Psychointegrator Plants: Their Roles in Human Culture, Consciousness and Health Michael Winkelman first published in Yearbook of Cross-Cultural Medicine and Psychotherapy 1995 Theme Issue: Sacred Plants, Consciousness, and Healing. Cross-Cultural and Interdisciplinary Perspectives edited by Michael Winkelman & Walter Andritsky pages 9-53 VWB — Verlag fiir Wissenschaft und Bildung, Berlin 1996 (reprinted by kind permission of the publisher)Psychointegrator Plants 9 MICHAEL WINKELMAN Psychointegrator Plants: Their Roles in Human Culture, Consciousness and Health Abstract The “sacred plants”, which are often called hallucinogens and psychedelics, have played in ancient and contemporary societies, evoking powerful spiritual, emotional, social and cognitive reactions. ‘Their importance for humanity is attested to by findings in many areas: ethnographic research on the cross- cultural patterns of use; clinical observations of their therapeutic effects and properties; neurophysiological laboratory studies on their roles as neurotransmittors; and consciousness studies and theory. Cross-cultural studies of traditions utilizing these substances as therapies, and neurobiological research on their mecha- nisms of action, have advanced considerably in the last decades. Integration of this research on their effects from biophysiological through psychocultural and cognitive levels has contributed to the development of new perspectives. This neurophenomenological approach suggest that these substances be referred to as “psychointegrators” (from psyche, meaning mind, soul and spirit ), based upon their common neurophysio- logical and experiential properties. Their importance lies in the activation of emotional and personal pro- cesses of the limbic system and paleomammalian brain which underlie personal identity, attachment and social bonding, emotional stability, convictions and beliefs, and their integration with neocortex processes. Psychointegrators stimulate the integration of behavioral protomentation and social-emotional dynamics with language based ratiomentation, egoic representations and personal identity. These biochemically based physiological effects may force: emotional reactions, awareness of repressed memories, integration of emo- tional and rational processes, and the resolution of conflicts through integration of different functional systems of the brain. This volume provides a broad overview of psychointegrators and the bases for their constructive utilizations. The first section provides a theoretical framework for understanding the importance and significance of these psychointegrators. The second section covers clinical and social perspectives on their uses and effects, particularly as studied within Western biomedicine. The third section provides ethno- graphic examples of contemporary traditions which attest to the positive roles and functions psychointe- grators can play in human societies. This introduction provides a neurophenomenological framework for assessing these substances. Contents Introduction (Overview) 1, Classifying Sacred Plants (Botanical and Chemical Classifications ~ Hallucinogens and Psychedelics — Holotropic and Psychointe- grative Effects) 2. Pre-historical and Cross-cultural Use of Psychointegrative Plants (Prehistorical Patterns - Cross-Cultural Commonalities ~ Origins of Religious Experience ~ Societal Differences in the Use of Psychointegrative Plants ~ Psychosocial Functions of Psychointegrative Plants — Summary) 3. Neurotransmitters, Psychointegrators and Organismic Functioning (Psychointegeators and Neurotransmitters - Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators ~ Serotonin - LSD-like Psychointegrators and Serotonergic Receptors ~ Acetylcholine) 4. Macrolevel Effects of LSD-like Psychointegrators (Psychointegrative Aspects of ASC — Clinical Studies of Psychedelics ~ General Effects of Seroto- nin-like Psychointegrators)10 M. Winkelman 5. The Role of Psychointegrative Plants in Functional Brain Systems and Consciousness (Paleomentation: Protomentation and Emotomentation ~ The Neocortex and Old Forms of Conscious- ness) 6. Conclusions 7. Literature Introduction The “sacred plants”, those substances often called psychedelics and hallucinogens, have played important roles in historical and prehistorical human societies. These substances generally have been viewed as central sources of spiritual inspiration, mystical participation and psychothera- peutic transformation. In contrast to these prevalent cross-cultural uses and interpretations, modern industrial societies had little interest in or concem with these substances until they rapidly emerged into public attention during cultural crises in the 1960s. Psychedelic drugs came into public consciousness as a central aspect of a counter-cultural movement which chal- lenged mainstream cultural values and assumptions. Their interpretation as sources of spiritual experience clashed with central societal values and agendas, leading to national and interna- tional debates regarding the appropriate use of psychoactive substances. In a dramatic social reaction against these substances and the threats they represented, many in government, science and medicine condemned them. These substances were outlawed around the world, with a vir- tual total ban on their use in human therapeutics and research until recently. Understandings of these substances from biophysiological through psychocultural levels has nonetheless advanced considerably in the last decades. These range from animal studies on neurotransmitter interaction and behavioral neurophysiology to cross-cultural and ethnographic investigations on patterns of use and specific therapeutic properties. This has provided the basis for recognizing the fundamental importance of a neurophenomenological approach in under- standing their properties, as is illustrated in this introduction which integrates neurophysiology, psychobiology, consciousness studies and theory, clinical observations, ethnographic studies, and cross-cultural patterns of their use. This integration has provided the basis for my intro- duction of the term “psychointegrator” (from psyche, meaning soul, spirit and mind) to refer to their effects. ‘Abundant evidence indicates these psychointegrator substances offer important insights into past religious and cultural developments, and provide resources for humanity's future. Psycho- integrators have evoked powerful spiritual experiences and provided inspiration for the inst tutionalization of religious sentiments and activities. Societies tend to take strong moral and reli- gious stands with respect to psychointegrators, leading to both prohibition of their use and per- secution of their users, as well as their institutionalization in religious and therapeutic settings. Recent individual, group and societal involvements in the use of psychointegrative plants have illustrated the continued powerful effects these substances have upon beliefs, emotions and motivations, provoking both religious movements and organized opposition on religious grounds. Societal conflict over the legitimate role of psychointegrative plants has led the U.S. Supreme Court to controversial rulings which set aside constitutional guarantees of religious freedom and the separation of church and state in allowing states to legislate against religion in establishing the illegality of a sacrament, peyote. The powerful effects which these sub- stances have upon beliefs and behavior has affected even scientific inquiry, with proponents and opponents of the use of these substances accusing one another of personal biases and religiously motivated agendas.Paychointegrator Planis u There are many reasons why it is important to understand the effects that these substances have upon humans, individually, culturally, and in terms of social and spiritual relations. The powerful roles that these psychointegrators have played in religious development, innovation and practice, as well as in a range of personal and social phenomena and reactions, will persist. ‘The continued reoccurrence of these experiences is inevitable because of the naturally occurring psychointegrators, and the existence of similar endogenously induced experiences. Human use of the potentials of psychointegrators and prevention of their abuse requires an informed under- standing of their nature and effects, rather than reactions based upon prejudice and ignorance. This volume provides a contribution towards understanding psychointegrators, the psychobiolo- gical bases of their effects, and their roles in human consciousness, religion and culture. The introduction provides a broad interdisciplinary summarization which develops a neurophenome- nological perspective. It is grounded in an understanding of the biochemical and psychodynamic properties of these substances which explains their uses and effects on human experience. This integration of knowledge of neurophysiological action of the substances with their cross-cultural uses provides a basis for referring to their effects as psychointegrative. The important roles of psychointegrative plants in cultural and religious development are illustrated in pre-historical, historical and cross-cultural data on their central functions in reli- gious and spiritual activities. The similar cross-cultural patterns reflect their neurophenomeno- logical basis, manifested in the similar interpretations of their spiritual, religious and therapeutic properties. As LA BARRE (1972) pointed out, understanding the pharmacological effects helps to illuminate their central role in many cultures as a source of religious and spiritual inspiration, shamanic ecstasy and visionary experience. The effects of psychointegrators upon brain processes, perception, emotion and cognition derive from their similarity to neurotransmitters, and from their ability to evoke experiences derived from the underlying neurophenomenological structures of the human brain/mind. The close physical similarity of psychointegrators to natural neurotransmitters enables them to have powerful effects upon mental and psychological functions and reveal natural structures of the human mind as structured by the physiology of the brain (see articles by GROF and NARANJO this volume). The most fundamental role of psychointegrators is shared with other means of inducing altered states of consciousness (ASC), and their institutionalization in human societies. This is represented in shamanism and related ASC based healing practices found in all cultures (shama- nistic healers), reflecting the universal institutionalization of the psychobiological potentials of ASC (WINKELMAN 1986a, 1986b, 1990, 1992). Psychointegrative plants have central roles in the practices of these shamanistic healers, often serving as central means for inducing ASC in their training, and in community rituals for healing. The role of these ASC lies in their functio- nal effects, linked to the physiological changes which facilitate healing and divination. The uni- versal presence of ASC in shamanistic healing practices is psychobiologically based, derived from the characteristics of human physiology and the systemic functional effects of ASC. Psychointegrators and other ASC induction procedures have systemic effects upon the auto- nomic nervous system, characterized by limbic system discharge patterns inducing interhemi- spheric synchronization and coherence and limbic-cortex integration (MANDELL 1980, 1985; WINKELMAN 1986a, 1991b, 1992). This integrates brain functioning from neurophysiological to cognitive levels in ways which permit the manifestation of specific human potentials. These potentials of human consciousness are reflected in the transpersonal psychologies and contem- plative traditions of many esoteric Eastern schools of thought and practice (e.g., Buddhism). Cross-cultural use of psychointegrative plants also stimulates these potentials and served as one of the original sources of ASC-based healing and religion in humans.12 M, Winkelman The cross-cultural similarities in the use of many plants and the common experiences and interpretations require a neurobiological explanation. A review of the neurotransmitter actions of psychointegrators provides a basis for explaining the cross-cultural similarities in their use, Neuronal and experiential data suggest that psychointegrative substances have the capacity to evoke integrative responses of the organism. The effects of psychointegrators upon sensory, be- havioral, emotional, cognitive and psychodynamic experience and processing are reviewed to illustrate their adaptive advantages in stimulation of integrative information processing. Acti vation of prelinguistic aspects of brain function enhances human consciousness by integrating pre-linguistic social, emotional and behavioral processes with the frontal cortex’s linguistic and egoic aspects of consciousness and awareness. This systemic integrative effect of these sub- stances is why I have introduced the term psychointegrator to refer to them. Overview of Volume This volume provides a contribution towards understanding psychointegrators, the psychobiolo- gical bases of their effects, and their roles in human consciousness, religion and culture. The introduction provides a broad interdisciplinary summarization in order to develop a neuropheno- menological perspective grounded in an understanding of the biochemical and psychodynamic effects of these substances which explains their uses and their effects on human experience. The first section of articles introduces theoretical frameworks for understanding the importance and significance of these phenomena within the broader context of human consciousness. The se- cond section provides perspectives from Westem clinical medicine on the effects of these sub- stances. The third section covers examples of contemporary traditions of use of psychointegrator plant substances which illustrate the positive roles and functions they play in human cultures and individual psychodynamics. The first section's theoretical orientation provides a context for placing the experiences induced by psychointegrators in the broader context of consciousness theory and research, Re- search prompted by psychointegrators has provided new perspectives on the nature of human consciousness, revealing information about the structure of the brain/mind which has both theo- retical and practical significance. As GROF points out, the phenomena revealed in consciousness research and by the effects of psychedelic drugs can not be accounted for by the models of con- sciousness derived from Freudian psychology or Western medicine. GRoF has provided alterna- tive models of the nature of human consciousness, derived from his clinical research on psyche- delics and holotropic breathwork, GROF’s article details the transbiological realms of the peri- natal and transpersonal levels of experience and their relevance for humans’ knowledge of themselves and the universe at large. His work has provided new means of exploring the per- sonal biographical level of consciousness and therapeutically addressing memories and conflicts embedded at this level. As GROF and NARANJO point out, the religious and spiritual experiences induced by psychointegrators are not unique to these substances, reflecting general principles of ASC and their psychodynamics. NARANJO examines the utility of psychointegrators in the exploration of the human mind and consciousness, suggesting that psychedelics activate Kunda- lini phenomena, a high level of organismic self-regulation resulting from the suspension of the ego and the activation of mental structures. His analysis of the psychedelic experiences in light of experiences of advanced meditators illustrates that psychedelic substances activate structures of the human mind. NARANJO also makes the important point that the activation of these struc- tures by drugs is different than the capabilities which meditators achieve through the rigorous disciplines they follow. KRIPPNER points to the creative and constructive influences of psyche- delic substances as manifested in the religious artwork of many cultures. But as KRIPPNER’s re-Psychointegrator Plants 13 view illustrates, these creative influences are mediated by psychocultural dynamics. Psychointe- grator induced experiences may ritualistically guide creative potentials into traditional patterns, or conversely, free the artist from traditional cultural constraints. Both cultural and personal needs for expression can be enhanced by the use of these substances. The second section of articles provides an overview of clinical research on these substances and their broader social and professional implications. YENSEN’s article reviews the major para~ digms that have guided the use of psychedelic agents in humans. He explores the uses of psy- chedelic substances in terms of four views or paradigms: shamanic, psychotomimetic (mimick- ing psychosis), psycholytic (mind dissolving), and psychedelic (inducing mystical experience). He assesses the set and setting influences determining the outcomes with these substances and provides suggestions for training of clinician/experimenters in their use. GROB and BRAVO exa- mine the past lessons learned from human research with hallucinogens to provide guidance for future human research and to assess current trends and research. They look at the history of the Western political and medical repression of hallucinogens and the implications of the recent for- mal authorization for human research with hallucinogens by United States regulatory agencies. The recently initiated contemporary studies and the limitations placed upon such research are reviewed to illustrate the developments in these areas. The article by GASSER provides an over- view of the development of psycholytic psychotherapy in Switzerland. His study and the long term followup and use of WHO classifications provides the basis for assessment of the types of patients most likely helped through the therapeutic process. NEBELKOPF’s article describes the effect of LSD and shamanistic healing practices on the human services in the U.S. through following the career of a human services shaman/healer. NEBELKOPF examines the free clinics and therapeutic communities that developed in response to the psychedelic revolution and the broader social responses. He concludes with an examination of the contradictions in our current drug laws and the implications for health care planning and reform. PASSIE provides a historical overview of the development of psycholytic research in Scandinavian countries. He emphasizes the development of more precise indicators for treatment, and the general findings about im- provement in patient progress through therapy which was achieved with the psycholytic ap- proach. The third section of the book provides perspectives on the cultural use of psychointegrator plants, primarily within the Americas. SCHULTES and WINKELMAN review the bioactive prin- ciples and therapeutic applications of seven major families of hallucinogenic plants used among the indigenous cultures of the Americas. The ethnographic data provides a basis for genera- lizations about the patterns of psychointegrator use and illustrates a wide range of applications of these plants, even with the same species. Highly developed pharmacological and ritual heal- ing traditions selectively utilize set and setting factors, as well as pharmacological variations across species, to obtain a range of effects. The use patterns suggest that the importance of the psychointegrator plants lies in the ability to assist adaptation to a wide variety of circumstances and conditions. GROISMAN and SELL analyze the social and therapeutic aspects of the ritual and religious use of the psychoactive drink Santo Daime (Banisteriopsis spp.) by groups in Brazil which organize themselves into communities. They investigate health and illness conceptions and the symbolic world to construct a sociocultural and neurophenomenological model which explains the effectiveness of the Daime healing system in terms of the neurobiological effects which establish an equilibrium and maintain well-being. MaBIT, Glove & VEGA’s paper dis- cusses the adaptation of ayahuasca in the treatment of cocaine addicts in the Peruvian Amazon. Their approach has carefully adopted the traditional procedures, including diet and abstinence, in order to fully incorporate the healing wisdom of these ancient traditions. Their analysis indi- cates that the psychoactive plants are but one of the essential ingredients in the overall thera- peutic process, Their article details the lengthily process of detoxification and therapy based4 M. Winkelman upon both plants and rituals. RATSCH’s article reviews the historical and contemporary uses of the Psiloybe mushrooms as entheogenic agents. The increasing use of these substances in Western cultures for self-exploration, mystical and spiritual development, and as problem-solv- ing devices is discussed in terms of a “returning” cultural tradition. RATSCH characterizes the basic ritual structure of this modern entheogenic mushroom cult which he has observed around the world. GARTZ provides a consideration of the history of uses of psylocybin mushrooms and the problems associated with their applications in therapy. GARTZ discusses the range of psy- chological responses, including psychotic states and mycophobia. While there are no concerns about toxicity from these species, it is easily confused with species which do have toxic effects. JACOBS assesses the uses of the Datura genus among the aboriginal populations in North Ame- rica. He shows that it was used for medicinal, ceremonial. and religious purposes and differen- tially employed in ways which reflect an understanding and control of its dangerous effects. These groups distinguished the individual use of Datura for medical and divinatory purposes from the group use in initiation ceremonies. Datura's effect of producing retrograde amnesia functions as a means of separation for social transformation. SANCHEZ-RAMOS & MASH provide an overview of the pharmacotherapy of drug-dependence with ibogaine, a psychoactive alkaloid extracted from the root bark of Tabernanthe iboga. They review its use among the peoples of Western Africa and the development of its use within Western medicine. It came into use among addict rehabilitation groups as a means of interrupting opiate and stimulant dependence. SANCHEZ-RAMOS & MASH report on their pre-clinical evaluations of ibogaine’s potential to treat drug dependence in studies to assess its safety, metabolism and pharmacokinetics. ANDER- SON’s article addresses the use of the cactus peyote (Lophophora williamsii). He reviews the botanical and biochemical properties of the species, along with the early use by Western physi- cians. There has been limited clinical use of mescaline, but peyote is widely employed as an important medicine in the Native American church. The conclusion by ANDRITZKY & TREBES assesses the constructive visionary, creative and healing potentials of hallucinogens in industrial societies. The potentials of these substances are illustrated by Holland's drug experiments, self- experimentation by psychiatrists and nurses, in courses for artist and managers, and by others who employ them for insight and learning, Lessons learned from the decriminalization of drugs in Holland, combined with perspectives from cultures which traditionally use hallucinogen based therapies, suggest directions for solutions to persistent problems of drug abuse and addic- tion. The phenomena of drug addiction are analyzed as a result of the lack of legal guided expe- riences with hallucinogens. L Classifying Sacred Plants ‘There are a plethora of terms and diverse referents to psychointegrators — psychotomimetic, psy- chodysleptic, phantastica, deliriant, psychedelic (mind-manifesting), hallucinogen, entheogen, mysticomimetic, euphorohallucinogen and others ~ and no consensus as to which, if any, are appropriate. Considerable disagreement exists as to the meanings of the basic terms and the effects or classes of substances which they delimit, even among those specialists who have de- dicated their careers to studying these substances. There is even disagreement as to the nature of the basic effects. STAFFORD (1992) follows current trends in titling his book Psychedelics Encyclopedia, but ANDREW WEIL (1992) points out in the Forward to STAFFORD’s book that he would not include as psychedelics many of the plants discussed by STAFFORD. WEIL prefers to restrict the use of the term psychedelic to the “true psychedelics,” the indoles and phenethyl- amines, which stimulate serotonin and dopamine pathways in the central and sympathetic ner- vous systems without resulting in toxicity or dependence. These psychedelics contrast with otherPsychointegrator Plants 15 alkaloids with hallucinogenic effects in lacking toxicity, side-effects and complications. Yet WEIL also recognizes that toxic substances with undesirable side-effects can be “mind-manifest- ing” in some circumstances. SCHULTES & HOFMANN (1979) also make this differentiation of true hallucinogens from psuedohallucinogens, the later being toxic plants which produce visual and experiential effects similar to the hallucinogens. These terminological problems in part stem from the lack of a single botanical grouping or chemical classification for the diverse plants and substances which produce a range of interrelated effects. Botanical and Chemical Classifications ‘The widespread similarities in the experiential and phenomenological effects of hallucinogens, and even substantial similarities in aspects of the interpretations and applications (e.g., spiritual, therapeutic), suggest a common underlying physiological basis. But while the commonalities suggest that there should be botanical and chemical similarities providing a basis for grouping these substances together, there are no common botanical or chemical classes which encompass all of the recognized hallucinogenic and psychedelic substances. The natural hallucinogenic sub- stances are found in a great variety of species. genera and families (e.g., see the nearly 100 spe- cies discussed in SCHULTES & HOFMANN [1979]). The psychedelic substances are not even con- fined to plants alone, as some species of toads also secret hallucinogenic substances, and have been incorporated into religious mythology and inconography of Mesoamerica as a result (Furst 1976; DoBKIN DE RIOS 1984), The hallucinogenic plants are, however, concentrated in two main families: 1) the fungi, including the diverse species of mushrooms and the ergot para~ site (natural source of the dilysergic acid diethylamide, LSD); and 2) angiosperms, the principal group of plants on the earth (SCHULTES 1972; SCHULTES & HOFMANN 1979). However, only a small percentage of the plants in these families are hallucinogenic, making these broad botani- cal classifications virtually useless in identifying the unique nature of these plants. Similarly, hallucinogenic substances are of the chemical class of alkaloids, with their actions primarily de- rived from nitrogenous alkaloids. Yet most alkaloids do not have hallucinogenic effects, elimi- nating any simple chemical basis for their classification. While lacking botanical or chemical commonalities, most of the different hallucinogens and psychedelics are nonetheless equivalent in terms of their overall psychobiological effects (see sections 3 and 4 below). HOLLISTER (1984) points out that LSD, phenylethylamine (e.g., mesca- line) and indolealkylamines (e.g., psilocybin) are virtually identical in their clinical effects, with the major differences being in terms of their potency. These substances act upon brain physio- logy at the level of neurotransmission (JACOBS 1984a), derived from their similarity to neuro- transmitters and their ability to effect their normal functioning. The possibility of characterizing psychointegrators in terms of their effects at the level of neurotransmission has been explored (ee section 3). Most classifications proposed have, however, been on the basis of subjectively defined criteria, which pose additional problems. Hallucinogens and Psychedelics The exact denotations of terms like hallucinogens and psychedelic remain ambiguous. The pre~ sent basis for classification as a psychedelic or hallucinogen is on the basis of subjective effects upon human experience, rather than botanical, chemical or physiological criteria. This reflects a number of factors, including ignorance about the substances and differing perspectives on the nature of their effects. But these conventional conceptualizations of these substances have limit-16 M. Winkelman ing assumptions about the underlying nature of the effects and their desirability, and fail to cap- ture important aspects of the experiences. This undermines the usefulness of the terminology, as the following illustrates. Hallucinogen is defined in the American Heritage Dictionary (AHD) (Morris 1981) as a drug which produces hallucinations, false perceptions which have a compelling sense of reality in the absence of relevant stimuli. This reflects a medical definition of an hallucinogen as a che- mical agent “whose most prominent pharmacological action ... elicits optical or auditory halluci- nations, depersonalization, perceptual disturbances, and disturbances of thought processes” (STEDMAN 1982: 618). These hallucinations are further defined as a “strong subjective percep- tion of an object or event when no such situation is present” (p. 618). Such definitions make a value judgement as to the “reality” of the perceptions. They insist upon the faulty nature of the perceptions, in spite of their phenomenological presence and the profound significance and truth which users and cultural institutions have found in them. The inaccuracy of the implica- tions of hallucination is further illustrated by findings that some of the visual experiences (hallucinations) reflect neurophysiological properties of the CNS and visual systems (e.g., en- topic phenomena, KLUVER 1966). ‘The hallucinogens have been characterized as those compounds which are capable of pro- ducing hallucinations — sights, voices, thoughts — when used in non-toxic doses, and generally without causing mental confusion, memory loss or disorientation (SIEGEL 1984). Hallucinogens are characterized as having predominate effects on thought, perception and mood, but with minimal intellectual impairment under minimal doses, and with an absence of severe disabling effects. This distinguishes the hallucinogens and psychedelics from other substances which pro- duce visual phenomena when ingested in toxic or lethal doses. The term hallucinogen, nonethe- less has negative connotations and misleading assumptions about their effects, implying unde- sirable conditions, and suggesting they are false perceptions and debilitated conditions. Exa- mination of the cross-cultural use and interpretations of these substances called hallucinogens and psychedelics reveals a very different set of assumptions. These involve a perceived spiritual realm which is viewed as veridical and a source of important information and cultural inspira- tion. This contrasts with the emphases of the terms hallucinogen and psychedelic, which imply delusions and false perceptions, and ignore their symbolic content and significance, The charac- terization of a substance as a hallucinogen, with emphasis on non-veridical perceptual ex- perience, fails to address the extensive and powerful effects on human experience and cognitive frameworks, Further problems with the term hallucinogen include that virtually any substance will cause hallucinations at toxic levels. The problem is only partially resolved by the definition of hallucinogens as substances which produce hallucinations at non-toxic doses, since they also share other important properties. Psychedelics are similarly defined (in AHD) as pertaining to hallucinations or distortions of perceptions, including those states resembling psychosis. Medical perspectives recognize that psychedelics are “a rather imprecise category of drugs” (STEDMAN 1982: 1163). But the defini- tion does not avoid a judgement about the presumed nature of the psychedelic effects ~ “said to be the expansion or heightening of consciousness” (STEDMAN 1982: 1163). The generally pathological medical characterization of the effects of psychedelics does not incorporate central aspects of the phenomenological experiences produced by these substances. The original mean- ing of the term psychedelic, applied to the experiences produced by LSD, was quite different. Psychedelic means “mind manifesting,” referring to the extraordinary conceptual impact upon human experience and understandings. The root term of psychedelic, psyche, refers to mind, with more ancient referents to soul and spirit. This reflects some of the more general implica- tions of the term among users of these substances, referring to non-ordinary spiritual or mystical experiences induced by these substances. But these connotations and the social movements andPsychointegrator Plants 7 cultural crises associated with them has made the term “psychedeli wish to separate themselves from those implications. Holotropic and Psychointegrative Effects The lack of widely accepted terminology for referring to these substances has often led to the interchangable use of terms like hallucinogen and psychedelic, rather than providing distinctions among their meanings and referents. This in part reflects the common psychocognitive effects of these substances, as well as a lack of knowledge about their more specific effects and mecha- nisms of action. The shortcomings of the medical and lay characterizations of these substances has led to the development of new terms to conceptualize their most fundamental effects from the point of view of the users who have embraced their effects and implications. This was manifested in the term “entheogen” (WASSON ET AL. 1986), from the Greek entheos, referring to “the god within,” and gen, “action of becoming.” Entheogen’s reference to “the god within reflects the often reported experience of contact with the spiritual world which welled up within many while under the influence of these substances. The core effects of these substances are also broadly captured by STAFFORD’s (1992) characterization of psychedelics as eliciting spiritual experiences, promoting healing, and facilitating solving of problems without toxic or addictive effects, and expanding the scope of the operation of the mind, making it highly susceptible to set and setting influences in adapting to diverse needs and circumstances. GROF suggests that an underlying effect of the psychedelics is to “raise the general level of energy in the unconsciousness and amplify the psychic and psychosomatic processes ... makfing] it pos- sible to observe ... exteriorizations of the immanent dynamics of the unconscious mind” (1989: 55). GROF has proposed the use of the term “holotropic,” referring to an orientation towards wholeness provoked by the psychodynamic actions of these substances. “Holotropic” does cap- ture central aspects of the experiential effects of these substances, and provides an alternative to the more negative and politicized terms. Yet holotropic also fails to explicitly emphasize the spiritual, emotional, and cognitive aspects which are so salient in the cultural systems which use these substances. Similarly, FERICGLA’s (1994) suggestion of the label “nonspecific adapto- gens which act through means of mental imagery” slights the emotional and spiritual aspects of their effects. The need for new terminology is made evident by the limitations of and misconceptions im- plied by the numerous terms in widespread use to refer to these powerful botanical agents so often viewed as “sacred plants.” Psychotropic is an established term used to refer to agents which affect the psyche, particularly those used in the treatment of mental illness. While some sacred plants may be considered to be psychotropic, their scope of effects is much greater than that traditionally implied by the term, particularly with the focus of psychotropics upon the treatment of mental illness. Determination of their central effects and appropriate characteri- zation of their nature required an interdisciplinary synthesis. I wish to suggest a more appro- priate terminology, based upon the common characteristics of the systemic neurophenomenolo- gical effects of these substances. I propose that the neurophenomenological bases of these sub- stances, in essence the congruence of neurophysiological effects and phenomenal experience, suggests their characterization as psychointegrators. The psychointegrators stimulate mental and emotional processes to force the organism to- wards an integrative holistic growth state. The compound word holo-psycho-tropho-tropic would capture these effects, reflecting: stimulation of holism and integration of the soul, mind and spirit for growth and development. Unfortunately, this compound term does not have the con- ciseness and fluidity desirable, although it does reflect the overall effects of the substances8 M. Winkelman referred to as hallucinogen. psychedelic, etc. I suggest. therefore, the use of psychointegrator to refer to these substances and their constructive effects. The emphasis on psyche refers to not only the mind given emphasis in more recent meanings, but also the soul and spirit, the broader bases to which psyche once referred, and the phenomena central to the interpretations of these substances in most cultures. Psychointegrator therefore implies the stimulation of the mind, emotions, soul and spirit to integrative development, consistent with the patterns of experiences and uses of sacred plants in both individual and collective social processes. My use of the term psychointegrator in place of hallucinogen, psychedelic, psychotomime- tic, and others is not to preclude further terminological differentiation of the diverse substances and effects characterized here as psychointegrative. Rather it is to call attention to their com- monality in stimulating emotional, mental and experiential transformations and integration. The terms hallucinogen, psychedelic, etc. are also still used here to represent the vocabulary and ideas of others whose work is discussed. 2 Pre-historical and Cross-cultural Use of Psychointegrative Plants The original use of psychointegrative plants and their institutionalization in cultural practices remains unknown, but widespread evidence indicates their ancient and worldwide use in reli- gious traditions. Their cross-cultural use is consistently associated with a few principal themes, including magico-religious and therapeutic applications and mystical, sacred and spiritual inter. pretations of their effects (DOBKIN DE RIOS 1984; SCHULTES & HOFMANN 1979). Cross-cultural research also indicates systematic variation in these practices, reflecting the effects of social conditions. Prehistorical Patterns of Psychointegrative Plant Use When human societies first began to use psychointegrative plants and incorporate their in- fluences into institutionalized practices remains unknown. The dated use of conventionally re- cognized psychointegrative plants by humans is within relatively recent periods. Sophora secundiflora (mescal bean) was employed by Paleolithic and Pleistocene groups of Western North America as long as 10,000 years ago; recovered artifacts and ethnographic analogy sug- gest its use in vision quests and other shamanic practices (FURST 1976). The antiquity of psy- chointegrator plant use in the Old World can also be traced to at least 10,000 years ago in the use of Cannabis (SCHULTES & HOFMANN 1979). But the use of psychointegrative plants is like- ly much older. This is suggested by the numerous medicinal plants found in burials in the Sha- nidar cave (dated over 50,000 years ago). Most of the plants in the burials have contemporarily recognized medicinal potentials. A number of these medicinal plants became so fundamental to European herbal medicine that their local names often literally mean “healer.” The wide- spread presence of psychoactive substances in the plant world means that human foragers in vitably and repeatedly discovered them in their exploration of the environment. The sophist cated understanding of the medicinal plants in the environment suggests that these humans were as equally aware of those plants with powerful psychointegrative properties. La BARRE (1972) suggested (following WaSsON) that Mesolithic or Paleolithic mushroom cults were common to the predecessors of the first Native Americans, the proto-Indo-Europeans, and the Paleo-Siberian and Uralic cultures, representing practices associated with shamanistic visionary cults. Psychointegrative plants have been central agents in the repertoire of human's botanical resources. The impact which psychointegrators had upon the users’ cultures and theirPsychointegrator Plants 19 conceptual frameworks is evidenced in their incorporation into religions throughout the world. From the earliest recorded civilizations to diverse pre-state societies of recent history, psycho- integrative plants have been viewed as sources of sacred inspiration and a means of ritual con- tact with the spiritual world set apart from everyday life. The ubiquity of psychointegrator plant use in the New World is widely documented (e.g... see SCHULTES & WINKELMAN’S article here; SCHULTES & HOFMANN 1979; WASSON 1980; WASSON ET AL. 1974, 1986). The ancient Paleo-Siberian immigrants to the New World likely carried with them cultural traditions based upon the use of mushrooms and other psychointegra- tive plants. Even the major civilizations of the indigenous peoples of the New World had psy- choactive plants at the core of their religious beliefs and practices. These included a near uni- versal use of tobacco, as well as an extensive range of other plant species. Native American re- ligions were characterized by the presence of the ubiquitous shaman who guided personal expe- rience of the supernatural realm and direct contact with the spiritual forces of nature. Psycho- integrators played a vital role in inducing these experiences. The Old World also has abundant evidence of historical and pre-historical use of psycho- integrators. STAHL (1989) analyzes the presence of hallucinatory themes and ecstatic practices associated with the Venus figurines in the Late Neolithic art of Hungary. Cannabis has probably been employed by humans for over 10,000 years (SCHULTES & HOFMANN 1979), with use for medicinal, spiritual, nutritive and practical purposes documented across the Old World. The reli- gion of the ancient Scythians incorporated inhalation of the fumes of Cannabis, which also played important roles in the sacred systems of ancient Vedic and Chinese religions, as well as those of Tibet and the Mahayana Buddhists. EMBODDEN (1972, 1989) has documented the extensive role of narcotic and hallucinogenic plants in religions of many Old World cultures, including the ancient Egyptian dynastic priest-shaman royal cults, based upon the use of the genera Mandragora and Nymphaea, along with opium. Representations of these plants were prominent in religious art forms, and eventually came to be central aspects of religion and mythology. The substances were employed as a form of healing and shamanistic training, in purification and public ceremonial, and in death rituals and rites of resurrection. The divine Soma, the god plant of the Vedic religion of ancient India, has been widely recognized as a psychoactive substance. The use of hallucinogenic ergot alkaloids has also been described among the ancient Greeks in their Eleusian Mysteries (see SCHULTES 1972; SCHULTES & HOFMANN 1979; REIDLINGER 1990; Furst 1972). Cross-Cultural Commonalities in Psychointegrator Plant Use ‘The cultures which have utilized psychointegrative plants typically view them as powerful spiri- tual forces and medicinal resources, with central places in their religious systems. SCHULTES & HOFMANN's (1979) book Plants of the Gods illustrates that the use of these substances typi- cally involves magico-religious and therapeutic applications. The ubiquitous mystical, spiritual, and medicinal uses are illustrated in the fourteen principal genera they consider at length, as well as the more extensive group of 91 plants they review. Similarly, DOBKIN DE RI0s’ cross- cultural review of the use of hallucinogenic plants also illustrates that they all have medicinal and/or religious/mystical uses. DOBKIN DE RIOS (1984; DOBKIN DE Rios & SMITH 1977) re- views universal features associated with the use of hallucinogenic plants in religious rituals. ‘These include: establishing direct contact with the supernatural; their use a means of healing; a belief in their animistic properties (in-dwelling spirits); relationships with animals as a source of power; transformation into animal familiars; the death of the ego and its transformation; their use in the processes of divination; and their functions in the promotion of social solidarity. Prin-20 M, Winkelman cipal aspects of hallucinogen use found cross-culturally involves establishing personal relation- ships with a spiritual dimension of reality and reinforcing interpersonal and community rela- tions. The induced experiences have effects upon personality in: entering into a personal rela tionship with a reality established in a mythical time; developing relationships with an animal spiritual realm which is the source of power and self identification; the dissolution or death of the ego and its resurrection and transformation; and social rituals to enhance social identity for- mation, group integration and cohesion, and to reaffirm cultural values and beliefs. Studies in many cultures uniformly indicate that these substances alter personal and sensory experience of the world in a dramatic way, shifting self-awareness to an “other-worldly” expe- riential domain interpreted as sacred, spiritual or mystical. This other worldly domain is em- ployed to manage relations of an important personal and social nature. The ubiquitous simulta- neous therapeutic, religious, spiritual and medicinal roles of these plants has implications for understanding the nature of human consciousness and the spiritual. These substances affect world views in evoking certain classes of experiences and a recognition of a spiritual dimension in human nature and the collective aspects of human identity. These interrelationships of spiri- tuality and consciousness with the psychophysiological effects of plant substances have impor- tant implications for the epistemology of human consciousness and knowledge. The Origins of Religious Experience The world wide distribution of beliefs in spiritual and mystical effects of psychointegrators, coupled with their profound effects upon human experience, has led to the suggestion that they had a pre-historical role as progenitors of religion, as indeed many groups claim (c.f., LA BARRE 1972). The “flesh of the gods,” “voices of the gods,” “the sacred language,” “little saints,” and other phrases used to refer to psychointegrators indicate that many religions did view their practices as inspired by the indwelling spiritual influences of the plants. Many reli- gions which have these substances as central features of their ritual, sacrament and deity are undoubtedly cases in which a universal human need for religious experience found its coales- cence and inspiration around the experiences induced by psychointegrative plants. La BARRE (1972) called attention to the potentials of hallucinogens to stimulate the visions which often give rise to religious validation or new religious traditions. He suggested that hallu- cinogens direct attention towards inner experiences and help to reveal the aspects of the human subconscious which were represented in supernatural and spiritual beliefs. LA BARRE discusses how the supernatural reflects the subjective world of human experience and basic aspects of human perception and consciousness. The functions of religion in dealing with anxiety may be exemplified in the medical religious use of psychointegrators. LA BARRE suggested that the cri- ses cults often associated with hallucinogenic plants can be seen as societal “defense mecha- nisms” or psychosocial transformation processes, discussed by WALLACE (1956) as “mazeway resynthesis.” LA BARRE also discusses the role of the charismatic shamanistic leader in emotio- nally motivating the social group with a spiritually inspired guidance derived from visionary experiences, frequently induced by psychointegrative plants. These shamanistic cults institution- alized and sustained the collective social use of these plants The use of psychointegrators as therapeutic agents is closely tied to shamans, who formed the original basis in hunting and gathering societies for the universal distribution of healers who utilize ASC as a basis for healing and divination (WINKELMAN 1990). “Shamanistic healers” is a term I have employed to refer to the universal institutionalization of practitioners who use ASC as a fundamental aspect of professional training and in community rituals (WINKELMAN 1989, 1990, 1992), Shamanistic healers utilize ASC because of their adaptive potentials in thePaychointegrator Plants 2 systemic integration of human brain functioning and information processing. The biophysiologi cal brain transformations underlying the induction of ASC cause functional changes which faci- litate the emergence of human capacities such as healing and divination, and the potentials em- bodied in visionary, transpersonal and transcendental experiences and realizations. The ASC essential to selection and training of shamanistic healers and their therapeutic practices can apparently be released spontaneously by psychointegrative plants. These ASC oc- cur spontaneously under a wide variety of circumstances — injury, extreme fatigue, near star- vation, or accidental ingestion of toxic plants or psychointegrators — or as the consequence of a wide variety of procedures which induce these states. These diverse circumstances apparently provided the basis for the independent discovery, invention, and creation of shamanistic prac- tices (WINKELMAN 1990, 1992), derived from principles of neurognostic structures and mani- fested in neurophenomological universals (LAUGHLIN ET AL. 1990). The experiences under these influences had profound effects upon self and world awareness, and were often institutionalized in ritualized practices of healing and community integration. Psychointegrators and Mystical Experience. The potential of psychointegrators to induce reli- gious, spiritual and mystical experiences through their inherent properties is phenomenologically attested to cross-culturally, as well as experimentally demonstrated. The parallels of mystical and psychedelic experiences have been reported by experienced meditators and spontaneously offered in subjects’ subjective evaluations of their experiences while participating in clinical studies of LSD. This propensity of psychedelic substance to induce mystical experiences was formally investigated by PANKHE (1972) in his classic Good Friday experiment. This double blind controlled experiment formally addressed the contention that the psychedelic drugs pro- voke experiences similar to the classic mystical experiences. The classic conceptualizations of the fundamental features of mystical experience were gleaned from scholarly work on mysti- cism. Twenty Christian graduate theological students were assessed in terms of their mystical experiences and their attitudes towards self, others, life and mystical experience. On Good Fri- day in a chapel setting, matched pairs of students were randomly selected to be blindly admini- stered 30 milligrams of psilocybin or the control group treatment of nicotinic acid. Pre-treatment evaluations, experimental assessments, and follow-up questionnaires allowed for a series of comparisons between the two groups to assess the psilocybin effects. Significant differences were found in the direction of greater mystical experience for the psilocybin group on all of the nine major dimensions of mystical experience. Six month follow-ups found significant life-en- riching effects for the psilocybin group, with eight of the ten subjects reporting profound im- pacts upon their religious feelings and thoughts. JORDAN (1972) also compared the principal effects of the hallucinogenic drugs with the va- rious types of mystical experiences, elucidating the essential similarity of their natures, and their contributions to the psychology of religion. The major similarities between LSD induced and mystical experiences include changes in the sense of self and its relationship to god and the uni- verse, a well as a sense of unification with the universe. HOUSTON & MASTERS (1966) also pointed to similarities with mystical experiences in the well-recognized clinical phenomena of LSD leading to transcendental experiences of “cosmic consciousness,” a feeling of unity with the universe, and an ineffable nature to the experience. While mystical and psychointegrator in- duced experiences are by no means identical (see NARANIO here), the parallels indicate that they have similar effects upon human experience, reflecting the manipulation of similar aspects of the brain.2 M, Winkelman Societal Differences in the Use of Psychointegrative Plants Psychointegrative plants are central aspects of many religious systems throughout the world; yet their use is by no means universal. The relationship of psychointegrator plant use to the nature of social organization provides insight into their social functions. In spite of the physiolo- gical basis for their effects and their adaptive functions, psychointegrators are not used in all cultures in the same fashion nor with the same evaluation of their importance or potentials. Cross-cultural differences in the use of psychointegrative plants are widely recognized. The dra- matic differences in the number of hallucinogenic plants used in the New World cultures (ex- ceeding one hundred) with the relatively few used in the major Old World cultures was noted by La Barre (1970). LA BARRE suggested the widespread hallucinogenic plant use in Native American societies represented the persistence of the shamanistic practices which formed part of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic Eurasian traditions of the Paleo Siberian migrants to the Ame- ricas. While these influences were ubiquitous in the Americas, they did not persist in many other parts of the modern world. The differential distribution of hallucinogen use noted by SCHULTES & HOFMANN (1979), LA BARRE (1970), FURST (1972) and others has been attributed to cultural factors, since there are many hallucinogens in areas of the world where they are not considered religiously impor- tant or used, But other factors are also responsible for the lack of emphasis on their use in the Old World, and in some New World societies as well. Cross-cultural research indicates the im- portance of institutional social and political factors, as opposed to strictly cultural factors (e.g., beliefs), in the differential use of hallucinogens. FURST suggests the absence of shamanistic practices in the state level societies of Europe was a result, in part, of the lack of emphasis on the use of hallucinogens. I suggest that the causal factors should be reversed; hallucinogen use was rare because of the lack of shamanistic cults. Hallucinogenic plant use is associated with types of religious rituals such as those found in shamanistic practices. Such practices are typi- cally found in small scale societies, but are not typical of the religious activities of more com- plex societies. The effect of increasing social complexity on repression and restriction of hallucinogenic drug use and ecstatic/ASC magico-religious practices has been proposed and tested in several investigations (DE RIOs & SMITH 1977; JORGENSEN 1980; WINKELMAN 1991c). Cross-cultural differences in the institutionalization of hallucinogen use are primarily derived from broader changes in society and the institutionalized bases and functions of religion. ASC traditions con- cerned with healing are universal, but the interpretations of ASC and the forms of induction procedures used differ as a function of social complexity (WINKELMAN 1986a, 1991b, 1992; BOURGUIGNON 1976; BOURGUIGNON & EVASCU 1977). As societies grow in structural com- plexity, there are changes in the use of and access to plant hallucinogens and other ASC in- duction procedures as well. DE RIOS and SMITH (1977) proposed that as societies evolve from egalitarian to hierarchical structures, the use of hallucinogenic plants is usurped by the elite segments and eliminated from widespread use. Restriction on access to shamanistic ASC also appears to occur with increasing political centralization. As the presence of sodalties increased, the use of vision quests by shaman and the access to vision quests by the general populace also declined among Native American groups (JORGENSEN 1980). Changes in ASC traditions as a function of social and political complexity have been exa- mined with cross-cultural data (WINKELMAN 1991c) on the relationship of social conditions to different types of ASC (and drug) induction procedures in training of magico-religious practi- tioners. The presence of psychointegrative drug use is significantly and negatively correlated only with the levels of political integration, with other social complexity variables contributing no additional explanation of variance. The use of psychointegrative drugs in shamanistic healersPsychointegrator Plants 23 ASC induction procedures declines with increasing political integration of the society. This lends support to the hypothesis of the psychointegrator origins of religious experience, since they are characteristic of less complex societies than were those with non-drug shamanistic ASC. This supports the hypothesis of the origins of shamanism in the serendipitous discoveries associated with ingestion of psychointegrative plants, but it does not demonstrate that they were necessary progenitors of shamanism or all early religions. Psychointegrative plant use is also positively correlated with agriculture, indicating an increased use associated with social evolu- tion. Thus while the psychointegrative plants enter into some religious traditions, they are not necessarily the progenitors of religious behavior. Nonetheless, the strong correlation with poli- tical integration indicates that psychocognitive dynamics induced by psychointegrators may have inherent conflicts with the global social needs of hierarchical politically integrated societies, as the following examination of their psychosocial functions illustrates. Psychosocial Functions of Psychointegrative Plants The reasons why increasing political integration should lead to a repression of and restrictions on psychointegrators is a consequence of their patterns of use and their effects upon social rela- tions and personal interpretations of the world. Psychointegrators are generally used in social or interpersonal settings, where the set and setting (expectations about the experience, and the factors in the immediate setting) play powerful roles in eliciting and shaping experiences. Sha- manistic healers manipulate set and setting to guide individual experiences under these substan- ces, and as tools of manipulation and control in religious, political and social areas. DOBKIN DE Rios & SMITH (1977) suggest that hallucinogenic plants could be seen as a threat to the reli- gious interpretations of the legitimate social power, and are therefore typically repressed in state level societies. Their typical use in interpersonal settings with idiosyncratic interpretations could pose a threat to hierarchical control of religious consciousness and therefore to central political authority. The therapeutic and ritual applications enhance group cohesion and reaffirm social values and beliefs. Key aspects of the traditional applications of hallucinogenic plants include inducing a profound visionary experience within a mythical time and reality which is guided by collective cultural traditions and used in a social context which reinforces traditional cultural values, beliefs and goals. These community based rituals would reinforce a traditional commu- nity based mythos and social order, as opposed to the ideological and political orders promul- gated by the state religions. DOBKIN DE Rios & SMITH (1977) suggest that the use of hallucinogens in rituals designed to harness the negative use of supernatural power would also create strong social needs for their control. The association of shamanistic practitioners with witchcraft has been documented by HARNER (1973b), who reviews the widespread use of hallucinogenic plants: among some of those persecuted as witches in Western Europe by the Inquisition. The Inquisition’s attack upon those accused of being witches can also be seen as involving, in part, an effort to eradicate a competing religious ideology and practice based in the use of psychointegrative plants. Cross- cultural studies (WINKELMAN 1992) have verified this association of the activities of shama- nistic healers and sorcerer/witches, indicating the evolution of the former into the latter. Cross-cultural differences in hallucinogen use suggests that social transformation required psychosocial adaptations which were facilitated by the psychointegrator’s behavioral, emotional and cognitive effects. The use of hallucinogens in the context of cultural change is a means of facilitating adaptation to changing psychosocial circumstances through mediation between old and new conceptual systems. The therapeutic uses of psychointegrator plants as a means of achieving psychodynamic adjustment necessitated by social or cultural changes are illustrated24 M, Winkelman in the Navajo adoption of the Native American Church (peyote religion), the use of ayahuasca in the Amazon basin, and the cross-cultural use of psychointegrative plants in initiations. ANDRITZKY (1989) discusses the widespread use in the Amazonian basin of combinations of the Banisteriopsis genus with other hallucinogenic or potentiating additives. Ingestion in collective rituals by the adult members of the community assists in dealing with the problems of acculturation by mediating between the Euro-American and indigenous worlds and streng- thening social cohesion and group identity. This symbolic synthesis of the traditional and new ig through the use of emotionally relevant images of culture change from the indigenous point of view. ANDRITZKY discusses how the treatments and associated therapeutic practices serve as a method of symbolic confrontation in adjusting psychosocial dynamics, facilitated by the ayahuasca, which apparently gives the user conscious access to the process of symbolization. 'ABERLE’s (1966) work on the historical development of the peyote religion among the Na- vaho illustrates some of the typical patterns of cross-cultural use of hallucinogens in psycho- social therapeutic adjustment. ABERLE suggests that early Navajo adherents to the Peyote Church were a selective group who used the peyote religion to assist in their psychosocial ad- justment, Those who experienced the greatest relative deprivation were predominant among the early Navajo adherents to the Native American Church. Peyotism was also used in adaptation to other conditions created by the European American society and its disruption of traditional social relations, ABERLE suggested that the Native American Church was a reference group with close relations which met needs for approval and esteem, and provided a new ethical code which facilitated an adjustment between Native American values of collectivism and the indivi- dualism of the broader society. The use of psychoactive plant substances in facilitating adjustment is also found cross-cultu- rally in the context of initiation. GROB & DOBKIN DE RIOS (1992) have examined the cross-cul- tural adolescent use of hallucinogenic drugs. They point out that the abusive use patterns re- ported in modern industrial societies strongly contrast with the adaptive and integrative patterns of managed societal use which is found cross-culturally. In other societies, hallucinogen use has been managed by elders as a means of inducing directed ASC which serve purposes of resocia~ lization, These collective puberty initiation rites provide collective experiences for an age cohort in channeling individual growth and development in transition to adult status. The use of psy- choactive plants in the context of social development is attested to by the papers of this volume as well. JACOB’s paper elaborates upon these themes in a discussion of the widespread use of Datura among Native American groups for medicinal, social and therapeutic purposes. The use of Datura follows two primary patterns. One is the well recognized use in healing and divinato- ry practices. The other is in the context of adolescent initiation ceremonies, where the plant is employed as a means of inducing retrograde amnesia. The amnesic effects create the sense of separation widely recognized as an element of the social transformation process. GROISMAN & SELL (this volume) document a similar use of Santo Daime, a mixture of Banisteriopsis and other psychoactive plants. These substances are used as therapeutic agents and as central aspects of collective rituals of the new self-sustaining communities developed around their use. In addi- tion to its numerous psychotherapeutic uses, Santo Daime serves as a key element in the sym- bolic world view which sustains and integrates the community. Summary Psychointegrative plants have a range of religious and therapeutic applications, as well as im- portant social functions in initiations and rites of transition. Their use, however, is not uniformly distributed, but reflects strong social influences which lead to a diminution of these practicesPaychointegrator Plants 25 in more complex societies. The application of these substances and their success in affecting psychological and social status can be understood in terms of their effects upon brain activity and consciousness. The psychointegrators have played an important role in the discovery and utilization of neurophenomenological structures of human consciousness. As the following sec- tions illustrate, psychointegrators manipulate interactions among structures and functions of the human brain, integrating behavioral, emotional, interpretive and social aspects of human expe- rience, Their fundamental psychobiological similarity with mechanisms of other ASC means that psychointegrators must be understood more broadly in the context of transpersonal states of consciousness. The cross-cultural patterns associated with psychointegrators suggests that an underlying biological substrate is responsible for the specific effects and interpretations, and can explain cross-cultural similarities in use patterns and psychocognitive effects. This is not to suggest that cultural uses of psychointegrators are derived solely from their physiological effects. The expe- riences induced by psychointegrative plants, even the same species, can be quite varied (e.g... see SCHULTES & WINKELMAN this volume), illustrating the effects of cultural programming and influences (set and setting) in mediating their effects. The variation in experiences under LSD (e.g.. psychosis, emotional abreaction, depersonalization, mystical experience) reflect the state of emotional lability which is produced and effected by expectations and environment (YENSEN 1985). The different findings from the three medical paradigms of hallucinogens’ and psyche- delics’ effects (psychomimetic, psycholytic and psychedelic; see article here by YENSEN) illu- strate the powerful influences of these extrapharmacological factors. The extrapharmacological influences also represent other cross-cultural similarities in their use to create a vivid link of the individual with central cultural themes and motifs. Skamanistic healers extensively manipu- late these set and setting factors as an integral part of the treatments (BRAVO & GROB 1989). The therapeutic ritual is usually under the direction of individuals who personally know the clients and their personal situation, and use this information in guidance of the patient’s expec- tations of the therapeutic encounter and their experiences under the influence of the psychointe- grators. The singing, chanting, mythological referents and other symbolic elements of the ritual elicit and shape the patient's experiences and emotional reactions. The shamanistic healer also frequently follows the patient for a period of time after the session to assure a successful thera- peutic outcome. The cross-cultural similarities in the use of psychointegrative plants and the common inter- pretations do reflect, however, a biological mechanisms. These similarities reflect underlying neurophysiological effects of these substances upon the brain and experience, and require a neu- rophenomenological model for explaining the uniformities (e.g., WINKELMAN 1991b). The im- portance of biological mechanisms in explaining the cross-cultural similarities in perceptions and behavior under the influence of these substances is indicated by the similarities in the be- havioral effects upon humans and other animals (Jacoss 1984). The attribution of biologically determined aspects to psychointegrator induced experiences is not to reduce the experiences to the biological factors alone. Both human and animal studies indubitably implicate environmental factors — the set and setting — in the unfolding and interpre- tation of psychointegrator induced experiences and behavior. For example, one of the frequently noted effects is that the normal boundaries between the individual sense of identity and the outside reality become blurred or completely eliminated. The interpretation of this experience is quite varied, however, ranging from feelings of possession, loss of sense of self, and depersonalization, to ecstasy, cosmic union, and transcendent mystical states. Nonetheless, there are cross-cultural similarities in experiences which are derived from the common basis which many psychointegrative plants share in their interaction with neurotransmitter processes. The following section illustrates how the role of psychointegrators in spiritual and religious contexts,