pronouns 2, +1, ox, ‘ond, on6 (@) 8 takes first-person singular forms ofa ver: ‘Alvan wma | read ard write 114s of common gender, used for elther male or female speakers: Span lamglad Hpatinas worted (nase) pia lam glad 5 parame |woriad (fem) (b) Tas takes second-person singular forms ofa verb: ‘Tot aniem Sroro senoséxa? Do you know this person? Its used in addressing relatives, lose friends and colleagues, children, subordinates, animals, etc. Like itis of common gender: ‘Tut coraicen? Do you agree? To noamiaYou ar le (mase) ‘Tuteoraicaa? Do you ngre? Ts onoanina You ar late (fem.) ‘The pronoun nu is usually omitted when the second-person, singular verb is used in the impersonal meaning ‘one’ He amie, sro aézars One doesn't know what to do {(€) Ou/Oné relat, respectively, to masculine and feminine nouns {animate or inanimate): ‘On mrp» dy266n He played football Oni Gomni She tet ‘S10 nau 20m. Ow wossilt This Is our house. tele new Tae nbxxa? Oni » iumnxe Where is the epoon? IIs In the drawer (4) Oné relates to neuter nouns: BBénoe wpe? Oub ua cénepe The White Sea? It isin the north J Net: The obiue cases fo nk nb tak itl w tera preposition: oF Tc tom hw, en toi with 0 me etre er, we Yo er, pea mbar ae (se aso page 65)‘The pronoun | 65 Functions and features of the personal pronouns wa, ns, ow (@) Mis combines wit first-person plural forms of verbs and the plural of past-tense forms and short adjectives: Mut anaoaipyen We applaud Matai We knew Mutroréaut We are ready (b) But can refer to one person (if used in polite speech) or more than one, combining with the second-person plural of verbs, the plural past tense and plural short adjectives: Bus urpitere w rénxc? Do you play tennis? Bu: noosénan? Have you dined? Bi aooéaumsl? Are you pleased? When ass combines with the long form of an adjective, raxélt or ‘on, a distinction is made between singular and plural: Ko os raxbiranis? Who are you? (male/female singular) Kro nit rate? Who are you? (plural) Bu omhloank? Are you lore? (male/female singular) Bu omni? Are you alone? (plural) Bur eémsilenéinan You are daring (male/female singular) Burenéaue You re daring (plural) 1 Nate When se 9 ote frm (in ete, Bais apt fo oe 1 sree ou uneaptaized for ruber farses (©) Omi combines with third-person plural forms of verbs and short adjectives: nit omorivoriorassxiaulronosmit They help/rlaxed/are unary ‘The oblique cases of ow take intial w- when governed by a preposition: cpeit mx ‘among them’, x wnat ‘towards them, vwexay win ‘between them. Onis is omitted in general statements, when no named individuals ae indicated: Secs erpber Moct They are building abridge here Note: porous pai with nouns rather pronouns, sing the prposion e + insrunertal case ‘ior telsathy an father ated you and ‘rere Nand[961-7 pronoun ‘The reflexive pronoun ce6it ‘The reflexive pronoun declines as follows: Nom._noweistent dee. oat Gen. ce64 Dat. ce58 Instr c06-34 Prop. cob (a) Ce6t refers back to the subject of the clause (i.e. the subject and eet denote the same person), rendering English ‘myself, “himself, “herself, ‘ourselves, ‘yourseliiyourslves' ‘themselves’. No distinction is made in respect of person or number: AL no ob _|know myself ‘Tor aicus ce6i You krow yourselt OwlOnh auier ce6i He/She krows himeettiherself Mtanien ce6it We krow ourselves Busaniere ee6i You know yourselfiyourselves Oni snore They know themselves (b) The pronoun s more versatile than the reflexive verb ending ewe (se page 137), since it can express the indirect object in the dative, combine with prepositions, and render other relationships: nd catia ee6énnirve She made herself a reos Oninpunnéx x ce6é siincdnne He drew attention to himeelt Ont pasronipunann méaay co66K They conversed among themselves Ou zonbrer co6dk He's pleased with himealt (© Particular care must be taken not tobe misled by English use ‘of a personal pronoun when Russian requites the reflexive pronoun: On man wens coo He took me with him A nocasin e€ pon cco66H | sat her next tome ‘Baxpoilaneps 3a co668 Close the door behind you (@) Do not confuse ee6a with the emphatic pronoun eam ‘oneself (see page 77)‘The pronoun | 67 ‘The demonstrative pronoun Sror ‘this’ {@) Demonstrative pronouns indicate the person or thing refered to (0) Stor ‘this’ dectnes as follows, with soft endings inthe ‘masculine and neuter singular instrumental and the whole ofthe plural: | Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Wom: ‘Ace a Dat. |Srony jot Sr-omy Sram Inst, | irae rok ira roman Prep. |‘iron rot ira Seon (6) The declined forms must not be confused with 3ro ‘this is, these are’ Srorsaninthiactry romania Tite ataciry Srardpra. thie stamp Stoxdpea Thole a tarp Srononors tie raky” ro uonots Thole ot Srupéxn theserivers Dro péxn These are rivers: (@ Note the idioms: Bot nbzo iron That i ust the point ‘Gro.nu oie Sra cx? What do you mean by that? (©Sroris used to distinguish something close a han from Something further away (rendered by ror ‘that’ ee page 68): Ow samt nSrow ie 8 rom bus? Does he vein this house or ‘hat one? (0)3ror saat means ‘this ver’ as nyxd Sr chan xipra. We need thie ery map (@ The animate accusative rule applies: ‘Bu aere ore esonéxaPlnax sont? Do you cw thie ‘ereon/these people?681 The pronoun ‘The demonstrative pronoun ror ‘that’ (@) Tor declines as follows, with soft endings in the masculine and neuter singular instrumental and the whole of the plural: Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural ry rete rou orb bax rol rem re rok Tew rn rol rem rex (b) It denotes spatial distancing: ‘Onitxian no ty eropouy exit They lived on that side of the river or temporal distancing Bor news Giano xbtomHo It wae cold that day (6) It can also mean ‘he, she, the latter’, resolving ambiguity Bina o6parinca x Kone, #0 ror ne orpearitposan Vanya ‘addressed Kolya, but he (Kolya) didn't react (@) Kero is used as a relative pronoun to ror and re: Tor, xrosuan, orsérun The one who knew answered (but Ta, novépas suina, orméruna She who krew answered) ‘SA no6naroapiin Tex, kre ntowér | thanked those who helped () "iro is used as a relative pronoun to ro: ‘A161 yawanén vem, ero on cxastin was surprised by what he said I Note: or (cna he sre or the won’ mor map ete T onitlnts tose cna arb Thay giro the ame coage ‘Onnagpiane or nouep He lad the wong mer Hinrorin appr oa Nether oth roTre pronoun 169 J Clauses linked by ro, ro ‘what’ (= that which) ‘To, ero o# cxasin, paccepaino wewk What (that which) he ald angered me. Note: () The construction with 10, eo is especially common where a verb or adjective governs an oblique case or prepositional phrase: Banhcers or + genitive ‘roan or ror, ero ms waere wma) depends what ‘you have nina Bépurs + dative Sxépo rx, ro ont crash | bolove whathe ssid (b) The construction may be equivalent to English preposition + sing Braronipen a + accusative ‘i Gnaronipen ea ro, ro on we noxorsh | mgratefilto her for helping re Topsisen + instrumental On ropaires Tes, wro on e& oréu He is proud of being her father ‘roGur + past tense ‘When intention or purpose is expressed rather than fact, wr Gut + past tense is used instead of wro (see pages 135-136) ToGunirsen + genitive On ao6uniaes roré, wri6e4 on noanncina xowrpixt He tried ‘to get her to elgn the contract: Compare To, wre, denoting a fact (On aoGianea ror, ero oui nommuciaa xowrpiiet He got her to olga the contract701 The pronoun | ‘The possessive pronouns moii, rsoii, uau, nant (@) The possessive pronoun moi ‘my, mine” declines as follows: Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Mol wok wot wo wok Mon Mok Mosk moe od wo-erb_ ok Nowy od o-egh oot modo — od o-k oo moe od wo-i ose Note: Taoit declines like mol. (©) The possessive pronoun wamt ‘our, ours’ declines as follows: Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural SERRA) Tom | ‘aoc. | an uy Gen, | riveree nero Dat Inaer. ruewy ued ue iu | uae ine ine nm Prep. | siaen lure waren lux (€) The possessive pronoun sam declines like wau. Its spelt Bam In polite contexts (e.g, leters, but sam if addressed to more than ‘one person). (@ All the possessive pronouns observe the animate accusative genitive rule in the masculine singular and the whole of the plural (On suiter moeré Gpira, raoer6 ova, wimmero sisuo, sun ‘maesdammsos u naeveinumn He knows my brother, your father, our uncle, your nephewe and nieces (©) The pronouns are used both adjectivally (eg. moi xipra ‘my map’) and pronominally (e.g. 9va xipra-mod “This map is mine’)‘The pronoun 171 3r80n possessive pronouns erd ‘is, its’, e& ‘her, its (@) The third person possessive pronouns eé, ef, and ux are indeclinable and invariable, whatever the gender, number, or case of the noun they refer to: er6 oréu, eré mars, eré apyssh his father, hle mother, hie frends 8 Gpar, e8 cecrpl, eB nice her brother, her sister her letter x 20M, wx Kura, wx RETH thelr house, the room, thelr children ‘AT wuerepectiock erb xapriauann | am interested in hie paintings ‘AAvipio eB cecrpé | believe her sister (On nina sényac 3a mx Gpira She married thelr brother (b) B16, o8, and wx also refer to objects: ‘Hani om craps, Eri ncropna yxomie 8 npouuneil sex Our house is old, Its history goes back to last century Tipira -cronfna Yéxint BE uacenéune Gticrpo pactér Prague |e the capital of the Czech Republic. te population is growing fast Alemotpio wa nepéass. Wx aicrss onaniior —llook at the trees. ‘Their leaves are falling ‘Note: The initial w- that precedes personal pronouns ero, eé, and vx in the meaning, respectively, ‘him’, ‘her’, and ‘them’ when ‘governed by prepositions (see page 64), never precedes the possessive pronouns eré ‘is’, e her’, and wx their’, thus: Personal pronouns Possessive pronouns ‘Orme roman ub OT eb apa rom Hs Wad ua webforher but ne abwepa for her daughter emo wth chem but ews ceerpél wth tar ister (©) The pronouns are also used pronominally (e.g, 3r0t nom —e& "This house is hers)72.1 The pronoun ‘The reflexive possessive pronoun cnoit (4) Coot dectnes like woit and rood and refers back to subjects (nouns or pronouns) of any gender or either number: ‘On norepia eaoio xitiry He has lost his book ‘Oni novepina exofo xwiry She has lost her book (Ont noreplintenod xitirn They have lost thelr books (0) When there is a third-person subject, itis essential to differentiate between cnolt and end ‘his’, e ‘her’, wx ‘their’ ‘otherwise the wrong meaning will be conveyed (On aa6tix eno nowep Tenedbua means ‘He has forgotten his (own) telephone number’, while ‘Ox sa6sin eré nonep teaepoua’ means ‘He has forgotten his (someone else's) telephone number’ (©) The possessive pronouns er6, ef, and wx (not cao) may constitute part of a multiple subject: “Molt Gpar n en apyr oGéaaor My brother and hie frend are having lunch (@) They may also reer to the subject of a new clause: (Oni cxanina w70 e8 Gpar Gonen She said her brother was ill (c) With first-person or second-person subjects (n, ra a, oF 1), Moi, Tao, nau, and aur can be used, but enol is preferred: ‘AAroxaain enol (4ofl) nécnopr | showed my passport ‘Mut xpi enol (nau) aost We were painting our house ‘Bar nann enoio (simy) Gney? Have you found your bag? (0 Im references to parts ofthe body, possessive pronouns are ‘usually omitted altogether: On aurrupier pin He is drying his hands ‘Anopésan ninen, | cut-my finger J Neen, ncn car se to det pases (ny om," om, * Fa cnt ump my om cnpr ‘Yor ca ott Heheo ie senna ‘Yeaccnon anon You hav your orn teThe pronoun 173 ‘The interrogative and relative pronouns xro and sro (2) Kro and wro decline as follows: Nom. |xro ro Acc. | orb sro Gen. | ros ser Dat. | r-onj seo Instr | rcew sco Prep. | ow sen (©) Kro‘who' combines with masculine singular predicates (Kro rzozex? ‘Who is hungry). Itcan be extended by rand: Kro nt ‘avsifraia/raie? “Who are you? (respectively, of a male, a female, and a group). Note the logical consistency of Kew 7s ovens Gus? ‘What [literally ‘Who'] do you want to be?” (6) Kyo also functions as a relative pronoun to other pronouns (or, ve, ee, ames, et) ‘Tor, ero omsérmx npisvexsno, roxy npéwno The one who anovered corecty receved a prize He so mmcors, x70 6st Tax xopom rosopiin_| dot anyone who speaks so well (€) Te, ro and se, ro can take a singular or a plural predicate 1, ro yméalyauak those who left ace, To auietibuivor everyone who knows (©) Sro? what! i used of objects and animals. Itcan be extended by raxée: 'ro so range? ‘What is that? As a relative pronoun, it relates back to other inanimate pronouns (oe, r, et.) ‘Alexans nan ne, 70 110 tll you all (that) | know ‘ALsanch v0, 99 ou cxasin noted down what he oad (0 Relative wro also relates back to whole clauses: On jnep, 70, kono, nexinsno He died, which of course is sad CCuer pacrina, verb ne omnia The enow malted, which | had rot expectedm1 pronoun ‘The interrogative and relative pronouns Kandi, xoropeti, and eli (a) Kaxéi? ‘which?, what kind of" declines like nnoxbi (seepage 46): Kania cerbuix noréaa? What's the weather Ike today? Kanie ceroain send? What the date today? Kandi cerdana news? What day iit today? ‘Kany nero wausia? What kind of car has he got? ‘Kaxoit 20x nau? Which house io yours? 1] Net: the ola woe: saa nora enn? Whats he wether ke 1 day teat uaz What hat” (©)Kanot is also used in exclamations: Kann pizoors!_ What jt (6) Korépuit‘who, which’ declines ike Géma (seepage 44). 1 relates to animate and inanimate nouns, agreeing with them in ‘gender and number: ‘Row, Kovépatl crofer Ha yen the house which stands on the ripra, xovipan sucier ua crené the map that hangs on the wall (ond, woropoeaaxpisro the window that is shut sr, wovopuse fuarer the children who are studying However, the case of worbpuit is determined by the grammar of its own clause, and not by its antecedent: On xeniincs wa umm, e KoTopol nosaxbuuncs ua Ganj He marred a woman with whom he became acquainted ata dance ‘A ronopivtc yuenmnbx, KoTOpOro HCRZOWNH 9 HIKOAM | WAS talking to the pupil (whom) they had expelled from school {@) The genitive forms kovéporo, xorépol, and worbpuax mean ‘whose’ (masculine, feminine, and plural, respectively) ‘ositrens, sauna kovbporo s rapaixé the driver whose car is in the garage abayua, sei korbpol 2a rpauluelt_ the git whose fiancé is ‘abroad yeni, pesyaoréra: Kovopunxsuicbxue the pups whose resulta ar impressive‘The pronoun 175, {¢) ro is sometimes used as relative pronoun to a noun: Koumsiorep, ero saniic The computer that crashed ‘but kordpuit is preferable, and the norm. (0 The use of kovépuat as an interrogative is ted largely tothe phrases Koréputi wac? (= Créanico mpéuenn?) ‘What isthe time?” and B xorépom wacj? (Bo cxbmsxo?) ‘At what time?” (@) Heit ‘whose’ declines as follows: Wom. [vei Ace. [seh mee Gen, | wer silt Dat. | swenj seit Instr |comme eh Prep. | win sue (h) It is used as an interrogative pronoun, appearing mainly in the nominative case: elt 5ro nox? Whose house io that? Usa ro Kosaara? Whose room is that? ‘Uus5ro xomu6? Whose ring is that? “ua 5ro komad? Whose skates are those? (@ It can also mean ‘whose’ in a relative meaning, as an alternative to xoréporo, xorépol, rovopurx (see page 74) -xérumna, sel xo7x sa6onéa the woman whose husband fll[2st pronoun ‘The indefinite pronouns «r6-ro/rr6-nuGyaB, 416-To! srré-wuGyab, kaxéit-rohxaxdit-un6yaati-rohai-nnGyan (a) The pronouns in -ro refer to definite persons or objects whose ‘dentiyis unkown to or bas perhaps been forgotten by the speaker. Their existence is notin question, but identification is, either impossible or not desirable Kristo crysis» anep Someone's knocking tthe door (but do not know who itis, oF will not say) (Oni wew-roronopiizn, no ne sar, 0 EM foenno | Theywere talking about something bi cid not know about what exactly On npunéc kaxj1o-To KHiry, HO # 3a6ti, Kak on HasbIBinac He brought eome book or other, but forget what it was called ‘Yuiremsunua nposepaa “bio-To Terpaas The teacher was marking someone's exercise book (b) The pronouns in -wu6yap are used: of persons or things not yet defined or selected, and thus not vyet in place: SL nbnxen obparieice x on-mGyan 28 nbwowwo | must ‘tum to someone (not yet designated) for help ‘Sl xy ef er-anBya, no eu ne peur, 70 fovento | will buy her eomething, hit kavert yer decided what exactly Oni xduer, 766m 8 crien Kaxjio-an6yams Hapomyw mécHto | She warts me to sing some fok song or other (ail to be selected) (ii) when a repeated action involves different persons or objects. on different occasions: ‘Kéxsil ems on nprmocin rixyiosmyay raséry Every day he brought some newspaper or other (a different one on each cceasion)The pronoun 177 The pronouns nec, wémit, cay, chet (@) Becy ‘all, all the’ declines as follows: ‘lesa ‘a whole’ and cima ‘the very’ decline lke Géasit (see age 44). (0) Bece means ‘the whole’, wéaut‘a whole’ (Ox even new sino He ate the whole melon’, Ox cxen néayio ino ‘He ate a whole ‘melon’ Plural ce means ‘all the’ (see ropond ‘all the towns’), plural wémute means ‘whole’ (wénwe ropozi ‘whole towns’) (6) Bee also means ‘everyone’. It takes a plural predicate (Bee swivor ‘Everyone knows’) and the relative pronoun ro (nce, x70 “everyone who’ - see page 73). Be# means ‘everything’ and takes the relative pronoun wr (acé, wo ‘everything tha’) (@ The emphatic pronoun cau ‘oneself declines as follows: Its used to personalize: 51 cam peusi Sry sanisy ‘I solved this problem myself’ or to emphasize: Mut rosopiimu c camo >annterpom ‘We spoke to the minister himself, and must not be confused with efvaail, which denotes spatial or temporal limit ‘Mu xnoén y einsoli pexit‘We live right by the river’. Ou pa6éraer 20 chmod nosut ‘He works right through to nightfall,781 The pronoun ‘The negative pronouns wird, nwsrO, wmaKcoil, mnt (@) Hass ‘no one, nobody’ declines like xo (se page 73) and takes a masculine singular predicate (Huxr6 we rovéa ‘No one's ready’). It combines with the negative particle we, except in ‘one-word answers (Ko npuus?"Who came?” Hus ‘No one): Hinxrd we ber Nobody knows ‘AL rtgor6 we sxvo | don't know aryore ‘On minors we noworier He dosen't help anyone Prepositions appear between wu and the oblique case form: Onin na xoré we cuStpiTr She's not ooking at anyone (6) Russian can accumulate negatives (unlike English, which reverts to postive pronouns fand adverbs, seepage 160 after the frst negative: Hiner amor mreré me sier No one over knows anything (©) Hweré ‘nothing’ declines like wre (see page 73). It also ‘combines with the negative particle we Hust end ne nomnjer._ Nothing woris him Hiwser6 ne mporouss Nothing ha Ontitserd we anier He docent know anything Onuisens we pier He doesnt believe anything 1 Note: inated unde ma, bo, negatives can accumulate: Vitec mtost meré erovper Noone mr soy arytng (@) Prepositions come between wn and oblique cases of wro: ‘Onmn aro ne sanunariia He didn't pay for anything (6) Hxansit ‘no, none at all’ declines like naoxéil (see page 46) 1M combines with we of wer and is used mainly for emphasis (Prepositions come between wn and oblique cases of kandi) Her uuxaniro coméunn There ls no doubt at all (1) Hit ‘no one’s’ declines like well (see page 75) and combines with we (unless used as a predicate: Sror men6x mwvél ‘This puppy isn't anybody's’). Prepositions appear between wm and the relevant form of wed‘The pronoun 179 ‘The pronouns néxoro and wésero {@) The declension endings of wéxoro and névero are identical with those of ero and ero (see page 73), but nether pronoun has 4 nominative case and the stress always falls on wi. The pronouns indicate ack of potential for carrying out an action or process and comprise: né- + case form (determined by following infinitive) + infinitive: Hieworo cnpocirrs There is no one to ask Hiéweu moGonizics Theres no one to adree Hisero xénars Tere ie nothing todo Hien ropaiericn There Is nothing to be proud of (b) Prepositions appear between né and the case form of the pronoun: Hise xen apyacers There is no one to be finde wth Hex xony opantinsca There io no one to tum to Hosen muare There is nothing to think about (©) Theres a past-tense equivalent with 6ino, and a futurestense equivalent with 6zer: Hibero Gino aénars There was nothing to do Hécxew 6jaer apyadins There will be no one to be friends with and an opposite, affirmative construction in éere/6ciolGjner: Eerscxew urpars There ls someone to pay wth ‘Bétaol6jaer xor6 enpociers There was/wll be someone to ask (4) The logical subject ofa verb (that is to say, the person who performs the action referred to) appears in the dative: Bag uévero aénars He has nothing to do Haw wé c rex 6éin0 noconéronaTics We had no one to conoult (6) Ifthe negative pronouns the logical subject of the verb, then it appears in the dative: Hiéxomy wasrs mauuinty There is no one to wash the carThe numeral | Cardinal numerals (one, two, three, etc.) piers pina ‘eriiprantare oeneisuars SSUEGH2S eos GsEN 1000 2000 5,000 11000,000 2000.00 5.000.000, 1000000000 11000,000.000,000 ‘piers cope rorrtecit centecer ‘pica seripecra S8SSSSSSsessssesyas unnnips/Suannde ‘pxnanb‘The numeral 81 Notes on the form and formation of cardinal numerals. (@) Of numerals 11-19, only 11 (oaitvuaauars) and 14 (wersipranuars) are not stressed on the first -a- (b) The numerals 50-80 have a central, but not a final soft sign, 50 and 60 have final stress, 70 and 80 initial stress. (€) Tisewsa ‘thousand’ can be written 1000, 1,000, or 1000 (but never with a comma). (@) Compound cardinal numerals are formed by placing simple numerals in sequence: asiauars ont ‘21’, tpu rixcaun Tphcra ‘cépox srs ‘three thousand three hundred and forty-five’ Cardinals as serial numbers (a) Apart from indicating quantity, cardinals can also denote ‘numbers in a series or sequence: owsara (nowep) agers ‘foom, (number) nine’, Kaséncxas, 6’6 Kazan Stret’, nom npexduars, xeapripa cro copox ‘house number twelve, apartment one hundred and forty’, pec andauars veviipe ‘fight number twenty-four, (b) Telephone and fax numbers are read as follows: ma non cews = noms aesmnbevo nas ~ sevéspecta tesaHOcTo co — apse oni lecrsaeckr urs: 007 (Russian Federation) - 095 (Moscow) ~497 2165 (seven-digit local number), ie. they are read as words, not (asin English) as individual digits. Buaanon Both muuanipa and 6uuxau6x mean ‘one thousand milion’ (English ‘billion’ can mean ‘one thousand million’ or ‘a million, millon’). ‘Approximation Approximation is rendered by inverting numeral and noun: ars ‘pu ‘about three days’ (prepositions are placed centrally: 2x ‘pea rpu ‘in about three days’ time’),82 The numeral Hoawiuyas ‘nought, zero’ (@) Hox and nyae decline like soft-sign masculine nouns: niiuieiiowe nya abovelbelow zero asuouirs © nya to start from scratch (0) They govern the genitive (singular or plural) ont auwndinmn zero attention ome mplayeon | zero degrees Onin, oxn, on6, oxnit ‘one’ {a} Onin declines with hard endings except for masculine and neuter instrumental and the whole ofthe plural, which have soft endings our om (b) Numeral and noun agree in gender, number, and case: ‘onia xoction one suit ‘omni nisina one amp ‘on nie one field ‘omni chin one sledge tuen oamoré Gunéra the price of one ticket (Ou xymiar omu ano He bought one melon Ou anitnyna oanéll pyxiit She moved one arm (©) Onim can also mean ‘the same" and ‘alone, by oneself: Ont cnyaionn 8 owim noaxy They served in the same regiment. On xusér onim —Helives alone (@) ‘One of is rendered as oni wa + genitive: (On 61a omni ws voix yanrenéii He wa0 one of my teachers‘The numeral 83 (©) Compound numerals ending with onim also take a singular ‘noun and predicate: Aisa ons néoyanea sanncnacs na wjpent Twenty-one rls enroled forthe course (9 All numerals in a compound decline: ‘Cxéxanncn aenerérs vo tpaauari onnbl crpansi Delegates from thirty-one countries convened ( The masculine animate-accusative = genitive rule applies to ‘im individually or as final element in a compound: On ncrptrwa oanoré yseuui She met one pupil ‘roux yOhan ueruneckroxnoré naccantipa The hackers tiled fftgrone paseengers (6) Onwi. appre means ‘Some .. others Ont 0, pyrite npn Some are for, others against Tlosrropé/noaropss ‘one and a half” (@) Mlonropé is used with masculine and neuter nouns, noxropsi ‘with feminine nouns. Both take the genitive singular: nonropiaua a day ard a half noxropé ow a point and a half ronropsi weaéan a week snd a half (b) Montopi/nonropii share the oblique case nonjropa, which agrees with plural forms of the noun: néntune nomfropa xaaowérpos les than a kllometre ar a halt nonjropa wackx néra or Bproccéan an hour and a half fight from Brussels J ste: sat noon acl two an 2 alu en coro cia Vive at hour ee24 The numeral Tpalane two’, xpu ‘three’, wertspe ‘four’ () The numerals asa/ae, tp, and werspe take the genitive singular of nouns when the numerals themselves are in the ‘nominative/accusative case. (©) Ha is used with masculine and neuter nouns, ase with feminine nouns. Both take the genitive singular: (©) Tpu and weriape are used with masculine, feminine, or neuter nouns and also take the genitive singular: ‘rpulweriape eaosapthree/four dictionaries ‘rpu/seriape saduunthree/four buildings ‘rpulueriape xbuacn three/four cate (4) Adjectives qualifying masculine and neuter nouns appear in the genitive plural after x8a, rpu, serie, those qualifying feminine nouns in the nominative plural after ave, tpu, sertipe: ‘apa méeruurx nbenta two local trains ‘px Gomsuix 6naxa three large clouds ‘vertipe were py6iuixn four clean shirts (©) The same rule applies to compound numerals ending with aval Be, TPH, oF Hersipe: cbpox asa noxaninanc ann forty-two rainy days ‘plumars pu onepérmenx oxwi thirty-three open windows ABiuuars eriipe momuse mipaat twenty-four new stamps Declension of asa/ase, rpa, and wertspe (2) 2-4 decline as follows: Nom. | se-al-e rpu wertipe Ac. |aealme tpa vertipe Gen, |anyx — xpex verupex Dat. |aeye tpi serupin inser | ney tpt werupi Prep. |anyx 1px werupexTre numeral 85 J (b) The dectined forms agree with nouns and adjectives in the same case ofthe plural (e.g. yx, "px, werrp&x agree with the genitive plural of the noun, zoym, 7péw, sevupém withthe dative plural): Ossi mm dxon0 anyx aneli They walked for about two daye Onc xSwener x 1pEw saci He had frished by three o'clock éxay Anyi Gonsuuinnc xondian bedveen bwo large houses ss werspéx kaproumuix xopi6xax In four cardboard boxes (6 All components of compound numerals decine: conn puamari 1pEx xst08 one of the thirty-three halls anauuath anyx crpanax. in twenty-two countries (@ The animate accusative = genitive rule affects 2,3, and 4 (On sorpéran anyx apyatt_He met bwo fends (Oui naxasina px aénowex She punished three gto (Oni xépuaer erapex wopéa She feeds the four cowe (6) The rule does not apply, however, when they form part of compound numerals: ‘AL finen merenecir ana consira | saw fifty-two eoldiere ‘O6al66e ‘both’ (06a takes the genitive singular of masculine and neuter nouns and the genitive plural of adjectives, 66e the genitive singular of, feminine nouns and the nominative plural of adjectives 66a nopicamex econa both grownup sone 66 ofvepuitecraaiuas both northem capitals86 The nu ‘The numerals nr. ‘ive’ and above (a) The numerals nas ‘five’ and above take the genitive plural of nouns, when the numerals themselves are in the nominative/ accusative case: nar xr five books croapéan a hundred stare rpiuuars savéa08 thirty factories. ‘ieava amelt a thousand days (b) However, compound numerals ending in osm, oamd, oan take the nominative singular of a noun and those in alse, Tp, ‘werdie take the genitive singular of a noun (see pages 82-84): cbpox oni xansmir forty-one candidates ‘cbpox ana xanawxitra forty-two candidates pox 1pa xauauaira forty-three candidates cbpox wertipe Kanawnira forty-four candidates bpox mate kanawsiros forty-five candidates ‘The numerals nars ‘ive’ and above decline, and agree in their ‘oblique cases with nouns in the same case of the plural (e.g. instrumental mre agrees with the instrumental plural of a oun). ll parts of a compound numeral decline: s rpéxerix anaauari anyx péxax in 322 rivers. Declension type I: mars ‘ive’ Tera declines ike a feminine singular softending noun (see page 25), with end stress in declension: Nom /Ace. | ner Gen./Dat./Prep. | ner Inst. neni Likewise meets ‘six’, cous ‘seven’, nbcens ‘eight’ (genitive/ dative/prepositional socewi, instrumental socsusto oF ocexbi), fase ‘nine’, agcars ‘ten’, asia ‘twenty’, paar ‘thirty’: paGoxme nati santos the workers of five factories: Kmecti acho by 6h o'clock rOpon ¢nocsabio népraa a town with elght parks ‘ amamuaricnearaaimax in twenty shopssure 87 Declension type I: 11-19 (as mars (see page 86), but with stem stress) ‘This applies tothe numerals oniamaauat ‘eleven’ through to enernisuars ‘nineteen’ owas anewmuar xopaGati the crowe of twahe ships Onnowdrserismamarn atta He helped '4 children ‘ow cmectaisuarsio xeapripanan a hovse with ebteen fate Declension type Ill: 50-80 ‘These numerals decline as follows, with medial stress in oblique Nom/Ace. —__nsraneckr SeulDat iron, anions Likewise wecraneckr ‘60’, chungecer ‘70’, nécenecar ‘80 onsite mecriaecarn py6néh rrore than ebxty roubles rOpomtc ceabionecaTo10 Teépamn a city with 70 theatres Declension type IV: copox ‘forty’, nessniscro ‘ninety’, ero “hundred” Each of these numerals has a single oblique case in -a. Their genitive! dative instrumental/prepostional cases are copor-a, eaanbet-a, and cra: ‘nia us coporctroeréit one ofthe forty gueste On sannarivtera palm He paid a hundred workere aenauéera aarepix. in ninety camps ‘The animate accusative rule Only the numerals oni ‘one’, ana/ape ‘two’, 66a/66e ‘both’ (genitive-animate accusative o66xa/o6érx), rpm ‘three’, and ‘veréspe ‘four’ and numerals ending in oa are affected by the animate accusative = genitive rule (also the collective numerals see page 89). The numerals §-100 are not affected, thus: AL siony onworé nciaaxmna | 2¢e one boy STxiony anyx aénovex | sce two girls ‘ST niony nsrelcopox connie | see fvelforty eoldlers88 |The yume Dectension type V: 200-800 (@) Both parts of the numerals xaéern, pict, verspecra decline, the frst part like asa/as,rpu, senipe, the second part with plural ‘noun endings: aaicr seripecra sayin, serpent paywcrnt —Tpfucrn— werupéucrane Aaywacrdom TpeMscr-in NeTupHNACT aL aayicrdxTpbierdx werupexcrax ise, both parts of narscbr, meerscbr, cembobr, ocenbobr, aensrocbr decline, the first part like nxrs, wecrs, ces, ‘écemt, nésars, the second part with plural noun endings Nom/Ace. | narsobr Gen rarer Dat. rrrucrént Insc, | nsrsoctina Prep. | narucrax ett anyxcér enrip the price of two hundred cigare cc rpemacrinan Timcanan with BOO tanke ‘suumrucrix aepesmiix in 600 villages Declension type Vi: nésesa ‘1,000", suzaube ‘milion ‘avumtipay Guzsmmoa ‘thousand million’, tpuannox ‘trillion’ ‘These numerals decline like nouns (ritcava lke a feminine noun, the rest like masculine nouns) and can appear in multiples (ame ‘rien ‘two thousand’, abeers ununinos ‘ten million’, etc). ‘They are followed by the genitive plural, whatever their own case: anys tcawann coait with to thousard soldiers B Moxubne ceuéit in a milion familes| The collective numerals (@) The collective numerals comprise anée wo", ypée ‘three’, ‘érvepo ‘Tour’, ntrepo ‘five’, mécvepo ‘six’ cfepo ‘seven’, ‘écsnepo ‘eight’, aéwsrepo ‘nine’, abexrepo ‘ten’. They take the sgenitive plural, when the numerals themselves are in the ‘nominative/accusative case, and are widely used with plural-only be ejrox o90 days and rights ‘phe elnox thre sledges sérvepo wociinox four stretchers rikrepo wacéa five clocks (6) Collective numerals cannot appear in compounds. Instead, synonyms are used (eg. aeub ‘day’ for c/n ‘day, twenty four-hour period’ cbpox asa ann forty-two days’), or circumlocutions such as n xaafteerne ‘numbering’ (» xonkecrae copoxi mays ‘numbering forty-two’) (6) Although the collective numerals decline (ap6e, apox, Boo, non, aB0e, likewise tpbe; wéraepo, weTaepérx, weTBEpLiM, ‘erpepéina, sevoepsix, likewise ntrepo, mécrepo, céiepo, socemepo, aésrrepo, aécaTepo), their oblique cases are not used ‘withthe oblique cases of plural-only nouns; the oblique cases of cardinal numerals are used instead, thus: vb nopir two gates but: 'Y anyx nopér croinn conan: Golders stood atthe two gatos (@) The collective numerals are also used with aérn ‘children’ (anbe nerét ‘two children’, xpie aerét ‘three children’), with ‘eGira ‘children’, aj ‘grandchildren’, and with 6awonew (sérnepo Gamsnenbs ‘quadruples’, They are also used with ‘masculine animate nouns, as an alternative to cardinal numerals, (ana cryaésra/agée cryaéron ‘two students’), and when an animate noun is omitted from a numeral phrase: Hac wirepo “There are five of us", xowwara na molix ‘a room for two".90 Te rural Singular or plural predicate The use of singular or plural predicate with numerals and numeral phrases depends on various factors: ‘The plural is preferred: (@) when a deliberate action is performed: ‘Tpde Mopakoe cnacai pe6éuxa The three sallors saved the hid Hécronoxo wenoséx rpempfarex A fow people are taining (b) with short adjectives: ‘Tisa 13 Kocriomon emy weamuit Two of the suite are too big for ‘im (0 with d6afse both 06a apjra menimes Both frends got married A singular predicate is sual: (a) when the verb denotes existence or state: B xbamare tio nxrs enon Thre were fe people in the Hacroné aentr spi rarn Three books are lying onthe tale (©) witha passive construction or concept: Yoirro ceus naccaxiipos Seven passengers have been killed Tlorit6a0 rpu axéuumumn Three worren have perished (©) in expressions denoting the passing of time: Tipoiixér nécxonsxo neaém A few weeks will pase Mue menéamuaoes cbpox ner | have turned forty Manéro ‘many/much’, siaofnesaniro ‘not much, few, exémxo? “how many, how much’, enbaaio ‘so many, so much’ and. news ‘not alittle, nota few" almost always take a singular predicate: ¥ we8 6cino nnbrofuio aéwer ‘She had a lot of/not ‘much money’. Bomsameraé ‘majority’ takes a singular predicate unless followed by an animate noun in the genitive plural, when Intakes a plural predicate: Bonsumscrnd pa6oanx Gacronsin "Most workers were on strike’.The nual! 91 | Ordinal numerals (numerals that indicate order, position, or sequence) tot nipauit-as-oe—we ‘6th namsimuara as oe -ue 2nd sropéil in -be ‘eth mecruiaueraii as oe ue ‘Sed peu be hit oh corisuarif -an-0e ae 4th serépru-a8-oe-ue 18th ocean -an-oe we th irat-an-0e we 19th eowrmarat an 06 6th ecrOi dn se. 20th amulet -an oe we Teh commudt dae. th noeanbl Se och nembruil-a8-oe ue 20th nranectnst an-oe we 10th ecat-ax oe we oth wecrusesira-an-o6 se ‘eh oniumamtar ‘2th mpenguara-an-ce se 18eh tpaduer ate be woe-ne 70th cennrechrl -at 08 he ch seriipmaguamuit-at-oe-we 100th obrat-at-oe-ue 200% 00% ‘400%h soon 600th 700% 200% ‘2008 00h 2,000th 3.000%h ‘4000%h 000% 1000.000e 20000000 e00200.000%n myncbrat 28-00 se ‘rpbxobr -at-0e He ‘erpéxobrat-a-0e he eric 08-00 se tecracdru -a4-0e ue cence te soceinncbrit-an oe ae senervciri-a8-06 se tera apyxricsvnl 28-0 ie spbxriionant an 0 ‘serspéxricrumsl-aa-oe ue erties 28 -0e ie suai 28-06 -8e wyotin 28-08 6 spuméumait-at-oe ue92 The numeral Ordinal nume (@) Only the final component of a compound ordinal numeral is an ordinal. The rest are cardinals: cro mrruaeskrsi nocevirens the hundred and fiftieth visitor. (©) The intial components of araxecksit ‘itieth’ to ‘soceomecirai‘eightieth’, and anyxoorai‘two-hundredth’ to searrucirait‘nine-hundredth are in the genitive case. This aso ‘occurs in multiples of micesusi ‘thousand’ (eg copoxarsicrexsi ‘forty thousandth’) (©) Exceptions include zessuéero ‘ninety’ and cro ‘hundred’, which do not appear inthe genitive case when functioning as initial components of a compound ordinal numeral: Acomocroricr mail ‘nety thousandth’, eroricrwnat hundred ‘thousandth’. This principe (that the first numeral component in «compound appears in the genitive case except for aenaubero| ninety’ and ero ‘hundred’ (note also oa, a8 in oasoné ran ‘one-year apples more generally: mmruxérwe “fifth aniversary’, copoxaverupéxnsrini spain ‘forty four-year-old man’, eronérue ‘century, centenary’ 3: some notes on formation ‘Abbreviated ordinal numerals Abbreviations end in the final letter of the ordinal, thus: 1-H for ‘népouit ‘first’, unless the last letter but one is a consonant, when the last cwo letters of the ordinal appear in the abbreviation: co6siria 2-ro (for sropéro) au ‘events of the second day’. Declension of ordinal numerals. Ordinal numerals decline like adjectives (see page 44). Tpérat ‘third’ declines as follows:‘The numeral 193 Using ordinal numerals: (@) Like adjective, ordinal numerals agre with nouns in gender, case, and number: vo apés Bropéi saponsi noms during the Second World cond moi népascx apy one of my iat frlonde (©) An ordinal numeral is sometimes used where English would have a cardinal: pox mépaut leoson one ‘tpariua cto ensatin page one hundred and seven rani rperan_ chapter three ‘ernépras nporpinwwa channel four chpox nepal panel 622 forty-one tuecriamarat pa row eeteon mirath apTO5ye the number Five bus (©) In numbering rooms, either cardinals or ordinals may be used: xouuara xplowars xpwspiouare xpéraa room Chir three (@) Ordinals combine with no + dative (compare use of a superlative in English in indicating relative dimension: ‘pervs no nutcoré roph the tid highest mountain Fractions and decimals Cardinals and ordinals are used inthe formation of fractions: oma nnvaa ‘one fifth’, cous u nerdipe ceamaaix ‘seven and four seventh’. The dependent noun appears in the genitive singular: ‘nares n ape nikrax rautonénpa ‘five and two filths of a kilometre’ Decimals are based on tenths (0,1 or omu aecéras = 0.1 or ‘one tenth’) ete. (Russian uses commas in forming decimals.) Roman numerals Roman numerals are used of centuries (XXI sex ‘the 21st century’), and of important events: X Kourpéce ‘The 10th, Congress’9817 Telling the time Koropsiit sac? Cxtomco apes? ‘What's the time?" (@) These questions can be answered using cardinal numerals only: ‘pm asrehamars three fifteen (6) The twenty-four hour clock is commonly used: ‘mecrakauars asians twenty past four pm, 1620 ntauaTs ana nome ners five past ten pm, 2205 (6) Yac is used for ‘one o'lock* and cardinal numerals + saci! saoba for subsequent hours sae one dock na sack/rpu wachMvertipe nach the/threelfour oclack tars saobe to meniuats nach five clock to 12 dclock (@) Before or after the hour, either the 24-hour system is used or: (© up to the half hour the construction ‘so many minutes of the next hour (represented by the genitive of an ordinal numeral) rears (sam) 1péruero fie past bH0 bears (wunfr) tperuero_ ten past two ‘servepre tpersero quarter past tho nauars (om) persero_Dverty past tH piauars ners (mfr) Tperser0 twenty-five past two ononiua rpérsero (nomrpérsero) hal pact two (i after the half hour, 6ea + genitive: es anaswarit mari (oj) pat_Dverty-fve to three ex ananuarit (sof) np twenty Yo three Gea sérnepru rpu a quarter to three es accarh (nuns) pH ten to three 6s nari (wun) tpx_ five to three Note sn i mandy oy with vara ert mie fae 1 ts: acta serie sven mines oor, bot Sex ase me vere tan mines for B xorépow uacj? Bo cxdmico? ‘At what time?” (@) These questions are answered by prefacing times up to and {including the half hour by w:» ces wacba ‘at seven o'clock’, »The numeral 195 ‘sérnepre népooro ‘at quarter past twelve’, s mamsoctatiro (oF 8 oaoniae pocuuiro ‘at hall-past seven’), etc (0) If there is another preposition present, the s is omitted, eg., ‘4c wart wacba ‘at about five o'clock’. Times after the half-hour are left unchanged: 6es asaamaric aarit gr aéca ‘twenty-five to ten’ and ‘at twenty-five to ten’. (6) The day (twenty-four hours) is divided up as follows: ‘wac/una wacd/rpm acd wie one/oworthree cclock in the ‘moring/a.m, ‘wertipe wach through to onintiamuars sachs yrpa four clock ‘to eleven o'clock in the morning/a.m. ‘wac/nsa wac/rpu wacd/uersipe waci/ners ache awa one/two! ‘threelfourfve oclock inthe afternoon/p.m. ects ache through to omfumamuars wacbs wévepa six clock to eleven oclock In the evening/p.m. Kane sca0? What is the date?” ‘The question is answered using a neuter ordinal in the ‘nominative case (the name of the month is in the genitive: Ceréams aesrroe ssi ‘t's the ninth of May’). Kaxsro meni? ‘On what date?” ‘The question is answered using the genitive of a neuter ordinal (the month and the year also appear in the genitive case) anisuars wersEproro aexa6pitTixsa ness aesmnbcTO ‘aesitroro roaa ‘on the twenty-fourth of December 1999", B xansstroay? tn which year?” (a) The question is answered by using » + an ordinal numeral in the prepositional case (only the final component is an ordinal: the rest are cardinal numerals in the nominative case): Bape risen wasutirom roxy in 2020 (0) If any detail is added, ordinal and year appear in the genitive case: adpre ase Tews mtroro réaa in March 2005 ts irimiy speraero an nae ens wropro aon Friday’ May 200The verb | {A verb i a part of speech that expresses an action (om nimver “he is writing’) or state (ond crofr ‘she is standing’). A Russian verb cam be transitive, requiring an object in the accusative case to complete it (On sermowisaasémny ‘She switched on the lamp’), or intransitive, not requiring an object to complete it (Ou enaa He was asleep’). 1 The conjugations ‘There are two patterns of conjugation: the first conjugation and the second conjugation, | The first conjugation Firs-conjugation verbs subdivide into those with present-future stems ending in a vowel and those with present-future stems ending in a consonant. The present-future stem of a verb is revealed by removing the last two letters of the third-person plural. Thus, the stem of surin.‘to read’, third-person plural ‘wri-sor, ends in the vowel a, and the stem of nucirs ‘to write’, third-person plural miuryr, ends in the consonant mn Vowel stems Firs-conjugation verbs with vowel stems include: (@) very many verbs in -arb and -are (eg. suds to rea’, ‘epi “to lose’) (b) all verbs in -anars (eg. nani “to give’) (6 all verbs in -osars and -enars (eg. ronoconis ‘to vot’ restr ‘to spit) (@) very many verbs in -ers (eg. érs “to have’) (6) a few verbs in-are (errs to drink) (0 some verbs in urs (eg. war to wash’) @) a few verbs in yrs (eg. ayrs ‘to low’)The verb 197 First-conjugation endings Verbs of the first conjugation add the following endings to the Stem: 0, eu, -€T, eM, Te, 107 Note: (a) and or ar usualy rpaced ty andr after a consonant Tiwana are repaces,espoctiey, by y ad a fir, orm (€) nthe conjugation of sme verbs, replaced by unde” sss, First-conjugation verbs with vowel stems (a) Verbs in -aru-sm, onikurpiaor erpesiaer hor {Note ( Stressed vers in-ansincue alr to bar and tt Tat inant They conjugate he bee 1 sow (however, stem sessed ‘ime to cough conjugates ie eras ost). (rere aug conugstes etc, cvtines, cures tue, ‘ontrect, over (se pages 137,138. (0) Verbs in -asare, ‘These include aanérs ‘to give’ and its compounds, as well as, compounds of -smasére and -cranére: asin‘ ge) mpuonanire'to neranira ‘vo go up? uaedom on aaer aan su aa-tre981 The ver (c) Verbs in -onarw/-esars Conjugation of wendasaonars ‘to use" and noenirs ‘to wage Wat aucnimsyse x soib40 atnendaisy-eus 1 poem omnenémsy-er on vowrer I Note) Some vets take unde stress: mes to chew ay, yu ene opi (an, wnt). [Gh Secondary inperetve verbs in nar (bs that derive fom 0 perfectne very the isrtion of suf eg. mae out 0 ad yeaa Yo ave reo, manage’ corgi ke wpa oa. (0 Verbs in-ern ‘The verb ymérs ‘to know how to’ conjugates as follows: syebvo was yuben Taye yabere onyué-er ont yné0r Likewise nannére ‘to own’, rpers to heat, anaére ‘to pit’, were ‘to have’, ners ‘to dare’ and many verbs derived from adjectives: Goraréns ‘to get rich” (from Gordie ‘rich’), xpaenérs “to blush’ (from xpesast ‘red’, noanérs ‘to put on weight’ (fom, ‘nnn ‘stout’, erapénn ‘to age’ (from crépuat old), a5 well as few verbs derived from nouns: enporérs ‘to be orphaned’ (from cxpord ‘orphan’ ‘The verb ners “to sing’ conjugates as follows: sno sac nod Tsino-tme ast notre onmo8r oni nosirThe verb 199) (©) Verbs in arr ‘The verb nurs ‘to drink’ conjugates as follows: amie stmt rsimidam our niere ouniét oviniaer Likewise Guns “to hit’, ers ‘to pout’, uae ‘to sew’. ‘The verb Spurs ‘to shave’ (transitive) conjugates as follows: A 6pi00 a Gow ‘a 6pEemh ms 6peere on 6péer out Gpbsor (0 Verbs in sare ‘The verb murre ‘to wash’ conjugates as follows: ‘acne an wore Likewise perms ‘to dig’, and compounds of prs. (@) Verbs in yr ‘The only common verb in this category is ay ‘to blow’: safe satan aoxem ajere mger omarLise ve First-conjugation verbs with consonant stems (a) Verbs with consonant change throughout conjugation ‘The following consonant changes occur throughout the ‘conjugation of a number of first-conjugation verbs with stems ending in consonants: ples, xia pena urs Toot oweey _‘wodene’_ ‘vo pinch recy any ‘uo Terpoeeme nxitewm apboven imam onpéxcer maiwer apoener winter wot pice naiwen apiaares wines supéxcere naisere apiurere uinaere ok piacyt nnieyr —aphuror usinasor ee owe’ __“Yolockfor' ohide’ ‘tows romey ow nuneyr fart 1 Nee ters inthe sts incu mirc je ines) ose! TU crass (rae exe) "to gale’, crs (kano, chmmeus) to pour, ‘vv (oes seman) to sete, meee et) osplah steers (ee, wren) to whisper. (ieostiren hesitate’ conjugates with sesso he stem throughout (onic, rontaeunes).The veb 1101 (©) Other frst-conjugation verbs in -ar with stems ending in consonants Gm ban, ‘otate _‘totrmet apy Gep-tan ean, cpa ner Sepa xem Gepere dare Gepje eye ‘orel iest obogit ay weney pay nwo oraiey xd Hadas pou nda cri-em adr nance pet unércriser edn neni pained crite dre waudre pore uunére erisere aryr meme pyr unr criieyr (€) Verbs in oT, -ayrs, -epers, sr, w ‘operitt ‘vo woccuny Top-vee —ThOwy apy sale oy Gopeanes niGi-ews xp-Eam salina cancun Goperea niGwer xpér sewer cancer Gopenet Goperees Tien Tp salience riGwere pre aalnetre caiere Goprorea niGwyr apy saaefr exer 1 Note: rons to cho’ conjugates he apr aneis ‘ck and TU sntge te ie’ repre aoe to undertake, nan 0 ck uke emer imi to aecent conjugates mp, pine, mer, ‘pte, per, pire Mest ene seed Verbs nay take 0 Canlugsion (2g mep epteas Hom separa ret’ arse)102 The verb (Additional first-conjugation verbs with consonant stems ee ee ‘tobe__‘otate’ ‘opus’ ‘tole’ toni Gy vos aby yey Geum soos-éam abies vo-Zom nwo Giner souér aver ound mmue-r Gfavem —nossarenabicen und Gjnere somsére abucere xuntre Gimyr scour abeys xuajy maser J Note: ar opens mos in compounds, eg ma Yo put on nen to Tess onset (6) Frst-conjugation verbs in rm ‘These verbs can be subdivided in accordance withthe stem ‘consonants that appear in conjugation: J] Note: tou atu), mrt craw (nos noma), mer Yo Tease tera.The verb! 103 (O Verbs in -crnl-sre, ‘These can also be subdivided in accordance with their stem consonants: ca tens stems ‘ropa, place ‘voclmit uy eae ay er ead sage vem sere eater wmanefraver sey 1] Note epace to sea and yale toa conjugate ihe somes, wil cere 2 to it dou’ eonugntes by ae, cae cae, ere, hay (@ Verbs in x, Some verbs in -w conjugate with -r-in the first person singular and third person plural, and -m- before -e--, others alterna {and -s- in analogous positions: sory {tes nom to br trast conjugates ary em, oer me, Ty tee tow has thrprson ome only104 |The verb | The second conjugation Verbs ofthe second conjugation add the following endings to the present-future stem: 20, “MUD, aM, Te, aT [ew spaced by y and by walter an Fm ‘Second-conjugation verbs comprise: {@) all verbs in-wrs, except for those with monosyllabic infnitives ‘and one or two others (b) many verbs in -ers (some of which describe sounds) (©) some verbs in -are (some of which describe sounds) (2) Goirsen ‘to fear’ and croins ‘to stand’ Vers in-amaYerboin erm Yerboin-ame Verbs in-ne enimmari Gomracn ‘ohew—Yofear ceniry — 6oibew census Govinsten ceniunaee— Goderen cine Gosiuen ceninuare — Godeees ceniuar — Godren Second-conjugation verbs in ers include: 6necrén (Gaecrir, Gneenin) ‘to shine’, Gonérs (Gonit, Gonin) ‘to hurt, miners (oieny, nism) to see’, nncérs (ance, nck) ‘to hang” (intransitive), ropérs (ropir,ropin) ‘to burn’ (intransitive), ‘peuére (rpeni, rpeni) ‘to thunder’, sanicers(santcx, sania) ‘to depend’, xmmérs (xn, rom) “to boll (intransitive), enaér (curs, cuniuus) ‘to sit” ‘Those in-ans include: nepuime (aepx, aps) apex. (apox, apoacs) "to tremble’, asain (xsi, ‘asumuss) ‘to breathe’, xpwsine (xpi, pnviuss) “to shout saexirs (nex, neu) “to lie’, Moats (wor, Mou), “tO be silent’, enars (erste, crmus) ‘to sleep’, erysine (ry, crysis ‘to knock’) 1 Note Some oth ers eu the thi parson on hold’,The verb | 105, ‘Consonant change ‘A regular feature of second-conjugation verbs is consonant ‘change in the first-person singular, The following changes take place: Gyre ones, racirn ‘to mwstert Yocomey “o-ring ad sowe fhear I Nee ao 6.6 (0g oti, nism, fom mots to lve an 0g 1 sont, nisms, fom sors catch), ws (sop, pron, fom opus Yo feed), wan (2. eryanl, crf, fom eyo step),106 |The vero Consonant change (continued) Some of the commonest verbs that undergo a consonant change {in the first-person singular of second.conjugation verbs include: 6-61: moGiers ‘to love’, ynorpeSirrs ‘to use” ‘-aa: nositrs ‘to catch’, evimmrs ‘to stand’ (transitive) tex: ners ‘to see’, nonin ‘to lead’, éamurs ‘to travel’, caniraen “to sit down’, eanérs ‘to sit’, xoairs "to go" sm: mnoSpanirr ‘to depict” ent: kop ‘to feed” ‘a: xynier ‘to buy’, enars ‘to sleep” c-ur: epewrs ‘to paint’, noc ‘to carry’, mpocirs ‘to request” erat: mpoerirs ‘to forgive’, nyeriers ‘to let go’ ‘71 nerpérats to meet’ gamers ‘to notice’, aerérs ‘to fy’, ormérars ‘to answer’, anavin. ‘to pay’ ‘ax sanperier ‘to forbid” ‘Stress change in verbs ofthe second conjugation Sess changes from the ending on tothe stem in the conjugation of many second-conjugs verbs (beginning with the second person singular). ‘The following are some of the commonest verbs affected: Gyniere (6yxJ, Gyan) ‘to awaken’, nepadtre (aepay, aépacnute) ‘to hold’, aamire (asm, nénuumurs) ‘to breathe’, wesirrece (Gxemioce, aéximnecs) ‘to marry’ (of a man), Kypirrs (Kypt, ssjpnuss) "to smoke’, aonirs (noni, nba) to catch’, moGiers (mo6:10, moGuuts) ‘to love’, nocims (woul, nocHum) ‘to carry’, naariers (niaayy, natu) ‘to pay’, nonywirrs (nonyyy, ‘onjnus) "to receive’, noc (npouty, npScius) "to request’, veri (nyu, nein) to let go" exp (enya, enor) “To serve’, enorpérs (wor, carpus) to look eye (cya, Jamu) “to judge’, yer (ya, fem) ‘to teach’, yorsen (aes, ‘ommmeca) ‘to learn’, xonirre (xoxf, xoanuts) ‘to go’, myrinre (uy, usr) ‘to joke.The verb | 107 Inregular verbs. Four verbs do not conform to the pattern of either conjugation: Gears‘ run!_eere'vocat!_xovéen town” aure'to oe eu 04 7a exiw rondo. aioe exit ora aaa 1 The past tense (a) The masculine past tense is formed by replacing the infinitive ending -74 or evs by ~a (for exceptions, see page 108): apie crews nem cers ‘oplyy ‘tohuny,—tosing! “oeat” ouurpia on cneuiia onne-n owe Tre played ‘hehuriad he song) he ste! () The feminine, neuter, and plural are formed by adding -a,-0, and -# to the masculine form: onnrpica on urpicaa ond urpi-no on arpa replayed’ ‘she played! Te payed — ‘they payed (6) The past tense agrees with the subject in gender and number (Ge. singular or plural) thus, of a male subject, masculine forms are used: 3, 734,0H puGbran you hewertad and of a female subject, feminine forms: cru on pabSrasaa ‘you, che wored ‘while plural forms are used for sau ‘we’, ats “you', and oui “they” au 8, omtpaGrastm Wwe, you, they wrt108 | The verb Verbs that have no 1 inthe masculine past tense ‘These include (note that a reappears in the feminine, neuter, and plural forms) (@) verbs in -, Likewise Gepét, to take care of (Gepér Gepernd Gepernd Gepernit), etc. Moms “to be able’, Tew ‘to flow’: ee Texa rex rex Likewise news ‘to bake’, etc. () verbs in -rw: neat ‘to convey’, weet ‘to cary’, pacri ‘to ‘grow’ intransitive} és penn mean nea oe posal pond poet Likewise enaerit ‘to save" (cnac, cnacni, cnacnd,cnaen) 1] Not: ets inn with -aor-rstoms dave ain th masculine past: rst "og past tn una, ao, mae ater to fea as tpn, pnb se (©) Verbs in -nyrs that denote change in state, location, eg sanpanyrs “to freeze” (intransitive): anépa aanépana sawépano sanépam Likewise nexéanyrs ‘to disappear, noritiayrs ‘to perish’, npuncacnyrs to get used to. (@ verbs in-epérs, e.g, sanepére ‘to lock’, reper ‘to rub yweper. ‘odie’ sénep sanepad sineprosénepmn ep émmaTepa0 Téa Siuep —ywepnd Smepno Sepa {c) verbs in are (eg, errs ‘to climb’, past ne, néana, néan0, ann) and compounds of -unGur (e.g. oumGitrscn ‘to make a mistake’, past ousien, omiGnace, om6roct, oustnHc8).The vero | 109 | The future tense ‘The imperfective (see page 111) future ofthe verb consists of the relevant forms of the future tense of the auxiliary verb 6uars ‘to ‘be’ and the imperfective infinitive of the verb (never the perfective infinitive). Thus, the imperfective future of paGorars, “to work’ is: aojay eran wi ‘ru 6jreuis paren you wl wont Gjxer paGorarshelshe wil mai Gjne—peGrars we wil su Gjere —paGorars youn ‘ov jay paGrare. they wl ‘As well as acting as an auxiliary verb in forming the future of other verbs, the future of 6xrs ‘to be' isa future in its own right: Gay »Moceaé—Iwllbe in Moscow ‘ru Gjreus —panpiaa youn bo glad wow Gjaer xfowtros —helshewilbe. 3 chemist nai Giren xin wewilbe buy us jere sarpandeli youl be abroad oni Gjnyr —npurmamenit. hey willbe inte RAdddd I Note The petectie tutes tomes spl by conhueting a prtective ver ‘As in English, the present tense is often used in Russian with future meaning, especially with verbs of beginning or finishing, and with verbs of motion: ‘pbx uasunierea » wecrs sacba The lesson begine at si ‘clock ‘Kourpéce suxdimamnaerea sésrpa The congress ends tomorrow Ceréans sévepon ant mim 8 xuNb This evening weare going to ‘the cinema ‘Mu upunetien » Xuexpby wae nour We fly into Heathrow alam1101 The vero 1 The imperati ‘The singular familiar form of the imperative is formed by adding: {@) to a vowel stem the third-person plural minus the las two letters), eg, mpi ‘to play’ Infinitive 3rd person plaral Stem _ Imperative Tp vr mrp pt (0) -w to the consonant stem of a verb with fixed end stress in conjugation (e.g, 6pars‘to take’, Gepf, SepEm, rosopirs “to speak’, rosopi, rosopinm), or mobile stress in conjugation (eg cyaiers ‘to judge’ oy, ams) Gram Gepsr ep Gepit aie ronopis rosop-ir onop- rovopi'spestt eynirs ina com ei judget (6) -+10a stem with fixed stem stress in conjugation and ending in single consonant, e.g. aximyn, ‘to move’ asonyrh any am ARMA! monet ‘tress in imperatives of more than one syllable is on the same syllable as the first-person singular, .g. nmcis ‘to write’ rnc wrte! morta! mui (pert) Wie J Note) The verb amir ed its compounds, and compounds of “ranean suas form the inpertives rm eine: ass’ ‘rani ge up" (2) Te irate of mr oink is et ken G! from Gre ote, ea fom ae Yo pour, et rom mare Yo 8). (6) Compours of de ad daar sare an imperative ine ‘The plural and formal form of the imperative is made by adding «te to the singular form: urpéiire! ‘play! (to a number of people fr someone one addresses as nu). Useful imperatives include: auait(re)! go, come! eworpitre)! look! cexjuuai(re)t listen! me saGjav(re)! don't forget! sxa(re)! wait! ‘The third-person imperative comprises the particle nyers + third-person singular or plural ofa verb: lyers om unér ‘let him 0’, Tyers onit nonpé6yror “let them try| The aspect: preliminary remarks Almost all Russian verbs have two aspects, an imperfective and a perfective. ‘The aspects are formed either: (a) by prefixation: Imperfective _Perfective Meaning ere ener osingd () by pairing a first conjugation verb (imperfective) with a second conjugation verb (perfective) sxnovre aemoviire ‘to ewtch or (©) by inserting a syllable, .g.-sa, into the perfective: waxeaniers nanérh ‘oputon' In afew cases, Imperfective and perfective are from diferent roots, e.g. imperfective aonirs, perfective noliairs to catch’ Imperfective verbs have a past, present, and future, .g. snow “to ring’ Post Present Future ‘on vont on anon on Ger sone while perfectives have past and future only, e.g, mosnonirs ‘to ring’ ‘The imperiective aspect denotes: (@) an action that was, is, or wil bein progress (he was, i, will be ringing’), o (b) a repeated or habitual action (he used to ring, rings, wil ring). ‘The perfective aspect indicates completion of an action inthe past (the made, has made, had made a cal’) or intention to ‘complete an action in the future (‘he will make a call, will have made a call’). A result is often implied (eg. a message has been passed on, information is now available, et.) (For other functions ofthe perfective, see also page 119.)1121 The vero { Net: Arter of verte nave an ipertetie apect nt (2g. anne Tcotsen’ corte to const). Some hee a perfective only (ea uy tus). Asal number have the same frm for inperetv Detective, vennonears To se (0) Imperistive end perfective afer onlin asset, ot in meaning Prefixation in the formation of the perfective (2) Prefiation is one of the principal methods of deriving a perfective from an imperfetive. The addition of a perfective prefix results, notin a change of meaning, but only in a change ‘of aspect. Thus, both imperfectve mucirs(rncsMé) and perfective sanncirs (nici) mean ‘to write (a letter’, but the past, Present, and future of nc (a mucha, nun, 6fay muck ‘caw imply writing in progress (1 was writing, am writing, will be writing a letter) or repetition (1 used to write, write, will {often} write alter’), while the past and future of perfective sranncé (a nannci, wanna) cin) denote the completion of an act of writing inthe past ‘I wrote, have written, had writen a letter) oF intention to complete an act of writing in the future (1 will write, wil have writen a eter, will get alter written’. (6) The commonest of the perfective prefixes is mo-, which can express: {i a completed ation or proces: Oui noxpicwsa créust She painted the wals Mu nowsian mautiny Wewaehed the car Gi an instantaneous action: Onmopisaa nine He out hi finger ‘A noGsaronapin er | thanked him 1 fete: n trent contacts ta prt ihe sae tr ay ny ferent yes action. Ths, Ons nocuorein sn eso looked at! ‘she nay be deseibed a5 instantaneous, ie On nocwrpiaa Ge ated a in denotes complete acon. (i For 'seneanings of pertectives in no se page 135.The verb! 113 Other perfective prefixes Other perfective prefixes include the following: ona lece Boni nexunéna The water hae boiled On nenaxiin ndne He ploughed up the field mes (always stressed as a perfective prefix, but always unstressed as an imperfective prefix except for imperfective siarnagers ‘to look, appear’) Ou atiranaua pyOdury He Ironed the shirt Oni akieynana neréii She bathed the children Also aéirurs ‘to drink’, mspacra ‘to grow’, atierpemers ‘to shoot’, saiysurs “to learn Ou sanaariia 3a Gunéras He pald forthe tickets Also samcipirs ‘to fry’. eine A werpirwa cooit ator Ihave epent (al) my money - (with verbs that denote writing, drawing, and some others): On nanimer micsm She will write a lester PeGéuox wapncosia aom The child drew a house nd waywiuta meni ners She taught me to sing Also waxopuirs “to feed’, nanewirars “to print, type ‘© noa(o)- is confined mainly to the verb waste ‘to wai’ ‘ST nogoxay, nox ow ue mpuner | wil walt until he arrives114 1 The verb Perfective prefixes (continued) ‘¢npw- (with rordawns ‘to prepare’, and some others): A npuroroane jens | wll prepare dinner Also npurposers "to threaten. ome. Oni npownria seo nary She read the whole book ‘Also nporonoconirs ‘to vot’ «© puo/pac- express division, or the reversal of a proces: Oni panei xjmecra0 They divided up te property (Cuter puerian The snow melted Others include pas6ynier to awaken’. ‘Oni note épino She wil sng an aria Alenpran xno | hid the key ‘Others include cvapiers ‘to bol’ (transitive), conpérs ‘to tll ale’ cenénars ‘to do, make’, cxecrh to eat’, cuirpis ‘to play’, cron to break’, curr ‘to sew, make’ ¢¢ ys used with verbs of perception, and some others: Al yeaaman e& rénoe | heard her voice (On yupla wacét He stole a watch Also yaiizers ‘to catch sight of, yroufre ‘to drown’ (intransitive). ‘A number of different prefixes (ss-nc-, us-inc-, o6-, pasipac-) are used to denote the onset of an emotion: On maponmoninea He got worried, excited ‘Oni menyriaace She took fight Oni oGpiaosanace She rejoiced (On paccepaiinea na wert He got angry with me 1 Note: hes pertectvprelies ar used with lated vets: on aunts to Tre icone arin orpeariponrs ores, mp in nepeoneiro spend the i ecThe verb | 115 ‘Submeanings of te perfective prefixes a2- and no- ‘Some prefixed perfectives in s- have a submeaning of inception: (On sascomsi ‘He fll silent’, On saGonéza ‘She fll il’, Pe6Euox sannixan "The child burst into tears’. This also applies to a ‘number of perfectives in no-: Ow no6excin ‘He broke into a run’. In addition, many prefixed perfectives in no- have the submeaning of short duration: Ox nocnén ‘He had a nap’, On nocuuténa ‘She sat for a while’, etc (see also page 126). Impertectve and pertective aspects diferentiated by conjugation (2) A number of aspectual pairs comprise a first-conjugation imperfectivein-ars or-rrt and second conjugation pertectivein rs or -erb, Most of the verbs are prefixed: (btm some cases, the perfective is stressed on the stem: soxpins —nosipame ‘toons ‘momcdre tannins appt tapyadre hapjuere oninge yapuan yu Tolman’ (6) A few unprefixed verbs also belong in the series: Spocims pow, ‘to trow rowednt owen ‘tof pemire —peuriry’ “ta decilé116 | The verb ‘Consonant mutation inthe imperfective aspect ‘The following consonant mutations occur regularly inthe mperfective aspect of aspectual pairs comprising first conjugation imperfective and second-conjugation perfective: Mutation Peftive _inperetive_ Meaning 6a "ro weaker ea eo surprise! me ‘ooftane Bema oGeywins§—OBcymmine a isces! em ponpanirh —noapaninn to ec cxpenirs cxpenaire Yo staple ‘comcirecs cornamiinicn ‘Yoagse ponyeris nponyexir» ‘toi’ poerirrs poms ‘toforhe verpinurs werpevira —‘tomeet’ sem amperes sauummiiry “to protect Note: (a) the er: ex alternation is confined to perfective nyerier/imperfective nyexir ‘to let go’ and its compounds. (b) The m: nx mutation does not affect perfective crynitrs/ Imperfective eryndns ‘to step’ and compounds. () The mutations also affect the first-person singular of the perfective verbs: 5 oc1i6ao aucuunafay ‘I will slacken iscipline’, 1 yan ero‘ will surprise him’, toGiomy wx“ will offend them’, 5 noxpaasy nporin Sroro ‘I will object to this’, 51 expenuno 6yscarit'T will staple the papers together’, 5 acrpéay ‘ocréfi‘I will meet the guests’ { corauijcs na Sro I will agree to this’, ST mponymyf ndesa‘T will miss the train’, A mpoutf outiGxy T will forgive the mistake’, 1 saunmy zvtcceprannno ‘I will defend my dissertation’ (2) the first-person singular of oGeyatirs ‘to discuss" is oGcyay ‘I will discuss’ (despite imperfective oGcyaadrs), and this also applies to a number of other verbs with a in the perfective infinitive and axa in the imperfective infinitive‘The verb | 117 ‘Secondary imperfectives based on first-conjugation verbs. Most verbs have a ‘neutral’ perfective, that isto say, imperfective and perfective have the same meaning, eg, arpirlesarpir‘t ply’, buta different aspect. However, many verbs also take prefites that change both their aspect (which changes to perfective) and their meaning, The new perectves then acq {mperfectives through the insertion ofa syllable. Thus, aponrpérs (a derivative of urpirs “to play") means to lose’, and its perfective is formed by inserting the syllable um and shiting the stress back onto the stem, thus: oot verb Perfective Secondary Meaning “to play’ compound imperfcive ‘apie apourpire—apoirpuars Yolo Likewise nosnncirs ‘to sign’ (a derivative of nncérs ‘to write’), Imperfectve noanicunars, ec preci Yo cam, Inerecve pvr (©) may perectve compounds based on mnoylabc verbs form impertectives wih a; rao Hl, inert mk. Oeste. ort ype "cnr away, impartctive yEmpir, mses "0 imperective nanan ‘Secondary imperfectives based on secand-conjugation verbs ‘These are formed in the same way as those derived from first-conjugation verbs (including stress shift and stem-vowel ‘change -o- to a+). The suffix -wo- is inserted into the perfective infinitive: Root verb to. Perfective com- Secondary Meaning Took ‘pound perfective Georpere——eeworpes—oonpwnary Yo earn” I Note: secondary impetctves based onsecond> In 1885 Gogel writes The Nose Future meaning In some instances (ee page 108), the present can be used with future meanings Slarpa wax wai n room Tomorrow e are going visting1221 The vero Aspect inthe past tense: the impertective {@) A funtion ofthe imperfective pat isto denote that an action ‘was in progress at a particular time: YYsirens nposepéa Terpiaut The teacher was marking the ‘exercise books (©) The durative element of the action may be reinforced by an adverb of time such as ar ‘ora long time’: On ndaro Gpiincs He took a longtime to shave (© A whole series of imperfectives can be used to describe a scene, with ations appearing in indeterminate order: ‘Buepé wai ranean o pee: mph » yr, cajun pluno Yesterday we relaned in the parc played football, listened to the radio (@) lmpertectives can also denote concurrent actions: Oni pacertoumana, an cajua She narrated, ar | istened (©) Imperfective and perfective can coexist in the same sentence, the imperfetive denoting an action in progress, the perfective the completion ofa process: “Mat ryai, nox we eremnéxo We walked until i grew dark (0 Conversely, a completed. action (perfective) can be set against the background of an action in progress (imperfetive): Tox on rovéauxa xn, naxpktr Ha cron While he was cocking dimer, aid the table (@ Care must be taken in selecting the correct aspect in sentences with worst ‘when’, m 70 apésn ax ‘while’, nee ror () ae ‘after’, ete. Compare use ofthe imperfecive for simultaneous actions in Korni on npousineac ef, ox owen e 3 208, When he 6ald goodbye to her. was 8aying goodbye to her) te sed her onthe forehead and of the perfective for consecutive actions in: Korat ou nonpouisenc nel, ot en» aauny u yéxan When he had eaid goodbye to er he got inthis car and dove offTrevero 123 | Aspect in the past tense: imperective (continued) Frequency (@) The impertectve past also indiates frequency: (Ow o6ciao sananin wnéro nonpécos He used to ack mary questions ‘Kix pas, xorad ow axon, nce ncraniam Every time he ‘came in everyone got up (6) The dea ofhabitual action may be reinforced by an adverb or adverbial phrase (niro ‘often’ nme ner ‘more often than not’ amtorni ‘sometimes’, weer ‘always’, e660 ‘usualy’, pax m rox “once a year’, et) On meerai sanupiin anep» He always locked the door Visornh ot ryninacs 8 6sepe Sometimes che war inthe lake O6crmo on onianstsan Usually he was late Oni orwesisn npdamiux pana roa They marked the festival ‘once a year (6) The perfective is used if an action is repeated a number of times in close succession: Wobép npocarniams anixat The driver hooted twice (@ When, however, the repeated ations are spaced out, with substantial intervals between the repeats, the imperfective must be used ‘AL nécronsko pas nepentruman Anny Kapéruory | have re-read ‘Anna Karenina several tree ‘An action and its reverse ‘The imperiective past is also used to indicate that an action occurred and was then reversed or cancelled Xro-ro axons caer Someone has had the ight on (but now itis off again) (On wanes xocrio He put on the oult (and has now taken it off again)124 1The verb Ona yeusia xa npouinofl Henéae She went away last week (and has now returned) ‘Gpaa xutiry » GuGnuoréxe I tooka book out of thelbrary (and, hhave now returned it) Note: Use of partctves ere would mean respectively, that the ligt has been J steno ad's sti on (Kb meso oe) hat eas put on and is Sweating the sult (On wana coc), tat she wert ava ast weok ad is Sti away (On yaana va npn neat) and that | Nave note retuned the rary book maa ry» ort). ‘The imperfective past is used to record an event that was about to take place Tlapoxba ornmunia » xa saci The steamer was due to eall a> ‘pwo dclack ‘Mul ormpanaismes » noxéa We were about to set out on a hike inent events ‘Statement of fact” ‘The imperfective past is used to express a ‘statement of fact’. In this type of construction, a question or statement appears in the vaguest of contexts, with no emphasis on completion or rnon-completion: ‘Bur auriam Jémemso? fa, srrina Have you (ever) read Childhood? Yes, have [Bu nerpevian Mimy? Ila, xierea, merpesia Have you (ever) ‘met Macha? Yeo, | believe | have J Nee the uso te pret in sun cots wuld imp tat fr exe you were toto ead Childhood and ought fo hae read aerate the Speaker woud het hav it you have ished wth (Bu ppemerae ‘amo? Old yu eave you ished Chilhaod? ota ou were ‘expected 100% had aged to et Mash and should hove met ba (Be ‘cep My? "id you meet Masha)The verb | 125 The perfective past Completed actions or processes, (a) The perfective past is used to denote the completion of an action oF process. A result is often implied (see also page 111) (Oni o6meniumen anpeckun They exchanged addresecs (as a result, hey have each other's address, can keep in touch, tc.) On nénaun nocjay He washed the dishes (asa result, they are clean) On mojaiman He dined (as a result, he is no longer hungry) () Pertectives may appear as a succession of completed actions or processes: Korn aoa wowaes, ust noua rynits When the rin ‘stopped we went for & walk Ka Tomsxo 0X momma a Tpu6¥y, panaaticn lanoaueméntst 8 econ as he mounted the rostrum, applause, rang out Note: A perfective indicating successful completion may be preceded by imperfectives that denote attempts to complete: (Ou nocryni » yuunepcurér u, xaxeves, noerymiea He applied for university and apparently got in On enasian n ean savér She took ard passed the test ‘On peusia waxonéy pemita xpoccspa He tackled and finally ‘solved the crosoword Instantaneous actions Some perfectives, mainly with the prefixes maine, pav-pac-, or yor the suix-ay-(see page 118), denote instantaneous actions, Often introduced by adverbs such as mapyr ‘suddenly’, epay ‘all at once’, mrnovéao ‘instantly’ Cpioy pentnyaa aGacrénka A sti Rared up al at once Bapyra yahaea curv Suddenly | caught eight ofthe igral Mropéuno pannizes aiicrpen Instarty a chor rang out On xdaanya He gave a coughL251 se Actions of short duration ‘A number of verbs, mainly prefixed mo- and with no imperfectives, denote actions of short duration, sometimes reinforced by the adverb wesewiro ‘a litle” (see also page 119) (Oni norosopisna co mnoit She had a chat with me ‘Msi nompiam newnéro® We played chess for a while suxwarat Oni nowrrisia She read for a while I Note: Compare te neural perectve mura, which denotes completion of nection: On pian pacers Sh ad the stary Inceptive verbs ‘A number of perfective verbs prefixed sa-, and a few in no denote the beginning of an action or process (see also page 119} aaGonérs to fal i savers to start singing sannonims to start ringing nosfacrnosans (Gos) to start feeling (pain) omer to take a liking to Many inceptve perfectives have no imperfective. However, saGonérs ‘ofall il has the secondary imperfetive saGonenirs and sanérs to stat singing’ the secondary imperfective saneadrs,The verb | 127 ‘Aspect in the negative past: imperfective and perfective ‘The negated imperfective past can describe: {@) acontinuous negative state, sometimes reinforced by durative adverbs that automatically produce imperfectves, such as acB “sl” oF aro ‘fora Tong time’ ‘On acé ne nonin He stil did't phone ‘On. nosro me peariposaaa She took a long time to react (b) repeated occurrences or non-occurrences, sometimes reinforced by frequentative adverbs ‘On aicro ne ornesia He often didn't anower ‘Oni o6s10 we acinoaaaace She aide usualy complain Use of aspect in denoting a single nogated occurence (a) In deseribing a single occurrence, a negated imperfetive ‘expresses a categorical denial that the action took pace at al: AL neaxdro mica we monywda | ddn'treceve ary letter stall (0) The negated perfective indicates: (@ thatthe action did take place but was not completed: low euté we noerpinsm They havent iiohed building the house (i that te action was expected or might have been expected to take place, but did no: ‘Ale wan povoannapir s xopbry | didn't take my camera on the tip (even though I usually do) 1 Note: at ingerectne usage Sm pn gorsmnp | i ate cers negates the ton (i that the action has not taken place but, again, is expected to: ‘Oni em ne nepujaacs She haer'tyot retumed 1 Nets: tht impart uses: Om noi ne empaminc ‘Se i ot Tetum a a expresses 2 categril dna that te action fook pace.Leen ve ‘Aspect inthe future ‘Afuture action in progress ‘The imperfective is used to denote a future action in progress: ro ou Gjnere aéaars sisrpa névepon? What will you be doing tomorrow evening? ‘51 Gjay cuorpére reneninop | will be watching television J Note: erect ansner wold alo be possible ining a completed Teton: trian ropa We ae ging oie inate our Repeated actions ‘The imperfective is used to denote future repeated actions: ‘Al noerni Sjay orasrxirs 8 Coax | wil says holiday in Sochi Intention to complete an action (@) The perfective is used to denote intention to complete an action: ‘Awannutf conmnéune | will write the essay (b) Perfectives may appear in sequence, each action following ‘completion ofthe previous action: Tloxiprpaxavo 1 nolig xa paGory | wil have breakfast and go ‘to work Use of either aspect in a future context (a) Sometimes either aspect is possible ina future context, the mperfective emphasizing the progress ofthe action: “Térom sa Gjaew naar penduer w néme In the eurmer we wil bbe carrying out repairs in the house while the perfective anticipates successful completion: JTérow was caéaaem pendirrw abme In the eummer we will carry ‘ut repairs in the house (©) Ditferent aspects can co-exist in the same sentence, the perfective expressing completion, the imperfective the durative nature of an action: Tlojxunato, not6M fay eMorpérs reneaioop |willhave supper ‘and then watch teevsionThe verb | 129 Other future usage: the ‘ogical future Russian uses the future tense after worn ‘when’, xax véauxo ‘as soon as’, npéxae(,) vem ‘before’, éeam ‘i, now me ‘until’, when future action is indicated (unlike English, which uses the present tense): Korni on wowurr, noGaronapiteré When he Finishes, thank ble Kax romxo yauito, ckaxi) sam As soon as | hear Il tll you pene vex oH noanimerea, o4 npocubrpier kowrplicr Before he signs he wil look through the contract crm 6faews noxynims users, xynii w mute IF you are buying flowers, buy some for me too A noxoxay, nox’ oma we mpwaér Ml wait until she arrives ‘The future in indirect or reported speech ‘The future tense is used to report a statement that was itself expressed in future terms. Thus, the statements 5 saxpbto ep “Twill close the door’ and 51 6jay nepenitcsmaruen c mn“ will correspond with him are reported using the future: Ou cxaséa, sro saxpéer apepe He aaid he would close the door Oui cxaxina, sro Gjer nepenicumarsen c uum She said she would correspond with him Note: Iftwo or more future clauses are to be reported, English uses ‘would’ in reporting the fist, and subsequently switches to the past tense. Russian, however, used the future in both cases. ‘Thus, the statement 51 mepeneag crarw, Eom nut npumuaére eT will translate the article if you send it’ is reported using the future of both verbs: (On cxasés, wro nepeneatr crave, Gots mpm He sald he would translate the article, | sent It (Itarally He ‘sid he will tranelate the srticle f| wil eend it’) Polite requests ‘The negative perfective future is sometimes used in polite requests: Tipocrire, nit we nomsimerees Heunoro? Excuse me, could you move over abit?130 The verb Aspect in the imperative “The imperfective imperative is used to issue {@) a genera injunction: Cofmonii npinal Observe theres! (©) a frequentative instruction: Tire wonox6 risa en! Drink ik every day Note: The perfective may be used where an action isto be repeated a numberof times in swilt succession: TlowropSror aoyx wécxonsKo pas! Repeat this eourd several times! (6) request to continue an action: Tipoaomxtre, «sac exjusaio! Go on, tm listening] The imperative in the context ofa single action (@) Inthe context ofa single ation, the perfective is used to order plementation: Tlepevesiere Sry play! Tranolat this phracel and the imperfctve to order non-implementation: He nepevonire sry pay! Don't translate this phrase! (©) The imperfectve is also used: (0 to expres an invitation to guests on social occasions: Baxone! ‘Come in”, Canes! ‘Sit down, Pasneniirece! “Take off your hat and coat!” Gin concurring with a request, e: Moxno nonécas nanst6! “May I hang up my coat Bémalire,séuafre! ‘Hang it up by all means!’ or issuing a reminder: Te6éwaxuo noasoutirs ov. ‘ont cropéi! You've got to ring Dad. Hurry up and ring! J tote Tongue pret ed on rigs git ptentiy el behvor carbines with coca tat tw ston mE Oz iste: Heys Min ou ofa He enor! Mia you do? {ro esau Nid ou do feet” The mpertve may x cae by ‘erp Gute npn oy! "Mid you Coo pe wae?‘The verb 131 ‘Aspect in the infinitive ‘The tmperfectve infinitive is used to denote {a) continuous actions ii weno Gier oramxin mica She will need to rest for a ‘month (©) repeated actions: Créer mponepirs spéne pas » rom Ibis worth having your eyes Checked annually Note: When cerai ‘always’ or another frequentative adverb qualifies a verb or short adjective, however, the frequentative clement is absorbed by the verb or adjective and the following infinitive may be in the perfective aspect: Oni ncerai rorésa moma, She is always ready to help FL sc8 a2Gsinivo mpanecti hororpiun | keep on forgetting to bring the photoorapho Completed actions (a) The perfective infinitive is used to denote a single completed action: (Ou peur ndripars spas He decided to call out the doctor (©) The imperfective infinitive is used, however, if we appears Detween the auxiliary verb and the infinitive: (On peuuier ne munuinérn apauii He decided not to call out the doctor (6) Since the underlying meaning of pangjssamare/panajoars is “to decide not to” it takes an imperfetive infinitive: Oud pasxiwana ramenirs She changed her mind about dancing (decided rot to darce) (@) The imperfective infinitive i also used () after ne weno “there is no need to" and me mao ‘you mustn't, you shouldn't’, and other words that imply inadvisabiity: ‘He wfxio enpiununars There is no need to ask He nao wamundrs ext) sony You shouldn't pour him vodka Her cuticna ocraninamexrses There's no point in stopping132 The verb to denote habitual actions, learned skills, (dis)inclinations, atc. (On naysiuten erpenitns He leat to shoot ‘Oni mpuniixna xaams She hae got used to waiting (On yuéer monies wauiny He knows how to drive a car (Gi) after verbs that denote beginning, continuing, or finishing: ‘On nasand rakawrs Gens She began to iron the linen AA nporonxix nepesomire Texet I continued to tranelate the text ‘On nepecri wiinonarsen He has stopped complaining ‘Aspect of the infinitive with words of necessity, obligation (2) Mons “to be abe’ combines with the perfective aspect to denote completion ofa single action: Tu mbxeus mare goroannapir You can take the camera while mows ne takes the perfective in the meaning ‘may/might not’ and the imperective in the meaning ‘need/needs nor’ Onmbxer we npuixars He maylright not come Onmbxer ne erantre He need not get up (©) Hen/noxacilnonélnameni ‘rust, should, ought to, is/ ae supposed 10" also take the perfective in denoting anticipation othe completion ofa single ation: On abmxen nerpénins cé Hele cuppoced to meet her while e aban takes the perfective inthe meaning ‘is unlikely to" and the imperfetve inthe meaning ‘not obliged to (Oud ne nomad upocryairsen She shoude catch cold (she only got her feet wet) Oui ue nonazné nerpens er She docor'-have to meet him (if she doesn’t want to) (©) Hemak takes the perfective in the meaning ‘itis impossible and the imperfect in the meaning ‘you're not allowed to Orcioma nema nonaonirs You can ing from here (itis impossible, there is no phone) Oroioma emai anon, You're not allowed to ring from here (itis forbidden)The verb | 133, Aspect in the infinitive (conclusion) (a) With nopé ‘it is time t Tlopé ‘it is time to" combines with the tmperfective infinitive: Tlopi saxiwennars paGry Its time to nich work In the meaning ‘itis desirable to it takes the perfective infinitive: Tlopé noxiwnms cSruxcstom Ite time to have done with thie oa (0) With verbs of motion: (0 The imperfective infinitive is the norm: On nowéa cobupirsex He went off to pack his things: Tlofiaéx maxpuanér na cron Let's go and lay the table (i) The perfective is possible, however, if there is special ‘emphasis on completion of an action: Ox nowiéa 8 warasian ‘yn rary ‘He went to the shop to buy a book’ (compare use of the iraperfectve infinitive in Ox nou noxynirs noaépen He ‘went to buy some presents’, with emphasis on a series of activities). (li) The perfective infinitive after verbs of motion is also ‘common with actions of short duration in no~ On sstuuna nocuaérs na posayxe She went out to eft in the open air fora while (©) With ne xorére ‘not to want to": () The imperfective infinitive is widely used after we xexérs: Sine xovéa nepeoneniraes | did't wart to change my clothes especially with emphatic adverbs: A concém xe xow) aomiersen Thave no wish whatsoever to go to bea (ii) However, the perfective is usual when an undesirable action has taken place unintentionally: HL we xorés nac ocxopbirrs | didr’t mean to Ineult-you and when we isnot strictly negative: Tine xdvews npmniers ywierue? Wouldr't you [= would you}, lke to take part?1341 The verb The conditional mood (@) An English conditional consist ofa main, ‘would’ clause and an ‘if clause (if + the past tense} T would go if Thad time (©) The conditional describes a situation that does not exis (1 ‘would go" implies that! eannot go’, iT had time" implies that 1 donot have time), but that could exist given the right conditions. (Use of the past tense in the English conditional is purely conventional: reference is not really othe past. Special forms are used by some speakers, eg. ‘if were you’. The conditional can also be used with pluperfect meaning: I would have gone if had had time (6) The Russian conditional construction is similar tothe English Tt comprises a main clause (past tense + 64) Ainoéxan 6s | would go and an ‘if clause (Gem 6u1 + past tense) eam 61 y ei Gitzo wpéown If had time [Nee a) Remain close ey pecede he em see ves ve Vos camme appears between eo aie: naan a 6 Honk Sto pn wel oo {oT sone corsets used he pare og cm yw uk aaa rors asom orf had | woul yout the ato” {rf hada 90 would he akan you to the ation (6) The conditional is thus used in an unreal situation that might, however, be reversed by a change in ctcumstances: ‘Bean Guts Guan wavsinostuxom, x nan 6 BaM MpHBénKy x ‘apmuiire IF were the boos | would glve you a rise 1 Note: The conjunction demi can appear in other, no-condtionl yes V ofesnarction ag. wn a nite fture tne: Benn rer ain, c fe xan yu see Fim tl hag (iets pot lus the mare ofa contol constetion: it io {oper in reper speech He promised he weld ep! Ox oben, 0 tomer ste page 129 andi pst habit (npc) contents: He ‘ould alway be lt! Ov nea onnasan (86 a0 page 125,The wer 138 | ‘The subjunctive mood (a) The verb xorérs ‘to want’ followed by an infinitive when the subject does not change: ‘Axow) naaysirs slay | want to get a vie. (b) When the subject does change, however, the subjunctive is used. This involves replacement ofthe infinitive by w166u + the past ense (a comma appears between xovérs and wré6s): 1 x0%, 7066 on nosysi sioy | wart him to gota vice (©) As in the conditional (see page 134), use of the past tense is, purely conventional: the construction bears no relation to the past. {@) Other tenses of xorér» can be used: SL xoréahaxon), e766 ov nosy any | wanted/wll want him toget a vies (6 Xorérs can be replaced by verbs and other words that denote wish or desire: rpé6onaru/no- ‘to demand’, 3a Tofmprras ror ‘in favour of/agains’, nacrimmarufuacrois ‘to insist’, nano ‘iis Important’, etc. English equivalents use constructions other than. the ‘accusative and infinitive’ construction used with to want’ (1 ‘want him to vote): SL rpéSy0, sT86m oH coractiner | demand he ould concent Ondhan'o, e766u oe yxicraosam She's in favour of everyone participating Ott acto (x0 Tow), «796s: was rosophinn no-pfece He Insioted we (should) speak Rusolan Biaxwo,e6u1 moan we a6 0 nofiné Ibe Important that people should not forget about the war Note: The ers construction eso used with mapa to St Totem, Grane Gecaorduncs Se ab shoul way136 | The verb ‘The subjunctive of purpose (2) In a variant ofthe subjunctive construction, action is taken to achieve a desired result. Resolve is expressed in a number of set phrases: aémars ncé, ri6ur ‘to do everything to ensure that, cneairs 38 Tem, arb6u1 ‘to see to It that’, aoGundrues vord, Wro6t to try to get (someone to do something) Bpau néaer ne, w766u1 Gonsubt nompisuunca The doctor is ‘doing all she can to ensure that the patiert recovers (On eaenitr 3a tes, 706s ¢TH we roonimn She ees to it ‘that the children do not-go hungry ‘Mut noGundenea Tor6, 17664 nce crpisist noamuckan noro6p We are trying to get all countries to sign the treaty (b) The set phrases (aésars wes, ur66u, etc.) may be replaced by virtually any action, the purpose of which is expressed by the second clause: (On xymi xounbiorep, s66u erd cut mor nmisopeTECR Visrepérom He bought a computer eo that. his eon can use the Internet axpOinpepb, 664 myx we meus ovuy pasorars Close the door, 6 that the noise does not etop father working (Oni anéna cofrrep ua peSénxa, e766 Ox ne npocryaiiaes She put: @ owester on the child, 60 that he should not catch a cold J] Hote the sbjct dos not change, i+ nfs use: On anna 1 cacy nt pocryarvcn'She pul on 2 seater s a5 nat teach ol ‘The subjunctive of hypothesis ‘The particle 6x + past tense is used in hypothetical, unreal situations Heer an oanbil crpanti, rae 6st on ne noGuinaa There ip nota slvgle country where he has not spent some time Concessive constructions Interrogative pronouns and adverbs (ro, wo, rae, xyad, ete.) + ‘Gua mt + past tense render English ‘whoever’, ‘whenever’, “however, etc iro 6x1 on nm aéaaa, on wnkoraa He sa6sinia coin. ponirenel Whatever he did he never forgot his parentsToe ve 1137 | Reflexive verbs Reflexive verbs conjugate like non-reflexive verbs, but with the ending a added to forms ending in a consonant of -, and -e» 10 forms ending a vowel, e.g. xynirea ‘to bathe (oneself Present tense | sxynivocs rat rynicanes ox xynieres Saarxyniewes wut xynierees oni xynibores Imperative | xynities! cylin! ast tense | ou xynizes ond xynizaee on xyninoce on xy. 1 Note: sees to the iperatireening Bega Retr! “True! roflexives “True'reflexives (eg. wirrsen ‘to wash (oneself) are verbs in which the subject of the verb and the reflexive ending (<-cs) refer tothe same person that isto say, the subject ofthe verb performs the action on himself/herself. Most ofthese verbs refer to preparation, dressing, washing, etc: Gpierseslno- to shave (onceef) rovberrseslnpn- to prepare (oneeef) xeyndrucunie, e- to bathe (onccel) narrucunie, no- o wash (onece?) ‘onendrseulonrsen to get dressed nepeoneniracslnepeonirica to get changed npevécumarsealmpwrecerses_ 10 do one’s hair (have it done) nsenirvca/paaatrsca 10 get undressed 1 ete: Eng sua psi o Russian sg, inet ary Viserin refine parties wh sochers ceptor emphasis, Sha dresses heal (asl cd) {ate sve vers can be ses ante, wot flee ening, Conare On sac pees ‘Shes ung te chi an Ont een She Sain est (Other we rete cde mene oe vn and esac it feo138 The vero Reciprocal meanings of reflexive verbs Some reflexive verbs denote that two or more people are pareipatin in areiprocal action, thus: ‘Mui wicto netpetiemca We often meet (each member of the group media the rest) Other reciprocals include: ninersealy- to ee each other nuwpirsealno- to makeup oGwoneraewloGnirsen to embrace (each other) oGveamnirvesloGuesniersen to unite (together) pyrirsetino- to quarrel cobupiruewcoGprsen to gather (together) nenonirsewino- to kes (each other) Note: (a) English is, again, nota reliable guide to Russian usage, since English reciprocal verbs normally mit ‘eachother’ or ‘one another’: Orit noueronimes “They kissed’ (each other’ understood) {b) all the verbs in the group can be used transitively, without the Feflexive ending On noueronit aéoyanry He kissed te at (compare reciprocal Oni nouenosinucs Thay Hesed (each other)) {6) Some verbs express reciprocal meanings through the pronoun apy apira ‘each other’: On io6xr api apa "They love each other’, Mu népnaapirapiry "We believe each othe’ Verbs which are only formally reflexive ‘A numberof verbs have reflexive endings but no discemible rellsive meaning: Geenoxbrmcn/no tobe worried’, Sofi to fear, nonuonérselo- to get excited’, ropiirsca tobe prow’, smoSondricd/ no. to admire, nanéarscao- o hope’, pnirta! no- to please’ npianirace/piearacn “Yo confess, mica! no: to try, plaonarsowl6. to rejoice’, exekcs ‘to laugh’, cownenirict ‘to daub’, yomankrica’irice to be surprise yuérves, yauGniics, 0 ‘smile‘The verb | 139 Intransitive reflexive verbs {@) Many transitive verbs can be made intransitive by the addition of areflexive ending. Compare transitive xonsira/coranr ‘to end’: (Ou xowsier pabiry He finishes work (onhere accusative paGry is the object of xowséer), and: PaGira xowsieren Work end (where nominative pa6ira ‘work’ has become the grammatical subject of xowsieres ‘ends. (0) Other reflexive intransitives include: nassasersca/nasérace ‘to ‘begin’ (Ypox nasunierea “The lesson begins), nporomdrsca ‘to continue’ (loxas npoomeieres ‘The rain continues’), yeeniunparven/ yeenksurrsea ‘to increase’ (Jloxdn yeemimaerex ‘Revenue increases), yryaursen/yxjaumrocn to deteriorate’ (Cueryixoa yxjaumaaes “The situation has deteriorated’), crepusirscs/orepérrea ‘to open’ (Maras orxpamnderea ‘The shop opens’) Passive reflexive verbs Passive verbs can also be created by adding reflexive endings to transitive verbs. However, unlike reflexive intransitive verbs: (@) Generally speaking, only imperfective verbs can function as passives, eg. ftom sampeusir ‘to ban’: Kyplers sanpeusieren Smoking is forbidden (b) Agent words appear in the instrumental case (this does not ‘cur with reflexive intransitives): ‘low expoxrex paGésinan The house fe being bull by workers (© the subject ofa reflexive passive can be andimate Tiupéxrop naauavieren rowsiccnelt The director le appointed bya commission ote: Verb hat oot ae he accusathe case cant function as ether 1 rete reniives or rte passives, Ths, "We ar eed i rendered 5, Ha oowertor (They Pep ws).140 | The verb Impersonal constructions Impersonal constructions occur inthe following contexts: (@) references to the weather or the environment: Crennino It grew dare Ocerrioenerier nésai0 Dawn comes late in auturtn (b) references to personal well-being, indispositon, inclination. ‘The person appears in the accusative case in some phrases, in the dative in others: Eré rower He ees sick Ei xouerea enare She feels sleepy Mune noneaxd | am in luck Haw ynanos noGeniers We cuccseded in wining Baw npnaérea noaoseairs You wl have to wait (6 references to an external, natural force: os yaipuno néamelt The house was struck by lightning (@) withthe second: person singular of a verb (English ‘one’, colloquially ‘you’, usually without the pronoun 7 Huworai we adeum, x en) on xabuurr You never know (one never kone) what he is getting a (©) with the third-person plural ofa verb (without the pronoun on), sometimes identifying with authority or officiadom: Mpbesr ne xypiers No smoking otherwise appearing in set formulas Kax sac oefr? What's your name? TFonopi, 170 01 ori They say he has perched {0 Sometimes, where the subject is clearly singular, use of the third-person plural is purely conventional: Mess pan6yniam xa pacesére | wae awakened at cavn Te6i apocar x Texepory You are wanted on the phone| 141 Participles ‘The present active participle Formation ‘The present active participle is formed from the third-person plural of imperfetive verbs, Final -r is replaced by masculine uit, feminine -mas, neuter -mee, and plural -mme: Infinitive __3rd-person plural Parteiple (masculine) Sars Yo Kiowa 2m cwére‘cost” cunier aia aectirto lead’ sexier ex-mt Participles from reflexive verbs take the ending -e Spirscn'to chav’ 6péio-Ten 6péoutnton ‘Stress in participles from firt-conjugation verbs is as in the third-person plural: cine co wite! iy. nyu ‘and from second-conjugation verbs, asin the infinitive: cuorpére'toleok exper cuorpiat 1 Nee Exceptions ince foe tom ness to ve Usage ‘The present participle declines like 66a ‘common’ (see page 47) (a) Asa single participle it precedes the noun it refers to, agreeing with itin gender, number, and case: 3a nb20x wurivommex eryaéarros The hall's full of reading students (0) In a participial construction it replaces xorépait + present tense and can either (i follow or (ii) precede the noun: (0 Ox nosxdaer x fume, crodmelt (=, xordpas eroier) 9 yray (i) On nonxémue x crodmed yray émuune He goes up to the woman (who is) standing in the comer {Nets Soe particles alo function a ects eum cian ‘crent Tete cere 2 noun: ashen bepner142 The verb ‘The past active participle (@) The past ative participles formed by replacing the masculine past tense ~t of imperective and perfective verbs by -aumi, “auuaa, sue, and -eume, Thus, the participle (masculine) from surrirufmponrins “to read” is formed Infinitive Past tense Participle porate porate (epope aa Partcples from reflexive verbs take the ending -¥: Goheunion from 6oinucn “to fear (b) If there is no a in the masculine past tense ofa verb, -am, ‘~uas, -uins,, -ume are added to the masculine past (with some exceptions, such as nexémypunt from nevéaxyrs to disappear. ‘Thus, the participle from sau to ignite’ is formed antes ser santa (©) The past active participle declines ike xopouut ‘good (see ‘page 47), It replaces woropesit + the past tense, is preceded by a ow, waxoninumicn (=, wordputi axon) »uérpe ropona ‘the house (which was) situated in the town centre and agrees with the noun it refers to in gender, number, and case: A surrivo xmiry, noaysitnuryto (=, xoTopan nosrywivta) MPH: Tam reading the book that won 3 prize ‘The impertective passive participle (@) The impertective passive participle is formed by adding adjectival endings to the first-person plural of an imperfective transitive verb. Thus, the participle (masculine) from ncnomuirs “to perform’ is formed: Infintive Fis pron plaral_Parteple etosnirtneronaiew enone ail (b) The participle declines like Génut "white" (see page 44) and replaces an accusative relative pronoun and an imperfective transitive verb, agreeing with the noun it refers to in gender, case, and number: ‘AL wnrrepecjrocs Teil, Geyxniewoll (=, koTopyo OBeyxaioT or 1 Kovopan oGeyanietea) » Tye | am interested in the fect uhich they are dlsuseing or which being dacuesed Inthe OursThe verb | 143 The pertectve passive participle (short form) (@) The perfective passive participle is formed from perfective transitive verbs. The masculine short form participle from most infinitive in -anu-mn is made by replacing ara by -m, am, -amo,-am-mn, aa, mo, -mmns, thus, ftom mpowr ‘to read” and norepims “to lose Infinitive Particle _infiniive_Partcple ‘pour-ins npodiran—novepére norkp-am (b) The stress falls on the syllable preceding -a-an (except for ‘monosyllabic 2ax from sars to give (feminine mand, neuter sand, plural sani) (©) The participle derives from second-conjugaton inf -aad-er by replacing -wra-evs by -E,-en, mb, ent conjugation has end stress throughout, and by, ea, eo, nt itithas fixed stem stressor mobile stress} Infintive oxppais toarroant apie ve dong map, jum nape, vnomire Yo postpore’ orton, Oxus OTAOxe--,- (€) Verbs in -wru-ers undergo consonant change: Infive Meaning Parte jorge touse ype scans topane sien seam tow ena ipo fomgress ipoxen ipsum fodesun emai of obopmact cxpeis costo expen Gems Soon ‘men cen — todean ovine sanperies tort sanpenéx[Lime se ‘The perfective passive participle (short form) (continued) Participles from verbs in -ru and -1 ‘These verbs form the participle by replacing third-person singular sr by -a, thus, the participles from enevit ‘to save’ and samian, “to ignite’ are as follows: Infinitive Third person singular_Partiple emer’ emeér SSC, auxin adr sawontn 4, 4 tt Note: the particles ype om yer taeda rom exer to Vise stat tom ext nd Participles in -r Perfective transitive verbs in -or, -tre, yr, pers, compounds of Gr 'to strike’, ur to twine” mr to pour mrs to drink’, and won ‘to sew", compounds of -aars and zers to put’ and other verbs that take -m- of -4+ in conjugation, alo mips ‘to shave’ have participles in -, The masculine participle is formed by removing -s from the infinitive, while-,-o, and ware added to form the feminine, neuter, and plural: Infinitive Meaning Parttple ipoxonbr to punctareaporinor. 62,3 Sapir totes aapiin aaa pny totouch pb crmepérs Younis yore tok pmirs —toaccept mpi iy 0-8 one toaress ont, -a, 0,4 1 Note: tress shit ia sme pris i a of the ecard of he itive in Srepr, orp, napa, mapa ‘tom ornepés Yo unlock‘The verb | 145 Functions of the short form perfective passive participle ‘The short-form perfective passive participle isa predicative form and denotes: (@) a recently-completed action: Ypomiiij6pan_ The harvest hae been gathered in [Eré cutn apecréman His 6on ha been arrested Tipo6néxa pemeni The problem has been solved ‘OGsimnena se6acrOaxa A otrike has been called Tipdwarat wrote uépst The necessary measures have been ‘taken Not: (Te patie may follow a precede te noun Gin The agent ofthe actin appears inthe instrumental case: Top suaisen ‘nor eenan The cy Ras Sean seize by ou oops () a state or condition: Tseps saxptsra The doors closed Muraineras We are buey Topost eninames x0p6r0H The towns are linked by a road Thucuxd noamicano orwim The letter signed by father Note: Forms of the verb Gurr ‘to be’ also combine with the participle: ‘Outit6xa Gwin aamérena The mistake was noticed (or had been, noticed) Kwitra 6jaer fsaama The book willbe published (or wil have been, published) ‘Topr Guin Git nenewén The cake would be baked (or would have been baked)146 |The verb ‘The long form of the perfective passive participle Formation ‘The long form ofthe perfective passive participle derives from the short form masculine in-w by the addition of -ueti, -nas,-w0e, Infinitive __ Short form (mase.)_Long form (mase.) nba 20 a? — enka aKa nd from the short-form masculine in -r by adding the adjectival endings at, -an, oe, -we: omnis Yo raise’ naner ara ‘The long-form perfective passive participle declines like 6énst ‘white’, see page 44). Funetions ofthe long form (a) The participle can function as an attributive adjective, agreeing with the noun in gender, case, and number and preceding the noun it qualifies: Bor oni us nonépanmux xmowéit Here is one of the lost keye Ou uazés mémuuryo pyGiuy He put on an embroidered shirt (b) As part of a participial construction, it may (@ follow the noun, separated from it by a comma: Mut rovopiaw o nucuné, noajvewnom ceréaxx frpom We are ‘talking about the letcer (which wae) received this morning (Od surdza craruio, nepenenémnyio caurniticxoro | She wae. reading the article (which had been) translated from English (i precede the noun, together with circumstantial detail dependent on the partici ‘Bee rooplant 0 sanjmenniow ua oxonoséunyi opbitry ‘enjramce Everyone was talking about the eatelite launched Inco the Earth's orbit Mur ond ma. apiorrrinnn npasirenscrsos wépayn We are pleased with the measures taken by the government.‘The verb | 147 ‘The gerund (verbal adverb) ‘The imperfective gerund: formation ‘The imperfective gerund is formed by replacing the final two letters of the third-person plural of a verb by -a (a ater 2, or my) Infinitive person plural _Gerand inpine Yo play rp pe seairs to chew! yor ad ect'tolead” mene pend words Yo oeck’ faye a ‘opie to smoke xjp-re Spa pins to shove” xp peed Note: Stress is as in the first-person singular: Infinitive _Frstperson singular _Gerund aepaine wrod aepay ep Exceptions include (a) raiaa from rasaérs ‘to look’, aéwa from, stexcirs ‘to li’, cha from eunérs ‘to sit, and evéa from crod ‘to stand’ (b) ani ‘to give’ and compounds of -aasirs, -crasi, and -suanier, derive their gerunds from the infinitive: Infinitive Gerand Infinitive Gerund analts ogre sani veranda Togo op wera Burrs ‘to be’, has the gerund Gays, 1 Note: Gerunds ar maria. Tear common vers have no gerund: al verbs int, aso Genin Yoru Gis osri'ece oeat xer Yo rave xa to wat fo, ner Yo sing, mace owt’, overs to wan, ee, Instead an ateaive onstruction must be used ea syn found eg, cana to wat, pect’ grand enim, went To wat wi, gerund ens148 1 The verb Functions ofthe impertective gerund ‘The imperfective gerund describes an action that runs parallel to the ation of the main verb (Ox euaie, aja ‘He sts thinking’) ors interrupted by it (Hari, x yous “While reading, I fll asleep’). ‘The imperfective gerund may: (@) replace a clause with m ‘and’ On cua, mrp (= urpitor) 8 xipraa They st playing cards (b) replace a clause with woraA ‘when’ or as Yxont (= xornd s yxons), t noerah mtuemoutio ever When | leave alvaye turn off che ight (6 replace a clause with rax xax ‘since’ Bjayem mopaxbm (= Tax kax om Mops), on nioGirr Mope Being ‘8 sailor, he loves the oe (@) replace a clause with éemn ‘if: Kpwruxga (= éo2m xpurnjeus) nipriao, rat xpurunee nex ‘nat By ortllzing the party you criticize al of us (6) render English ‘without’ + -ing (negative gerund) ‘ALcocwnraa nénor ne manna py 10 Kapa I counted the money without taking my hand out of my pocket ‘Special features of constructions with gerunds (@) The subject of both clauses must be the same: Ow nposoraix mics, we pase monn a ek He continued writing witha paying ary atcercio to me (0) A.comma separates the two clauses: CCayexiace na ropy yliex ndcwomsno roubs Coming dow the il caught sight of several hovses (©) The verb inthe main clause may bein any tense and elther aspect (68, perfective past) ‘Six, xanbnnonkrs,s70 Roninen | nodded, cating ‘that | nae satisfied {Nee Some gerund aso unton as adverbs (‘sien tars as J reposition Caaanph tanks).The verb | 149 The perfective gerund Formation ‘The perfective gerund is formed by replacing the ending of the perfective infinitive by Infinitive Meaning Gerund pours se read’ — mpoarie fonyuiere Sareea noxyuice ‘The perfective gerund is invariable, Reflexive gerund take the ending -sumes: ywiemice Yowack? yams ‘Compounds of to go, -nee to lead’, and een ‘to cary" form the gerund by replacing the final two letters of the thind-person plural by -#: Infitive Meaning _Third-person plural_Gerand ialtnk —Yotnd aah valk yueeri —‘Yotateanay yneosr reed Verbs in ws form the perfective gerund by adding -mm to the masculine past tense: Infinitive Meaning Masculine past tense Gerund Sax olga awed SS Functions ofthe perfective gerund ‘The perfective gerund describes an action completed before the action of the main verb (which may be in any tense and either aspect Tloaywin xaxite-to 6ysciru, sxexypoosbast pasouuniics Having Obtained certain documents, the tour guides dispersed Tlepeseas Stor Texcr, ost oxdixere nam yenjry By translating this tex, you wll be doing us a good turn Vrpow, yroinumncs 1 no6plamumnce, on abwrpaxaer In the ‘morning, having washed and shaved, he has breakfast [ Hts: The same rules appy as tothe impertectve gerund) he subject of the Vise ciauses mat beth sme, (8 cons appear betwen the to clauses (Gee page 1481501 The vero ‘Verbs of mation ‘The 12 commonest pairs ofimperfective verbs of motion are given here in alphabetical order, withthe infinitive, present, and (here appropriate) past tense of each verb. The multidirectional verb isthe fist in each pai, the unidirectional the second: Geran Gérave Géracun, GéraerGéracu Géracre Géra¥or Genre Gery Geis Genie Gexine Gexire Ger ‘to run! onire oxy nbsuu nomi noms poner Boast sect se senén ner neni sere ne; néa neni “to take, lead, drive (a cat) soxire oxy péomus soon nono sbsue Boom entity neu nes nea wesére nea; HED nea. to take, convey’ rowirs ross rouieu rower ronien rowsere rotor ‘arrow ron roi rounn rouee rv; ra Ta ‘ino “to drive, chase" ayers éoxy Exe ame én Erte Gane Gxans day énem énerénew énereényr ‘totravel seavivs rarivo xavécis xavier Kavies xaviete Kardior seaiers xa aru xr xu ibiee amr “o rol (rans) downs _nioey nfonuny owe nisin nse nor rem nézy nes néser nae nkaeve nay sea néana “to climb’ sevirs sevio reviews never aevéen neviere neviior sever ne nevi ari nevi erie aero fy” soci vous wens nor Scum wBcire Hoa eerie veotuss wecer Hen necére nesj; ne week “to take, carry’ nainarsnxinato nadnaew nadnaer nainaew nadnacre nninaior smarts ramus nner ms cre ns ‘mand nano “to swim, Hoat, sail” émare ndmato némzeutsnémoaer nbmaen naaere nbmaaI0T nomi nonsj noméuns nomér noms nomére nom; nom ronan “to crave” xonére xox xomuus xbaot xo xonyre xe suns urs naw ware nar me to go" (On foot)The verb | 151 Muttdirectional verbs of motion (xoaferb,éanuer, ete): habitual and ‘repeated actions ‘A main function of multidirectional verbs of motion i to describe habitual action or movement, and repeated return journeys. The ‘meaning of repetition is sometimes reinforced by a frequentative adverb (scerad ‘always’, ete): Mut éammm 22 rpanicuy xis ron We go abroad every year SL sicro 6jay xowire Ha KaTbx | wil often go to the rink “ue noer6 ont aerier na camonérax A2popnora More often ‘than not he flles with Aerofiot. Note: If movement in one direction is emphasized, however (as ‘opposed to return trips) a unidirectional verb is used. This often ‘occurs (a) with xoraé ‘when’ (b) In a sequence of actions or when the time is given: (a) Kora a way 1a paGiry, x noxynino raxéry When |am on my way to work | buy a newspaper (0) Kérxaoe jnpo [n 8 wacbs] s euxony 19 6Ma n ny 1a paGiry Every maming [a8 oelock] | eave the house and drive to work (but not back again); compare Kéoeamil zeus a éxmy na paory Every day | deve to work (and back). Other functions of multidirectional verbs (@) Multidireetional verbs also denote an action in general, an ability o perform it, a habit of performing it in a particular way, an inclination or disinclination to perform it, etc. Pe6ihox ew ne xoaet The child cannot walk yet Osersina xopomd niairr A monkey ie good at climbing (Ona waysiinace soni stautiny She hae learnt to drive a car SA mioSn mahwars | lke swimming Tiaurwinus we yaéior aerirs Penguins canrot fy Pe6éiox euté namaer The child Is stil crawling louasn Suerte Gérerpo 6érasor Horeco run very fast: (Ona xopomé xéamr ua néokax She okie wellL252 The vero (©) They also describe movement in various directions: ‘backwards and forwards, round and round, etc.,on one or more On xoniaa no marasinan She went shopping Hl éagwa no et Eapine | travelled al over Europe Brnipke aeriwr xowapsi Midges are fying around in the park Pe6éuox nbapaer né noay The chi iseramlng around on the floor Zé Géranm a canj Children were running around inthe garden Hac sosiam no noettTpéann They took us al ver Greece Thur soajurrypiicroo no Kpenand "The guide took the tourieto round the Krem Mare nocina peGéna no cnimaue The mother cared the child up and down the bedroom Mixwsancraisar no aepésise The boys are climbing around in the tees Use of the past tense of a multidirectional verb to denote a single return trip ‘The past tense of a multidirectional verb can be used to denote a single return journey (as well as a number of return journeys): ‘Asana 8 brnycx 8 CLA | went on holiday to the USA ‘On nenisuo aeria » Jléunon Recently he flew to London (and. back) Buepa sévepom oni xomiaan xund Yesterday evering ohe went to the cinema ‘The imperative of muttidrectional verbs of motion ‘The imperative of multidirectionals is normally used for negative commands: He xoaittyai!_ Don't go there! He evil nepronétom! Don't go by helicopter!‘The verb | 153 Functions of unidirectional verbs of motion Unidirectional verbs of motion (nav, éxar, Geaciro, nerérs, etc.) denote movement in one direction, sometimes to a named destination: (@) in the present: Onwaiéeno janie He te walking down the street On ner 20 rp She fs gong abrosd Tlévn erg aout The children are running hore sens nner wa sépeno |The monkey i alimbing a tree Camonér aerirr na céep The aircraft ie flying north Matxdraea no tporyipy The alle rling alorg the pavement 1 Net: sce nani, (©) in the past Tidean mam Kites The train was on Its way to Kiev ‘Mat éxaam si ropon We were driving into the country Tlapoxix naan sSinry The steamer was sailing to Yalta Oréu aes wa xpéimry Father wae climbing onto the roof (Ou rmiaea aa nao He was chasing the bal J ete rtct se + into chase afr. (6) in the future: AL Gjay éxare snepesit | wil Arve infront ‘Korat sar 6jaes nat wéivo Teérpa, xjmu Guaéras When we ‘are passing the theatre we wil uy some tickets I Note: Masi nat or aer'The ai evn lor’ bt Mea he ain son ts way, Canonér aire art Ming, Mapoxs sunt "Tho stare sling am st usd of al ar or water ‘anspor With parsons, atl og, walk i istrgused frm bare Yo > by warspor, wave. (In deneting te immedi tre, apn, far, and aed af close in meaning orapnakrcs ost ou Siang tty» Moca} Tororo | am {og Mosconam stg et fr Moscow (a rue used nthe meaning bein prowess: Madr yx A Teton inser, Mar en‘ i ison ee[1541 TH we Heer, peerit, pestis (@) mectit means ‘to be carrying’ or ‘to be taking’: Oud necér noprbéns She le carrying a briefcase Oni meeai paxérxi Ha xopr They were taking the rackets on cout (b) necrit means “to be leading’ or ‘to be taking (on foot)’ Trt weaér typicros no nnbutas The guide ie leading the ‘tourists across the square On néa neréit aowoit He was taking the children home (©) nest means ‘to be taking, conveying (in a vehicle) (On nés wéGens » wosstl nom Hewae taking furniture to the new house (On nenér peGéixa w Koniexe He le pushing the child in a pram ‘The imperative of unidirectional verbs of motion ‘The imperative of unidirectionas is normally used for positive ‘commands; Mati coni! Come here! Jeri camonéroxt! Go by plan! Perfectves in no- Perfective verbs in no- derive from multidirectional and unidirectional verbs of motion. (a) Perfectives in no- derived from multidirectional verbs denote actions of short duration (see also page 115): ‘SAmoxorx no wéicranxe | will walk round the exibition for a walle ‘Tapiti noéaamae no répoay Let's drive round town for a while (©) Those derived from unidirectionals have inceptive meaning (ee also page 115) ‘Onmoméa s Ganx He has gone/he went to the bank (and is not back yet. Compare Ou xomia » Gan He has been to the bank, he went to the bank [and has returned]) Mt noéem aa rpassnty We wll go abroad ‘Heérw no6eriian a nex The chitdren ran off to the beachPrefixed verbs of motion (a) Simple verbs of motion (e.g, multidirectional aerir/ luniirectional aevérs ‘to fly’) can combine with up to sixteen prefixes to form compounds (e.g. aaerirs/aneréne to fly into’, suuneriri/aiuneren. ‘to fly out of) (b) While simple verbs of motion are all imperfective, prefixed. compounds form aspectual pars, with imperfectives based on ‘multidirectional verbs and perfectives based on unidirectional verbs. (©) Some simple verbs of motion form compounds without ‘modification ofthe root verb (e.g. compounds {in npu-] of errs! evér», nochra/nec, sonirs/sccri, and soaiers/sesi) Imperfective Perfective Meaning ip puter to ae by ar punocies peer eo bring (carning) pwposirt npirccrt toring (eating) pueonrre —npiremrt toring (ty transport) For example: Camonér upuaeréa The aircraft arrived (On npumectr xwiry She wil bring the book On mpunbsur eri nowbit He brings the children home Tipnsesirre wéGens! Bring the furiturel (€) Other verbs of motion modify either the multidirectional (MD) or the unidirectional (UD) verb in forming compounds (in the following, > denotes change to a modified form in the compound stem, = denotes an absence of change): ‘Simple MD Impf. compound Simple UD Pf. compound Meaning verb stem verb stem ‘ark > toganak Sauer > fares Gears sot iran > Sexi = “Sexire = zorun156 |The verb ‘The function of prefixes in forming compound verbs of motion Prefixes commonly used in forming compounds number sixteen, ‘They are listed here withthe prepositions with which they most frequently combine (not all prefixes combine with all simple verbs of motion). alec: 20 am me + ace, dropping pinipac- no + det. dlperoa e+ dot valet mata oto eet gen doom fom 06 vowpir—areund—e-senhen together or or tae anayfrom y- vefor + gen. away from "Note: (a) se- and pac- are used before verbs beginning with voiceless consonants (here -xomfs, -rnsnére/-nimurs), otherwise s+ and pas- are used, (0)-o- appears between s-, 3-, 06-, noa-,pas-, and tr (notte “to go in’, ssolt ‘to go up’, oGoitrt “to go round’, etc.) (©) ahard sign (s) appears between the prefixes listed in (b) and ceomara/-éxaTs (ssesxito/etéxars ‘to drive in’ et.) (@) choice of preposition with npu, sa-, and y- is determined by the dependent noun: thus mpi ‘arrival’ and 2a- ‘dropping by’ take» or na + accusative of a place, x + dative ofa person, while y- ‘away from’ takes us orc + genitive of a place, or + genitive ‘of a person. For wale, see also pages 207, 210 (€) in some contexts, verbs prefixed 06-, nepe, or npo- take an. object accusative: On oGoméa reps ‘He walked round the camp’, Oud neperuasinh péry ‘She swam across the river’, 5 nnpofxas aa xuszonérpa ‘I drove two kilometresThe verb | 187 Prefixed verbs of motion: usage Examples of prefixed verbs based on: (@) -xonira/-ii ‘to go’ nh somni » xonaxaTy She entered the room On aoxéanr no yeni He walks as far a8 the comer ‘Al alin x Ciune/a Chuse | wil call on Sashalfor Sacha ‘Oni orom or anépn She moved away from the door HL nepeixy sper finty | il erove the street (On mpmnaa 8 uxéayina sapda/x nonpire She came to the schoolla factory/to eee a fiend () -eoxirw/-éxare ‘to travel’: (On muesacier ws rapa He drives out ofthe garage On nonséxan x sporyipy He pulled into the kerb SL mpoesmivo wiowo nysén | drive past the museum Morounssitera parsesxivoren The motorcycisto disperse Bexocunesiicrs: exexaciores The cycicte meet up ‘Ond yénaua ws Poceinle Vpinalor posierenclt She left Ruselalthe Urale/her parents Note: (1) compounds of -esxiers/-fxars share an imperativein cox: send ‘drive in!', we wpeaaaill ‘don’t drive in! (see age 110) (1) The imperfective past of compound verbs of motion can denote a single round trip: K wam npuezaina réza ‘Auntie came/ hhas been to see us’ (and has gone away again’). (Wi) Examples of usage with other verbs: (On moabeniin x xutscry He ran up to the Kook Canonér nanetéx The plane took off Oud gonmuni x0 wba She ewam ae far as the pier KGa muméawr chxap Cuba exporte sugar (iv) Some of the verbs have figurative meanings: cxonirs/cotii yu ‘to go mad’, sanonéerstranecrs uacds ‘to wind up a clock’, npmnocire/ npanecti némsy ‘to bring benefit, npuxozirr putt x ptipony “to come to a conclusion’, ete.[2321 | Verb list (a) The verb list contains examples of: (0 verbs in mm (e.g. epee) (i verbs in «rm (e.g, neon) (i) verbs in ers (e.g, coer») (iv) verbs in -ovs (e.g. Gopbrncx) (0) verbs in epers (eg. sanepérs) (i) verbs in -onars and -esars (e.g, Secéxonars, soenis) (ot) vet conjuaton wih consonant chang (eg (i) verbs (second conjugation) with consonant change (eg. Gpociers) (Gx) second-conjugation verbs in -ars-mrn (eg. crysis, croirs) (6) first and second-conjugation verbs in evs (e.g. users, ropérs) (Gi) monosyllabic verbs (e.g. 6pars) (i) irregular verbs (e.g. xorérs) (©) Most verbs listed are non-derivative (e.g, aars). Compound verbs are not normally given when a root verb is available (xars “to give’ appears, but not mpons ‘to sell’ or sani ‘to ask (a question). Some compounds have no commonly-used root verb, in which case a hyphenated root is given (e.g -xasaT9) {€) Also listed are verbs that have no ain the masculine past (e.g. semi ‘to convey’, masculine past né). {@) The pattern of presentation is: (0 for all verbs present or future conjugation, and meant the verb’s other aspect if available) i for selected verbs the past tense; the government of the verb; the imperative; short forms of the perfective passive participle I Nees (ant case of sae ers fg mats to hang re ett of 1 ceniuation are ie inthe vr is te iste Sigur, han in the ‘elvant gommntcl secon, 56 page 108). (©) Absence fast person singular fom indicates tat one exits, hat ‘one enti th meaning een se, example, ras to thunder).The verb! 159 J Gens. ‘to run’: Gerj Goxinus Semis Gexine Genter Gers, crit Gepésn/no- ‘to take care of’: Gepery Gepexér Geperyr; Gepér perk; Gepertt GecézonaTe ‘to converse’: Geoéayio Gecéayer Gecéayior Grrufno “to stike': 60 6x2r 6x0, Gel Gneanéruno- to row pale’: Grennéo Gxeanéer Gnexntior Gaecrére ‘to shine’: Gneusy 6nectitr Gnecritr; pf. Gaccuyrs Gonérs (+ instr.) ‘tobe il (with): Gontio Gonéer ontior Goaérs ‘to hurt (intrans.):Gonkr Gonkr Gopérees (a2 + acc.) ‘to struggle (for) Goproce 6operea SoproTess optics! Goin (+ gen/ace.) ‘to fear': Goes Goitea Gokrex; (We) Goes! Spars "to take’: Gepy Gepér Sep; Spa Span Gp; Spi pf. Gpiersexlno- to shave! (intrans.): Gpéioes Gpéevex Gpiores Spbcare ‘to throw’: Spouty Spocitt Gpbesr; 6pocs!; Spouse impr. Soci Syahrsfpa- ‘to awaken’ (trans): Gynj Ofane Ghar; Gynt paaGicen Gurr ‘to be': Gay 6jner Ginyr; Gun 6s Gitno; Gyr! erm to convey’: nes) sear nesir;nés Bead écars ‘to weigh’ : niuy péirr née necri ‘to lead’: nen near nex; wén vend soars ‘to takes nosbag nos ose; moan, moa azo; ood; mar nawrd mato; impf. 6px ineruly- ‘to see’: aio sic nite sce ‘to hang’ (intrans.): nam sncirr ance saanére (+ inst.) to own’: snaatio mnanéer anaatior naea ‘to attract’: nnexy mnesér anenfr; nn mae; -nneséH revert (in compounds) osirs ‘to lead’: nox nomi noasrr oenirs ‘to wage war’: not notber Bosbior160 The verb sosaparisen ‘to return’ (intrans,):posepanjes soseparire souspanios; imp. soxppamiicn sosire to convey’: nox’ nési bom ‘soswinnyra ‘to arse’: nosuly nondier Bosnicnyt; nose sostiena; impf. nose ‘somonirscslao-'o be excited’ nomsjnoc pomieres nomsjnores; (te) ponsyics! sparaina- and co- ‘to tell lies’: apy sper spy; apax span pio; (Ge) spe scranérs to get up stand up’ ara praér erair; wera serena ‘to getup, stand up: neriny neriwer nerdy; ncvansl; impr. neranérs serpéruers ‘to mee’: nerpluy nerpénienerpérar; impf. apes aramzers (+ intr.) ‘to look, appear’ aiasy sirname auirasase pairs ‘to express: pany sipasirabpase;atipaxen imp supers nirile- ‘to te: xy nba nixyr;-nfoax(in compounds) ‘aceruaa- oF no- ‘to extinguish’: rau rice rrr; sake! orien siya to perish’: rity rier rity; rH6GHy Gna algyrafs ‘to ion’ rniy radar easy; airman aware (aa + ace.) ‘to look (at): rans naar aaa; pt aber rairacs (+ Instr) Yo chase (ltr): roms rounres roses; ‘nea rac axis (8 + ace) ‘to be fit (fr): roxjesronirea roan rasocoséraipo- (2a + acc.) ‘to vot (for): ronosjno ronocter ronocfior ropa (+ instr) ‘tobe proud of: ropases ropatresopares; ropsics! opera ‘to bum’ (intrans): rope ropir