[ThefollowingisatranscriptionofIgorShafarevich'sTheSocialistPhenomenon.

ThisworkwasoriginallypublishedinRussianinFranceunderthetitle
Sotsializmkakiavleniemirovoiistoriiin1975,byYMCAPress.AnEnglishtranslationwassubsequentlypublishedin1980byHarper&Row.Thisworkisnowout
ofprintanddifficulttofind.

Asapublicservice,IhavetranscribedthisimportantworkandIammakingitavailableforfreeviatheInternet.

Notesonformat:

l Horizontallinesmarkpageboundriesintheoriginal.
l Numbersappearingwithinsquarebracketsattheendofeachpagedenotepagenumbersintheoriginal.
l Wordsorbibliographicreferencesspanningpageboundriesintheoriginalnowappearintheirentiretyatthebottomofthelowernumberedpage.
l Blankpagesintheoriginalhavebeendeletedfromthistranscription.
l TheOCRsoftwareIusedforthistranscriptiontendstodropdiacriticalmarks.ImanuallyrestoredthemwhereverIcouldduringproofreading,butI'm
suremanyarestillmissing.

RobertLStephens]

IgorShafarevich

TheSocialistPhenomenon
TRANSLATEDFROMTHERUSSIANBYWilliamTjalsma

ForewordbyAleksandrI.Solzhenitsyn
[iii]

Contents

Forewordvii
Prefacexi

PARTONE
CHILIASTICSOCIALISM

Introduction2
I. TheSocialismofAntiquity7
II. TheSocialismoftheHeresies18
1.GeneralSurvey18
Appendix:ThreeBiographies46
2.ChiliasticSocialismandtheIdeologyoftheHereticalMovements 67
III. TheSocialismofthePhilosophers80
1.TheGreatUtopias80
2.TheSocialistNovel101
3.TheAgeofEnlightenment106
4.TheFirstSteps120
Summary129

PARTTWO
STATESOCIALISM

IV. SouthAmerica132
1.TheIncaEmpire132
2.TheJesuitStateinParaguay142

[v]

V. TheAncientOrient152
1.Mesopotamia152
2.AncientEgypt161
Appendix:ReligioninAncientEgyptandMesopotamia166
3.AncientChina168
Appendix:WasThereSuchaThingasan"AsiaticSocialFormation"?185
 V. TheAncientOrient152
1.Mesopotamia152
2.AncientEgypt161
Appendix:ReligioninAncientEgyptandMesopotamia166
3.AncientChina168
Appendix:WasThereSuchaThingasan"AsiaticSocialFormation"?185
Summary189

PARTTHREE
ANALYSIS

VI. TheContoursofSocialism194
1.TheAbolitionofPrivateProperty195
2.TheAbolitionofTheFamily195
3.TheAbolitionofReligion195
4.CommunalityorEquality196
VII. SurveyofSomeApproachestoSocialism202
VIII. TheEmbodimentoftheSocialistIdeal236
1.Economy239
2.TheOrganizationofLabor241
3.Family243
4.Culture248
5.Religion251
IX. SocialismandIndividuality258
X. TheGoalofSocialism270
XI. Conclusion286

Bibliography301

Index309

[vi]

Foreword
Itseemsthatcertainthingsinthisworldsimplycannotbediscoveredwithoutextensiveexperience,beitpersonalorcollective.Thisappliestothepresentbookwithits
freshandrevealingperspectiveonthemillenniaoldtrendsofsocialism.Whileitmakesuseofavoluminousliteraturefamiliartospecialiststhroughouttheworld,thereisan
undeniablelogicinthefactthatitemergedfromthecountrythathasundergone(andisundergoing)theharshestandmostprolongedsocialistexperienceinmodernhistory.
Norisitatallincongruousthatwithinthatcountrythisbookshouldnothavebeenproducedbyahumanist,forscholarsinthehumanitieshavebeenthemostmethodically
crushedofallsocialstrataintheSovietUnioneversincetheOctoberRevolution.Itwaswrittenbyamathematicianofworldrenown:intheCommunistworld,
practitionersoftheexactsciencesmuststandinfortheirannihilatedbrethren.

Butthiscircumstancehasitscompensations.Itprovidesuswitharareopportunityofreceivingasystematicanalysisofthetheoryandpracticeofsocialismfromthepenof
anoutstandingmathematicalthinkerversedintherigorousmethodologyofhisscience.(Onecanattachparticularweight,forinstance,tohisjudgmentthatMarxismlacks
eventheclimateofscientificinquiry.)

Worldsocialismasawhole,andallthefiguresassociatedwithit,areshroudedinlegenditscontradictionsareforgottenorconcealeditdoesnotrespondtoarguments
butcontinuallyignoresthemallthisstemsfromthemistofirrationalitythatsurroundssocialismandfromitsinstinctiveaversiontoscientificanalysis,featureswhichthe
[vii]

authorofthisvolumepointsoutrepeatedlyandinmanycontexts.Thedoctrinesofsocialismseethewithcontradictions,itstheoriesareatconstantoddswithitspractice,
yetduetoapowerfulinstinctalsolaidbarebyShafarevichthesecontradictionsdonotintheleasthindertheunendingpropagandaofsocialism.Indeed,noprecise,
distinctsocialismevenexistsinsteadthereisonlyavague,rosynotionofsomethingnobleandgood,ofequality,communalownership,andjustice:theadventofthese
thingswillbringinstanteuphoriaandasocialorderbeyondreproach.

Thetwentiethcenturymarksoneofthegreatestupsurgesinthesuccessofsocialism,andconcomitantlyofitsrepulsivepracticalmanifestations.Yetduetothesame
passionateirrationality,attemptstoexaminetheseresultsarerepelled:theyareeitherignoredcompletely,orimplausiblyexplainedawayintermsofcertain"Asiatic"or
"Russian"aberrationsorthepersonalityofaparticulardictator,orelsetheyareascribedto"statecapitalism."Thepresentbookencompassesvaststretchesoftimeand
space.Bycarefullydescribingandanalyzingdozensofsocialistdoctrinesandnumerousstatesbuiltonsocialistprinciples,theauthorleavesnoroomforevasivearguments
basedonsocalled"insignificantexceptions"(allegedlybearingnoresemblancetothegloriousfuture).WhetheritisthecentralizationofChinainthefirstmillenniumB.C.,
thebloodyEuropeanexperimentsofthetimeoftheReformation,thechilling(thoughuniversallyesteemed)utopiasofEuropeanthinkers,theintriguesofMarxandEngels,
ortheradicalCommunistmeasuresoftheLeninperiod(nowitmorehumanethanStalin'sheavyhandedmethods)theauthorinallhisdozensofexamplesdemonstrates
theundeviatingconsistencyofthephenomenonunderconsideration.

Shafarevichhassingledouttheinvariantsofsocialism,itsfundamentalandunchangingelements,whichdependneitherontimenorplace,andwhich,alas,arelooming
ominouslyovertoday'stotteringworld.Ifoneconsidershumanhistoryinitsentirety,socialismcanboastofagreaterlongevityanddurability,ofwiderdiffusionandof
controloverlargermassesofpeople,thancancontemporaryWesterncivilization.Itisthereforedifficulttoshakeoffgloomypresentimentswhencontemplatingthatmaw
intowhichbeforethecenturyisoutwemayallplunge:that"Asiaticformation"whichMarxhastenedtocircumventinhisclassification,andbeforewhichcontemporary
Marxistthoughtstandsbaffled,havingdiscerneditsownhideouscountenance
[viii]

inthemirrorofthemillennia.Itcouldprobablybesaidthatthemajorityofstatesinthehistoryofmankindhavebeen"socialist."Butitisalsotruethatthesewereinno
controloverlargermassesofpeople,thancancontemporaryWesterncivilization.Itisthereforedifficulttoshakeoffgloomypresentimentswhencontemplatingthatmaw
intowhichbeforethecenturyisoutwemayallplunge:that"Asiaticformation"whichMarxhastenedtocircumventinhisclassification,andbeforewhichcontemporary
Marxistthoughtstandsbaffled,havingdiscerneditsownhideouscountenance
[viii]

inthemirrorofthemillennia.Itcouldprobablybesaidthatthemajorityofstatesinthehistoryofmankindhavebeen"socialist."Butitisalsotruethatthesewereinno
senseperiodsorplacesofhumanhappinessorcreativity.

Shafarevichpointsoutwithgreatprecisionboththecauseandthegenesisofthefirstsocialistdoctrines,whichhecharacterizesasreactions:PlatoasareactiontoGreek
culture,andtheGnosticsasareactiontoChristianity.Theysoughttocounteracttheendeavorofthehumanspirittostanderect,andstrovetoreturntotheearthbound
existenceoftheprimitivestatesofantiquity.Theauthoralsoconvincinglydemonstratesthediametricaloppositionbetweentheconceptsofmanheldbyreligionandby
socialism.Socialismseekstoreducehumanpersonalitytoitsmostprimitivelevelsandtoextinguishthehighest,mostcomplex,and"Godlike"aspectsofhuman
individuality.Andevenequalityitself,thatpowerfulappealandgreatpromiseofsocialiststhroughouttheages,turnsouttosignifynotequalityofrights,ofopportunities,
andofexternalconditions,butequalityquaidentity,equalityseenasthemovementofvarietytowarduniformity.

Eventhough,asthisbookshows,socialismhasalwayssuccessfullyavoidedtrulyscientificanalysesofitsessence,Shafarevich'sstudychallengespresentdaytheoreticians
ofsocialismtodemonstratetheirargumentsinabusinesslikepublicdiscussion.

ALEKSANDRI.SOLZHENITSYN

[ix]

Preface
Thisbookisinspiredbytheconvictionthatthecataclysmswhichhumanityhasexperiencedinthetwentiethcenturyareonlythebeginningofamuchmoreprofoundcrisis
ofaradicalshiftinthecourseofhistory.Tocharacterizethescopeofthiscrisis,Ihadthoughtofcomparingittotheendofancientcivilizationortothetransitionfromthe
MiddleAgestothemodernperiod.ButlaterIbecameacquaintedwithabolderand,itseemstome,morepenetratingapproach.Forexample,F.Heichelheiminhis
fascinatingAnAncientEconomicHistoryexpressesthesuppositionthatthepresentperiodofhistory,whichhaslastedoverthreethousandyears,iscomingtoanend.It
haditsbeginningsintheIronAge,whentendenciesrootedinthefreedevelopmentofpersonalityledtothecreationofthespiritualandculturalvaluesuponwhich
contemporarylifeisbased:

Itisquitepossiblethattheeconomicstatecontrolsofthelastdecades,producedbyimmanenttrendsofourLateCapitalistAgeofthetwentiethcentury,
meantheendandconclusionofthelongdevelopmentinthedirectionofeconomicindividualism,andthebeginningsofanovelorganizationoflaborwhichis
closertotheAncientOrientalmodelsoffivethousandyearsagothantotheidealsforwhichthefoundationswerelaidatthebeginningoftheIronAge.(90:
pp.115116)*

Itishardlynecessarytodemonstratethatoneofthebasicforcesinfluencingthedevelopingcrisisofmankindissocialism.Itbothpromotes

*Throughoutthiswork,Arabicnumberswithinparenthesesrefertoentriesinthebibliographybeginningonpage301.Romannumeralsindicatevolumenumbers.

[xi]

thiscrisis,asaforcedestroyingthe"oldworld,"andundertakestoshowawayout.Thereforetheattempttocomprehendsocialismitsorigins,itsdrivingforces,thegoal
towardwhichitleadsisdictatedquitesimplybytheinstinctforselfpreservation.Wefearthepossibilityoffindingourselvesatthecrossroadswithblinderson,atatime
whenchoosingwhichroadtotakemaydeterminethewholeofmankind'sfuture.

Butitispreciselysuchattemptstounderstandwhichseemtocurtailalldiscussion.Thefactthattheadherentsofsocialismthemselveshaveexpressedsomany
contradictoryviewsoughttoputusonguard.Inaddition,notionsaboutthenatureofsocialismareasarulestrikinglyvague,andyettheydonotelicitdoubtandare
perceivedastruthneedingnoverification.Thisisespeciallyapparentinattemptstomakecriticalevaluationsofsocialism.Pointingoutthetragicfactsthatsofrequently
haveaccompaniedthesocialistexperimentsofthetwentiethcenturyusuallyevokestheobjectionthatanideacannotbejudgedbytheunsuccessfulattemptsatits
implementation.Thetaskofrebuildingsocietyissoimmeasurablycomplicated,itissaid,thatintheinitialstageserrorsareinevitabletheyare,however,duetothe
shortcomingsofcertainindividualsortheheritageofthepastinnosensedotheyfollowfromthefineprinciplesenunciatedbythefoundersofthedoctrine.Thefactthat
evenintheearliestdeclarationsofsocialistdoctrinethereareschemeswhichintheircrueltyfarexceedanyrealsystemisdismissedasinsignificant.Itisarguedthatthe
determiningfactorisreallifeandhardlytheconstructionsoftheoreticiansorthefantasyofutopianthinkers.Life,itissaid,hasitsownlaws.Itwilltemperandsmoothout
theextremesofthefanaticsandcreateasocialstructurewhich,evenifitdoesnotquitecorrespondtotheiroriginalplans,willbeatleastviable,andinanycasecloserto
perfectionthanthatwhichnowexists.

Inattemptingtobreakoutofthisviciouscircle,itisusefultocomparesocialismtosomeotherphenomenonwhichhashadaninfluenceofsimilarmagnitudeonlifefor
example,religion.Religionmayhaveasocialfunction,supportingordestroyingsocialinstitutionsitmayhaveaneconomicfunction(asthetemplesoftheancientEastdid
withtheirlandholdings,orasinthecaseoftheCatholicChurchintheMiddleAges)oritmayhaveapoliticalrole,andsoon.Butthisispossibleonlybecausethereare
peoplewhobelieveinGodandbecausethereisastrivingforaunionwithGodwhichreligioncreates.
[xii]

Withouttakingthisfundamentalfunctionofreligionintoaccount,itisimpossibletounderstandhowitinfluenceslifegenerally.Itisthisaspectthatmustbeclarifiedbefore
onecanexaminethequestionofhowitinteractswithotherspheresoflife.

Itisnaturaltosupposethatsocialism,too,containsafundamentaltendencywhichmakespossibleitsphenomenalinfluenceonlife.Butitisunlikelytobeidentifiedby
studying,forexample,theWesternsocialistparties,inwhichbasicsocialisttendenciesarehopelesslyentangledwithpracticalpolitics.Itisnecessary,first,tostudythis
phenomenonoverasufficientlylongtimespaninordertoascertainitsbasiccharacteristicsand,second,toexamineitsmoststrikingandconsistentmanifestations.

Inpursuingthismethodweshallbeastonishedtofindthatsocialism(atleastatfirstsight)turnsouttobeaglaringcontradiction.Proceedingfromacritiqueofagiven
society,accusingitofinjustice,inequalityandlackoffreedom,socialismproclaimsinthesystemswhereitisexpressedwiththegreatestconsistencyafargreater
injustice,inequalityandslavery!NobleUtopiasandgoldendreamsabouttheCityoftheSunusuallyevokenothingmorethanareproachfortheir"utopian"nature,for
Itisnaturaltosupposethatsocialism,too,containsafundamentaltendencywhichmakespossibleitsphenomenalinfluenceonlife.Butitisunlikelytobeidentifiedby
studying,forexample,theWesternsocialistparties,inwhichbasicsocialisttendenciesarehopelesslyentangledwithpracticalpolitics.Itisnecessary,first,tostudythis
phenomenonoverasufficientlylongtimespaninordertoascertainitsbasiccharacteristicsand,second,toexamineitsmoststrikingandconsistentmanifestations.

Inpursuingthismethodweshallbeastonishedtofindthatsocialism(atleastatfirstsight)turnsouttobeaglaringcontradiction.Proceedingfromacritiqueofagiven
society,accusingitofinjustice,inequalityandlackoffreedom,socialismproclaimsinthesystemswhereitisexpressedwiththegreatestconsistencyafargreater
injustice,inequalityandslavery!NobleUtopiasandgoldendreamsabouttheCityoftheSunusuallyevokenothingmorethanareproachfortheir"utopian"nature,for
theiridealsthataretoohighformankindatpresent.Butitisenoughmerelytoopenthesebookstobeastonishedbythescene:disobedientcitizensturnedintoslaves
informersworkandlifeinparamilitarydetachmentsandunderclosesupervisionpassesthatareneededevenforasimplestroll,andespeciallythedetailsofgeneral
leveling,depictedastheyarewithgreatrelish(identicalclothing,identicalhouses,evenidenticalcities).Aworkentitled"TheLawofFreedom"describesanidealsociety
whereineachsmallcommunethereisahangmanandanyonewhohasbeenremissordisobedientisfloggedorturnedintoaslaveandwhereeachcitizenisconsidereda
soldier.Therevolutionarieswhodrewupthe"ConspiracyofEquals"understoodequalityinsuchawaythattheyaloneformedthegovernment,whileothersweretoobey
implicitlyandthosewhodidnotweretobeexiledtocertainislandsforforcedlabor.InthemostpopularworkofMarxism,theCommunistManifesto,oneofthefirst
measuresofthenewsocialistsystemtobeproposedistheintroductionofcompulsorylabor.Anditispredictedthatthiswillleadtoasocietyinwhich"thefree
developmentofeachwillbetheconditionofthefreedevelopmentofall"!

Attemptstoestablishthehappysocietyofthefuturebymeansof
[xii]

executionsmayperhapsbeexplainedbythediscrepancybetweenvisionandreality,bythedistortionthattheideaundergoesinbeingputintopractice.Buthowto
understandateachingwhichinitsidealversionincludesbothanappealtofreedomandaprogramfortheestablishmentofslavery?

Orhowtoreconciletheimpassionedcondemnationoftheoldorderandquitejustifiedindignationatthesufferingofthepoorandtheoppressedwiththefactthatthesame
teachingsenvisagenolesssufferingfortheseoppressedmassesasthelotofwholegenerationspriortothetriumphofsocialjustice?ThusMarxforeseesfifteen,perhaps
evenf iftyyearsofcivilwarfortheproletariat,andMaoTsetungisreadytoacceptthelossofhalfofhumanityinanuclearwarforthesakeofestablishingasocialist
structureintheworld.Acallforsacrificesonthisscalemightsoundconvincingonthelipsofareligiousleaderappealingtoatruthbeyondthisworld.Butnotfrom
convincedatheists.

Itwouldseemthatsocialismlacksthatfeaturewhich,inmathematics,forexample,isconsideredtheminimalconditionfortheexistenceofaconcept:adefinitionfreeof
contradictions.Perhapssocialismisonlyameansofpropaganda,asetofseveralcontradictoryconceptions,eachofwhichappealstoagivengroup?Theentirehistory
ofsocialismspeaksagainstsuchaview.Themonumentalinfluenceithashadonmankindprovesthatsocialismisinessenceaninternallyconsistentviewoftheworld.One
needsonlytouncoverthetruelogicofsocialismandtofindthatvantagepointfromwhichitcanbeseenasaphenomenonwithoutcontradiction.Thepresentbookisan
attempttoaccomplishsuchatask.

Inthesearchforthisvantagepoint,Iproposetotreattheworksofsocialistideologynotasthewritingsofsupermentowhomthepastandthefutureofmankindare
known,norasmerejournalisticpropaganda.Oneoughtnotacceptalltheirpretensionsastruth,butontheotherhand,oneneednotdenytheaccuracyoftheirviewsin
areaswheretheymaywellbecompetentfirstofall,inpronouncementsbearingonthemselves.If,forexample,Marxrepeatedlyexpressesthethoughtthatmanexists
onlyasarepresentativeoftheinterestsofadefiniteclassandhasnoexistenceasanindividual,ofcoursewearenotobligedtobelievethattheessenceofmanwas
revealedtoMarx.Butwhynotacceptthatheisdescribingaviewoftheworldinherentincertainpeople,himselfinparticular,whoregardmannotasapersonalityhaving
anindependentsignificanceinthe
[xiv]

worldbutmerelyasatoolofforcesoutsidehiscontrol?Ifwereadthatsociety(andtheworld)mustbedestroyed,"razedtotheground,"thatlifecannotbeimprovedor
correctedandthathistorymaybeassistedonlybyitsmidwifeViolence,itwouldbeincautioustotrustthepropheticgiftoftheauthorsofsuchpredictions.Butitisquite
possiblethattheyareconveyingaviewoflifeinwhichtheentireworldevokesmalevolence,loathingandnausea(asinSartre'sfirstnovel,Nausea).Lifereeksofdeath
andbyforceofastrangedualismisjustasloathsomeasdeathanddecayundernormalcircumstances.

Theperceptionoftheworldthatmaybeinferredinthiswayfromthestudyofsocialistideologyappearstobeaccurateandtruetolife.AnditisnaturaltoaSsumethatthis
ispreciselywhatmovestheadherentsofsocialistideology.Furthermore,sincesocialismiscapableofinspiringmassmovements,itfollowsthatmanyaresubjecttothe
influenceofsuchaworldview,perhapsevenallpeoplearetoagreaterorlesserdegree.Ifsocialismisviewedastheultimatetruthaboutman,thenitunquestionably
disintegratesintocontradictoryelements.Butifweconsiderittobeamanifestationofonlyoneofthetendenciesinmanandmankind,thenitappearspossibletoremove
thecontradictionsandtounderstandsocialismasabasicallycohesiveandconsistentphenomenon.Onlythenmaythequestionberaisedastotheroleofsocialismin
history.Theconsiderationssetforthinthelastparagraphsofthisbookdonotconstituteadefinitiveanswertothisquestion.Rather,theyindicatethedirectioninwhich,so
itseemstome,theanswershouldbesought.

Inthepresentwork,theproblemisconsideredinitsmostabstractform:Whatarethosebasicfeaturesofsocialismwhich,interwovenasineachcasetheyarewiththe
individualpeculiaritiesofvariouscountriesandepochs,engenderthemultiplicityofitsmanifestations?Therefore,althoughaconsiderablenumberoffactsandconcrete
historicalsituationsareexamined,weshallabstractfromthespecificnatureofthesesituationsinordertodelineatebasicfeaturescommontoallofthem.Asaresult,the
conclusionstowhichthisdiscussionleadsarenotdirectlyapplicabletoanyconcretesituationnotuntilsocialistidealsfindtheirabsoluteandunconstrainedrealization.In
allexistinghistoricalrealizationsofthesocialistideal,wearedealingnotwithapurephenomenonbutwithafusionofsocialistandmanyothertendencies.Therefore,in
ordertoapplyourviewstoaspecifichistoricalsituation,itwouldbenecessarytotaketheoppositeapproach:
[xv]

toelucidatehowthegeneraltendenciesofsocialismsingledoutbyusarereflectedinthepeculiaritiesofhistoricalepochsandnationaltraditions.Suchisnotthepurposeof
thisbook.However,itseemstomethatwithoutmakingadistinctionbetweenthephenomenoninitsgeneralaspectandthespecificsgeneratedbyconcretehistorical
conditions,allattemptsatunderstandingarehopeless.

PartsOneandTwoofthebookareanexpositionofconcretefactsfromthehistoryofsocialistteachingsandsocialiststates.OnlyinPartThreeisthereanattemptto
analyzethesefactsandtodrawcertainconclusions.Thisstructureentailsanumberofdifficultiesforthereader.Ifhedoesnotwishtogointothedetailsofthevarious
historicalepochs,hemaysimplyskimPartsOneandTwoandmovequicklyintoPartThree.Fortheconvenienceofsuchareader,severalsummariesreviewthose
conclusionsfromthehistoricalsectionswhichareofspecialimportanceforthesubsequentdiscussion.

Workingonthisbookwithoutofficialpermission,undertheconditionsprevailinginourcountry,Iencounteredconstantdifficultiesinobtainingthenecessaryliterature.
Giventhissituation,Iamawareofthelikelihood(andperhapseventheinevitability)oferrorincertainspecificquestionsandoftheshortcomingsofmyarguments,which
mayhavebeenpresentedearlierandmoreeffectivelybyothers.Myonlyjustificationistheurgencyofthethemeandthespecialhistoricalexperienceofourcountry.

Thelattercircumstancewasthebasicstimulusformywork,inspiringmewithacertainhopeofsuccess.Russia'sexperienceinthetwentiethcenturyhasbeenunique
amongmodernnationsperhapstherearefewprecedentsinthewholeofworldhistory.Webecamewitnessestoeventsandchangeswhichwewouldhardlyhavethought
conclusionsfromthehistoricalsectionswhichareofspecialimportanceforthesubsequentdiscussion.

Workingonthisbookwithoutofficialpermission,undertheconditionsprevailinginourcountry,Iencounteredconstantdifficultiesinobtainingthenecessaryliterature.
Giventhissituation,Iamawareofthelikelihood(andperhapseventheinevitability)oferrorincertainspecificquestionsandoftheshortcomingsofmyarguments,which
mayhavebeenpresentedearlierandmoreeffectivelybyothers.Myonlyjustificationistheurgencyofthethemeandthespecialhistoricalexperienceofourcountry.

Thelattercircumstancewasthebasicstimulusformywork,inspiringmewithacertainhopeofsuccess.Russia'sexperienceinthetwentiethcenturyhasbeenunique
amongmodernnationsperhapstherearefewprecedentsinthewholeofworldhistory.Webecamewitnessestoeventsandchangeswhichwewouldhardlyhavethought
possiblebeforethistime.Anewfieldofphenomena,formerlyattainableonlythroughartisticormysticalintuition,nowbecameopentorationalinvestigation,basedona
studyoffactsandtheirlogicalanalysis.Wehavehadtheopportunityofseeinghistoryinanewaspectanadvantagethatcanoutweighmanydifficulties.

Thisbookwouldneverhavebeenwrittenwereitnotfortheassistancerenderedmebynumerouspeople.Atthemoment,itisnotpossibleformetonamethemallandto
expresstoeachmydebtofgratitude.ButIcanthanktwoofthemhere:A.I.Solzhenitsyn,underwhoseinfluenceIundertooktowritethisbook,andV.M.Borisov,
whosecriticismwasinvaluable.
[xvi]

PARTONE
CHILIASTICSOCIALISM

[1]

Introduction
Theword"socialism"oftenimpliestwoquitedifferentphenomena:

1. Adoctrineandanappealbasedonit,aprogramforchanginglife,and
2. Asocialstructurethatexistsintimeandspace.

ThemostobviousexamplesincludeMarxismascontainedinthe"classic"writingsofMarxandothersandthesocialstructurethatexistsintheU.S.S.R.andthePeople's
RepublicofChina.Amongthefundamentalprinciplesofthestatedoctrineinthesecountriesistheassertionthattheconnectionbetweenthetwophenomenaisvery
simple.Ontheonehand,itisasserted,thereisascientifictheorywhichprovesthatafterachievingadefinitelevelinthedevelopmentofproductiveforces,mankindwill
passovertoanewhistoricformationthistheorypointsthewaytothemostrationalpathsforsuchatransition.Andontheotherhand,weareassured,thereisthe
embodimentofthisscientificprognosis,itsconfirmation.AsanexampleofquiteadifferentpointofviewweciteH.G.Wells,whovisitedRussiain1920and,though
infectedbytheworshipofsocialism,fashionablethenasnow,neverthelessalmostinstinctivelyrefusedtoacceptMarxism,inthissensereflectingtheantipathytowardall
scholastictheoriestypicalofanEnglishman.InhisbookRussiaintheShadows,Wellswrites:"MarxistCommunismhasalwaysbeenatheoryofrevolution,atheorynot
merelylackingincreativeandconstructiveideasbuthostiletocreativeandconstructiveideas."(1:p.60)HedescribesthecommunismthatgovernedRussiaas"...inso
manymatterslikeaconjurerwhohaslefthis
[2]

pigeonandhisrabbitbehindhimandcanproducenothingwhateverfromthehat."(1:p.64)

Fromthispointofview,Marxismdoesnotsetitselfanygoalotherthanthatofpreparingfortheseizureofpower.Thestatesystemestablishedasaresultistherefore
definedandshapedbythenecessityofholdingpower.Sincethesetasksareentirelydifferent,theofficialtheoryandtheactualimplementationhavenothingincommon.

Itwouldbeincautioustotakeeitheroftheseassertionsonfaith.Onthecontrary,itwouldbedesirable,first,tostudyboth"socialisms"independently,withoutanyapriori
hypotheses,andonlythenattempttocometoconclusionsabouttheconnectionsthatexistbetweenthem.

Weshallbeginwithsocialismunderstoodasadoctrine,asanappeal.

Allsuchdoctrines(andasweshallsee,thereweremanyofthem)haveacommoncoretheyarebasedonthecompleterejectionoftheexistingsocialstructure.Theycall
foritsdestructionandpaintapictureofamorejustandhappysocietyinwhichthesolutiontoallthefundamentalproblemsofthetimeswouldbefound.Furthermore,they
proposeconcretewaysofachievingthisgoal.InreligiousliteraturesuchasystemofviewsisreferredtoasbeliefinthethousandyearKingdomofGodonearthchiliasm.
Borrowingthisterminology,weshalldesignatethesocialistdoctrinesofthistypeas"chiliasticsocialism."

Inordertogivesomesenseofthescaleofthisphenomenonandoftheplaceitoccupiesinthehistoryofmankind,weshallexaminetwodoctrinesthatfitthecategoryof
chiliasticsocialism,astheyaredescribedbytheircontemporaries.Indoingso,weshallattempttoextractapictureofthefuturesocietyenvisaged,leavingtoonesidefor
themomentthemotivationaswellastheconcretemeansrecommendedforachievingtheideal.

ThefirstexampletakesustoAthensin392B.C.duringthegreaturbanDionysia,whenAristophanespresentedhiscomedyEcclesiazusaeorTheCongresswomen.
HerehedepictsateachingfashionableintheAthensofthetime.Theplotisasfollows:Thewomenofthecity,wearingbeardsanddressedinmen'sclothing,cometothe
assemblyandbyamajorityvotepassaresolutiontransferringallpowerinthestatetowomen.Theyusethispowertointroduceaseriesofmeasures,whichare
expoundedinadialoguebetweenPraxagora,theleaderofthewomen,andherhusband,Blepyros.Hereareseveralquotations.
[3]

PRAXAGORA:
CompulsoryUniversalCommunityPropertyiswhatIproposetoproposeacrosstheboardEconomicEquality,tofillthosefissuresthatscaroursociety'sface.
NomorethedivisionbetweenRichandPoor....
...We'llwearthesameclothes,andsharethesamefood....
...Myinitialmovewillbetocommunalizeland,andmoney,andallotherproperty,personalandreal.
BLEPYROS:
Buttakethelandlessmanwho'sinvisiblywealthy...becausehehideshissilverandgoldinhispockets.Whatabouthim?
PRAXAGORA:
 CompulsoryUniversalCommunityPropertyiswhatIproposetoproposeacrosstheboardEconomicEquality,tofillthosefissuresthatscaroursociety'sface.
NomorethedivisionbetweenRichandPoor....
...We'llwearthesameclothes,andsharethesamefood....
...Myinitialmovewillbetocommunalizeland,andmoney,andallotherproperty,personalandreal.
BLEPYROS:
Buttakethelandlessmanwho'sinvisiblywealthy...becausehehideshissilverandgoldinhispockets.Whatabouthim?
PRAXAGORA:
He'lldeposititallintheFund....
...I'llknockoutwallsandremodeltheCityintoonebighappyhousehold,whereallcancomeandgoastheychoose....
...I'mpoolingthewomen,creatingapublichoardfortheuseofeverymanwhowishestotakethemtobedandmakebabies.
BLEPYROS:
Asystemlikethisrequiresaprettywisefathertoknowhisownchildren.
PRAXAGORA:
Butwhydoesheneedto?Ageisthenewcriterion:Childrenwillhenceforthtracetheirdescentfromallmenwhomighthavebegotthem....
BLEPYROS:
Who'sgoingtoworkthelandandproducethefood?
PRAXAGORA:
Theslaves.Thisleavesyoujustonecivicfunction:Whentheshadesofnightdrawon,slipsleeklydowntodinner....
...TheState'snotgoingtostint.Itshandisfullandopen,itsheartislarge,it'llstuffitsmenfolkfreeofcharge,thenissuethemtorcheswhendinner'sdoneandsend
themouttohuntforfun.
(2:pp.4351)

Thereaderwillofcoursealreadyhavenoticedmanyofthefeaturesofafamiliardoctrine.Letusattempttospecifytheassociationsthatarisebyconsideringasecond
exampletheclassicstatementoftheMarxistprogramcontainedintheCommunistManifesto.Herearesomequotationscharacterizingthefuturesocietyastheauthors
imagineit:"...thetheoryoftheCommunistsmaybesummedupinthesinglesentence:Abolitionofprivateproperty...."(3:V:p.496)"Abolitionofthefamily!Eventhe
mostradicalHareupatthisinfamousproposaloftheCommunists....Onwhatfoundationisthepresent
[4]

family,thebourgeoisfamilybased?Oncapital,onprivategain.Initscompletelydevelopedform,thisfamilyexistsonlyamongthebourgeoisie.Butthisstateofthingsfinds
itscomplementinthepracticalabsenceofthefamilyamongtheproletarians,andinpublicprostitution.

"Thebourgeoisfamilywillvanishasamatterofcoursewhenitscomplementvanishes,andbothwillvanishwiththevanishingofcapital.

"But,youwillsay,wedestroythemosthallowedofrelationswhenwereplacehomeeducationbysocial.

"Andyoureducation!Isnotthatalsosocial,anddeterminedbythesocialconditionsunderwhichyoueducate?..."(3:V:p.499)

Thatlastthoughtissomewhatclarifiedin"PrinciplesofCommunism,"adocumentwrittenbyEngelsinthecourseofpreparingtheCommunistManifesto.

Amongthefirstmeasurestobetakenaftertherevolution,wefind:

"8.Theeducationofallchildren,fromthemomentthattheycangetalongwithoutamother'scare,shallbeatstateinstitutionsandatstateexpense."(3:V:p.475)

TheCommunistManifestoagain:

"ButyouCommunistswouldintroducecommunalityofwomen,screamsthewholebourgeoisieinchorus."(3:V:p.499)

Answeredby:"TheCommunistshavenoneedofintroducingcommunalityofwomenithasexistedalmostfromtimeimmemorial.

"Ourbourgeois,notcontentwithhavingthewivesanddaughtersofproletariansathisdisposal,nottospeakofCommonprostitutes,takesthegreatestpleasurein
seducingeachother'swives.

"BourgeoismarriageisinrealityasystemofwivesinCommonandthus,attheworst,whattheCommunistsmightpossiblybereproachedwithisthattheydesireto
introduce,intheplaceofahypocriticallyconcealed,anopenlylegalizedcommunalityofwomen."(3:V:p.500)

IntheCommunistManifestothereisnoreferencetotheothermaterialaspectsoflife.In"PrinciplesofCommunism"wefind:

"9.ThebuildingoflargepalacesinthenationalestatesascommondwellingsfortheCommunes,whosecitizenswillbebusyinindustry,agriculturethesestructureswill
combinethemeritsofurbanandrurallifeandavoidtheirdefects."(3:V:p.475)
[5]

WeseeconcealedinMarx'sHegelianphraseologyandAristophanes'buffooneryalmostthesameprogram:

1.Abolitionofprivateproperty.

2.Abolitionofthefamilyi.e.,communalityofwivesanddisruptionofthebondsbetweenparentsandchildren.

3.Purelymaterialprosperity.

Itwouldevenbepossibletosaythatbothprogramscoincideperfectly,wereitnotforoneplaceintheEcclesiazusae.InanswertoBlepyros'squestionastowhowilldo
theplowing,Praxagorareplies:"Slaves!"Heresheproclaimsthefourthpointoftheprogram,andamostsignificantoneliberationfromthenecessityofwork.
Interestinglyenough,onthispointHerbertMarcuse,thebestknownoftheneoMarxistsandoneoftheleadersoftheNewLeftintheU.S.A.,differsfromMarx.

Forinstance,inhisessay"TheEndofUtopia,"Marcusesaysthat"itisnoaccidentthatformodernavantgardeleftintellectualstheworksofFourierhavebecomerelevant
again.FourierdidnotflinchwhereMarxwasinsufficientlybold.Hespokeofasocietywhereworkwouldbecomeplay."Andelsewhereinthesameessay:"New
technicalpotentialitiesleadtooppressionunlesstheredevelopsavitalneedfortheabolitionofalienatingwork."(4:pp.75,77)

SupplementingtheprogramoftheCommunistManifestointhisfashion,weobtainadescriptionoftheidealwhichfullycoincideswithwhathadbeentheobjectof
Aristophanes'derisiononthestageoftheAtheniantheaterin392B.C.
Forinstance,inhisessay"TheEndofUtopia,"Marcusesaysthat"itisnoaccidentthatformodernavantgardeleftintellectualstheworksofFourierhavebecomerelevant
again.FourierdidnotflinchwhereMarxwasinsufficientlybold.Hespokeofasocietywhereworkwouldbecomeplay."Andelsewhereinthesameessay:"New
technicalpotentialitiesleadtooppressionunlesstheredevelopsavitalneedfortheabolitionofalienatingwork."(4:pp.75,77)

SupplementingtheprogramoftheCommunistManifestointhisfashion,weobtainadescriptionoftheidealwhichfullycoincideswithwhathadbeentheobjectof
Aristophanes'derisiononthestageoftheAtheniantheaterin392B.C.

Weareconfrontedbyasetofideaswithcertainstrikinglydurablefeatureswhichhaveremainedalmostunchangedfromantiquitytoourday.Theterm"chiliasticsocialism"
willbeappliedtosuchideas.Below,weshallattempttooutlinethisconceptmoreprecisely,topointoutthemainstagesofitshistoricaldevelopmentandtotakenoteof
thebroaderideologicalframeworkwithinwhichthedoctrinesofchiliasticsocialismcameintobeing.
[6]

I.
TheSocialism
ofAntiquity
InclassicalGreeceweencountertheconceptofchiliasticsocialisminitsfullfledged,onemightevensayideal,form.Plato'senunciationofthisconceptinitselfhadan
enormousinfluenceonthesubsequenthistoryofchiliasticsocialism.TwoofPlato'sdialoguesaredevotedtothistheme:TheRepublicandLaws.Intheformer,Plato
depictswhatheconsidersanidealstatestructure,whilethelattershowsthebestpracticalapproximationofthisideal.TheRepublicwaswrittenduringthemiddleyearsof
Plato'slife,Lawsinhisoldage.ItseemspossiblethatthefailuresPlatoexperiencedtryingtoputhisviewsintopracticearereflectedintheseworks.

WebeginwithanoverviewofthepictureoftheidealsocietythatisgiveninTheRepublic,aworkthatSergiusBulgakovcalls"wondrousandperplexing."Indeed,theten
booksofthisdialoguereflectalmostallaspectsofPlato'sphilosophyhisconceptionofbeing(theworldofideas),cognition(thevisualworld,theworldaccessibletothe
mind),thesoul,justice,artandsociety.TheRepublicmayatfirstsightseemtoonarrowatitleforsuchawork.Nevertheless,itisfullyjustified,sincethequestionofthe
structureofsocietyisthecenteraroundwhichPlato'smanysidedphilosophyrevolves,aswellasservingastheprincipalillustrationofhisteaching.Understandingthe
conceptsofGoodandBeautyisessentialforrulingastate.Thedoctrinesoftheimmortalityofthesoulandofretributionafterdeathpromotethedevelopmentofthe
spiritualqualitiesessentialforrulers,thestatemustbefoundedonjustice,andartisoneofthemajorinstrumentsfortheeducationofcitizens.
[7]

Platoexpoundsonthepossibleformsofastate(henamesfivestructures)andspeaksaboutthecorrespondingspiritualqualities.Allthestatesthatexistedcontemporary
tohimheclassifiesasbelongingtofourcorrupttypes.Division,hostility,discord,willfulnessandstrivingforrichesreigninthesestates.

"...suchacityshouldofnecessitybenotone,buttwo,acityoftherichandacityofthepoor,dwellingtogether,andalwaysplottingagainstoneanother."(5:551d)*

Thefifthformofstatestructureis,accordingtoPlato,theperfectstate.Itsbasicqualityisjustice,whichpermitsittopartakeofvirtue.Inanswertothequestionwhat
constitutesjusticeinastate,Platosays:

"...whatwelaiddowninthebeginningasauniversalrequirementwhenwewerefoundingourcity,thisIthink,orsomeformofthis,isjustice.Andwhatwedidlaydown,
andoftensaid,ifyourecall,wasthateachonemanmustperformonesocialserviceinthestateforwhichhisnaturewasbestadapted."(433a)

Onthebasisofthisproposition,thepopulationofthestateisdividedintothreesocialgroupswemayevencallthemcastes.Theyare:philosophers,guardiansorsoldiers,
artisansandpeasants.Thechildrenofartisansandpeasantsbelongtothesamegroupastheirparentsandmayneverbecomeguardians.Thechildrenofguardiansasa
ruleinherittheirfathers'occupation,butiftheyshownegativeinclinationstheyaremadeintoeitherartisansorpeasants.Butthephilosophersmaysupplementtheir
numbersfromthebestoftheguardians,butnotuntilthelatterreachtheageoffifty.

Plato'sconceptionisnotatallmaterialistic:hisconcernisnotwiththemannerinwhichproductionisorganizedinhisstate.Thushespeaksverylittleaboutthedailylifeof
theartisansandpeasants.Hebelievesthatthelifeofthestateisdeterminedbyitslaws,henceheisconcernedaboveallwiththelifeofthosecastesthatcreateandguard
thelaw.

Thephilosophershaveunlimitedpowerinthestate.(Bulgakovevensuggeststhattheword"philosophers"shouldbetranslated"therighteousmen"or"saints.")

Theyarethepeople"...enamoredofthekindofknowledgewhichrevealstothemsomethingofthatessencewhichiseternal,andisnotwanderingbetweenthetwopoles
ofgenerationanddecay."(485b)

*InsubsequentreferencestoPlato'sRepublic,onlythemarginalsiglawillbequoted.

[8]

Aphilosopherpossesses"...amindhabituatedtothoughtsofgrandeurandthecontemplationofalltimeandallexistence....suchamanwillnotsupposedeathtobe
terrible."(486b)

Oncethephilosophershaveunderstoodtheirhighmission,theywillstructuretheirlivesinaccordancewithit,"...devotingthegreaterpartoftheirtimetothestudyof
philosophy,butwhentheturncomesforeach,toilingintheserviceofthestateandholdingofficeforthecity'ssake,regardingthetasknotasafinethingbutanecessity.
Andso,wheneachgenerationhaseducatedotherslikethemselvestotaketheirplaceasguardiansofthestate,theyshalldeparttotheIslandsoftheBlessedandthere
dwell."(540a,b)

Theguardiansareunderthephilosophers'command.Plato'sfavoriteimageindescribingtheguardiansisthatofthedog.Thus,aswithpurebredcanines,theguardians'
"...naturaldispositionistobemostgentletotheirfamiliarsandthosewhomtheyrecognize,butthecontrarytothosewhomtheydonotknow."(375e)Theirchildren
shouldbetakenoncampaignsinordertoaccustomthemtowar..."givethematasteofbloodaswedowithwhelps."(537a)Youthfulguardianspossessthequalitiesof
purebredpups:"...eachofthemmustbekeenofperception,quickinpursuitofwhatithasapprehended,andstrongtooifithastofightitoutwithitscaptive."(375a)
Womenaretoenjoyequalrightswithmenandaretohavethesameobligations,allowingonlyforthefactthattheyhavelessphysicalstrengththanmen.Platoarguesby
analogy:"Doweexpectthefemalesofwatchdogstojoininguardingwhatthemalesguardandtohuntwiththemandsharealltheirpursuits,ordoweexpectthefemales
dwell."(540a,b)

Theguardiansareunderthephilosophers'command.Plato'sfavoriteimageindescribingtheguardiansisthatofthedog.Thus,aswithpurebredcanines,theguardians'
"...naturaldispositionistobemostgentletotheirfamiliarsandthosewhomtheyrecognize,butthecontrarytothosewhomtheydonotknow."(375e)Theirchildren
shouldbetakenoncampaignsinordertoaccustomthemtowar..."givethematasteofbloodaswedowithwhelps."(537a)Youthfulguardianspossessthequalitiesof
purebredpups:"...eachofthemmustbekeenofperception,quickinpursuitofwhatithasapprehended,andstrongtooifithastofightitoutwithitscaptive."(375a)
Womenaretoenjoyequalrightswithmenandaretohavethesameobligations,allowingonlyforthefactthattheyhavelessphysicalstrengththanmen.Platoarguesby
analogy:"Doweexpectthefemalesofwatchdogstojoininguardingwhatthemalesguardandtohuntwiththemandsharealltheirpursuits,ordoweexpectthefemales
tostayindoors....?"(451d)Thewholeoftheguardiancasteiscomparedwithapackofhardandwiryhounds.(422d)

Butaguardianshouldalsopossessother,higherqualities:"Anddoesitseemtoyouthatourguardiantobewillalsoneed,inadditiontobeinghighspirited,thefurther
qualityofhavingtheloveofwisdominhisnature?"(375e)And:"...neverbysorcerynorbyforcecanbebroughttoexpelfromtheirsouls...thisconvictionthattheymust
dowhatisbestforthestate."(412e)

Thesequalitiesareattainedbymeansofacarefullythoughtoutsystemofeducationguidedbythephilosophersandlastinguntilagethirtyfive.Afundamentalrolein
educationisreservedforart,which,forthebenefitofthestate,issubjectedtostrictcensorship."Wemustbegin,then,itseems,byacensorshipoverourstorymakers,
andwhat
[9]

theydowellwemustpassandwhatnot,reject."(377c)"Whattheydowell"appliesherenottotheestheticqualitiesofstoriesandmythsbuttotheireducationalfunction,
Badstoriesarethose"thatHesiodandHomerandtheotherpoetsrelatetous,"(377d)Furthermore,"Shallwe,then,thuslightlysufferourchildrentolistentoanychance
storiesfashionedbyanychanceteachersandsototakeintotheirmindsopinionsforthemostpartcontrarytothosethatweshallthinkitdesirableforthemtoholdwhen
theyaregrownup?"(377b)

Allstoriesthatmightinspireafalseimpressionofdivinityareforbidden,aswellasthosethatdescribethecrueltyofthegods,theirquarrelsorloveadventures,andstories
whichsuggestthatgodsmaybethecauseofmisfortune."...wemustcontendineverywaythatneithershouldanyoneassertthisinhisowncityifitistobewellgoverned,
noranyonehearit,neitheryoungernorolder,neithertellingastoryinmeterorwithoutmeter."(380b)Allpoeticworksthatspeakaboutthehorrorsofthenetherworld
andofdeatharetobeeliminated,aswellasthosethatinvolveanymanifestationoffearorsorrowallthathindersthedevelopmentofcourage.Guardiansshouldsee
nothingfrighteningaboutdeath.Itisforbiddentospeakabouttheinjusticeoffatethatrighteouspeoplecansuffermisfortuneandunrighteousonescanleadhappylives.It
isforbiddentocriticizetheleadersortowriteaboutanymanifestationoffear,grief,famineordeath."WewillbegHomerandtheotherpoetsnottobeangryifwecancel
thoseandallsimilarpassages,notthattheyarenotpoeticandpleasingtomosthearers,butbecausethemorepoetictheyare,thelessaretheysuitedtotheears,"(387b)

Otherartsarealsotobekeptundersurveillance."Itishere,then,Isaid,inmusic,asitseems,thatourguardiansmustbuildtheirguardhouseandpostawatch."(424d)
Polyphonyandthecombiningofvariousscalesareforbidden.Therearetobenoflutesormakersofflutesinthestateonlythelyreandthekitharaarepermitted.Plato
expandsontheseprinciples:"Isit,then,onlythepoetsthatwemustsuperviseandcompeltoembodyintheirpoemsthesemblanceofthegoodcharacterorelsenotwrite
poetryamongus,ormustwekeepwatchovertheothercraftsmen,andforbidthemtorepresenttheevildisposition,thelicentious,theilliberal,thegraceless,eitherinthe
likenessoflivingcreaturesorinbuildingsorinanyotherproductoftheirart,onpenalty,ifunabletoobey,ofbeingforbiddentopracticetheirartamongus?..."(401b)
TheanswerisobviousforPlato.
[10]

Ontheotherhand,newmythsarecreated,withthepurposeofinstillingintheguardiansaspiritnecessarytothestate,Forinstance,toinculcateinthemloveforone
anotherandthestate,theyaretoldthattheyareallbrothers,sonsofthesinglemotherearthoftheirland.Buttoreinforcetheideaofcastes,itisstressedthatinthe
processphilosophersreceivedanadmixtureofgold,guardiansofsilver,peasantsandartisansofiron.

Theentireeducationoftheguardians,beginningwithchildren'sgames,issupervisedbythephilosophers,whosubjectthemtovarioustests,checkingtheirmemory,
endurance,moderationandcourage.Adults,aswellaschildren,areseverelypunishedforlying.Butlyingispermittedthephilosophers."Itseemslikelythatourrulerswill
havetomakeconsiderableuseoffalsehoodanddeceptionforthebenefitoftheirsubjects."(459d)

IthasalreadybeennotedthatPlatoperceivesthemajordefectoffaultystatesintheabsenceofunityamongcitizens,inanimosityanddiscord.Heseekstofindthecause
ofthesephenomena,

"Andthechiefcauseofthisiswhenthecitizensdonotutterinunisonsuchwordsas'mine'and'notmine,'andsimilarlywithregardtotheword'alien'?

"Preciselyso,"

"Thatcity,then,isbestorderedinwhichthegreatestnumberusetheexpression'mine'and'notmine'ofthesamethingsinthesameway."(462c)

Theguardians'lifeisregulatedaccordingly.Theypossess"nothinginprivatepossessionbuttheirbodies,butallelseincommon."(464e)

"Secondly,nonemusthaveanyhabitationortreasurehousewhichisnotopenforalltoenteratwill.Theirfood,insuchquantitiesasareneedfulforathletesofwarsober
andbrave,theymustreceiveasanagreedstipendfromtheothercitizensasthewagesoftheirguardianship,someasuredthatthereshallbeneithersuperfluityattheendof
theyearnoranylack,Andresortingtoacommonmesslikesoldiersoncampaigntheywilllivetogether."(416d)

"...fortheseonlyofallthedwellersinthecityitisnotlawfultohandlegoldandsilverandtotouchthemnoryettocomeunderthesameroofwiththem,nortohangthem
asornamentsontheirlimbsnortodrinkfromsilverandgold,"(417a)

Guardiansliveintheirownstateashiredguarddetachments."...andwhatismore,theyserveforboardwagesanddonotevenreceive
[11]

payinadditiontotheirfoodasothersdo,sothattheywillnotevenbeabletotakeajourneyontheirownaccount,iftheywishto,ormakepresentstotheirmistresses,or
spendmoneyinotherdirectionsaccordingtotheirdesireslikethemenwhoarethoughttobehappy."(420a)

Property,however,isonlyoneofthethingsbywhichprivateinterestsmaydistracttheguardiansfromtheirduty.Anotherfactorthatcouldsetthemapartisthefamily
thereforeitisalsoeliminated.

"Thesewomenshallallbecommontoallthesemen,andthatnoneshallcohabitwithanyprivately,andthatthechildrenshallbecommon,andthatnoparentshallknowits
ownoffspringnoranychilditsparent."(457d)Marriageisreplacedbyatemporaryunionofsexesforpurelyphysiologicalsatisfactionandpropagationofthespecies.
Thisaspectoflifeiscarefullyregulatedbythephilosophers,whichpermitstheintroductionofaperfectsystemofsexselection.Theunionofcouplesisconductedsolemnly
Property,however,isonlyoneofthethingsbywhichprivateinterestsmaydistracttheguardiansfromtheirduty.Anotherfactorthatcouldsetthemapartisthefamily
thereforeitisalsoeliminated.

"Thesewomenshallallbecommontoallthesemen,andthatnoneshallcohabitwithanyprivately,andthatthechildrenshallbecommon,andthatnoparentshallknowits
ownoffspringnoranychilditsparent."(457d)Marriageisreplacedbyatemporaryunionofsexesforpurelyphysiologicalsatisfactionandpropagationofthespecies.
Thisaspectoflifeiscarefullyregulatedbythephilosophers,whichpermitstheintroductionofaperfectsystemofsexselection.Theunionofcouplesisconductedsolemnly
andisperformedtotheaccompanimentofsongscomposedbypoetsespeciallyfortheseoccasions.Whoistobejoinedtowhomisdecidedbylotsothatnoonecan
blameanyonebutfate.Buttheleadersofthestatecarefullymanipulatetheprocesstoachievethedesiredresults.

Ascouldbeexpected,theeducationofchildrenisinthehandsofthestate."...thechildren...willbetakenoverbytheofficialsappointedforthis...."(460b)"...butthe
offspringoftheinferior,andanyofthoseoftheothersortwhoareborndefective,theywillproperlydisposeofinsecret,sothatnoonewillknowwhathasbecomeof
them."(460c)Asforachildbornofunregulatedsexualunion,thefollowingisindicated:"...todisposeofitontheunderstandingthatwecannotrearsuchan
offspring."(461c)Parentsoughtnotknowtheirchildren:"...conductingthemotherstothepenwhentheirbreastsarefull,butemployingeverydevicetopreventanyone
fromrecognizingherowninfant."(460c)Astothequestionhowparentsandchildrenshallrecognizeoneanother,theanswerisasfollows:"Theywon't...exceptthata
manwillcallallmaleoffspringbornbetweentheseventhandthetenthmonthafterhebecameabridegroomhissons,andallfemale,daughters,andtheywillcallhim
father."(461d)

Deprivedoffamily,childrenandallproperty,theguardiansliveexclusivelyforthebenefitofthestate.Anyviolationoftheinterestsofthestateispunished.Soldierswho
showcowardiceareturnedinto
[12]

artisansorpeasantsprisonerstakenarenottoberansomedoutofslavery.Medicineisalsousedasameansofcontrol.Physiciansandjudges"...willcareforthebodies
andsoulsofsuchofyourcitizensasaretrulywellborn,butthosewhoarenot,suchasaredefectiveinbody,theywillsuffertodie,andthosewhoareevilnaturedand
incurableinsoultheywillthemselvesputtodeath."(410a)

Whywouldtheguardiansundertakesuchalife?Oneoftheparticipantsinthedialoguesays:"Whatwillbeyourdefense,Socrates,ifanyoneobjectsthatyouarenot
makingthesemenveryhappy,andthatthroughtheirownfault?Forthecityreallybelongstothemandyettheygetnoenjoymentoutofitasordinarymendo."(419a)

However,fromPlato'spointofviewhappinessisnotdeterminedbymaterialwellbeing.II)dischargingtheirduties,theguardianswillachievetherespectandloveofother
citizens,aswellasthehopeforrewardafterdeath.Hesays:

"...theywillliveahappierlifethanthatmencountmosthappy,thelifeofthevictorsatOlympia.

"Howso?

"Thethingsforwhichthosearefelicitatedareasmallpartofwhatissecuredforthese.Theirvictoryisfairerandtheirpublicsupportmorecomplete.Fortheprizeof
victorythattheywinisthesalvationoftheentirestate,thefilletthatbindstheirbrowsisthepublicsupportofthemselvesandtheirchildrentheyreceivehonorfromthe
citywhiletheyliveandwhentheydieaworthyburial.

"Afairguerdon,indeed,hesaid."(465e)

Thoughgivingadetailedaccountofthelifeofthephilosophersandguardians,Platosaysalmostnothingabouttherestofthepopulationtheartisansandpeasants.Laws
forthemaredeterminedbythephilosophersinaccordancewiththebasicprinciplesexpressedinthedialogue:"Nay,'twouldnotbefitting...todictatetogoodand
honorablemen.Formostoftheenactmentsthatareneededaboutthesethingstheywilleasily,Ipresume,discover."(425d)

Clearly,theentirepopulationissubjectedtothephilosophersandtheguardians.Theguardianssetuptheircampinthecity:"...apositionfromwhichtheycouldbesthold
downrebellionagainstthelawsfromwithin."(415e)

Everyoneisboundtohisprofession:

"...wewereatpainstopreventthecobblerfromattemptingtobeatthesametimeafarmer,aweaver,orabuilderinsteadof
[13]

justacobbler,totheendthatwemighthavethecobbler'sbusinesswelldone,andsimilarlyassignedtoeachandeveryonemanoneoccupation,forwhichhewasfitand
naturallyadaptedandatwhichhewastoworkallhisdays."(374c)Thelifeoftheartisansandthepeasantsisregulatedonthebasisofagreaterorlesserdegreeof
leveling,sinceforthembothpovertyandrichesleadtodegradation,and"theworkthatheturnsoutwillbeworse,andhewillalsomakeinferiorworkmenofhissonsor
anyotherswhomheteaches."(421e)Butitisnotcleartowhatextentthesocialistprinciplesthatgovernthelifeofthetwoothergroupsextendtoartisanandpeasant.

Inconclusion,itisinterestingtonotethatreligiousproblemsaregivenagooddealofspaceinthedialogue,andareclearlyconnectedwiththequestionoftheidealstate.
However,thislinkageistreatedinaquiterationalisticfashionreligiondoesnotsetthestateanygoals,butratherplaysaprotectiveandeducationalrole.Myths,manyof
whicharespeciallyinvented,asPlatosays,withthispurposeinmind,facilitatethedevelopmentofcharacteristicsusefultothestate.

AlmosteveryonewhohaswrittenonPlato'sRepublichasremarkedontheambiguousimpressionproducedbythisdialogue.Plato'sschemeforthedestructionofthe
subtlestandmostprofoundfeaturesofhumanpersonalityandthereductionofhumansocietytothelevelofananthillevokesrevulsion.Andatthesametimeonecannot
helpbeingimpressedbythealmostreligiousimpulsetosacrificepersonalintereststoahighergoal.Plato'sentireprogramisfoundedonthedenialofpersonalitybuton
thedenialofegoismaswell.Heunderstoodthatthefutureofmankindisnotdependentonthevictoryofthisorthatcontendinggroupinthestruggleformaterialinterests,
butratheronthechangeswithinpeopleandonthedevelopmentofnewhumanqualities.

ItisdifficulttodenythatPlato'sRepublicismorally,ethicallyandinpurelyaesthetictermsfarsuperiortoothersystemsofchiliasticsocialism.Ifwecansupposethat
Aristophanes'EcclesiazusaeisaparodyofideassuchasPlato'spresumablywidelydiscussedinAthensatthetimethenmodernsystemslikethatofMarcuseseem
muchnearertothecaricaturethantotheoriginal.Marcuse's"turningworkintoplay,"his"sociosexualprotest,"thestruggleagainstthe"necessityofsuppressingone's
instincts,"areshockinglyprimitiveincomparisonwiththeloftyasceticismdescribedbyPlato.

Inspiteoftheiruniqueroleinthehistoryofsocialistideas,Plato's
[14]

RepublicandhisLawsarebutoneofmanyexpressionsofancientchiliasticsocialism.Atticcomedyaboundswithreferencestoideasofthiskind.Forexample,outofthe
instincts,"areshockinglyprimitiveincomparisonwiththeloftyasceticismdescribedbyPlato.

Inspiteoftheiruniqueroleinthehistoryofsocialistideas,Plato's
[14]

RepublicandhisLawsarebutoneofmanyexpressionsofancientchiliasticsocialism.Atticcomedyaboundswithreferencestoideasofthiskind.Forexample,outofthe
elevensurvivingcomediesofAristophanes,two(EcclesiazusaeandPlutus)aredevotedtosocialistthemes.

DuringtheHellenisticepochtherecameintobeinganextensiveutopiansocialistliterature,partiallyserious,inpartmeantasentertainment,wheretheasceticidealofthe
PlatonicRepublicwasreplacedby"thelandofmilkandhoney"andbythehappystateoffreelove.Theplotsofanumberoftheseworksareknowntousfromthe
HistoricalLibrarybythefirstcenturyB.C.writerDiodorus.

Oneofthemostvividdescriptionstellsofatravelertoastatesituatedon"sunnyislands"(apparentlyintheIndianOcean).Thisstateconsistsofsocialistcommunesoffour
hundredpeopleeach.Laborisobligatoryforallmembersofsociety,moreover,with"allservingtheothersinturn,fishing,engagingincrafts,artsorpublicservice."(6:p.
323)Foodisregimentedinasimilarmannerthemenuforeachdayisregulatedbylaw."Marriageisunknowntotheminsteadtheyenjoycommunalwiveschildrenare
broughtupincommonastheybelongtothewholeofthecommunityandareequallylovedbyall.Frequently,itsohappensthatnursesexchangebabiestheyaresuckling
sothatevenmothersdonotrecognizetheirchildren."(6:p.63)Duetotheexcellentclimate,theinhabitantsoftheislandsweremuchtallerthanordinarymortals.They
livedtotheageof150.Allwhowereincurablyillorsufferedfromsomephysicaldefectweresupposedtocommitsuicide.Thosewhoreachedacertainagewerealsoto
killthemselves.

SocialistideasinoneoranotherformfrequentlyplayedaroleinthemovementsandsectsthatarosearoundemergingChristianity.EveninthefirstcenturyA.D.,thesect
oftheNicolaitespreachedthecommunalityofpropertyandwives.TheChristianwriterEpiphanesconsidersthesect'sfoundertobeNicolasoneofthesevendeacons
chosenbythecommunityofthedisciplesoftheApostlesinJerusalem(asrecountedinActsoftheApostles6:5).

IrenaeusofLyonsandClementofAlexandriadescribethegnosticsectofCarpocratianswhichappearedinAlexandriainthesecondcenturyA.D.Thefounderofthis
sect,Carpocrates,taughtthatfaithandlovebringsalvationandplacemanabovegoodandevil.TheseideaswereelaboratedbyhissonEpiphanes,whodiedattheageof
seventeen,havingwrittenawork"OnJustice."AccordingtoClementof
[15]

Alexandria,hewaslaterworshipedasagodinSamos,whereasanctuarywaserectedtohim.

SomequotationsfromEpiphanesfollow:

"God'sjusticeconsistsincommunityandequality."

"TheCreatorandFatherofallgaveeveryoneequallyeyestoseeandestablishedlawsinaccordancewithhisjusticewithoutdistinguishingfemalefrommale,wisefrom
humbleandingeneralonethingfromanyother."

"TheprivatecharacteroflawscutsandgnawsthecommunityestablishedbyGod'slaw.DoyounotunderstandthewordsoftheApostle:'ThroughlawIknew
sin'(Romans7:7)?'Mine'and'thine'werespreadtothedetrimentofcommunitybyvirtueofthelaw."

"Thus,Godmadeeverythingcommonformanaccordingtotheprinciplesofcommunality,hejoinsmanandwoman.Inthesameway,helinksalllivingbeingsinthishe
hasrevealedjusticedemandingcommunalityinconjunctionwithequality.Butthosebegotteninthiswaydenythecommunitythathascreatedthem,saying:'Hewhotakes
awife,lethimpossessher.'Buttheycanpossessallincommonastheanimalsdo."

"Itisthereforelaughabletohearthegiveroflawssaying:'Donotcovet'andmorelaughablestilltheaddition:'thatwhichisyourneighbor's.'Forhehimselfinvesteduswith
desires,whichmoreovermustbesafeguardedastheyarenecessaryforprocreation.Butevenmorelaughableisthephrase'yourneighbor'swife,'forinthiswaythat
whichiscommonisforciblyturnedintoprivateproperty."(7:p.117)

Themembersofthissect,whichextendedasfarasRome,followedprinciplesofcompletecommunality,includingcommunalityofwives.

TheappearanceofManicheismgaverisetoagreatnumberofsectsthatprofesseddoctrinesofasocialistcharacter.St.Augustineinformsusoftheexistenceofsuchsects
attheendofthethirdandthebeginningofthefourthcenturiesA.D.

ThemovementinspiredbyMazdak,whichwaswidespreadatthebeginningofthefifthcenturyinPersia,wasalsoofManicheanorigin.Mazdaktaughtthatcontradictions,
angerandviolenceareallrelatedtowomenandmaterialthings."Therefore,"inthewordsofthePersianhistorianMohammedIbnHarun,"hemadeallwomenaccessible
andallmaterialwealthcommonandprescribedthateveryonehadanequalshare,justaseachhasanequalshareofwater,fireandpastures."(8:p.20)
[16]

Thismovementspreadovertheentirecountry,andforatimeevenKingKawadhIsupportedit.Anotherhistorian,Tabari,writes:"Frequently,amandidnotknowhisson
northesonhisownfather,andnoonepossessedenoughtobeguaranteedlifeandlivelihood."(8:p.35)Inthedisturbancewhichsubsequentlyarose,thefollowersof
Mazdakweredefeated.

Theextentofsocialdislocationcausedbythismovementcanbeappreciatedfromtheinformation(8:pp.3233)thatKawadh'sheirissuedalawensuringthewelfareof
fatherlesschildrenandlegislatingthereturnofabductedwomentotheirfamilies.

Weencounterherethephenomenonofbroadmassesofpeopleaffectedbyasocialistdoctrine.Thiswasunknowninantiquity,althoughitistypicaloftheMiddleAges,to
whichMazdak'smovementbringsuschronologically.
[17]

II.
TheSocialism
oftheHeresies
DuringtheMiddleAgesandtheperiodoftheReformation,doctrinesofchiliasticsocialismoftenfomentedbroadpopularmovementsinWesternEurope.Suchasituation
II.
TheSocialism
oftheHeresies
DuringtheMiddleAgesandtheperiodoftheReformation,doctrinesofchiliasticsocialismoftenfomentedbroadpopularmovementsinWesternEurope.Suchasituation
didnotobtaininantiquity,whentheseideaswereexpressedbyindividualthinkersorwithinnarrowgroups.Asaresultofthisevolution,thesocialistdoctrines,inturn,
acquirednewandextremelyimportanttraits,whichtheyhavepreservedtothisday.

Thesurveybelowprovidesaverygeneralandschematicoverviewofthedevelopmentofsocialistideasinthisepoch.Inordertocompensatesomewhatfortheabstract
characterofthepresentationandtohelpmakemoreconcretetheatmosphereinwhichtheseideasarose,weintroduce(intheAppendixfollowingtheGeneralSurvey)
threebiographiesofeminentrepresentativesofthechiliasticsocialismoftheperiod.Inthesubsequentsection,anattemptismadetodelineatetheideologicalframework
withinwhichthedoctrinesofchiliasticsocialismdeveloped.

1.GeneralSurvey

BeginningwiththeMiddleAgesandtheReformation,doctrinesofchiliasticsocialisminWesternEuropeappearedunderreligiousguise.Asvariedastheywere,allthese
doctrineshadincommonacharacteristictraittherejectionofnumerousaspectsoftheteachingsoftheCatholicChurchandafiercehatredfortheChurchitself.Asa
result,theydevelopedlargelywithintheframeworkofthehereticalmovements.BelowweshallreviewseveralcharacteristicMedievalheresies.
[18]

Cathars.

ThemovementoftheCathars(Greekfor"thepure")spreadinWesternandCentralEuropeintheeleventhcentury.ItseemstohaveoriginatedintheEast,arrivingfrom
Bulgaria,thehomeofBogomilheresyintheprecedingcentury.Theultimateoriginsofboth,however,aremoreancient.

AmongtheCatharsthereweremanydifferentgroups.PopeInnocentIIIcountedasmanyasfortyCatharsects.Inaddition,thereexistedothersectsthathadmany
doctrinalpointsincommonwiththeCatharsamongthebestknownweretheAlbigenses.TheyareallusuallycategorizedasgnosticorManicheanheresies.Inorderto
avoidunnecessarycomplexity,weshalldescribethebeliefsandnotionscommontoallgroups,withoutspecifyingtherelativeimportancethataparticularviewmighthave
inagivensect.(Foramoredetailedaccount,see9[Vol.I],10,and11.)

Thebasiccontentioninallbranchesofthemovementwasthebeliefintheirreconcilablecontradictionbetweenthephysicalworld,seenasthesourceofevil,andthe
spiritualworld,seenastheessenceofgood.ThesocalleddualisticCatharsbelievedthistobecausedbytheexistenceoftwoGodsonegood,theotherevil.Itwasthe
Godofevilwhohadcreatedthephysicalworldtheearthwitheverythingthatgrowsuponit,thesky,thesunandthestars,andhumanbodiesaswell.ThegoodGod,on
theotherhand,wasseenasthecreatorofthespiritualworld,inwhichthereisanother,spiritualsky,otherstarsandanothersun.OtherCathars,calledmonarchian
Cathars,believedinonebeneficentGod,thecreatoroftheuniverse,butassumedthatthephysicalworldwasthecreationofhiseldest,fallensonSatanorLucifer.All
theCatharsheldthatthemutualhostilityoftherealmsofmatterandspiritallowedfornointermingling.TheythereforedeniedthebodilyincarnationofChrist(assertingthat
hisbodywasaspiritualone,whichhadonlytheappearanceofphysicality)andtheresurrectionoftheflesh.Theysawareflectionoftheirdualisminthedivisionofthe
HolyScripturesintoOldandNewTestaments.TheyidentifiedtheGodoftheOldTestament,thecreatorofthephysicalworld,withtheevilGodorwithLucifer.They
professedtheNewTestamentastheteachingofthegoodGod.

TheCatharsdidnotbelievethatGodhadcreatedtheworldfromnothingtheyheldthatmatterwaseternalandthattheworldwouldhavenoend.Sofaraspeoplewere
concerned,theyconsideredtheirbodiestobethecreationoftheevilforce.Theirsouls,though,did
[19]

nothaveasinglesource.Thesoulsofthemajorityofmen,justliketheirbodies,werebegottenbyevilsuchpeoplehadnohopeforsalvationandweredoomedtoperish
whentheentirematerialworldreturnedtoastateofprimevalchaos.ButthesoulsofsomemenhadbeencreatedbythegoodGodtheseweretheangelsledinto
temptationbyLuciferandthusimprisonedinearthlybodies.Asaresultofchangingintoaseriesofbodies(Catharsbelievedinthetransmigrationofsouls),theywere
destinedtoendupintheirsectsoastoreceiveliberationfromtheprisonofmatter.Theultimategoalandtheidealofallmankindwasinprincipleuniversalsuicide.This
wasconceivedeitherasinthemostdirectsense(weshallencounterthepracticalrealizationofthis.viewlater)orthroughceasingtobearchildren.

Theseviewsdeterminedtheattitudetowardbothsinandsalvation.TheCatharsdeniedtheexistenceoffreedomofwill.Thedoomedchildrenofevilcouldnotavoidtheir
fate.Butthosewhowereinitiatedintothehighestrankofthesectcouldnolongersin.Thestringentrulestowhichmembershadtosubjectthemselveswerejustifiedbythe
dangerofbeingdefiledbysinfulmatter.Nonobservanceoftheserulesmerelyindicatedthattheinitiationhadbeeninvalid,sinceeithertheinitiatesorthosewhohad
initiatedthemdidnotpossessangelicsouls.Beforeinitiation,norestrictionsofanykindwereplacedonbehavior:theonlyrealsinwasthefalloftheangelsinheaven
everythingelsewasconsideredtobeaninevitableconsequence.Afterinitiation,neitherrepentanceforsinscommittednortheirexpiationwasconsiderednecessary.

TheCathars'attitudetowardlifefollowedconsistentlyfromtheirviewthatevilpermeatedthephysicalworld.PropagationofthespecieswasconsideredSatan'swork.
Catharsbelievedthatapregnantwomanwasundertheinfluenceofdemonsandthateverychildbornwasaccompaniedbyademon.Hencetheprohibitionagainsteating
meatandagainstanythingthatcamefromsexualunion.Thesametendencyledtoacompleteavoidanceofsocialinvolvement.Secularpowerwasconsideredtobethe
creationoftheevilGodandhencenottobesubmittedto,norweretheytobecomeinvolvedinlegalproceedings,thetakingofoaths,orthecarryingofarms.Anyone
usingforcewasconsideredamurderer,behesoldierorjudge.ItfollowsthatparticipationinmanyareasoflifewascompletelyclosedtotheCathars.Moreover,many
consideredthatanycontactwhateverwithpeopleoutsidethesectwasasin,withtheexceptionofattemptstoproselytize.(12:p.654)
[20]

AllCatharswereunitedintheirhatredoftheCatholicChurch.TheyregardeditnotastheChurchofJesusChristbutasthechurchofsinners,theWhoreofBabylon.The
Popewasheldtobethesourceofallerrorandpriestsconsideredsophistsandpharisees.IntheopinionoftheCathars,thefalloftheChurchhadtakenplaceinthetime
ofConstantinetheGreatandPopeSylvester,whentheChurchhadviolatedthecommandmentsofChristbyencroachinguponsecularpower.Theydeniedthe
sacraments,particularlythebaptismofchildren(sincetheyweretooyoungtobelieve),butmatrimonyandCommunionaswell.Somebranchesofthemovement
systematicallyplunderedanddefiledchurches.In1225,CatharsburneddownaCatholicChruchinBresciain1235,theykilledtheBishopofMantua.AcertainEonde
l'toile,headofaManicheansect(11431148),proclaimedhimselfthesonofGodandtheLordofeverythingonearth.Inthiscapacity,hecalleduponhisfollowersto
plunderchurches.

TheCatharshatedthecrossinparticular,consideringittobeasymboloftheevilGod.Asearlyasabout1000A.D.,acertainLeutard,preachingnearChlons,calledfor
thesmashingofcrossesandreligiousimages.Inthetwelfthcentury,PierredeBruysmadebonfiresofbrokencrosses,untilfinallyhehimselfwasburnedbyanangrymob.
TheCatharsconsideredchurchestobeheapsofstonesanddivineservicesmerepaganrites.Theyrejectedreligiousimages,deniedtheintercessionofthesaintsandthe
systematicallyplunderedanddefiledchurches.In1225,CatharsburneddownaCatholicChruchinBresciain1235,theykilledtheBishopofMantua.AcertainEonde
l'toile,headofaManicheansect(11431148),proclaimedhimselfthesonofGodandtheLordofeverythingonearth.Inthiscapacity,hecalleduponhisfollowersto
plunderchurches.

TheCatharshatedthecrossinparticular,consideringittobeasymboloftheevilGod.Asearlyasabout1000A.D.,acertainLeutard,preachingnearChlons,calledfor
thesmashingofcrossesandreligiousimages.Inthetwelfthcentury,PierredeBruysmadebonfiresofbrokencrosses,untilfinallyhehimselfwasburnedbyanangrymob.
TheCatharsconsideredchurchestobeheapsofstonesanddivineservicesmerepaganrites.Theyrejectedreligiousimages,deniedtheintercessionofthesaintsandthe
efficacyofprayerforthedeparted.AbookbytheDominicaninquisitorRainierSacconi,himselfahereticforseventeenyears,statesthattheCatharswerenotforbidden
toplunderchurches.

AlthoughtheCatharsrejectedtheCatholichierarchyandthesacraments,theyhadahierarchyandsacramentsoftheirown.Thebasicdivisionofthesectwasintotwo
groupsthe"perfect"(perfecti)andthe"faithful"(credenti).Theformerwerefewinnumber(Rainiercountedonlyfourthousandinall),buttheyconstitutedtheselect
groupofthesectleaders.Theclergywasdrawnfromtheperfecti,andonlytheywereprivytoallthedoctrinesofthesectmanyextremeviewsthatwereradically
opposedtoChristianitywereunknowntotheordinaryfaithful.Onlytheperfectiwereobligedtoobservethemanyprohibitions.Inparticular,theywerenotallowedto
denytheirfaithunderanycircumstances.Incaseofpersecution,theyweretoacceptamartyr'sdeath.Thefaithful,ontheotherhand,wereallowedtogotoregularchurch
forform'ssakeand,whenpersecuted,todisavowthefaith.
[21]

Incompensationfortherigorsimposedontheperfecti,theirpositionwasfarhigherthanthatoccupiedbyCatholicpriests.Incertainrespects,theperfectiwereasgods
themselves,andthefaithfulworshipedthemaccordingly.Thefaithfulwereobligedtosupporttheperfecti.Oneoftheimportantritesofthesectwasthatof"submission,"
inwhichthefaithfulperformedathreefoldprostrationbeforetheperfecti.Theperfectihadtorenouncemarriage,andtheyliterallydidnothavetherighttotoucha
woman.Theycouldnotpossessanypropertyandwereobligedtodevotetheirwholelivestoserviceofthesect.Theywereforbiddentokeepapermanentdwellingof
anykindandwererequiredtospendtheirlivesinconstanttravelortostayinspecialsecretsanctuaries.Theconsecrationoftheperfecti,the
"consolation"(consolamentum),wasthecentralsacramentofthesect.ThisritecannotbecomparedtoanythingintheCatholicChurch.Itcombinedbaptism(or
confirmation),ordination,confession,absolutionandsometimessupremeunctionaswell.Onlythosewhoreceiveditcouldcountonbeingfreedfromthecaptivityofthe
bodyandhavingtheirsoulsreturnedtotheircelestialabode.

ThemajorityoftheCatharshadnohopeoffulfillingthestrictcommandmentsthatwereobligatoryfortheperfectiandintended,rather,toreceive"consolation"ontheir
deathbed.Thiswascalled"thegoodend."Theprayertogrant"thegoodend"underthecareof"thegoodpeople"(theperfecti)wasrecitedtogetherwiththeLord's
Prayer.

Sometimes,havingreceived"consolation,"asickpersonrecovered.Hewasthenusuallyadvisedtocommitsuicide(called"endura").Inmanycases,"endura"wasinfacta
conditionforreceiving"consolation."Notinfrequently,theagedortheveryyoungwhohadreceived"consolation"weresubjectedto"endura"i.e.,ineffect,murdered.
Therewerevariousformsof"endura."Mostfrequentlyitwasbystarvation(especiallyforchildren,whomthemotherssimplystoppedsuckling)bleeding,hotbaths
followedbysuddenchilling,drinkingofliquidmixedwithgroundglassandstrangulationwerealsoused.I.Dollinger,whostudiedtheextantarchivesoftheInquisitionin
ToulouseandCarcassonne,writes:"Whoeverexaminestherecordsoftheabovementionedcourtsattentivelywillhavenodoubtthatfarmorepeopleperishedfromthe
'endura'(somevoluntarily,someforcibly)thanasaresultoftheInquisition'sverdicts."(10:p.226)

Thesebasicnotionswerethesourceofthesocialistdoctrinesdisseminated
[22]

amongtheCathars.Theyrejectedpropertyasbelongingtothematerialworld.Theperfectiwereforbiddentohaveanypersonalbelongings,butasagroupthey
controlledtheholdingsofthesect,whichoftenwereconsiderable.

Catharsenjoyedinfluenceinvarioussegmentsofsociety,includingthehigheststrata.ThusitissaidthatCountRaymondVIofToulousealwayskeptinhisretinueCathars
disguisedinordinaryattire,sotheycouldblesshimincaseofimpendingdeath.Forthemostpart,however,thepreachingoftheCatharsapparentlywasdirectedtothe
urbanlowerclasses,asindicatedinparticularbythenamesofvarioussects:populicani(i.e.,populists,althoughcertainhistoriansseethisnameasacorruptionof
"Paulicians"),piphlers(derivedfrom"plebs"),texerants(weavers),etc.Intheirsermons,theCatharspreachedthatatrueChristianlifewaspossibleonlyonthecondition
thatpropertywasheldincommon.(12:p.656)In1023,agroupofCatharswereputontrialinMonteforte,chargedwithpromulgatingcelibacyandcommunalityof
propertyandwithattackingtheacceptedreligioustraditions.

ItseemsthattheappealforcommunalityofpropertywasratherwidespreadamongtheCathars,sinceitismentionedincertainCatholicworksdirectedagainstthem.In
oneofthese,forinstance,Catharsareaccusedofdemagogicallyproclaimingthisprinciplewhilenotadheringtoitthemselves:"Youdonothaveeverythingincommon.
Somehavemore,othersless."(13:p.176)

CelibacyamongtheperfectiandthegeneralcondemnationofmarriagearecommontoallCathars.Butinanumberofcases,onlymarriageisconsideredsinfulnot
promiscuityoutsidemarriage.Itshouldberecalledthat"Thoushaltnotcommitadultery"wasconsideredtobeacommandmentoftheGodofevil.Bythesametoken,
theseprohibitionshadastheiraimnotsomuchmortificationofthefleshasdestructionofthefamily.Inthewritingsofcontemporaries,theCatharsareconstantlyaccused
of"free"or"holy"love,andofhavingwivesincommon.

SaintBernardofClairvaux,between1130and1150,accusedtheCatharsofpreachingagainstmarriagewhilecohabitingwithwomenwhohadabandonedtheirfamilies.
(10:p.16)Rainiersupportsthiscontention.(9:pp.7273)ThesameaccusationagainstaManicheansectthatwasmakinginroadsintoBrittanyaround1145canbe
foundintheChronicleofHugod'Amiens,ArchbishopofRouen.Abook
[23]

againstheresiesbyAlaindeLille,whichwaspublishedinthetwelfthcentury,ascribedthefollowingviewtotheCathars:"Maritalbondsarecontrarytothelawsofnature,
sincetheselawsdemandthateverythingbeheldincommon."(13:p.176)

TheCatharheresysweptoverEuropewithextraordinaryswiftness.In1012,asectofCatharsisrecordedinMainz,in1018andagainin1028inAquitaine,in1022in
Orleans,in1025inArras,in1028inMonteforte(nearTurin),in1030inBurgundy,in1051inGoslar,etc.Around1190,Bonacursus,whohadpreviouslybeenabishop
withtheCathars,wroteofthesituationinItaly:"Arenotalltownships,citiesandcastlesoverrunwiththesepseudoprophets?"(12:p.651)Andin1166,theBishopof
Milanassertedthatthereweremorehereticsthanfaithfulinhisdiocese.OneworkfromthethirteenthcenturyenumeratesseventytwoCatharbishops.RainierSacconi
speaksofsixteenChurchesofCathars.TheywereallcloselyassociatedandapparentlyheadedupbyaCatharPope,whowaslocatedinBulgaria.Councilswerecalled,
whichwereattendedbyrepresentativesfromnumerouscountries.Forexample,in1167,acouncilwasopenlyheldinSt.FelixnearToulouseitwassummonedbythe
hereticalPopeNicetasandwasattendedbyahostofheretics,includingsomefromBulgariaandConstantinople.

TheheresywasparticularlysuccessfulinthesouthofFrance,inLanguedocandProvence.Missionsforconversionofthehereticswererepeatedlysentthere,oneof
whichincludedSt.BernardofClairvaux,whoreportedthatchurchesweredesertedandthatnoonetookcommunionorwasbaptized.Themissionariesandthelocal
Milanassertedthatthereweremorehereticsthanfaithfulinhisdiocese.OneworkfromthethirteenthcenturyenumeratesseventytwoCatharbishops.RainierSacconi
speaksofsixteenChurchesofCathars.TheywereallcloselyassociatedandapparentlyheadedupbyaCatharPope,whowaslocatedinBulgaria.Councilswerecalled,
whichwereattendedbyrepresentativesfromnumerouscountries.Forexample,in1167,acouncilwasopenlyheldinSt.FelixnearToulouseitwassummonedbythe
hereticalPopeNicetasandwasattendedbyahostofheretics,includingsomefromBulgariaandConstantinople.

TheheresywasparticularlysuccessfulinthesouthofFrance,inLanguedocandProvence.Missionsforconversionofthehereticswererepeatedlysentthere,oneof
whichincludedSt.BernardofClairvaux,whoreportedthatchurchesweredesertedandthatnoonetookcommunionorwasbaptized.Themissionariesandthelocal
Catholicclergywereassaultedandsubjectedtothreatsandinsults.

ThenoblesofsouthernFrancesupportedthesectactively,seeinganopportunitytoacquirechurchlands.FormorethanfiftyyearsLanguedocwasunderthecontrolof
theCatharsandseemedlosttoRomeforever.Apapallegate,PierredeCastelnau,waskilledbyheretics.ThePopeannouncedseveralcrusadesagainsttheCathars.The
firstofthesefailedbecauseofsupportgiventothehereticsbythelocalnobility.Itwasonlyinthethirteenthcentury,aftermorethanthirtyyearsoftheguerres
albigeoises,thattheheresywassuppressed.However,theinfluenceofthesesectscontinuedtobefeltforseveralcenturies.

BrethrenoftheFreeSpiritandtheApostolicBrethren.

Inthecreationofthedoctrinesofthesesectsaspecialrolewasplayedbytwothinkers
[24]

whoseideasweredestinedtoexertacontinuousinfluenceonthehereticalmovementsoftheMiddleAgesandtheReformation:JoachimofFloreandAmalricofBena.
Theybothlivedinthetwelfthcenturyanddiedsoonafter1200.

Joachimwasamonkandanabbot.Hisdoctrine,asheclaimed,wasbasedpartlyonthestudyoftheHolyScripturesandpartlyonrevelation.Itisbasedontheviewthat
thehistoryofmankindinvolvestheprogressivelygreatercomprehensionofGod.Joachimdividedhistoryintothreeepochs:theKingdomoftheFather,fromAdamto
ChristtheKingdomoftheSon,fromChristuntil1260andtheKingdomoftheSpirit,whichwastobeginin1260.Thefirstwasanageofslavishsubmissionthesecond,
anageoffilialobediencewhilethethirdwastobeanageoffreedom.ForinthewordsoftheApostle:"WheretheSpiritoftheLordis,thereisfreedom."Inthislast
epoch,God'speoplewouldabideinpeace,freedfromlaborandsuffering.Thiswouldbeanageofthehumbleandthepoorpeoplewouldnotknowthewords"thine"
and"mine."Monasterieswouldembracethewholeofmankind,andtheEternalGospelwouldbereadandunderstoodinitsmysticaldimension.Aneraofperfection
wouldbeattainedwithintheframeworkofearthlylifeandhumanhistoryandbythehandofmortalhumanbeings.Thisepochwastobeprecededbyterriblewars,and
theAntichristwouldappear.JoachimsawproofofthisinthedecayoftheChurchinhistime.TheLastJudgmentwouldbeginwiththeChurch,andtheAntichristwould
becomePope.TheelectofGod,revertingtoapostolicpoverty,wouldmakeupthehostofChristinthisstruggle.TheywoulddefeattheAntichristandunitethewholeof
mankindinChristianity.

AcharacteristicfeatureofJoachim'sdoctrineistheviewofhistoryasapredeterminedprocesswhosecoursecanbeforeseenandcalculated.Hecalculates,forexample,
thatthefirstepochinhisschemelastedfortytwogenerations,thesecondwouldlastfifty....

Duringhislife,JoachimwasafaithfulsonoftheChurchhefoundedamonasteryandwroteagainsttheCathars.Butacollectionofexcerptsfromhisworkswaslater
condemnedasheretical,probablybecauseofhisinfluenceonthehereticalsects.

AmalrictaughttheologyinParis.Hedidnotexpoundhissysteminfull,onlyitsmoreinoffensivepropositions.Nevertheless,acomplaintWaslodgedagainsthiminRome
andthePopecondemnedhissystelnand,in1204,dismissedhimfromhischair.Amalricdiedsoonthereafter.
[25]

AmalricwasideologicallylinkedtoJoachimofFlore.Healsosawhistoryasaseriesofstagesindivinerevelation.Inthebeginning,therewasMoses'law,thenChrist's
whichsupersededit.Nowthetimeofthethirdrevelationhadcome.ThiswasembodiedinAmalricandhisfollowers,aspreviouslyrevelationhadbeenembodiedin
Christ.TheyhadnowbecomeasChrist.ThreebasicthesesofthisnewChristianityhavebeenpreserved.Firstofall:"Godisall."Second:"EverythingisOne,for
everythingthatisisGod."Andthird:"Whoeverobservesthelawofloveisabovesin."Thesetheseswereinterpretedinsuchawaythatthosewhofollowedtheteachings
ofAmalriccouldattainidentitywithGodthroughecstasy.Inthem,theHolySpiritbecameflesh,justasinChrist.Maninthisstateisincapableofsin,forhisdeeds
coincidewiththewillofGod.Herisesabovethelaw.

ThusthefollowersofAmalricperceivedtheKingdomoftheSpiritmoreintermsofaspiritualstateofthemembersofthesectthanintermsofaworldtobeactively
transformed.Thesecondinterpretationwasnotentirelyforeigntothem,however.

Inthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,asectwithviewsverysimilartothoseofAmalricspreadoverFrance,Germany,SwitzerlandandAustria.Itsmemberscalled
themselvestheBrothersandSistersoftheFreeSpiritorsimplythe"FreeSpirits."

Thekeydoctrineofthissectwasbeliefinthepossibilityof"transfigurationintoGod."Sincethesoulofeachmanconsistsofdivinesubstance,anymaninprinciplecan
achieveastateof"Godliness."Toattainthisendhemustpassthroughmanyyearsofnovitiateinthesect,renounceallproperty,family,will,andlivebybegging.Onlythen
doesheattainthestateofGodlinessandbecomeoneofthe"FreeSpirits."Numerousdescriptionsofthesect'sworldviewhavebeenpreserved.Thereareaccountsby
FreeSpiritsorbyFreeSpiritswholaterrepented,aswellasthoseinthearchivesoftheInquisition.(See14:p.5615:p.13616:pp.110,11917:p.160etc.)All
sourcesagreeononepointthatGodlinessisnotatemporarystatebutacontinuousone.JohannHartmannfromatownnearErfurtcharacterizedthisecstasyas"a
completedisappearanceofthepainfulstingofconscience."(15:p.136)Inotherwords,theFreeSpiritwasliberatedfromallmoralconstraints.HewashigherthanChrist,
whowasamortalmanwhoattainedGodlinessonlyonthecross.TheFreeSpiritwasthecompleteequalofGod,"withoutdistinctions."HencehiswillisthewillofGod,
andtohimthenotionofsinbecomesmeaningless.
[26]

Thissinlessnessandfreedomfrommoralrestrictionswascharacterizedinanumberofways.TheFreeSpiritisthekingandsovereignofallthatis.Everythingbelongsto
him,andhemaydisposeofitatwill.Andwhoeverinterfereswiththismaybekilledbyhim,evenifitistheemperorhimself.Nothingperformedbythefleshofsuchaman
caneitherdecreaseorincreasehisdivinity.Therefore,hemaygiveitcompletefreedom."Letthewholestateperishratherthanheabstainfromthedemandsofhisnature,"
saysHartmann.(15:p.141)Intimacywithanywoman,evenwithasisterorhismother,cannotstainhimandwillonlyincreaseherholiness.Numeroussourcesdating
fromthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesreportonritualsofthesects,whichincludedindiscriminatesexualunion.InItaly,such"masses"werecalledbarilotto.In
Germany,therewerereportsofspecialsanctuariescalled"paradises"forthispurpose.

ThecontemporaryscholarH.Grundmann(18)pointsoutinthisregardthatinthelateMiddleAgestherewasnoneedtobelongtoasectinordertoadheretoanysortof
freeviewsinsexualmatters.Thebasisofthe"orgiasticmass"wasstrictlyideological.TheFreeSpirit,whohadattained"Godliness,"brokecompletelywithhisformerlife.
Whathadbeenblasphemyforhiminthepast(andremainedsofor"rude"folk)nowbecameasignoftheendofonehistoricalepochandthebeginningofanother the
newEon.InthiswayhewasabletocomprehendandtoexpresshisnewbirthandthebreakwiththeoldEon.
fromthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesreportonritualsofthesects,whichincludedindiscriminatesexualunion.InItaly,such"masses"werecalledbarilotto.In
Germany,therewerereportsofspecialsanctuariescalled"paradises"forthispurpose.

ThecontemporaryscholarH.Grundmann(18)pointsoutinthisregardthatinthelateMiddleAgestherewasnoneedtobelongtoasectinordertoadheretoanysortof
freeviewsinsexualmatters.Thebasisofthe"orgiasticmass"wasstrictlyideological.TheFreeSpirit,whohadattained"Godliness,"brokecompletelywithhisformerlife.
Whathadbeenblasphemyforhiminthepast(andremainedsofor"rude"folk)nowbecameasignoftheendofonehistoricalepochandthebeginningofanother the
newEon.InthiswayhewasabletocomprehendandtoexpresshisnewbirthandthebreakwiththeoldEon.

ItisclearthattheFreeSpiritshadnouseforthepathofsalvationproposedbytheCatholicChurchpenance,confession,absolutionofsins,communion.Moreover,they
sawtheChurchasahostileorganization,sinceithadusurpedtherighttoexamineandtodecide,whichtheyconsideredsolelytheirownprerogative.Abitterlyanti
ecclesiasticalsentimentpervadestheviewsoftheFreeSpiritsandfindsexpressionintheirfrequentworshipofLucifer.

Inthecenterofthesect'sideologystoodnotGodbutmanmadedivine,freedfromthenotionofhisownsinfulnessandmadethecenteroftheuniverse.Asaresult,Adam
playedacentralroleintheirteaching,notAdamthesinnerdepictedintheOldTestament,butAdamtheperfectman.ManyoftheFreeSpiritsreferredtothemselvesas
the"NewAdams,"andKonradKanlerevencalledhimselfAntichrist("butnotinthebadsense").Itseemspossibletoarguethathere,withintheconfinesofthisrelatively
smallsect,weencounterthefirstprototype
[27]

ofthehumanistideologywhichwouldlaterattainworldwidesignificance.

TheuprisingagainstthePopeinUmbria,inthe1320s,servesasavividexampleoftheinfluencethesecthadonsociallife.TheteachingsoftheFreeSpiritswere
widespreadamongthenobilityofthisregionandbecametheideologyoftheantipapalparty.InthestruggleagainstthePopeandtheurbancommunes,thedoctrine
justifiedtheapplicationofallmeansandtherejectionofmercyofanykind.Theentirepopulationsofcapturedtownswereslaughtered,includingwomenandchildren.The
headoftheuprising,CountMontefeltro,andhisfollowerspridedthemselvesonplunderingchurchesandviolatingnuns.TheirsupremedeitywasSatan.(17:p.130)

Butthemostfarreachinginfluencethatthesecthadwasamongthepoor,especiallyamongtheBeghardsandtheBeguinesunionsofcelibatemenandwomenwho
engagedincraftsorbegging.Theexternal,exotericcircleofparticipantsinthesectwasmadeupfromthesesocialelements,whiletheFreeSpirits,thosewhohadattained
"Godliness,"formedanarrow,esotericcircle.ThedivisionintotwocategoriesrecallstheCatharswiththeirchosencircleoftheperfecti.

Thebroadmassesthatformedtheexotericcircleofthesectwerepoorlyinformedabouttheradicalnatureofthedoctrine,asnumeroussurvivingrecordsofthe
proceedingsoftheInquisitionmakeclear.TheordinaryfollowersfeltthatthedivinityoftheFreeSpiritsjustifiedtheirrighttobespiritualguides.Forthisgroup,themost
significantaspectsofthedoctrinewerethosethatproclaimedtheideaofcommunalityinitsmostextremeformandrejectedthefundamentalinstitutionsofsociety:private
property,thefamily,thechurchandthestate.Itisherethatwecanseethesect'ssocialistaspects.Theassertionthat"allpropertyoughttobeheldincommon"iscited
frequentlyasoneoftheelementsofthedoctrine(e.g.,15:p.53).Appealsforsexualfreedomwereoftendirectedagainstmarriageindeed,sexualunioninmarriagewas
consideredsinful.Suchviewswereexpressed,forexample,bythe"HominesIntelligentia"group,whichwasactiveinBrusselsin14101411.(9:II:p.528)Theequality
proclaimedbetweenFreeSpiritsandChristhadtheaimofdestroyinghierarchy,notonlyonearthbutinheavenaswell.Alloftheseideaswerecommonmainlyamongthe
mendicantBeghards,whomtheir"divine"leaderscalledtoacompleteliberationfromthisworld.Forinstance,AegidiusCantorisofBrusselstaught:"Iamtheliberatorof
mankind.Through
[28]

meyouwillknowChrist,asthroughChristyouknowtheFather."(9:II:p.527)

TheBrethrenoftheFreeSpiritexertedaninfluenceonasectthatemergedinItalyinthesecondhalfofthethirteenthcentury.ThemembersofthisItalianmovementcalled
eachother"Apostolic
Brethren."ThissecttaughtthatthecomingoftheAntichristforetoldbyJoachimwasdrawingnear.TheCatholicChurchhadfallenawayfromChrist'scommandmentsand
hadbecometheWhoreofBabylon,thebeastofsevenheadsandtenhornsoftheApocalypse.ItsfalldatedfromthetimeofEmperorConstantineandPopeSylvester,
whohadbeenpossessedbytheDevil.Thetimesoftroublewerecoming,whichwouldendinvictoryforanew,spiritualChurchthatoftheApostolicBrethren,a
communityofsaints.Theworldwouldbegovernedbyasaint,aPopeelevatedbyGodandnotelectedbycardinals(allthecardinalswouldhavebeenkilledbythen,in
anycase).AndthesectwasalreadythoughttobeheadedbyaGodappointedleader.Implicitobediencewasduehim.Everythingwaspermittedindefenseofthefaith,
anyviolenceagainstenemies,while,atthesametime,thepersecutioninflictedbytheCatholicChurchontheApostolicBrethrenwasconsideredtobethegravestof
crimes.Thesectpreachedcommunalityofpropertyandofwives.

Thedoctrinewasspreadamongthepeoplebyitinerant"apostles."Thelettersoftheleaderofthesect,Dolcino,weredisseminatedbywayofproclamations.Finallyin
1404,anattemptwasmadetoputtheteachingintopractice.Gatheringsomefivethousandmembersofthesect,Dolcinofortifiedhimselfandhisarmyinamountainous
areaofnorthernItaly,fromwherehesalliedforthtoplunderthesurroundingvillagesanddestroythechurchesandmonasteries.Warwentonforthreeyears,until
Dolcino'scampwastakenandhewasexecuted.

ThisepisodeisdescribedatgreaterlengthinthebiographyofDolcinointheAppendix.

Taborites.

TheburningofJanHusin1415gavetheimpetustotheantiCatholicHussitemovementinBohemia.ThemoreradicalfactionoftheHussiteswasconcentratedinawell
protectedtownnearPrague.TheycalledtheplaceTabor.PreachersfromhereticalsectsgravitatedtherefromalloverEurope:Joachimites(followersofJoachimofFlore),
Waldensians,Beghards.Chiliasticandsocialisttheorieswereprevalent
[29]

amongtheTaborites,andtherewerenumerousattemptstobringtheoryintopractice.WeshallgiveabriefoutlineoftheviewsoftheTaboritesbasedonthewritingsof
theircontemporaries(thefuturePopeAeneasSylviusPiccolomini,Prbram,Vavinec,LaurenceofBezin).

Theendoftheworldtheconsumatiosaeculiwastooccurin1420.Theterm,however,coversonlytheendoftheoldworldandofthe"dominionofevil."Allthe
"wicked"wouldberemovedforthwith."Thedayofvengeanceandtheyearofretribution"weredrawingnear."Theloftyandpowerfulmustbebentdownliketree
branchesandcutoffandburnedinfurnaceslikestraw,leavingneitherrootnorbranch,theymustbethrashedlikesheavesofgrain,theirblooddrainedtothelastdrop,
theyaretobeexterminatedwithscorpions,serpentsandwildbeasts,andputtodeatheverywhere."(19:p.78)

Christ'slawofmercywastobeabolished,since"itsinterpretationandwrittentenetscontradictinmuchtheopinioncitedabove."(20:p.235)Onthecontrary,onewasto
act"resolutelyandwithzealandwithjustretribution."Furthermore:"ItisnecessaryforeachofthefaithfultowashhishandsinthebloodoftheenemiesofChrist."(20:p.
231)Moreover:"AnyonewhoprotestsagainstthesheddingofthebloodofChrist'senemiesshallbecursedandpunishedjustastheseenemiesare.Allpeasantswho
refusetojointheTaboritesshallbedestroyedtogetherwiththeirproperty."(19:p.81)
branchesandcutoffandburnedinfurnaceslikestraw,leavingneitherrootnorbranch,theymustbethrashedlikesheavesofgrain,theirblooddrainedtothelastdrop,
theyaretobeexterminatedwithscorpions,serpentsandwildbeasts,andputtodeatheverywhere."(19:p.78)

Christ'slawofmercywastobeabolished,since"itsinterpretationandwrittentenetscontradictinmuchtheopinioncitedabove."(20:p.235)Onthecontrary,onewasto
act"resolutelyandwithzealandwithjustretribution."Furthermore:"ItisnecessaryforeachofthefaithfultowashhishandsinthebloodoftheenemiesofChrist."(20:p.
231)Moreover:"AnyonewhoprotestsagainstthesheddingofthebloodofChrist'senemiesshallbecursedandpunishedjustastheseenemiesare.Allpeasantswho
refusetojointheTaboritesshallbedestroyedtogetherwiththeirproperty."(19:p.81)

God'sKingdomonearthwillbeestablished,butnotforallonlyforthe"elect.""Evil"willnotbeeliminatedfromtheworldbutwillbesubjectedtothecontrolofthose
whoare"good."AllthefaithfulweretocongregateinfivecitiesthosewhoremainedoutsidewouldnotbesparedtheLastJudgment.Fromthesecitiesthefaithfulwereto
ruletheworld,andthosecitiesandtownsopposingthemweretobe"destroyedandburntlikeSodom."(20:p.236)Inparticular:"Inthisyearofretribution,Praguemust
bedestroyedandburntbythefaithfullikeBabylon."(19:p.82)

TheperiodwastoculminateinthecomingofChrist.ThenthechosenofGodwould"reignwiththeLordvisiblyandphysicallyforathousandyears."(19:p.94)When
Christhaddescendedtoearthwithhisangels,pioussoulswhohaddiedforChristweretoberesurrectedinordertojudgethesinnerswithHim.Wiveswouldconceive
withoutknowingamanandgivebirthwithoutpain.Noonewouldsoworreap."Thefruitoftheearthshallnolongerbeconsumed."(19:pp.85)
[30]

Thecallwentoutfromthepreachers"todonowork,topulldowntreesanddestroyhouses,churchesandmonasteries."(19:p.85)"Allhumaninstitutionsandhuman
lawsmustbeabolished,fornoneofthemwerecreatedbytheHeavenlyFather."(19:p.110)ItwastaughtthattheChurchwas"hereticalandunrighteousandthatallits
wealthmustbetakenawayandgiventolaymen."And:"Thehousesofpriestsandallchurchpropertymustbedemolished,andthechurches,altarsandmonasteries
destroyed."(19:p.83)"Churchbellsweretakendownandbrokentopiecesandthensoldawaytoforeignlands.Churchobjects,candlesticks,goldandsilverwere
smashed."(19:p.84)"Everywherealtarsweresmashed,thesacramentscastout,God'stemplesdefiledandturnedintostallsandstables."(19:p.127)"Thesacrament
wastroddenunderfoot....TheBloodofChristwaspouredout,chalicesstolenandsold."(19:p.139)OneoftheTaboritepreachersstatedthathe"wouldsoonerprayto
theDevilthanbendhiskneebeforetheHolyEucharist."(19:p.153)"Agreatmultitudeofpriestswerekilled,burnedandslaughtered,andthegreatestjoyforthemwas
toseizesomebodyandmurderhim."(19:p.84)ThefavoritesongofthcTaboriteswas:"Comeon,monks,let'sseeyoudanceforus!"(18:p.84)Itwassaidthatwhen
theKingdomoftheRighteouscametherewouldbe"noneedforanyonetoteachanother.Therewouldbenoneedforbooksorscriptures,andallworldlywisdomwill
perish."(19:p.159)InmonasteriestheTaboritesinvariablydestroyedthelibraries."AllbelongingsmustbetakenawayfromGod'senemiesandburnedorotherwise
destroyed."(19:p.81)

"Thiswinterandsummerthepreachersandelderheadmenhavebeenpersistentlydupingthepeasantstopourmoneyintotheirbarrels."(19:p.101)Inthismannerall
moneyinthecommunitywassocialized.Supervisorsofthebarrelswereappointedtooverseethestrictdeliveryofmoneyandtodistributethecommunalfund."Inthe
townofTaborthereisnothingwhichismineorthine,butallpossesseverythingincommonandnooneistohaveanythingapart,andwhoeverdoesisasinner."(19:pp.
99100)OnepointoftheTaboriteprogramstated:"Nooneshallpossessanything,buteverythingmustbecommunal."(19:p.106)Thepreacherstaught:"Everythingwill
becommon,includingwives:therewillbefreesonsanddaughtersofGodandtherewillbenomarriageasunionoftwohusbandandwife."(19:p.113)

AmongtheTaborites,aBeghardfromBelgiumfoundedasectofAdamiteswhoestablishedthemselvesonasmallislandintheLunice
[31]

river.HepronouncedhimselfAdamandtheSonofGod,calledupontoresurrectthedeadandtocarryoutwhatwasforeordainedintheApocalypse.TheAdamites
consideredthemselvestobetheincarnationoftheomnipresentGod.Theyexpectedtheworldsoontobefloodedwithbloodashighasahorse'sbridle.Onthisearththey
sawthemselvesasGod'sscythesenttotakevengeanceandtodestroyallthatisvileintheworld.Forgivenesswasasin.Theykilledandtheyburnedtownsandvillagesat
night,citingthephrasefromtheBible:"Atmidnighttherewasacrymade."InthetownofPricthey"killedpeople,youngandold,andburnedthetown."(19:p.464)At
theirgatheringstheyworenoclothing,believingthatonlyinthiswaywouldtheybecomepure.Theyhadnomarriageeverymancouldchoosewomenatwill.Itwas
enoughtosayaboutawoman"Sheinflamesmyspirit"forAdamtogivehisblessing:"Goandgivefruitandmultiplyandpopulatetheearth."Accordingtocertainsources,
theirsexualrelationswerecompletelyindiscriminate."TheskytheycallaroofandsaythereisnoGodonearthastherearenodevilsinhell."(19:p.478)Onordersfrom
Janika,AdamiteswereexterminatedbymoremoderateTaborites.

Foralongtime,thestoriesabouttheAdamites(aswellasmanyreportsabouttheTaborites)werethoughttobetheinventionsoftheirenemies.Suchaviewwasfirst
positedbytheFrenchHuguenotIsaacdeBeausobre,arepresentativeoftheAgeofEnlightenment,andinitsmostextremeformitfindsexpressionintheworksofthe
CzechMarxisthistorianJ.Macek.ThequestionoftheAdamiteshasrecentlybeensubjectedtothoroughcriticalreviewbytheMarxisthistoriansE.WernerandM.
Erbstsser.(15,16,17)Theydemonstratetheexistenceofanearlier"Adamite"tradition,acultofAdam,withintheBrethrenoftheFreeSpirit.Ifwetakeintoaccount
certainunavoidabledistortionsduetothehermeticnatureoftheteaching,informationabouttheBohemian"Adamites"isinfullaccordwiththepictureoftheEuropean
movementof"FreeSpirits"whichwehavedrawnintheprecedingsection.

Forexample,Macekconsidersthepassage"Allshallbeincommon,wivesaswell"(fromtheOldChronicle)tobe"theheightoffilthyslander."(19:p.113)Inhis
opinion,thispassageiscontradictedbyanotherinPrbram,whoassertsthatinTaborintimacybetweenhusbandandwifewasprohibited:"Ifhusbandandwifewereseen
togetherortheirmeetingbecameknown,theywerebeatentodeathothers
[32]

werethrownintotheriver."However,thesetwopassagesactuallyareinfullaccordwiththetraditionoftheFreeSpirits,whopreachedunlimitedsexuallibertyandthe
sinfulnessofmarriageatoneandthesametime.Thiswasalsothepositionofthe"HominesIntelligentia"groupinBrusselsataboutthesameperiod.Wenoteinthis
connectionthatEngelshadpointedout:"Itisacuriousfactthatineverylargerevolutionarymovementthequestionof'freelove'comestotheforeground."(3:XVI:p.
160)

TheemperorandthePopeappealedforacrusadeagainsttheTaborites.Butthelatternotonlycrushedthecrusadersbutcarriedwaroverintoneighboringcountries.
Theseraids,whichreceivedthename"TheSplendidCampaigns"intheHussitetradition,wereundertakenonayearlybasisbetween1427and1434.Somecountries
weredevastatedandlootedinothersforexample,Silesiagarrisonswereestablished.Asongofthetimeruns:"MeissenandSaxonyaredestroyed,Silesiaand
Lauschwitzlieinruins,Bavariahasbecnturnedintoadesert,Austriaisdevastated,Moraviastripped,Bohemiaturnedupsidedown."

DetachmentsofTaboriteswentasfarastheBalticSea,thewallsofVienna,LeipzigandBerlinNurembergpaidtribute.Czechiawasravaged.IntheOldCollegiate
Chronicleitissaid:"InthesecampaignsthemajorityofsoldierswereforeignerswhofeltnolovefortheKingdom."And:"Fires,robberies,murdersandactsofviolence
areontheirconscience."(21:p.161)ThewholeofCentralEuropewassubjectedtoterribledevastation.ThePopewasforcedtomakeconcessions.AttheBasel
Councilof1433,anagreementwiththeHussiteswasreached,asaresultofwhichtheyreturnedtotheCatholicChurch.Butthemoreradical,Taborite,factionof
HussitesdidnotrecognizetheagreementandwasannihilatedinthebattleatLipany,in1434.

Duringthewarsof14191434,theimpactoftheHussiteswentbeyondthedevastationofneighboringcountries.Theyalsocarriedtheirchiliasticandsocialistideas
abroad.TheirmanifestoeswerereadinBarcelona,Paris,Cambridge.In1423and1430,thereweredisturbancesbyHussiteadherentsinFlanders.InGermanyand
Chronicleitissaid:"InthesecampaignsthemajorityofsoldierswereforeignerswhofeltnolovefortheKingdom."And:"Fires,robberies,murdersandactsofviolence
areontheirconscience."(21:p.161)ThewholeofCentralEuropewassubjectedtoterribledevastation.ThePopewasforcedtomakeconcessions.AttheBasel
Councilof1433,anagreementwiththeHussiteswasreached,asaresultofwhichtheyreturnedtotheCatholicChurch.Butthemoreradical,Taborite,factionof
HussitesdidnotrecognizetheagreementandwasannihilatedinthebattleatLipany,in1434.

Duringthewarsof14191434,theimpactoftheHussiteswentbeyondthedevastationofneighboringcountries.Theyalsocarriedtheirchiliasticandsocialistideas
abroad.TheirmanifestoeswerereadinBarcelona,Paris,Cambridge.In1423and1430,thereweredisturbancesbyHussiteadherentsinFlanders.InGermanyand
Austria,Hussiteinfluencewasstillfeltacenturylater,duringtheperiodoftheReformation.InsideBohemiaitself,thedefeatedTaboritesgaverisetothesectof"Bohcmian
Brethren"or"UnitasFratrum,"whocombinedthepreviousintolerantattitudetowardtheCatholicChurch
[33]

andsecularauthoritywithacompleterenunciationofviolenceevenforselfdefense.Weshallhaveoccasiontospeakofthissect,whichisstillinexistence,laterinthis
work.

Anabaptists.

TheReformationcalledforthanewupsurgeofsocialistmovements.EveninpreReformationtimes,Germanywasfullofchiliasticsentiment.Wanderingpreachers
exposedthesinsoftheworldandforetoldtheforthcomingvengeance.Astrologicalpredictionsofcalamitywerecommonfamine,rebellion,"whentheriverswillflowwith
blood."Therewasasaying:"Whodoesnotdiein1523,isnotdrownedin1524,isnotkilledin1525,shallsaythatamiraclehashappenedtohim."

Theinventionofprintingenormouslymagnifiedtheeffectoftheseideas.Anypeasantorartisancouldbeexposedtoleafletsshowingapeasantarmymarchingtowardthe
futurerevolution,withafrightenedPope,princesandprelatesfleeingbeforeit.

ThissentimentwasgivenespeciallystrongexpressionintheAnabaptistmovement,whichspreadtoGermany,Switzerland,Austria,Czechia,DenmarkandHollandand
which,inthefollowingcentury,spilledoverintoEngland.Thesect'sname,assooftenhappened,wasgiventoitbyitsenemies.Itseemsthatthetermwascoinedby
Zwingli.Themovementassuchhadexistedlongbefore,itsmemberscallingeachother"Brother."ThedesignationAnabaptist("therebaptized")istobeexplainedbythe
factthatthesectrefusedtorecognizethebaptismofchildrenandoftenperformedasecondbaptismofadults.Inlatertimes,membersofthissectcametocallthemselves
Baptists.

Basically,thedoctrineoftheAnabaptists(see22,23,24,25,26)derivedfromthenotion,alreadyfamiliartous,ofthefallingawayoftheCatholicChurch,inEmperor
Constantine'stime,fromthetrueteachingsofChrist.ThesesectariansconsideredthemselvesdirectsuccessorsoftheChristianityofApostolictimes.Theydeniedthe
entiretraditionoftheCatholicChurchthatis,everyaspectofitsdoctrineandorganizationnotspecificallyidentifiedintheGospels.Theyrefusedtorecognizethe
supremeauthorityofthePope,believedthatsalvationofthesoulwaspossibleoutsidetheChurchandprofessedauniversalpriesthood.OftheScriptures,theyrecognized
onlytheGospelsassacredandonlythewordsspokenbyChristhimself,atthat.TheSermonontheMounthadparticularsignificanceforthem,andtheybelievedthatits
commandmentsshouldbeobservedtotheletter.According
[34]

totheirdoctrine,themeaningoftheGospelsisrevealedthroughinspirationtoanyoneworthyofit,nowjustasinApostolictimes.

Anabaptistsbelievedmurdertobeacardinalsinunderanycircumstancesandrejectedoathsofanykind.Forthisreason,theyrefusedtoparticipateinmanyaspectsof
life.Ingeneral,theoppositionof"trueChristians"tothe"worldoffalseChristians"playedalargeroleintheirteachings.Thisledatcriticalperiodstomilitantappealsfor
"exterminationoftheimpious."

InorganizationtheAnabaptistslargelyresembledtheCathars.Themovementwasguidedentirelybyasocietyof"Apostles"who,havingrenouncedmarriageand
property,ledthelifeofpilgrims.Theywanderedinpairs,theolderApostledevotinghimselftomattersoffaithandthesect'sorganization,withtheyoungerApostlehelping
himwithpracticalmatters.TheApostleselectedbishopsfromamongtheirownranks,thelatterguidingtheactivityofthesectinvariousregions.Councilsofbishops,
"synods"orcapituli,wereconvenedtodiscussquestionsofprinciple.Forexample,inhisinvitationtothesynodatWaldshutin1524,BalthazarHumbayerwrote:"The
ancientcustomofApostolictimesissuchthat,incircumstanceshardforthefaith,thosetowhomGod'swordisentrustedgathertotakeaChristiandecision."(24:p.376)

OftenbishopsfromthewholeofEuropecametogether.Forinstance,thecapituliinBaselbetween1521and1523wereattendedbyBrethrenfromSwitzerland,
Flanders(Beltin),Saxony(HeinrichvonEppendorf),Franconia(Stumpf),FrankfurtamMain(theKnightHartmutvonKronberg),Holland(Rode),England(Richard
Crock,ThomasLipset),andotherplaces.(24:p.378f.)AttheAugsburgsynodof1526,morethansixty"elderBrethren"werepresent.

ThesocialviewsoftheAnabaptistswerenotuniformthroughout.TheChroniclebySebastianFranck(sixteenthcentury)saysaboutthem:"Somebelievethemselvesto
beholyandpuretheyhaveeverythingincommon....Otherspracticecommunalityonlytotheextentthattheydonotpermitneedtoariseamongthemselves....Among
themasectappearedwhichwishedtomakewives,aswellasbelongings,communal."(25:p.306)

ThereismuchdataonAnabaptiststobefoundinthebookbyBullinger,alsowritteninthesixteenthcentury.Indescribingthesectof"FreeBrethren"thatappearedinthe
vicinityofZrich,hewrites:"TheFreeBrethren,whommanyAnabaptistscalled'crudeBrethren,'
[35]

werequitewidespreadintheearlydaysofthemovement.TheyunderstoodChristianfreedominacarnalsense.Fortheywishedtobefreeofalllaws,presumingthat
Christhadliberatedthem.Therefore,theyregardedthemselvesasfreeoftithe,ofthecorveandofserfdom.Someofthem,desperatelibertines,seducedsillywomeninto
believingthattheycouldnotbecomespiritualwithoutbreakingwedlock.Othersbelievedthatifallthingsmustbeincommon,thenalsowives.Stillotherssaidthatafterthe
newbaptismtheyhadbeenbornanewandcouldnotsin:onlyfleshsins.Thesefalseteachingswerethesourceofshameandobscenity.Andyettheydaredtoteachthat
suchwasthewilloftheFather."(40:p.129)

ElsewhereBullingerreports:"Andtheysayinearnestthatnooneshouldhavepropertyandthatallwealthandpatrimonyshouldbeincommon,asitisimpossibletobe
Christianandwealthyatthesametime....Theysetforthasanewmonasticorderrulesregardingclothingastothefabric,shapeandstyle,lengthandsize....Theysetforth
rulesastoeating,drinking,sleeping,leisure,standingandwalkingabout."(25:p.284)

Intheearly1520s,theAnabaptistsrenouncedtheconspiratorialcharacteroftheiractivitiesandenteredintoanopenstrugglewiththe"world"andtheCatholicChurch.In
1524,alargescalesecretconferencewasheldinNurembergandattendedbyDenck,oneofthemostinfluentialAnabaptistwriters,bythe"Picard"Hetzer,byHutofthe
oldWaldensianBrethren,andbyotherBrethren.Manywereseized,butDenckfledtoSwitzerland.HereanewassemblyofBrethrenfromvariouscountriestookplace.
Itwasdecidedtobegintopracticethesecondbaptismopenly.ThisdecisionwasputintoeffectinZurichandSt.Gall.Thiswasapparentlysymbolicoftheshifttooutright
strugglepreciselythecoursetakenbytheCzechBrethreninthevillageofLota,in1457,whentheydecidedtodemonstrateopenlytheirsplitwithCatholicism.

InSt.Gallin1525,auniformofcoarsegrayfabricandabroadgrayhatwereintroducedasobligatoryforallmembersofthecommunity.Allformsofparticipationin
Intheearly1520s,theAnabaptistsrenouncedtheconspiratorialcharacteroftheiractivitiesandenteredintoanopenstrugglewiththe"world"andtheCatholicChurch.In
1524,alargescalesecretconferencewasheldinNurembergandattendedbyDenck,oneofthemostinfluentialAnabaptistwriters,bythe"Picard"Hetzer,byHutofthe
oldWaldensianBrethren,andbyotherBrethren.Manywereseized,butDenckfledtoSwitzerland.HereanewassemblyofBrethrenfromvariouscountriestookplace.
Itwasdecidedtobegintopracticethesecondbaptismopenly.ThisdecisionwasputintoeffectinZurichandSt.Gall.Thiswasapparentlysymbolicoftheshifttooutright
strugglepreciselythecoursetakenbytheCzechBrethreninthevillageofLota,in1457,whentheydecidedtodemonstrateopenlytheirsplitwithCatholicism.

InSt.Gallin1525,auniformofcoarsegrayfabricandabroadgrayhatwereintroducedasobligatoryforallmembersofthecommunity.Allformsofparticipationin
publiclifeandentertainmentwereforbidden.Anabaptistswerecalled"monkswithouthoods."TheleadersoftheAnabaptistcommunityinZurichpreachedthat"all
propertymustbeheldincommonandtogether."Theseeventswereaccompaniedbystrangehappenings.Membersofsomeofthegroupswentnakedattheirgatherings
and,tobelikechildren,creptaroundontheground,playing.OthersburnedtheBible,andwithshoutsof"Here!
[36]

Here!"beatthemselvesonthebreasttoshowtheplacewherethelifegivingspiritdwells.Oneofthem,onordersfromhisfather,killedhisbrotherinimitationofChrist's
sacrifice.(23:p.701)

TheAnabaptistsdidnotsucceedintakingcontroloftheReformationmovementinSwitzerland(thanksinlargeparttoZwingli'soppositiontothem).ExiledSwiss
AnabaptistsfledtoBohemiaandjoinedtheBohemianBrethrenthere.Largecombinedcommunitieswerefoundedoncollectivistprinciples.

Communalpropertywasintroduced.EverythingearnedbytheBrethrenwashandedovertothecommontreasury,whichwassupervisedbyaspecial"distributor."The
"goodpolice"controlledthewholeofthelifeofthecommunityclothing,lodging,upbringingofchildren,marriageandwork.

Thetypeofmen'sandwomen'sclothing,thehourforgoingtobed,thetimeforworkandrestwereallstrictlyprescribed.ThelifeoftheBrethrentookplacebeforethe
eyesofothers.Itwasforbiddentocookanythingforoneselfmealshadtobetakenincommon.Theunmarriedsleptincommonbedrooms,menandwomenseparately.
Children(fromtheageoftwo)wereseparatedfromtheirparentsandbroughtupincommon"children'shouses."Marriageswerearrangedbytheelders.Theyalso
assignedtoeveryonehisorheroccupation.Membersofthecommunityrefusedtohaveanycontactwiththestatetheydidnotserveinthearmy,neverwenttocourt.
Theydid,however,retainapassivelyhostileattitudewhilerejectingviolenceofanykind.(See27,39.)

InGermany,Anabaptismbegantotakeonanincreasinglyrevolutionarycharacter.InThuringia,neartheBohemianborder,thecityofZwickaubecamethecenterofthe
movement.ThesocalledZwickauProphets,headedbytheAnabaptistApostleKlausStorch,believedthattheelectoftheLordcouldcommunicatewithHimdirectly,as
theApostlesofoldcould,anddeniedthattheChurchwascapableofgivingsalvation.Theirteachingconsideredscienceandtheartsunnecessaryforman,foreverything
essentialtohissalvationwasalreadygiventohimbyGod.

InimitationofChrist,StorchsurroundedhimselfwithtwelveApostlesandseventydisciples.The"Prophets"predictedaninvasionbytheTurks,thereignoftheAntichrist,
destructionoftheimpiousandfinallythearrivalofthethousandyearKingdomofGod,whentherewouldbeonebaptismandonefaith.

AnexpositionofStorch'steachingshasbeenpreservedinawork
[37]

byWagnerpublishedinthelatesixteenthcenturyinErfurt.Itistitled"HowNiklausStorchInstigatedSeditioninThuringiaandtheNeighboringRegions"andwaswritten
onthebasisofeyewitnessaccounts.Itcitesthefollowingpointsofhisdoctrine:

1.Thatnomatrimonialunion,whethersecretoropen,shouldbeobserved....

3.Thatonthecontrary,eachmaytakewiveswheneverhisfleshdemandsitandhispassionrises,andmaylivewiththeminintimacyathiswill.

4.Thateverythingoughttobeheldincommon,forGodhassentallmenequallynakedintotheworld.Andlikewise,Hehasgiventhemequallyeverythingthatisonthe
earth:thebirdsoftheairandthefishofthewater.

5.Thereforeitoughttobethatallauthorities,secularandclerical,bedeprivedoftheirofficesonceandforallorkilledbythesword,fortheyaloneliveastheywilland
suckthebloodandsweatofthepoor,gluttingthemselvesanddrinkingdayandnight.

"Henceeveryonemustriseup,thesoonerthebetter,armhimselfandattackthepriestsintheircozynests,massacreandexterminatethem.Foroncethesheepare
deprivedofaleader,itwillgoeasywiththesheep.Nextitwillbenecessarytoattackalsothosewhofleeceothers,toseizetheirhouses,plundertheirproperty,andraze
theircastlestotheground."(28:p.53)

ThisfirstsurgeoftheAnabaptistmovementcoincidedwiththe1525PeasantWarinGermany.Thesocialistteachingsofthetimearemostvividlymirroredintheactivity
ofThomasMntzer.HisbiographyispresentedatgreaterlengthintheAppendixweshallthereforelimitourselvestoabriefcommentonhisdoctrinehere.Mntzer
taughtthattheonlyLordandKingoftheearthisChrist.Heassignedtoprincesafunctionverylikethatofhangmenandeventhisprerogativewastobeexercisedonlyon
directordersfromtheelectoftheLord.Iftheprincesrefusedtoobey,theyweretobeexecuted.TheauthorityofChristwasseenastrulyembodiedinthesocietyofthe
elect,anarrowunionsharplyseparatedfromtherestofthepopulation.Mntzerdidindeedattempttoorganizesuchaunion.

HeseizedpowerinthetownofMhlhausen,whererebelliousinhabitantshaddrivenoutthemunicipalcouncil.Inthecityandthesurroundingarea,monasterieswerelaid
waste,sacredimagesdestroyed,monksandpriestskilled.Mntzertaughtthatallproperty
[38]

wastobeheldincommon.Anidenticaldemandwaspartoftheprogramofhisunion.Achroniclewrittenatthetimerelatesthatapracticalattemptatimplementingthese
principleswasundertakenatMhlhausen.However,anarmygatheredbythelocalprincessoonapproachedthetown.Mntzerandhisfollowerswereoverwhelmingly
defeatedhewasexecuted.(Seethemoredetailedaccountin28andin39:pp.199253.)

TheAnabaptists'participationinthePeasantWarcalledforththeparticularireoftheauthorities.AviolentandextremelycruelwaveofpersecutionofAnabaptistsswept
acrosssouthandcentralGermany.Thistemporarilyweakenedmilitantandsocialistsentiments,butaround1530theysurfacedagain.InhisChronicle,SebastianFranck
reportsthatabout1530(inSwitzerland),Brethrenwhobelievedinthepossibilityofselfdefenseandwarundercertaincircumstancesbegantogaintheupperhandinthe
organization."SuchBrethrenwereinthemajority."

AttheAnabaptistsynods,theinfluenceofthemoremoderate"Apostle"Denckwaned,whileaformerassociateofMntzer's,Hut,whopreachedcompletecommunality
ofworldlygoods,cametotheforefront.Heproclaimed:"Thesaintsmustbejoyfulandmusttakeupdoubleedgedswordsinordertowreakvengeanceinthe
nations."(23:p.703)Hutcreatedanewunionwhosegoalwas"slaughterofalloverlordsandpowersthatbe."Healsoproposed"establishingtheruleofHansHuton
acrosssouthandcentralGermany.Thistemporarilyweakenedmilitantandsocialistsentiments,butaround1530theysurfacedagain.InhisChronicle,SebastianFranck
reportsthatabout1530(inSwitzerland),Brethrenwhobelievedinthepossibilityofselfdefenseandwarundercertaincircumstancesbegantogaintheupperhandinthe
organization."SuchBrethrenwereinthemajority."

AttheAnabaptistsynods,theinfluenceofthemoremoderate"Apostle"Denckwaned,whileaformerassociateofMntzer's,Hut,whopreachedcompletecommunality
ofworldlygoods,cametotheforefront.Heproclaimed:"Thesaintsmustbejoyfulandmusttakeupdoubleedgedswordsinordertowreakvengeanceinthe
nations."(23:p.703)Hutcreatedanewunionwhosegoalwas"slaughterofalloverlordsandpowersthatbe."Healsoproposed"establishingtheruleofHansHuton
earth"andmakingMhlhausenthecapital.Amajorityofthemembersoftheunionknewnothingofhisradicalplans.Onlyanarrowcircleofmembers,calledthe
"knowers,"wasinitiatedintothesesecrets.

In1535,counselorstoEmperorCharlesVsubmittedareportstatingthat"Anabaptists,whocallthemselvestrueChristians,wishtodivideallproperty...."(24:p.395)
Theincreasinglyexplosivesituationfoundexpressioninsomepreposterousincidentswhichwere,however,destinedtobeoutstrippedbylaterevents.Forexample,the
furrierAugustinBaderproclaimedhimselfkingoftheNewIsraelandmadehimselfacrownandkinglygarments.HewastriedinStuttgart.(23:p.703)

In15341535,thisriseofAnabaptistmilitancyledtoanoutbreakofviolencewhichcanbeseenasanattempttobringaboutanAnabaptistrevolutioninnorthernEurope.
ThemaineventswereplayedoutinnorthernGermanyAnabaptistshadgravitatedthereearlier,having
[39]

beendrivenoutofsouthernandcentralGermany.ThetownofMnsterbecamethecenteroftheseevents.

TakingadvantageofthestrugglegoingonbetweenCatholicsandLutherans,theAnabaptistsgainedcontrolinthemunicipalcouncilandthencompletelysubjugatedthe
town.Allwhorefusedtoacceptasecondbaptismwereexpelledafterbeingstrippedoftheirpossessions.Thereafterallpropertyinthecitywasappropriatedforthe
commonlot,everyonebeingobligedtodeliverhispossessionsunderthesupervisionofspecialdeacons.Nextpolygamywasintroduced,andwomenofacertainagewere
forbiddentostayunmarried.

AnabaptistApostlesfannedoutfromMnsteracrossGermany,DenmarkandHolland,preachingthesecondbaptismandcallingthefaithfultocometotheaidofthecity.
Revoltgrippedanumberoftowns,andAnabaptistsgatheredbylandandbyseatosupportMnster.TerrifiedbydevelopmentsBishopWaldeck,whosediocese
includedMnster,calledupanarmytogetherwiththeneighboringprincesandsurroundedthetown.Thesiegelastedforoverayear.Withinthetowninthemeantime,one
oftheAnabaptists,JanBokelson,alsocalledJohannofLeyden,wasproclaimedthekingofMnsterandofthewholeworld.Hesurroundedhimselfwithaluxurious
courtandamultitudeofwives,andhepersonallybeheadedrecalcitrantsinthetownsquare.Atthesametime,uprisingsofAnabaptistsbrokeoutallovernorthern
GermanyandinHolland,wheretheyevensucceededinseizingtheAmsterdamtownhallforashorttime.

Theauthoritiesfinallybegantoregaincontrol.In1535,MnsterwastakenbyassaultandBokelsonandotherAnabaptistleaderswereexecuted.Amoredetailed
descriptionofthisepisodeisgivenintheAppendix.

SectsintheEnglishRevolutionof1648.

AfterthefallofMnster,aschismagainappearedbetweenthemorepeaceableandthemorebelligerenttendenciesoftheAnabaptistmovement.In1536,asynodtook
placeinthevicinityofthetownofBuchholzinWestphalia.Batenburg,aleaderofthemilitantfaction,supportedtheviewsoftheMnsterAnabaptistsonarmedstruggle,
ontheapproachingKingdomofGod,andsoon.ThefollowersofUbboPhillipstooktheoppositeposition.Thislattergroupgainedtheupperhand,althoughitsadherents
didnotcondemntheiropponentsinprinciple,sayingonlythatevenifBatenburgwasright,thetimeofthe"KingdomoftheElect"hadnotyetarrived,andthatitwas
thereforenotyettimetoattempt
[40]

towrestpowerfromthegodless.ThisepisodemarksthebeginningofdecreasedpoliticalinvolvementofAnabaptistsontheContinent.Itsmoreextremerepresentatives,
theFamilists,emigrated(viaHolland)toEngland.ItisworthnotingthatsomeEnglishmenhadattendedtheBuchholzsynod.Oneofthem,Henrybyname,tookanactive
partinorganizingthesynodandpaidtravelingexpensesforthedelegates.(30:pp.7677)

Atthebeginningoftheseventeenthcentury,theAnabaptistswhohadmigratedtoEnglandbegantomergewiththemovementoftheLollards,whichhadexistedtherefor
alongtime.TheEnglishrevolutionof1648coincidedwithaflurryofactivitybyallthesesects.TheexampleofMnsterandJohannBokelsongrippedthepopular
imaginationonceagain.AbookoriginatinginQuakercirclesstatedthefollowing,forexample:"NoFriendhasreasontobeashamedofhisAnabaptistorigins.Evenin
MnstertheyrebelledmerelyagainstthecrueltyoftheGermantyrants,wholiterallylikedevilsoppressedthesoulsandthebodiesofthecommonfolk.Theywere
defeatedandthereforedeclaredmutineers.Theiruprisingwasviolentbecausetheiroppressorswerestillmoreviolent."(33:p.25)AmongtheapologistsfortheM nster
rebellionwasLilburne,ahighlypopularleaderoftheradicalwinginthePuritanarmy(seehispamphlet"TheBasicLawsofLiberty").

Inanotherpamphletoftheday(entitled"Heresiography"),thefollowingAnabaptistdoctrineiscited:"AChristianmaynotwithasafeconsciencepossessanythingproper
tohimselfbutwhatsoeverhehathhemustmakecommon."(31:p.99)

Inthemiddleoftheseventeenthcentury,thesectofRantersappearedinEnglanditsdoctrineisstrikinglyakintothatoftheBrethrenoftheFreeSpirit.TheRanters
believedthatallwhichexistswasdivineandthatthedivisionbetweenGoodandEvilwasamanmadeconcept.Inmysticaltermsthiswasperceivedasanidentity:"The
DevilisGod,HellisHeaven,SinHoliness,DamnationSalvation."(32:p.77)

Thisledtoadenialofmoralsandtoostentatiousamorality.ThusClarksonsaysoftheperiodwhenhewasaRanter:"Theverymotionofmyheartwastoallmannerof
theft,cheat,wrongorinjurythatprivatelycouldbeacted,thoughintongueIprofessedthecontrary,notconsideringIbrakethelawinallpoints(murderexcepted)andthe
groundofthismyjudgmentwas,Godmadeallthingsgood,sonothingevilbutasmanjudgedit."(32:p.78)

Inthesocialfield,theRantersrejectedpropertyandmarriage.
[41]

Inthepamphlet"TheRanters'LastSermon,"wefindtheteaching"thatitwasquitecontrarytotheendofCreationtoAppropriateanythingtoanyManorWomanbut
thatthereoughttobeaCommunityofallthings....Theysaythatforonemantobetiedtoonewoman,oronewomantobetiedtooneman,isafruitofthecursebutthey
saywearefreedfromthecursethereforeitisourlibertytomakeuseofwhomweplease."(32:p.90)

Inhispamphlet"AWonder,"EdwardHideascribestotheRantersthefollowingview:"Thatallthewomenintheworldarebutoneman'swifeinunityandallthemenin
theworldarebutonewoman'shusbandinunitysothatonemanmayliewithallthewomenintheworldinunity,andonewomanmayliewithallmenintheworld,for
theyareallherhusbandinunity."(32:p.90)

RanterswereaccusedofperformingritualswhichinvolvedaparodyofCommunionandindiscriminatesexualunion,similartothebarilottoandthe"paradise"ofthe
saywearefreedfromthecursethereforeitisourlibertytomakeuseofwhomweplease."(32:p.90)

Inhispamphlet"AWonder,"EdwardHideascribestotheRantersthefollowingview:"Thatallthewomenintheworldarebutoneman'swifeinunityandallthemenin
theworldarebutonewoman'shusbandinunitysothatonemanmayliewithallthewomenintheworldinunity,andonewomanmayliewithallmenintheworld,for
theyareallherhusbandinunity."(32:p.90)

RanterswereaccusedofperformingritualswhichinvolvedaparodyofCommunionandindiscriminatesexualunion,similartothebarilottoandthe"paradise"ofthe
BrethrenoftheFreeSpirit.

AnactofParliamentwasdirectedagainsttheRanters.Itcondemnedthosewhopreached"thatsuchmenandwomenaremostperfectorliketoGodorEternitywhichdo
committhegreatestsinswithleastremorseorsense."(32:p.103)

Inthe1650s,themajorityofRantersjoinedtheQuakers,sothatitbecamedifficulttodrawadistinctlinebetweenthetwocurrents.Religiousupheavalsofthedaywere
exacerbatedbytheindignationarousedbyCromwell'sforeignpolicytheconclusionofpeaceintheNetherlands,whichfrustratedthehopeofspreadingthereignofthe
"saints"throughoutEurope.

JamesNayler,aQuakerpreacher,acquiredaconsiderablefollowingevenwithinCromwell'sretinue.ItwasrumoredthathewasasecondChrist.Peoplewrotetohim,
saying:"HenceforewardyournameisnotJamesbutJesus."WhenavisitbyhimwasannouncedinBristol,suchexcitementwasarousedthatcontemporariesconsideredit
likelythatBristolwouldbecomea"NewJerusalem,"asecondMnster.WhenNaylerrodeintotownonhorseback,thousandsfollowedhim.Buthewasmetby
Cromwell'ssoldiers,seasonedbytheirserviceintheCivilWar,andtheydispersedthecrowd,seizedNaylerandtookhimtojail.HiscasewasdebatedinParliamentfor
severalmonths.Itseemstohavehadpoliticalimplications:itispossiblethatanuprisingofAnabaptistswasfeared.Nayler'sexecutionseemedimminent,buttherewere
disturbancesandanoutpouringofpleasformercy.Cromwell
[42]

spokeinfavorofmitigatingthesentence.NaylerwaspubliclyRoggedandbranded.Acrowdofadherentssurroundedthescaffold,kissinghisfeet,handsandhair.(33:
pp.264274,34:pp.256263)

Interestingly,thenameRantersreappears150yearslater,inthe1820s,whenthetermwasappliedtoacertaingroupofMethodists.Fromtheirmidstcamethefirst
organizersoftheEnglishtradeunionmovement,menwhohadacquiredtheskillsofpopularoratorsinthesect.(31:p.167)

ThemovementwhosemembersbecameknownasDiggershadsharplydefinedsocialistcharacteristics.Externally,itexpresseditself(beginningin1649)intheseizureof
communallandbysmallgroupsofpeopleforjointtillage.Thisattemptatorganizingcommunes,however,wasameregesture,whichledtonopracticalconsequences,
anditwastheDiggers'literaryactivitythatprovedtohavelastingsignificance.

GerrardWinstanleywasthemostimportantfigureamongthem.Inseveralpamphletsheproclaimedhisbasicideatheillegitimacyofprivateownershipofland.He
reportedthathehadhadavision,"avoiceandarevelation,"andwaspreachingwhathadbeenrevealedtohim:"Andsolongasweoranyothermaintainthiscivil
property,weconsentstilltoholdthecreationdownunderthatbondageitgroansunder,andsoweshouldhindertheworkofrestorationandsinagainstlightthatisgiven
untous,andsothroughthefearoftheResh(man)loseourpeace.Andthatthiscivilpropertyisthecurseismanifestthus:thosethatbuyandsellland,andarelandlords,
havegotiteitherbyoppressionormurderortheftandalllandlordsliveinthebreachoftheseventhandeighthcommandments,"Thoushaltnotstealnorkill."("The
TrueLevellers'StandardAdvanced:or,TheStateofCommunityopened,andPresentedtotheSonsofMen.")(35:p.85)

Winstanleyviewedtradeandmoneyinequallynegativeterms:"Forbuyingandsellingisthegreatcheatthatrobsandstealstheearthonefromanother....Wehope,"he
says,"thatpeopleshalllivefreelyintheenjoymentoftheearth,withoutbringingthemarkoftheBeastintheirhandsorintheirpromiseandthattheyshallbuywineand
milkwithoutmoneyorwithoutprice,asIsaiahspeaks."("ADeclarationfromthePoorOppressedPeopleofEngland.")(35:p.101)

ThesocialistdemandsofWinstanleywereconfinedtothedenialofprivateproperty,tradeandmoney.Hewasexplicitlyopposedto
[43]

moreextremeviews:"Likewisetheyreportthatwediggersholdwomentobecommon,andliveinthatbestialness.FormypartIdeclareagainstit.Iownthistobea
truth,thattheearthoughttobeacommontreasurytoallbutasforwomen,Leteverymanhavehisownwife,andeverywomanherownhusbandandIknownoneof
thediggersthatactinsuchanunrationalexcessoffemalecommunity.Ifanyshould,Iprofesstohavenothingtodowithsuchpeople,butleavethemtotheirownmaster,
whowillpaythemwithtormentofmindanddiseasesintheirbodies."("ANewyear'sGiftfortheParliamentandArmy.")(35:p.177)Winstanleyconstantlydeclared
himselfanenemyofviolenceaswell,persuadinghisreadersthattheDiggerswouldseektheirendsonlybypeaceablemeans.Buttheemotionalthrustofhismessage
sometimescarriedhimbeyondthepoint,andheraisedhisvoiceagainstanykindofprivateproperty:"thecursedthing,calledprivateproperty,whichisthecauseofall
wars,bloodshed,theftandenslavingwars,thatholdthepeopleundermisery."(32:p.108)Hesaystohisopponents:"Butnowthetimeofdeliveranceiscome,andthou
proudEsauandstoutheartedcovetousness,thoumustcomedownandbelordofthecreationnolonger.FornowtheKingofrighteousnessisrisingtoruleinandover
theearth.Therefore,ifthouwiltfindmercy,LetIsraelgofreebreakinpiecesquicklythebondofparticularproperty."("TheTrueLevellers'StandardAdvanced...")
(35:p.93)

TheDiggerscompriseonlyasinglegroupinawidermovementduringtheperiodoftheEnglishrevolution.SupportersofthegeneralmovementwerecalledLevellers.One
ofthem,theLondonmerchantWilliamWalwyn,asked"thatthroughoutthecountrytherebenofences,norhedges,normoats."Acontemporarypamphletascribesto
Walwynthefollowingviews:"Itwouldneverbewelluntilallthingswerecommonanditbeingreplied,willthatbeever?answered,wemustendeavorititbeingsaid,that
thiswoulddestroyallGovernment,answered,thatthentherewouldbenothieves,nocovetouspersons,nodeceivingandabusingofoneanothe,r,andsononeedof
Government."(32:pp.185186)TheauthorinformsusthatWalwynneverdisprovedtheseassertions."Afewdiligentspiritsmayturntheworldupsidedownifthey
observetheseasonsandshallwithlifeandcourageengageaccordingly,"Walwynproposes.(32:p.185)

TheModerate,anewspaperespousingtheviewsoftheLevellers,wroteontheoccasionoftheexecutionofcertainrobbers:"Manyan
[44]

honestmantriestoprovethatitisonlyprivatepropertywhichgovernsthelivesofpeopleofsuchconditionandforcesthemtoviolatethelawinordertosustainlife.
Further,theyexplainwithmuchconvictionthatpropertyistheprimecauseofallclashesbetweenparties."(36:p.62)

Apamphletofthedaysays:"LetusestablishinregardtothosewhoarecalledLevellersthefollowing:Theywishthatnoonecallanythingwhatsoeverhisown,and,in
theirwords,thepowerofmanoverlandistyranny,and,intheiropinion,privatepropertyistheworkofthedevil."(33:pp.168169)

UnlikeWinstanley,whopreachedrenunciationofviolence,theextremeLevellergroupsagitatedforterror.Oneoftheirpamphletsisentitled"RemovalIsNotMurder."
Theirefforttofomentrebellionwas,however,easilycrushedbyCromwell'stroops.
Further,theyexplainwithmuchconvictionthatpropertyistheprimecauseofallclashesbetweenparties."(36:p.62)

Apamphletofthedaysays:"LetusestablishinregardtothosewhoarecalledLevellersthefollowing:Theywishthatnoonecallanythingwhatsoeverhisown,and,in
theirwords,thepowerofmanoverlandistyranny,and,intheiropinion,privatepropertyistheworkofthedevil."(33:pp.168169)

UnlikeWinstanley,whopreachedrenunciationofviolence,theextremeLevellergroupsagitatedforterror.Oneoftheirpamphletsisentitled"RemovalIsNotMurder."
Theirefforttofomentrebellionwas,however,easilycrushedbyCromwell'stroops.

InalmostallLevellergroups,socialistaspirationswerecombinedwithsomeformofatheism.EvenWinstanley,whoreferredtovoicesandrevelationandwasfondof
quotingtheprophets,wroteofChristianity:"Thisdivineteachingthatyoucall'spiritualandcelestial'isintruththethiefwhocomesandplundersthevineyardsofhuman
peace....Thosewhopreachthisdivineteachingarethemurderersofmanypoorsouls."Overtonpublishedabookentitled:"Maniswhollymortal,oratreatisewherein'tis
provedboththeologicallyandphilosophicallythataswholemansinned,sowholemandiescontrarytothatcommondisinclinationofsoulandbody."(31:p.94)His
followersformedthesectofthe"SleepingSouls."Theybelievedthatthesoulfallsintothesleepofdeathalongwiththebody.

TheperiodoftheEnglishrevolutionrepresentsthelastgreatsurgeinthefortunesofthesectarianmovement.Inlateryears,thecharacteristicfigureoftheprophet cum
apostle*disappearsfromthehistoricalscene.Thesectsthemselvesalsovanish,afterhavingsopersistentlypreservedalltheirtypicaltraitsformorethansixhundredyears.

Thesocialistcurrentsofthisperiodreflectthecharacteristicsofatimeoftransition.Ontheonehand,theyretaincleartracesoftheirsectarianorigin.Thisisexemplifiedby
Winstanley'sreferencestovisions,revelationandvoicesandhisattemptstoderivehisviewsfrom

*ThelastrepresentativeofthistypemaybeseeninWilhelmWeitling,whohadsuchagreatinfluenceonMarx,InWeitling'scareerweencounterthecharacteristicallyendless
journeysalloverEurope(andtoAmerica)topreachhisdoctrine,andthephenomenonofaChristianvocabularyemployedtopropoundsocialismandviolence,includinga
projectforarmingfortythousandbrigands.

[45]

theScriptures.DirecttieswiththesectarianmovementontheContinentcanalsobedemonstrated.SomeoftheroutesbywhichAnabaptismcametoEnglandhavebeen
mentionedabove.Thesedirectcontactsweremaintainedthroughouttheperiodprecedingtherevolution.Forexample,itwasatthistimethatabishopoftheBohemian
Brethren,JanKomensky(Comenius),settledinEngland.HewasexpelledfromEnglandin1642,buthisinfluencelingeredforalongtimeafterward.Theworksof
KomenskyweretranslatedintoEnglishbytheinfluentialLevellerpamphleteerSamuelHartlib.

Ontheotherhand,manyworksproducedbytheLevellersexhibitapurelyrationalistspiritandshownotraceofanyreligiousconsideration.Certainofthesewritings
belongtothenewliterarygenreofsocialistutopias.SuchwasHartlib's"KingdomofMacaria,"whichpresentsapictureoflifewhollysubordinatedtothestate.Themost
importantofWinstanley'sworks,"TheLawofFreedom,"isalsowritteninthisstyle.Forthisreasonitwillbemoreproperlydiscussedinthenextchapter.

Appendix
ThreeBiographies

DolcinoandtheApostolicBrethren.

ThesectofApostolicBrethrenwasfoundedbyayoungpeasantfromnearParma,GerardSegarelli.Contemporariesportrayhimascombiningthefeatures
ofacraftypeasantandasimpleton,butjudgingbyhissuccess,hepossessedotherqualitiesaswell.Inanycasehewasin1248refusedadmittancetothe
Franciscanorderbecauseofhis"simplicity."HethereuponenteredaneighboringchurchandremainedforalongtimecontemplatingpicturesoftheApostles.
Fromthenon,hestoppedshavingandlethishairgrowlong,soastoresembletheApostlesinthedepictionsofthetime,anddressedaccordingly.Hesold
hishouse,wentoutintothetownsquareandthrewthemoneyfromthesaleontheground,saying,"Takeit,whoeverwantsto."Heleftthetownandbegan
toliveonalms,gatheringaroundhimasmallbandoffollowers,whodressedandlivedashedid.

Thetimeswerefavorableforthebirthofnewsects.Theyear1260wasapproaching,thetimeJoachimofFlorehadpredictedwouldbringworldcataclysms
andtheappearanceoftheAntichrist.Furthermore,in1259,aterribleplaguehadbefallenItaly,strengtheningthebeliefinJoachim'sprophecy.Crowdsof
penitentsledbymonksandpriestsmovedhalfnakedalongtheroads,scourgingthemselvesandleavingabloodytrailbehind.Singinghymns,thepenitents
wouldenteratownandaceremonyofpurgingwouldbegin.Everyonewastorepent,tomakepeacewithhis

[46]

enemiesandtogivebackanythinggainedbyunjustmeans.Amnestyforallexileswouldgenerallybeannounced.(38:pp.288289)

Segarelli'ssectemergedfromthistroubledperiodwithaddedstrengthandinfluence.Itwassupportedbymanyrichandpowerfulmen.Segarellieven
submittedarequesttothePopetorecognizehisorder,inthemanneroftheFranciscans.TheCuriarefused,butinanextremelybenevolenttone.Atthis
point,SegarellisenthisApostlestoremotecornersofItalyandintoFrance.ItseemsthattheteachingoftheApostolicBrethrenatthetimedifferedlittlefrom
thatofnumerousotherreligiousgroups.ThePopewasforcedtotoleratemostofthesesects,andSegarellihimselfcameundertheprotectionoftheBishop
ofParma,inwhosepalaceheresidedfortwelveyears,playingtherole,ashisopponentsasserted,ofparasite,almostofajester.

Littlebylittle,thesect'srelationswiththeCuriabegantosour.Thesectinsistedonexposingcorruptionamongpriestsandenumeratingthewaysinwhich
theyhadstrayedfromApostolicideals.MeanwhiletheCuriapointedtothehereticaltrendsofthesect.Thisseemstohavecoincidedwithanincreased
influenceoftheviewsoftheBrethrenoftheFreeSpiritupontheApostolicBrethren.Theimportancethesectattainedcanbejudgedbythefactthatitwas
condemnedinEnglandbytheChichesterSynodin1286,andagaininWrzburg,in1289.(38:p.310)TheInquisitionfinallytookupthematter.In1294,
Segarelliwasarrestedaftersixyearsofimprisonment,hewascondemnedandburnedatthestakein1300.

Butbythistime,thesectwasheadedbyaleaderofanentirelydifferenttype.HisnamewasDolcino.Hewastheillegitimatesonofapriestandwasstudying
forthepriesthoodwhenhewascaughtstealingmoneyfromhisteacherandforcedtoflee.HewasadmittedtoaFranciscanmonasteryasanovice,andit
washerethatheapparentlybecameacquaintedwiththeteachingsoftheApostolicBrethren.HeleftthemonasteryandmetMargaret,anoviceintheSt.
CatherineconventinTrento.Enteringtheconventasaworkman,Dolcinopersuadedhertorunawaywithhim.Thetwobecamewanderingpreachersofthe
ApostolicBrethren.AcontemporarysaysthatDolcinotaughtthat"inloveeverythingmustbecommonpropertyandwives."Mosheimwrites:"Theycalled
oneanotherbrothersandsisters,inthemannerofthefirstChristians.Theylivedinpovertyandcouldhaveneitherhousesnorprovisionsfortomorrowor
anythingthatcouldserveasaconvenience.Whentheyexperiencedhunger,theyaskedforfoodofthefirstpersontheymetandatewhateverwasoffered.
Welloffpeoplewhojoinedthemwereobligedtogivetheirpropertyovertobeusedbythesect....Brotherswhowentintotheworldtopreachpenitence
forthepriesthoodwhenhewascaughtstealingmoneyfromhisteacherandforcedtoflee.HewasadmittedtoaFranciscanmonasteryasanovice,andit
washerethatheapparentlybecameacquaintedwiththeteachingsoftheApostolicBrethren.HeleftthemonasteryandmetMargaret,anoviceintheSt.
CatherineconventinTrento.Enteringtheconventasaworkman,Dolcinopersuadedhertorunawaywithhim.Thetwobecamewanderingpreachersofthe
ApostolicBrethren.AcontemporarysaysthatDolcinotaughtthat"inloveeverythingmustbecommonpropertyandwives."Mosheimwrites:"Theycalled
oneanotherbrothersandsisters,inthemannerofthefirstChristians.Theylivedinpovertyandcouldhaveneitherhousesnorprovisionsfortomorrowor
anythingthatcouldserveasaconvenience.Whentheyexperiencedhunger,theyaskedforfoodofthefirstpersontheymetandatewhateverwasoffered.
Welloffpeoplewhojoinedthemwereobligedtogivetheirpropertyovertobeusedbythesect....Brotherswhowentintotheworldtopreachpenitence
wereallowedtotakewiththemasister,astheApostlesdid.Butnotasawife,onlyasanassistant.Theycalledtheirfemalecompanions'sistersinChrist'and
deniedthattheylivedwiththeminmaritalorimpureintimacy,eventhoughtheyslepttogetherinonebed."(Quotedin37)

Krone,whowroteahistoryoftheApostolicBrethrenusingcontemporary

[47]

sources,deniestheaccusationsofsacrilegiousviolationsofthecrossandofsexualexcesses,buthebelievesthatDolcino'spreachingdidincludeanappeal
forcommunalityofpropertyandofwives.(37:p.224)

AdescriptionoftheceremonyforadmissiontotherankofApostlehasbeenpreserved.Asatokenofhisrenunciationofhispreviouslife,theinitiatewould
throwoffhisclothesandtakeanoaththathewouldalwaysliveinevangelicpoverty.Hewasforbiddentotouchmoneyandwastoliveexclusivelyonalms
breadfromheaven.Anywork,anysubordinationtoothers,waslikewiseforbidden.LikethefirstApostles,hewastopayheedonlytoGod.

ThenewApostlewasthensentoutintotheworldtospreadthesect'steachings,whichbythistimehadbecomevehementlyhostiletotheChurch.Thefalling
awayoftheChurchfromthecommandmentsofChristandofthefirstApostleshadrenderedinvalidwhathadbeenprophesiedforit.TheRomanChurch,
withitsPopeandcardinals,itsabbotsandmonks,wasnolongertheChurchofGodbuthadbecometheWhoreofBabylon.ThepowerthatChristhad
giventotheChurchhadnowpassedovertotheApostolicBrethren.ThevalidityofChurchritualswasdenied.Aconsecratedchurchwasnobetterfor
communionwithGodthanastableorapigsty.OathstakeninchurchorswornontheGospelneednotbebinding.Amanmighthidehisbeliefsorrenounce
them,ifinhisheartheremainedfaithfultothem.

ItisnotsurprisingthatsuchtenetsprovokedafiercepersecutiononthepartoftheInquisition.Duringhiswanderings,Dolcinofellintothehandsofthe
Inquisitiononmorethanoneoccasion,buthealwaysdeniedhistieswiththesectandwasreleased.HefinallyfledfromItalyandtookrefugeinDalmatia.
TherehewroteletterswhichhisfollowersdisseminatedinItaly.Threeoftheselettershavecomedowntousindetailedcitations.(37:p.32f.,38:p.342f.)

Theletterscanbesummarizedasfollows:Dolcinoandhisfollowersarecalledtoproclaimthecomingofthefinaldaysandtourgerepentance.Inthisthey
areopposedbythehostoftheAntichristthePope,thebishops,DominicansandFranciscans,allofthemservantsofSatan.Butthedayofvengeanceisat
hand.ThePopeandtheprelateswillbekilled.Nomonk,nunorpriestwillsurviveexceptthosewhojointheBrethren.TheChurchwillbedeprivedofallits
riches.ThewholelandwillbeconvertedtothenewfaithbytheApostolicBrethren,uponwhomtheLordwilllavishhisgrace.GodHimselfwillgivetothe
worldanewandholyPopeinplaceofBonifaceVIII,whowillsurelybekilled.Inhisthirdletter,DolcinostatesthathehimselfwillbethisnewPope.

VictoryinthewarswiththeAntichristPope,Dolcinoforetells,willbewonthankstotheinterferenceofaforeignmonarch.HepinshishopeonFrederick,
theKingofAragonandSicily,whoatthetimewasengaginginafierceconflictwiththePope.(HehadjuststrungupallthemonksinSicilywhowere
suspectedofsupportingthepapacy.)

DolcinoderivedallthisfromhisinterpretationoftheBiblicalprophets

[48]

andoftheApocalypse,where,heclaimed,thepastandthefuturewererevealed.Heappliedtohistime,forinstance,textssuchasthese:

"Whathastthouhere?andwhomhastthouhere,thatthouhasthewedtheeoutasepulchrehere?...

"Behold,theLordwillcarrytheeawaywithamightycaptivity,andwillsurelycoverthee.

"Hewillsurelyviolentlyturnandtosstheelikeaballintoalargecountry."(Isaiah22:16,17,18)

"ForthyviolenceagainstthybrotherJacobshameshallcoverthee,andthoushaltbecutoffforever."(Obadiah1:10)

"AndIwillpunishBelinBabylon,andIwillbringforthoutofhismouththatwhichhehathswallowedup:andthenationsshallnotflowtogetheranymore
untohim:yea,thewellofBabylonshallfall."(Jeremiah51:44)

FromthesepropheciesDolcinoalsoextractedthedatesfortheirfulfillment:in1304,FrederickofAragonwouldkillthePopeandthecardinals,andthe
commonpriestswouldbeexterminatedin1305.Thispredictionwasbasedonthetext:"ButnowtheLordhathspoken,saying,Withinthreeyears,asthe
yearsofanhireling,andthegloryofMoabshallbecontemned,withallthatgreatmultitudeandtheremnantshallbeverysmallandfeeble."(Isaiah16:14)

In1303orearly1304,DolcinoandhisfollowersenteredItaly.Freshadherentscameflockingtohimfromallsidesrichandpoor,nobleopponentsofthe
Pope,villagersandtownfolk.ApartfromItaly,theycamefromFranceandAustriaaswell.Severalthousandgatheredinhiscamp.Contemporariescalled
Dolcino"thefatherofanewpeople,"anditwasrumoredthatheworkedmiracles.Themembersofthesectdecidedtoestablishanewsettlementtheysold
theirpropertyandgatheredaroundDolcino.

Acampwasestablishedinamountainvalley.Provisionswereobtainedfromtheneighboringvillages,moreandmorebymeansofforce.Soonthenearby
regionswereinpanic.Thecitizensofonetownwrote:"Thegodlessheretics,theGazars[Cathars?],haveseizedtheupperreachesofthevalleyoftheriver,
fortifiedthemselvesthereandaregodlesslyplunderingtheneighboringregions,devastatingthelandwithfireandsword,committingallkindsof
impieties."(38:p.364)TheforcesofthecitizenswerefarfromsufficientfordefenseagainstDolcino'sarmyofsomefivethousandmen,alargeforceforthat
time.Soontheareawasplunderedandburnedfordozensofmilesaround.

ThetownfolkraisedanarmyandcollectedfundstohiresoldiersforprotectionagainstDolcino'stroops.Whenplanningtheircampaign,theybroughtina
localpriestwhosenose,earsandhandshadbeencutoff:Dolcinohadpunishedhiminthiswayonsuspicionoftreason.Finally,thearmywasready,but
regionswereinpanic.Thecitizensofonetownwrote:"Thegodlessheretics,theGazars[Cathars?],haveseizedtheupperreachesofthevalleyoftheriver,
fortifiedthemselvesthereandaregodlesslyplunderingtheneighboringregions,devastatingthelandwithfireandsword,committingallkindsof
impieties."(38:p.364)TheforcesofthecitizenswerefarfromsufficientfordefenseagainstDolcino'sarmyofsomefivethousandmen,alargeforceforthat
time.Soontheareawasplunderedandburnedfordozensofmilesaround.

ThetownfolkraisedanarmyandcollectedfundstohiresoldiersforprotectionagainstDolcino'stroops.Whenplanningtheircampaign,theybroughtina
localpriestwhosenose,earsandhandshadbeencutoff:Dolcinohadpunishedhiminthiswayonsuspicionoftreason.Finally,thearmywasready,but
Dolcino'sforcesdefeateditoverwhelmingly.Theyfellupontheneighboringtowns,plunderingthemandcarryingawaytheinhabitants.Theprisonerswere
exchangedlaterforprovisions,buttortured

[49]

ifnooneagreedtoransomthem(accordingtoonecontemporary,evenchildrenweretreatedinthisfashion).(38:p.374)

Atlast,thePopecalledforacampaignagainsttheheretics.Butthis,too,endedinfailure.TheriveronthebanksofwhichthePope'sarmywasannihilated
flowedredwithblood.Othercampaignsfollowedandthewarwentonforthreeyears.Dolcinoarmedwomen,whofoughtsidebysidewithmen.He
nurturedthefaithofhissupportersbyevernewpropheciesthatvictorywasathand.IncamphewasreveredasasaintandasthePope,andthecustomof
kissinghisslipperwasintroduced.

ContemporaryaccountstelloftheferocitywithwhichDolcino'smenpersecutedpriestsandmonks.Hissoldiersviewedthemselvesasthe"avengingangels"
mentionedintheApocalypse.Theybelievedthattheyhadbeencalledtoexterminatethepriesthoodinitsentirety.Churchesweredefiled,sacredvesselsand
vestmentsstolen,sacredimagessmashed,priests'housessetonfire,belltowerspulleddownandbellsdestroyed.Aneyewitnessreported:"Nowherecould
youseeaMadonnawhosehandshadnotbeenbrokenofforapicturenotbesoiled."(38:p.374)

Afteraprolongedstruggle,inwhichDolcinorepeatedlyeludedhispursuers,hewasfinallysurrounded.Faminesetininhiscamp.Dantehintsatthisepisode
intheInferno(Canto28,5560).Amongthe"sowersofdiscord"DantemeetsMohammed,who,wishingtoperpetuatedissentonearth,passesthisadvice
toDolcino:"TellFraDolcino,then,youwhoperhapswillseethesunbeforelong,ifhewouldnotsoonfollowmehere,sotoarmhimselfwithvictualsthat
stressofsnowmaynotbringvictorytotheNovarese,whichotherwisewouldnotbeeasytoattain."*

In1307,Dolcino'scampwasoverrunandamajorityofthedefendersmassacred.Dolcinowassubjectedtohorribletorture.Margaretwasburnedbeforehis
eyes,buthewasparadedaroundtown,scourgedwitharedhotironateverycrossroadandfinallyburned.

ThomasMntzer.

Mntzerwasbornin1488or1489offairlywelltodoparentsandreceivedatheologicaleducation.Heledarestlesslife,changingworkseveraltimesa
yearhewasatvarioustimesteacher,preacherandchaplain.Finallyin1520,hewasappointedpreacherinZwickau,wherehemetthe"ZwickauProphets."
ThesermonsofStorchhadalifelongimpactonhim.ThenotionofthepossibilityofdirectcommunicationwithGod,whichwasheldtobefarmoreimportant
thantheletteroftheScripturesthecondemnationofpriestsandmonks,oftherichandthenoblethebeliefinthecomingoftheKingdomofGodonearth
andintheimminentreignoftheelectthesesubjectsformedthebasisofMntzer'sworldoutlook,InhissermonshesupportedStorchandattackedthe
monksandotherpreachers.Disordersbeganinthetown,andtheauthoritiesbanishedthe"Prophets"andMntzer.

MntzerthentransferredhisactivitiestoPrague.Wenotethathe

*TranslationbyCharlesS.Singleton

[50]

gravitatedtothetraditionalseatsofthechiliasticmovementfirsttoZwickauandthentothehomelandoftheTaborites.AsermondeliveredbyMntzerin
Praguehasbeenpreserved.InitheassertsthatafterthedeathofthedisciplesoftheApostles,theChurch,whichhadbeenpure,becamealecherouswhore.
TheprieststeachtheexternalformsoftheScriptures,whichtheystealfromtheBible"likethievesandmurderers."(28:p.59)Hethenproceedstothecore
ofhisteachinghisconceptoftheChurchoftheChosen."Neverwillithappen,andforthisglorytoGod,thatpriestlingsandapesshouldrepresentGod's
Church,buttheChosenofGodshallpreachHisword....TopreachthisdoctrineIamreadytosacrificemylife....GodhaswroughtmiraclesforHisChosen,
especiallyinthiscountry.ForhereanewChurchwillarise,andthispeoplewillbethemirrorofthewholeworld.Therefore,Iappealtoeveryonetoprotect
thewordofGod....Ifyoufailtodothis,GodwillgivetheTurkstheforcetoannihilateyoueveninthisyear."(28:p.61)

Mntzer'steachingdidnotmeetwithsuccessinPrague,however,andheagaintookupavagrantandhungrylife.Atlast,in1523,hewasappointed
preacherinthesmalltownofAllstedt,andhereheentereduponthefirstmemorablephaseofhiscareer.

Mntzerrapidlygainedinfluenceinthetown.HeintroducedtheGermanlanguageinthereligiousservice(oneofthefirsttodosoinGermany)andhe
preachednotonlyfromtheGospelbutfromtheOldTestament.Crowdsofpeopleflockedtohissermons,fromAllstedtandfromtheneighboringtownsand
villages.ThemunicipalofficialZeisswroteinareport:"Someofthelocalnobleshaveforbiddentheirsubjectstoattendthesermonsherebutthefolkdonot
comply.Theyarethrownintojailand,whenreleased,runhitheragain."Mntzergreweverbolder,callingthelordswhohadforbiddentheirpeopletoattend
hissermons"biggeese."HewrotetoZeiss:"Thepoweroftheprinceswillcometoanendandsoonitwillpasstothecommonfolk."(28:p.66)Hisattitude
ischaracterizedbythephrase:"WhoeverwantstobecomeabuildingblockinthenewChurchoughttoriskhisneckorthebuilderswillthrowhim
away."(28:p.67)

Soonmatterswereoutofhand.InstigatedbyMntzer,amobburneddownachapelatMllerbach(nearAllstedt)whichhousedamiracleworkingimageof
theVirgin.Whenoneoftheparticipantsintheriotwasarrested,armedcrowdsofpeopleappearedonthestreets.Moresupportersarrivedfromthe
neighboringtowns.Zeiss,whorepresentedtheDukeofSaxony,reportedtothedukethatMntzer'spreachingwasatfault.HesuggestedthatMntzerbe
summonedtocourtandbanishediffoundguilty."Otherwise,hispreaching,sopopularwiththesimplefolk,willcauseusmuchtoilandtrouble."

Atthispoint,Luther,whohadbeendisturbedbytheactionsandpreachingofMntzerforsometime,spokeoutagainsthim.HereproachedMntzerfor
usingthesuccessoftheReformationtoattackit.HeconcludedbychallengingMntzertoadebateinWittenberg.Mntzeragreedto
neighboringtowns.Zeiss,whorepresentedtheDukeofSaxony,reportedtothedukethatMntzer'spreachingwasatfault.HesuggestedthatMntzerbe
summonedtocourtandbanishediffoundguilty."Otherwise,hispreaching,sopopularwiththesimplefolk,willcauseusmuchtoilandtrouble."

Atthispoint,Luther,whohadbeendisturbedbytheactionsandpreachingofMntzerforsometime,spokeoutagainsthim.HereproachedMntzerfor
usingthesuccessoftheReformationtoattackit.HeconcludedbychallengingMntzertoadebateinWittenberg.Mntzeragreedto

[51]

takepartinthedisputeonlyifthewitnesseswouldbe"Turks,RomansandPagans."Atthesametime,heprintedtwoworksintheneighboringtownof
Eilenburg,wherehehadhisownprintshop:"ProtestationofThomasMntzer"and"ExposureoftheContrivedFaith."Thesetractsbitterlyattacked
numerousaspectsofLuther'steaching,aswellasthatof"scholarsanderudites"whoconcoctfalsefaith.

Strangely,westillhearnothingaboutmeasuresonthepartoftheauthoritiesagainstMntzer,despitewritingsinwhich,forexample,hecharacterizedthe
KurfrstofSaxonyas"abeardedfellowwithlessbrainsinhisheadthanI'vegotinmybehind."Healsocallsupontheinhabitantsoftheneighboringtownof
Sangerhausentoriseupagainsttheauthorities.Inspiteofsuchactions,KrfurstFrederickofSaxonyandhisbrotherJohannthemselvesdecidedtolistento
therenownedpreacheronatripthroughAllstedt.

Mntzertookthistobeasignofreadinessonthepartoftheprincestobecomeatoolinhishandsandintheirpresencedeliveredasermoninwhichhe
expoundedhisviewsopenly.HeattackedLuther,whomhecalled"BrotherSwine"and"BrotherSluggard,"andattemptedtowintheprincestohiscause.
Hetoldthemthattheywerecalledupontoannihilatethefoesofthetruefaith,thefaithoftheChosenwhoareguidedbyGod."Dearestandbelovedrulers,
knowyourdestinyfromthemouthofGod,anddonotlettheboastfulpriestscheatyoubyimaginarypatienceandkindness.Forthestonethathasbeencast
downfromthemountainnotbyhandshasgrownbig.Poorpeasantsandlaymenseeitfarbetterthanyou...."Thedayofthelastreckoningapproaches,and
"Oh,howgloriouslywilltheLordsmashtheoldpotswithanironrod."(28:p.158)Inthisterriblehouronecanlearnthetruewayandforeseethefutureby
onemeansonly:throughdreamsandrevelation."ThisisinthetruespiritoftheApostles,thePatriarchs,andtheProphetstowaitforvisionsandtotrustin
them."(28:p.156)MntzercitesexampleafterexamplefromtheBible.Thechiefdifficulty,however,istodistinguishwhetheravisionisfromGodorfrom
theDevil.Forthis,theprincesoughttohavefaithinthenewDaniel,theChosenman."Therefore,anewDanielmustriseandsetforthrevelationandmust
marchatthehead."(28:p.159)

Mntzerurgesrelentlessexterminationoftheenemiesofthenewteaching."ForthegodlesshavenorighttoliveexceptwhentheChosengivetheir
permission....Ifyouwanttobetruerulers,driveouttheenemyofChrist,foryouaretheinstrumenttoachievethisend....Letthewickedwhodivertusfrom
Godlivenolonger."(28:p.160)"ItwasnotinvainthatGodcommandedthroughMoses:'Youaretheholypeopleandmustnotpitythegodless.Smash
theiraltars,smashtopiecestheiridolsandburnthem,lestIbewrathfulwithyou."(28:p.161)

Atthispoint,Mntzer'ssermonbeginstoshadeintothreats.Justasfoodanddrinkprovidethemeansofliving,heasserts,so,too,"istheswordneededfor
exterminationofthegodless.Butforthistobedonetrue,itmustbedonebyourdearfathers,theprinces,whoprofessChrist

[52]

withus.Butiftheywillnotdoit,theirswordshallbetakenawayfromthem."(28:p.161)"IftheyfailtobelieveinGod'swords,theyoughttoberemoved,
asPaulsaith:'Expelthedepravedfromamongstyou.'Andiftheybehaveincontraryfashion,killthemwithoutmercy....Notonlygodlessrulers,butpriests
andmonksmustbekilledwhocallourHolyGospelaheresyandclaimtobethebestChristiansthemselves."(28:p.162)

Itisaperplexingepisode.Howcouldaninsignificantpreacherundertaketolectureandthreatenthemostimportantprincesoftheempire?Someconsider
thisproofofMntzer'sshortsightednessforothersittestifiestotheprinces'forbearance.Couldtherenotbeamoresubstantialexplanation?Mntzerwasa
forcetobereckonedwithatthetime.Welearnthisfromothersourcesfromhislettersandfromthetestimonypresentedbeforehisexecution.Atthetime
ofthesermontotheprinces,hehadorganizedaunion"fortheprotectionoftheGospel"and''asawarningtothegodless"inAllstedt.Hehadsome
experienceatsuchactivities.Whilestillayoungman,MntzerhadfoundedasecretuniondirectedagainstthePrimateofGermany,ArchbishopErnst.Buthis
newunionwasfarlargerinscope.Atonegatheringthreehundrednewmemberswereinductedatanother,fivehundred.Furthermore,Mntzeradvisedthe
citizensofneighboringtownstoestablishsimilarunionsreportswerereceivedthatthisplanwasmeetingwithsuccess.Hiscontactswereveryextensive,
reachingevenintoSwitzerland.LutheraccusedMntzerof"sendingtoallcountriesmessengerswhofearlight."Inhisletters,Mntzeremphasizedthepurely
defensivenatureoftheunion"againsttheoppressorsoftheGospel."Butafterbeingcaptured,hetestifiedthathecausedthedisturbanceswiththeaimthat
"allChristiansshouldbecomeequalandtheprincesandlordsreluctanttoservetheGospelbedrivenoutorputtodeath."(28:p.82)Themottoofthe
Allstedtunionwas:Omniasuntcommunia(Everythingiscommon).Everyonewastosharewithothers''asmuchashecould."Andifaprinceoracount
refusedtodoso,"hewastobebeheadedorhanged."(28:p.82)Mntzer'sunioncanbeseenastherealizationofhisdoctrineofthesupremacyofthe
Chosen,ashecallsthemembersofhisunion.

ThesituationinAllstedtgrewevermoreexplosive.TheneighboringknightvonWitzlebenforbadehissubjectstoattendMntzer'ssermonsanddisperseda
crowdofthem,whoneverthelesssetoutforAllstedt.SomeofthemfledtoAllstedtandanorderwassentforthefugitivestobereturnedtotheirlord.Ina
vehementsermon,MntzercalledWitzlebenan"archbrigand"andreferredtohisenemiesas"archJudases,"sayingthattheprinceswere"actingnotonly
againstthefaithbutagainstnaturallaw,"andthatthey"mustbekilledlikedogs."CrowdsoflocalcitizensandnewarrivalsfilledthestreetsofAllstedt.The
authoritieslostallcontroloverthetownandcouldonlyappealtoDukeJohannofSaxony,whosummonedMntzertoWeimarforquestioning.

Theinterrogationtookplaceinthepresenceofthedukeandhis

[53]

counselors.Mntzerdeniedhavingassailedtheauthoritiesanddescribedhisunionaslegalandpurelydefensive.Numerouswitnesses,however,spoke
againsthim.Asaresult,hewasorderedtoclosehisprintshop,andthecitizensofAllstedtwereforbiddentoformunions.Acontemporarysourcedescribes
howMntzer,paleandtremblingaftertheinquest,cameoutand,inreplytoaquestionbyZeiss,answered:"ItseemsthatI'llhavetolookforanotherstate."

ButuponreturningtoAllstedt,Mntzertookheart,refusedtoclosetheprintshopandstartedwritingprotests.KrfurstFrederickofSaxonyintervenedat
thispointandsummonedMntzertoWeimarforthesecondtime.AtfirstMntzersurroundedhimselfwitharmedguards,apparentlythinkingtoputup
resistance,butinthenightheclimbedoverthetownwallandslippedaway,leavingbehindaletterinwhichhesaidthathewasgoingtoavillagebutwouldbe
backsoon.Afterhisflight,Mntzerwrotehiscompatriotsanotherletter,callingforthemtostandfirmandbebravehepromisedthathewouldbetogether
withthemsoon"towashhandsinthebloodoftyrants."
howMntzer,paleandtremblingaftertheinquest,cameoutand,inreplytoaquestionbyZeiss,answered:"ItseemsthatI'llhavetolookforanotherstate."

ButuponreturningtoAllstedt,Mntzertookheart,refusedtoclosetheprintshopandstartedwritingprotests.KrfurstFrederickofSaxonyintervenedat
thispointandsummonedMntzertoWeimarforthesecondtime.AtfirstMntzersurroundedhimselfwitharmedguards,apparentlythinkingtoputup
resistance,butinthenightheclimbedoverthetownwallandslippedaway,leavingbehindaletterinwhichhesaidthathewasgoingtoavillagebutwouldbe
backsoon.Afterhisflight,Mntzerwrotehiscompatriotsanotherletter,callingforthemtostandfirmandbebravehepromisedthathewouldbetogether
withthemsoon"towashhandsinthebloodoftyrants."

MntzerwentnexttoMhlhausen,atownincentralGermany.Thechoicewasnotaccidental.Forayearthisplacehadbeeninastateofparalysis,without
authorityandonthevergeofrebellion.Acontemporaryaccountofwhatwascalledthe"MhlhausenDisturbances"isextant.(28:pp.85115)Itdescribes
theeventspriortoMntzer'sarrivalandhisactivitiesthere.Thedisordersbeganwithassaultsonmonasteriesandchurches.Allthemonasterieswererobbed
andreligiousobjectsinthechurchessmashed.Themovementwasheadedbyafugitivemonk,HeinrichPfeiffer,whourgedinhissermonsrejectionofthe
authorityofthemunicipalcouncil.OnJuly3,1523,thealarmwassounded.Acrowdsurroundedthetownhallandshotswerefired.Thecouncilwas
compelledtomakeconcessions,whichweresetforthinfiftythreepoints.Inparticular,completefreedomofpreachingwasannounced.Theinsurgentswere
headedbya"councilofeight,"whichretaineditspoweronaparwiththemunicipalcouncilevenaftertheagreement.Dualauthorityruledinthetown
peoplejailedbythemunicipalcouncilwerenotinfrequentlyreleasedbytheeight.Thesigningofthefiftythreepointsdidnot,however,pacifythetownin
fact,itfurtheraggravatedthesituation.Manypriests'houseswererobbedleafletswerecirculatedtellingthatifthepriestsdidnotgetoutoftowntheirhouses
wouldbeburned.Priestswhoventuredintothestreetswerekilled.

SuchwasthesituationinMhlhausenwhenMntzerappearedthereonAugust24,1524.HejoinedwithPfeifferandtheiractivitytogethersoonbeganto
bearfruit.Withinamonth,thetownwasinanuproar.Thistimetheinsurgents'demandsmirroredMntzer'sideasnoauthoritytobeobeyed,alltaxesand
leviestobeabolished,prieststobeexiled.Theburgomasterandsomecouncillorsfledthetownandappealedforsupportfromthepeasantsofthe
neighboringvillages.Atthistimefiressweptthevillages,inalllikelihoodsetbysupportersofMntzerandPfeiffer.Butthepeasantsstoodfirmonthesideof
thecouncil.Promisesofsupport

[54]

alsocameinfromtownsroundabout.Theinsurgentswereforcedtoyield.TheauthorityofthecouncilwasrestoredandPfeifferandMntzerwerebanished
fromMhlhausen.

MntzersetoffforNuremberg,whereheprintedtwoofhisworks.Oneofthese,"AnInterpretationoftheFirstChapterofSt.Luke,"hadbeenwritten
towardtheendofhisstayinAllstedtandrevisedinMhlhausen.Theother,"DiscourseforDefense,"waswritteninreplytoLuther.Shortlybefore,Luther
hadwrittenhis"LettertothePrincesofSaxonyAgainstaRebelliousSpirit,"inwhichhedrewtheirattentiontothedangerouslyaggressivecharacterof
Mntzer'steaching."Itbeginstoseemtomethattheywishtodestroyallauthoritysoastobecomethelordsoftheworld....Theysaythattheyareledbythe
Spirit...butthisisanillspirit,onewhichismanifestedinthedestructionofchurchesandmonasteries."(28:p.204)"ChristandhisApostlesneverdestroyed
asingletemplenorsmashedasingleholyimage."Letthempreach,arguesLuther,"butthosearenotgoodChristianswhopassfromwordstofists."(28:p.
209)

Inhisreply,MntzerbroughtdownaveritablecascadeofabuseonLuther.Hecalledhimabasilisk,adragon,aviper,anarchpagan,anarchdevil,abashful
WhoreofBabylonandfinally,inafitofcannibalisticfrenzy,hepredictedthatthedevilwouldboilLutherinhisownjuiceanddevourhim."Iwouldliketo
smellyourfryingcarcass."(28:p.200)

ButMntzer'sNurembergworksareespeciallyinterestinginthattheydemonstratehissocialideasintheirmostmatureform.His"DiscourseforDefense"
beginswithadedication"TotheSerenest,FirstbornPrince,theMightyLordJesusChrist,theGraciousKingofKings,theMightyDukeofAllthe
Faithful."(28:p.187)HereMntzerexpressesoneofhisbasicconceptionsthatpoweronthisearthcanbelongonlytoGod.Themessageendswiththe
followingwords:"Thepeoplewillbefree,andGodwillbethesoleLordoverthem."(28:p.201)PrinceshadusurpedpowerbelongingtoGod."Whydo
youcallthemsereneprinces?ThistitlebelongsnottothembuttoChrist."And:"Whydoyoucallthemhighborn?IthoughtyouwereaChristian,butyouare
aPagan!"(28:p.197)Mntzerhadforgottenthatonlyafewmonthsbefore,hehadlookedtotheprincesforaid.Nowhesays:"Princesarenotlords,but
servantsofthesword.Theymustnotdowhattheydeemwellbutratherimplementthetruth."(28:p.192)Theroleassignedtotheprinceswasnomorethan
thatofexecutioner.ItwasnotfornothingthatPaulsaid.thatprinceswerenotforthegoodbutforthewicked.However,inMntzer'sview,theyfailtofulfill
eventhisfunction."ThosewhooughttosetanexampleforChristians,towhichendtheybearthenameofprinces,provetothehighestdegreebyalltheir
deedstheirunfaith."(28:p.183)"Theirheartsarevainand,therefore,allthesemightyandarrogantgodlessonesmustbethrowndownfromtheirthrone.
...GodgavetheprincesandlordstomeninHiswrathandinHisbitternessHewilldestroythem."(28:p.171)

Mntzeralsodoesnotrecallthatshortlybefore,hesawinpoverty

[55]

andsufferingacrosssentfromabove.Nowthecalltoopposetheoppressorsbecomesoneofthechiefthemesinhisteaching:"Theverystuffofusury,theft
androbberyareourlordsmadeof.Fishinthewater,birdsintheair,thefruitsoftheearththeywanttotakeeverything.Andbeyondthattheyorderthat
God'swordbepreachedtothepoorthus:'Godhascommandedyounottosteal'...andifapoormantakesthesmallestthing,thenheishangedandDoctor
Liarsays,'Amen.'Thelordsarethemselvesguiltyofmakingthepoortheirfoe.Theydonotwishtoremovethecauseoftheindignation.Howcanthematter
besetright?SinceIspeakso,perhapsI,too,rebelwell,sobeit."(28:p.192)Byalltheirmisdeedstheprinceshavedeprivedthemselvesoftherighttothe
sword."AtthesolicitationoftheChosen,Godwillnolongertoleratesuffering."(28:p.171)Inactuality,thepowerofGodonearthispicturedasthepower
oftheChosen,whoareconceivedofasanarrow,closedunion."ItwouldbeawondrousChurchinwhichtheChosenwouldbeseparatedfromthe
godless."(28:p.182)TheChosenreceiveGod'sbehestsdirectly,bywhichmeanstheyexecutehiswillonearth.(Invariousperiodsofhislife,Mntzer
assertedthathehimselfcommunicateddirectlywithGod.)

FromNuremberg,MntzersetoffforSwitzerlandandtheborderlandsofGermany,wherethePeasantWarwasalreadyraging.Whilehisroleofagitator
seemstohavemetwithsuccess,hedidnotstaylonginthearea.Seidman,theauthorofoneofthemostcompletebiographiesofMntzer,suggeststhatsince
disturbanceshadalreadybrokenout,Mntzerfearedthathewouldbeunabletogainanimportantenoughplaceforhimself.InFebruary1525,Mntzer
returnedtoMhlhausen.

Bythistime,thepeasantrebellionwasalreadyspreadingfromthesouthintocentralGermany,towardthetownofMhlhausen.Authorityhadbeguntoslip
fromthehandsofthemunicipalcouncil.The"eight"demandedthekeystothecitygatesandthecouncilhadtocomply.AnyonewhodisagreedwithMntzer
andPfeiffer'spartywasunderconstantthreatsofbeingbanished.Monasteriesandchurcheswererobbed,sacredobjectsdestroyedandmonksandnuns
seemstohavemetwithsuccess,hedidnotstaylonginthearea.Seidman,theauthorofoneofthemostcompletebiographiesofMntzer,suggeststhatsince
disturbanceshadalreadybrokenout,Mntzerfearedthathewouldbeunabletogainanimportantenoughplaceforhimself.InFebruary1525,Mntzer
returnedtoMhlhausen.

Bythistime,thepeasantrebellionwasalreadyspreadingfromthesouthintocentralGermany,towardthetownofMhlhausen.Authorityhadbeguntoslip
fromthehandsofthemunicipalcouncil.The"eight"demandedthekeystothecitygatesandthecouncilhadtocomply.AnyonewhodisagreedwithMntzer
andPfeiffer'spartywasunderconstantthreatsofbeingbanished.Monasteriesandchurcheswererobbed,sacredobjectsdestroyedandmonksandnuns
assaulted.Finally,allCatholicclergyweredrivenfromthetown.

ThesermonsofMntzerandPfeifferrevolvedaroundtheideasoutlinedearlier:princesandlordshavenorighttotheirpower,authoritymustpasstothe
societyoftheChosen,menhavebeencreatedequalbynatureandsomustbeequalinlife,allwhodonotcomplymustbeputtothesword.Theypreached
thattherichcannotattainsalvationwhoeverlovesbeautifulchambers,richornamentsand,aboveall,moneycannotreceivetheHolySpirit.

Finally,afterthecouncilrefusedtoadmitMntzerandPfeifferintotheirnumber,itwasdecidedatahugegatheringthatthecouncilbedismissed.Anew,
"eternal"councilwaselected.

The"HistoryofThomasMntzer,"acontemporaryaccountlongattributedtoMelanchthon,describesthesituationasfollows:

[56]

ThiswasthebeginningofthenewKingdomofChrist.Firstofall,theydroveoutallmonks,tookoverthemonasteriesandalltheirproperty.
TherewasamonasteryofJohanniteswithlargeholdings:itwastakenoverbyThomas.

Andinordertotakepartinallproceedings,hecametothecouncilandannouncedthatallresolutionsmustbetakeninaccordancewithGod's
revelationandonthebasisoftheBible.AndsowhateverhelikedwasdeemedjustandaspecialcommandmentofGod.

Healsotaughtthatallpropertymustbecommon,asitiswrittenintheActsoftheApostles....Withthishesoaffectedthefolkthatnoone
wantedtowork,butwhenanyoneneededfoodorclothinghewenttoarichmananddemandeditofhiminChrist'sname,forChristhad
commandedthatallshouldsharewiththeneedy.Andwhatwasnotgivenfreelywastakenbyforce.Manyactedthus,includingthosewholived
withThomasintheJohannitemonastery.Thomasinstigatedthisbrigandageandmultipliediteverydayandthreatenedalltheprinces.(28:p.42)

Accordingtothesamedocument,Mntzer'steachingincludedthedestructionofauthorityandthecommunalityofproperty:"Accordingtotherequirements
ofChristianlove,nooneoughttobesuperiortoanother,allmustbefreeandtheremustbecommunalityofallproperty."(28:p.38)

LutherwrotethatMntzerhadbecomeakingandsovereignrulinginMhlhausen.

Armswereproducedinthetown,thecitizensgivenmilitarytraining,andmercenaries(lansquenets)werehired.Bythistime,thepeasantrebellionhad
envelopedalltheneighboringareas.LargegroupsofMhlhausencitizensandinhabitantsofnearbyvillagesassaultedcastlesroundabout.Thesetheyrobbed,
burnedordestroyed.Mntzerorderedthat"allcastlesandhousesofnobilitybedestroyedandrazedtotheground."(20:p.519)Specialarsonunitswere
organized.Bootywascarriedofftothetownbythecartload.

Mntzersentoutmessengersandissueddetailedinstructionsonthetortureof"villains"apprehendedandthedestructionofmonasteriesandcastles.He
calledonothertownstojointheuprising.

HereiswhathewrotetothecitizensofAllstedt:

DearBrethren,willyousleepevennow?Thetimeisripe.AllGerman,FrenchandItalianlandshaverisen....Bethereonlythreeofyou,butif
youputyourhopeinthenameofGodfearnotahundredthousand....Forward,forward,forward!Itishightime.Letnotkindwordsofthese
Esausarouseyoutomercy.Looknotuponthesufferingsofthegodless!Theywillentreatyoutouchingly,beggingyoulikechildren.Letnot
mercyseizeyoursoul,asGodcommandedtoMosesHehasrevealedtousthesame....Forward,forward,whiletheironishot.Letyour
swordsbeeverwarmwithblood!(28:pp.7475)

[57]

Thoughnot"allGerman,FrenchandItalianlands"hadrisen,thewholeofcentralGermanyThuringia,SaxonyandHessenwasinrebellion.

TowardthebeginningofMay1525,theprincesbegantogatherinforce.AmajorpartherewasplayedbyLuther'scommunication"OnDisorderlyand
MurderousPeasantGangs."BymidMay,twoarmiesbegantoassembleintheenvironsofFrankenhausen.Theywereofapproximatelyequalsizeabout
eightthousandmeneach.

Mntzerrodeoutattheheadofhisarmy,surroundedbythreehundredbodyguardsandholdingaloftanakedsword,whichsymbolizedthegoalofthe
rebelsannihilationofthegodless.Somenobleshadjoinedhiscamp.Mntzerwrotetoothers,threateningthemandurgingthemtoallythemselveswithhim.
HewrotetoCountErnstMansfeld:"Sothatyouknowthatwehavethepowertocommand,Ispeak:Theeternal,livingGodhathcommandedthatyoube
thrownoffthethroneandhathgiventousthemighttoaccomplishthis.ItisaboutyouandthoselikeyouthatGodsaith,'Yournestmustbetorndownand
troddenunderfoot.'"Theletterendswiththewords:"Iammarchingafter.MntzerwithGideon'ssword."(28:p.78)

Nevertheless,panicbegantospreadthroughMntzer'sarmy.Therewereattemptsatnegotiatingwiththeenemy,andexecutionsofthosesuspectedof
treasontookplace.Mntzersoughttoencouragehisfollowers:"SoonerwillthenatureoftheearthorofheavenbechangedthanGoddesertus."(28:p.45)
Hepromisedthathewouldcatchbulletsinhissleeves.Butwhenthefirstshotswerefired,therebelarmybrokeandran.Thousandsofthemwere
slaughteredonthefieldofbattle.

Inhishourofdefeat,"MntzerwithGideon'ssword"lostallpresenceofmind.(Fordetails,see22:p.225.Heisthefirstofalonglistofrevolutionary
leaderstoactinthisfashion.)Mntzerranforthecity,foundanemptyhouseandgotintobed,feigningillness.Alootingsoldiercameuponapacketofletters
addressedtoMntzerthatthelatterhaddroppedinhishaste,andMntzerwasseized.Attheinquest,whenaskedaboutacertainexecutionoffourmen,
Mntzerreplied:"ItwasnotIwhoexecutedthem,mydearbrothers,butGod'struth."

Mntzerwassubjectedtotorture,andwhenhecriedout,theinterrogatortoldhimthatthosewhohadperishedbecauseofhimhadsufferedworse.Mntzer
Inhishourofdefeat,"MntzerwithGideon'ssword"lostallpresenceofmind.(Fordetails,see22:p.225.Heisthefirstofalonglistofrevolutionary
leaderstoactinthisfashion.)Mntzerranforthecity,foundanemptyhouseandgotintobed,feigningillness.Alootingsoldiercameuponapacketofletters
addressedtoMntzerthatthelatterhaddroppedinhishaste,andMntzerwasseized.Attheinquest,whenaskedaboutacertainexecutionoffourmen,
Mntzerreplied:"ItwasnotIwhoexecutedthem,mydearbrothers,butGod'struth."

Mntzerwassubjectedtotorture,andwhenhecriedout,theinterrogatortoldhimthatthosewhohadperishedbecauseofhimhadsufferedworse.Mntzer
burstoutlaughingandreplied:"Theywishedfornodifferentthemselves."HewassenttothecastleoftheveryCountMansfeldtowhomhehadwritten:"Iam
marchingafter."Mntzerconfessedeverythingandbetrayedthenamesofhiscomradesinthesecretunion.Beforehisexecution,hewrotealettertothe
citizensofMhlhausen,appealingtothemnottorebelagainstauthority,accordingtoChrist'scommandment."Iwishtosayinmyfarewelladdress,soasto
unburdenmysoul,thatyoushouldavoidriot,lestinnocentbloodbeshedinvain....Helpmywifeifyoucan,andespeciallyavoidbloodshed,ofwhichIwarn
yousincerely."(28:pp.8384)

[58]

MntzertookcommunionanddiedasasonoftheCatholicChurch.Hisheadwasputonastakeforshow.

ContemporariesconsideredMntzertobethecentralfigureinthePeasantWar.LutherandMelanchthonbelievedhimtobeitsmostdangerousleader.
SebastianFranckreferredtothewarasthe"MntzerUprising,"andDukeGeorgofSaxonywrotethatwithMntzer'sexecutionthewarcouldbe
consideredfinished.(20:p.257)ThisappreciationofMntzer'srole,however,couldhardlyhavebeenmeanttodescribehisactivitiesasorganizerrather,
thecommentatorsmostlikelyhadinmindhisfunctionastheoriginatorofanideologyofhatredanddestruction.Luthermusthavebeenthinkingalongthese
lineswhenhewrotetoHansRgel:"WhoeverhasseenMntzercansaythathehasseenthedevilintheflesh,athismostferocious."(28:p.222)

JohannofLeydenandthe"NewJerusalem"inMnster.

In15341535,thepersecutedAnabaptistsinSwitzerlandandsouthernandcentralGermanyflednorth,tonorthernGermany,Holland,Swedenand
Denmark.ThecenteroftheiractivitybecamethetownofMnster,wheretheyestablishedthemselvesatthetimeofthestrugglebetweentheCatholicsand
theLutherans.TheygainedastrongpositioninthetownbyallyingthemselveswiththeLutherans.

ButwhentheLutheranswon,theyfoundtheyhadtoreckonwiththe"Prophets,"astheleadersoftheAnabaptistsdescribedthemselves.Thelatterhadeven
succeededinwinningovertheheadoftheLutheranparty.

Atthistime,anewandstrikingfigureappearedamongtheAnabaptistsJanMatthijs,aDutchbakerfromHaarlem.Inhispreaching,thechiliasticand
militanttendenciesinAnabaptismwereresurrectedwiththeirpreviousforce.Matthijscalledforarmedrebellionandtheuniversalexterminationofthe
godless."Apostles"sentbyhimwentinpairstoalllandsandprovinces.Theytoldaboutthemiracleswroughtbythisnewprophetandpredictedthe
annihilationofalltyrantsandgodlesspeopleintheworld.InGermanyandinHolland,peopleunderwentthesecondbaptismandfoundednewcommunities.
InMnster,fourteenhundredpersonswerebaptizedineightdays.InkeepingwiththegrowingsuccessoftheAnabaptiststhere,adherentsfromother
countries,especiallyfromHolland,streamedintoMnster.TheDutcharrivalswereheadedbytheMnstercitizenKnipperdolling.

OneofMatthijs'sApostlestoarriveinMnsterwasJanBokelson(Beukels),who,underthenameJohannofLeyden,wastobecomeacentralfigureinlater
developments.Beginningasatailor'sapprentice,Bokelsonmarriedarichwidowbutsoonlostherfortune.Hehadtraveledmuch,havingbeentoEngland,
FlandersandPortugal,hadreadfairlyextensivelyandknewtheHolyScripturesaswellasMntzer'swritings.InMnsterhetookupwithKnipperdolling
andsoonmarriedhisdaughter,therebybringingtheAnabaptistcommunityundertheinfluenceofMatthijs.Bythistime,leadershipoftheAnabaptist
movementinMnsterhadpassed

[59]

overfromthelocalcitizensentirelyintothehandsoftheDutchProphets,preacherconspiratorswhohadbeenuprootedfromtheirhomeland.

ClashesbetweenAnabaptistsandLutheransoccurredinMnster,andAnabaptistsraidedmonasteriesandchurches.Matthijs'sApostlesproclaimedthatthe
thousandyearkingdomwasathandforthosewhohadacceptedthesecondbaptism:ahappylifewithcommunityofproperty,withoutauthority,lawsor
maritalbonds.Asforthosewhoopposedthenewkingdom,theycouldexpectannihilationanddeathatthehandoftheChosen.TheChosenwereprohibited
togreetthefaithlessortohaveanythingwhatevertodowiththem.

ThemunicipalcouncilbanishedsomeAnabaptistpreachersfromthetownandarrestedonewhohadviolatedthebanimposedontheirsermons.Thiswas
earlyin1534.CrowdsofAnabaptistsranthroughthecity,shouting:"RepentorGodwillpunishyou!Father,Father,annihilatethegodless."Ontheninthof
February,armedmobsappearedinthetowntheyblockedoffstreetsandoccupiedpartofthecity.TheLutheransalsotookuparms,occupiedanotherpart
oftownandbegantopushtheAnabaptistsback.TheirforcesprovedtobegreaterandtheysurroundedtheAnabaptistsandbroughtupcannon.Victory
wasinthehandsoftheLutherans,buttheburgomasterTilbeck,whosympathizedwiththeAnabaptists,negotiatedanagreementonreligiouspeace:"Sothat
everyonebefreeinhisfaithandeverymancomebacktohisownhouseandliveinpeace."(23:p.701)ThiswasthebeginningofAnabaptistruleinthe
town.AnabaptistsflockedtoMnsterfromallsides.InanaccountthatoriginatedinAnabaptistcircles,weread:"ThefacesofChristiansagainblossomed
forth.Everyoneinthemarketplace,evensevenyearoldchildren,beganprophesying.Thewomenmadeextraordinaryjumps.Butthegodlesssaidthatthey
weredemented,thattheyweredrunkonsweetwine."(23:pp.707708)

OnFebruary21,anewelectionwasheldforthemunicipalcouncil,inwhichtheAnabaptistswonamajority.Theytookoverthemunicipaladministrationand
appointedtheiradherentsKnipperdollingandKibbenbrockasburgomasters.

TheAnabaptistsmadeadisplayoftheirpoweralmostimmediatelyinaterribleoutburstofviolencethattookplaceonFebruary24,threedaysafterthe
election.Monasteriesandchurchesweredestroyed,religiousobjectssmashedandsaints'relicsthrownintothestreets.Notonlyreligionbuteverything
connectedwiththeoldcultureevokedtheirire.Statuesinthemarketsquareweresmashedtopieces.ApreciouscollectionofoldItalianmanuscriptswhich
hadbeencollectedbyRudolfvonLangenwassolemnlyburnedinthesquare.PaintingsoftheWestphalianschool,famousatthetime,weredestroyedso
thoroughlythatatpresentthisschoolofpaintingisknownonlybyreputation.Evenmusicalinstrumentsweresmashed.

Threedayslater,onFebruary27,theAnabaptistsproceededtooneofthemajorpointsoftheirprogramtheexpulsionofthegodless,that
connectedwiththeoldcultureevokedtheirire.Statuesinthemarketsquareweresmashedtopieces.ApreciouscollectionofoldItalianmanuscriptswhich
hadbeencollectedbyRudolfvonLangenwassolemnlyburnedinthesquare.PaintingsoftheWestphalianschool,famousatthetime,weredestroyedso
thoroughlythatatpresentthisschoolofpaintingisknownonlybyreputation.Evenmusicalinstrumentsweresmashed.

Threedayslater,onFebruary27,theAnabaptistsproceededtooneofthemajorpointsoftheirprogramtheexpulsionofthegodless,that

[60]

is,ofthosecitizenswhorefusedtoaccepttheteachingsofthe"prophets."Matthijsinsistedthatallthegodlessbeputtodeath.ThemorewaryKnipperdolling
objected:"Allpeopleswillthenuniteagainstustorevengethebloodofthosekilled."Finally,adecisionwastakentodriveoutoftownanyonewhorefused
toacceptsecondbaptism.AmeetingofarmedAnabaptistswascalled.TheProphetsatinatrancewhileprayerswerebeingsaid.Atlast,Matthijsroseand
calledfortheexpulsionofthefaithless:"DownwithEsau'soffspring!TheinheritancebelongstothechildrenofJacob."Ashoutof"Downwiththegodless!"
rolledthroughthestreets.ArmedAnabaptistsbrokeintohousesanddroveouteveryonewhowasunwillingtoacceptsecondbaptism.Winterwasdrawing
toacloseitwasastormydayandwetsnowwasfalling.Aneyewitnessaccountdescribescrowdsofexpelledcitizenswalkingthroughthekneedeepsnow.
Theyhadnotbeenallowedeventotakewarmclothingwiththem,womencarryingchildrenintheirarms,oldmenleaningonstaffs.Atthecitygatetheywere
robbedoncemore.

Thenextactionwasthesocializationofallproperty.Achronicleofthetimereads:"Theydecidedunanimouslythatallpropertymustbeheldincommonand
thateveryonemusthandinhissilver,goldandmoney.Intheendalldidso."(29:p.201)Itisknownthatthismeasurewasaccomplishedwithsomedifficulty
andonlyinthecourseoftwomonths.Matthijsappointedsevendeaconstowatchoverthesocializedproperty.

Tosuppressdiscontentarousedbythesemeasures,theAnabaptistsbegantoresorttoterroronaneverwiderscale.OnedayMatthijsgatheredallthemen
inthetownsquareandorderedeveryonewhohadtakenbaptismonthelastday(massbaptismhadgoneonforthreedays)tostepforward.Therewere
threehundredtheywereorderedtoputdowntheirarms.Matthijsspoke:"TheLordiswrathfulandcallsforsacrifice."Theaccusedmenprostrated
themselvesbeforetheProphet,inthemanneroftheAnabaptists,andbeggedformercy.Buttheywerelockedinadesertedchurch,fromwhichtheirappeals
formercycouldbeheardforhours.Finally,JanBokelsonappearedandannounced:"Mydearbrethren,theLordhastakenpityuponyou!"Andallwere
released.

Butthingsdidnotalwaysendsobenignly.Forexample,areportwasreceivedthattheblacksmithHubertRuscherhadspokenagainsttheactionsofthe
Anabaptists.HewasbroughttoameetingMatthijsdemandedhisdeath.Someofthosepresentintercededforthemanandaskedthathebepardoned.But
Bokelsonshouted:"TomethepoweroftheLordisgivensothatbymyhandeveryonewhoopposesthecommandsoftheLordbestruckdown."Andhe
struckRuscherwithahalberd.Thewoundedmanwasledawaytojail.Disputationastohisfatecontinued.Finally,themanwasagainbroughttothetown
square,whereMatthijskilledhimwithashotintheback.

StreamsofincendiaryAnabaptistliteratureflowedfromMnster,callingthebrethrentocometogetherinthe"NewJerusalem."For:"Bedandshelterare
readyforallChristians.Iftherewillbetoomanypeople,we

[61]

shallusethehousesandthepropertyofthefaithless....Hereyouwillhaveeverythinginabundance.Thepoorestamongus,whoearlierwerescornedas
paupers,nowwearrichclothinglikethehighestandthenoblest.Thepoorhavebecome,byGod'sgrace,asrichasburgomasters."(29:p.147)Itwas
reportedthatatEastertheworldwouldbestruckbyaterribleplagueandthat,outsideMnster,onlyeverytenthpersonwouldbespared."Letnoonethink
eitherofhusbandorofwifeorofchild,iftheyarefaithless.DonottakethemwithyoutheyareuselesstoGod'scommunity....Ifanyoneremainsbehind,I
aminnocentofhisblood."Thusendsaleafletsigned"Emmanuel."(29:p.148)ThebookRestitutionorRevivaloftheTrueChristianTeachingwassent
farandwide.ItassertsthattruthhadbeenonlypartlyopentoErasmus,ZwingliandLuther,butthatitshoneforthinMatthijsandJohannofLeyden.Much
importanceisattachedtotheOldTestament.TheKingdomofChristonearthisconceivedofinapurelyphysicalfashion.Itincludescommunalityof
propertyandpolygamy.Thebookendswiththewords:"Inourtime,Christiansareallowedtoturntheswordagainstgodlessauthorities."TheBooklet
ConcerningVengeancewasanotherpopularwork.Itisnothinglessthanacalltomurderandrevenge.Onlyaftervengeancehadbeencarriedoutwould
thenewearthandthenewheavenappeartoGod'speople."Rememberwhattheyhavedoneuntousallthismustbevisitedupontheminalikemanner.
Heedthisanddonotconsiderasinwhatisnosin."(29:p.149)

ApostlesweresentfromMnstertopropagandizeinsurrectionandtodrumupsupportforthenewJerusalem.TheywereparticularlysuccessfulinHolland.
ErasmusSchetwrotetoErasmusofRotterdam:"Hardlyisthereatownoracitywheretheashesofrebellionarenotsmoldering.Thecommunismthatthey
preachattractsmassesfromallsides."(29:p.153)Inmanytownstherebaptizedwerecountedinthehundreds,amongthemmanyinfluentialpeople.In
CologneitwasreportedthatsevenhundredhadbeennewlybaptizedandinEssen,twohundred.Turbulencegrewapace.Onedayfivenakedmen,with
swordsinhand,ranthroughAmsterdamforetellingtheimminentendoftheworld.LargecrowdsofarmedAnabaptistsweremovingtowardMnster.
SixteenhundredgatheredinVollenhove.ThirtyshipswitharmedAnabaptistsaboardleftAmsterdamandlandednearGenemuiden.Thiswasfollowedby
twentyonemoreshipswiththreethousandmen,womenandchildren.TheDutchauthoritieswereabletodispersethesecrowdsonlywithgreatdifficulty.In
thetownofWarenburg,anAnabaptistcommunitybeganaccumulatingweapons,andtheburgomasterbecamesofrightenedthathewouldappearonly
accompaniedbyahundredguards.InMnstertheProphetJohannDusentschurcompiledalistoftownswhichweresoontobecontrolledbythe"Children
ofGod."FirstonthelistwasSoest.AdelegationofProphetssetoutforthiscity.Theyenteredthetownopenlyandsolemnly,preachinginsurrection.The
authoritiesmanagedtooustthemwithgreatdifficulty.

ItisnotsurprisingthatthismovementalarmedBishopFranzvon

[62]

Waldeck,inwhosedomainMnsterwassituated,aswellastherulersoftheneighboringareas.SlowlyanarmywasraisedandMnsterbesieged.Thetown
waswellfortifiedandhadlargestoresofprovisions.Thesiegewasahardone,lastingfourteenmonths.Oneofthefirstvictimsofthewarturnedouttobe
theAnabaptistleaderMatthijs.Duringacommonmeal,heexclaimed:"LetThywillbedoneandnotmine!"Thenhebadetheothersfarewell,kissingthem.It
appearsthathehadhadavisionthathewastochallengetheunfaithfultoafightinthemannerofSamson.Thenextdayheactuallywentoutsidethecitywall
withasmallgroupofvolunteersandwashackedtopiecesbythelansquenets.

HiscomradeinarmsBokelson(JohannofLeyden)thereupondeliveredasermon:"GodwillgiveyouanotherProphetwhowillbemorepowerful.God
desiredthedeathofMatthijs,lestyoushouldbelieveinhimmorethaninGod."Withinseveraldays,BokelsonbecamethatnewProphet,theheirtoMatthijs.
waswellfortifiedandhadlargestoresofprovisions.Thesiegewasahardone,lastingfourteenmonths.Oneofthefirstvictimsofthewarturnedouttobe
theAnabaptistleaderMatthijs.Duringacommonmeal,heexclaimed:"LetThywillbedoneandnotmine!"Thenhebadetheothersfarewell,kissingthem.It
appearsthathehadhadavisionthathewastochallengetheunfaithfultoafightinthemannerofSamson.Thenextdayheactuallywentoutsidethecitywall
withasmallgroupofvolunteersandwashackedtopiecesbythelansquenets.

HiscomradeinarmsBokelson(JohannofLeyden)thereupondeliveredasermon:"GodwillgiveyouanotherProphetwhowillbemorepowerful.God
desiredthedeathofMatthijs,lestyoushouldbelieveinhimmorethaninGod."Withinseveraldays,BokelsonbecamethatnewProphet,theheirtoMatthijs.
(29:p.207)OncetheLordclosedJohann'slipsforthreedays.Uponrecoveringhisspeech,heproclaimedthathehadhadarevelationaboutaneworder
forthetown.Thepowerofthecouncilwastobeabolished,andtwelveeldersweretogovernundertheleadershipoftheProphet.Thenamesoftheelders
wereannouncedtheyturnedouttobethemostinfluentialDutchProphets,andtheywereinstalledwithoutanyelection.

Nextcamewhatwasperhapsthemostradicalinnovationestablishmentofpolygamy.IdeasofthissortareencounteredearlierinAnabaptistpreachings.
TheyweresupportedbyreferencetothecustomsofthepatriarchsoftheOldTestament.Thenewlawwasfacilitatedbythefactthatafterbanishmentofthe
godless,thereweretwoorthreetimesasmanywomeninMnsterasmen.Theintroductionofpolygamywasaccompaniedbyaregulationinaccordance
withwhichallwomenwhoseagedidnotpreventitwereobligatedtohaveahusband.Thesharingoutofwomenbegan.Eyewitnessestellofviolenceand
suicides.Theatmosphereinwhichthelawwasimplementedisintimatedbyanotherlaw,whichforbadementobreakintohousesingroupstochoosewives.
Onecanonlyimaginewhatlifewaslikeinthenewfamilies.Theauthoritiesalsointerferedbystagingfrequentpublicpunishmentofrecalcitrantwives.

Thesocializationofpropertyandpolygamyevokedconsiderableoppositioninthetown.ThedisaffectedseizedthechiefProphetsanddemandedabolitionof
theseregulations.ButtheyweresurroundedbyAnabaptistsstillloyaltoBokelsonmostlyDutchmenandFrisiansandcompelledtosurrender.Theywere
tiedtotreesandshot."WhoeverfiresthefirstshotdoesaservicetoGod,"Bokelsoncried.

Thedefeatoftheoppositionwithincoincidedwithamajormilitaryvictoryalargeforceassaultingthetownhadbeenbeatenback.Thearmyofthe
attackerswasbadlyorganized,andapparentlytherewereAnabaptistsinitsranks,forthetimesetfortheassaulthadbecomeknowninMnster.Thelosses
ofthebesiegingarmyweresuchthatadaringsallycouldhavedestroyeditentirely.

[63]

TheseeventsstrengthenedJohann'spositionconsiderably.TheProphetDusentschurreportedthathehadhadavisionthatJohannwouldbecomekingofthe
worldandtakethethroneandthescepterofhisfatherDaviduntilthecomingoftheLordHimself.Bokelsonconfirmedthathehadhadthesamevision.The
electionofthekingculminatedinthesingingofpsalms.

Bokelsonsurroundedhimselfwithasplendidcourt,createdcourtpostsofvariouskindsandadetachmentofbodyguards.Hetooknewwivesconstantly,
amongwhomthefirstwas"themostlovelyofallwomen,"DivaraMatthijs'swidow.Twocrownsencrustedwithpreciousstonesoneroyal,theother
imperialweremadeforBokelson.Hisemblemwastheglobewithtwoswordscrossed,asymbolofhispowerovertheworld.

Thekingappearedwithafanfareandaccompaniedbyamountedguard.AHofmeistermarchedinfront,carryingawhitestaffsplendidlydressedpages
followed,onebearingasword,theothertheOldTestament.Nextcamethecourt,dressedinsilk.Everyonetheymethadtokneel.Atthesametime,Johann
hadavisionfromwhichhelearnedthatnooneshouldpossessmorethanonecoat,twopairsofstockings,threeshirtsandsoon.Everyoneoutsidetheroyal
courtwasboundbythisrevelation.

Oneday4,200citizenswerecalledtoaroyalbanquet.Thekingandqueenplayedhost,andeveryonesangthehymn"GlorytoGodintheHighest."
SuddenlyJohannnoticedamongtheguestssomeonewhoseemedalientohim:"Hewasnotinnuptialdress."DecidingthatthismustbeJudas,thekingcutoff
hisheadonthespot.Thereuponthebanquetresumed.

Theatricalperformanceswerestagedforthetownspeoplesomeoftheseparodiedtheholyservice,otherstookasocialturnforinstance,thedialogueof
therichmanwithLazarus.

Streetsandallimportantbuildingsinthetownwererenamed.Babiesweregivennewlyinventednames.

Meanwhileexecutionstookplacealmostdaily:forexample,onthethirdofJune,1535,fiftytwopersonswereexecutedonthefifthofJune,threeeighteen
personsonboththesixthandtheseventh,etc.Obstinatewiveswereexecuted,aswellasawomanwhohadspokenagainsttheneworder.Onewomanwho
refusedtobecometheking'swife,inspiteofhisseveralproposals,hadherheadchoppedoffinthetownsquarebytheking'sownhand,whilehisassembled
wivessang"GlorytoGodintheHighest."

Theentireepisodehastheappearanceofmasspathology,amadnesstowhichtheProphetsthemselveseventuallyfellvictim,whenwithblindfanaticismthey
joinedtheirdestiniestoadoomedcause.Butwasitreally?TheMnsterepisodedemonstratesamultitudeoftraitstypicalofallrevolutionsbutwhere,
confinedtoasingletownandcompressedintoasingleyear,tragedyturnsintoagrotesquefarce.TheSwiftiandeviceofattributingthevicesoftheworldto
tinyLilliputianswashereemployedbyhistory.Inactualfact,themosteccentricofactionsprovetohavebeenentirelyconsistentwiththeinnerlogicofthe
movement.ExtremefanaticismstirredtheAnabaptistmobandspreadtolargerandlargermasses

[64]

ofpeople.BehindtheabsurdposturingsofJanBokelsonwecanoftendiscernaslyandcalculatingmind,examplesofwhichweshallencounterlater.
Apparently,bothheandtheotherProphetshadaveryconcretegoalinmind"universal"rebellionandtheestablishmentofthemselvesinpower,ifnotover
the"entireworld,"thenatleastoveralargepartofEurope.Althoughthesehopeswerenotrealized,theyshouldnotbedismissedashavingbeenentirely
groundless.UnrestwasrampantinthewholeofnorthwesternGermanyandinHolland.ItwaswidelythoughtatthetimethatifJohannwouldsucceedin
breakingthroughthesiege,hewouldfosterachangeinthecourseofhistorycomparabletothegreatmigrationofpeoples.Anabaptistemissarieswereactive
asfarawayasZrichandBerninMnstertheyenticedlansquenetstotheirsidewithlargesalaries.Thebesiegingforcewasonceseizedbypanicoverthe
rumorthattheAnabaptistshadtakenLbeck.Thisturnedouttobeuntrue,butitissymptomaticoftheprevailingsentiment.

Therewas,apparently,aplantoraiserebellioninfourplacessimultaneouslyitwaspartiallyimplemented.InFrisia,Anabaptistsseizedandfortifieda
monastery,wheretheyheldoutagainstaprolongedsiege.Victorycosttheimperialarmyninehundredmenkilled.AsquadronofAnabaptistships
approachedDeventerintentontakingthetown,butitwasinterceptedbytheDukeofHeldern'sfleet.OutsideGroningen,anAnabaptistforceofsomeone
thousandmengathered,intendingtobreakthroughtoMnster.It,too,wasscatteredbytheduke'smen.

ButtheAnabaptistswerestrongestinHolland,thehomelandofMatthijsandJanBokelson.In1535,severallargedetachmentsofAnabaptistsassembled
 rumorthattheAnabaptistshadtakenLbeck.Thisturnedouttobeuntrue,butitissymptomaticoftheprevailingsentiment.

Therewas,apparently,aplantoraiserebellioninfourplacessimultaneouslyitwaspartiallyimplemented.InFrisia,Anabaptistsseizedandfortifieda
monastery,wheretheyheldoutagainstaprolongedsiege.Victorycosttheimperialarmyninehundredmenkilled.AsquadronofAnabaptistships
approachedDeventerintentontakingthetown,butitwasinterceptedbytheDukeofHeldern'sfleet.OutsideGroningen,anAnabaptistforceofsomeone
thousandmengathered,intendingtobreakthroughtoMnster.It,too,wasscatteredbytheduke'smen.

ButtheAnabaptistswerestrongestinHolland,thehomelandofMatthijsandJanBokelson.In1535,severallargedetachmentsofAnabaptistsassembled
there.TheyevensucceededinseizingtheAmsterdamtownhallforatime,althoughtheauthoritiessoonhadthesituationinhand.Oneofthereasonsforthe
movement'sfailurewasthatitsplansbecameknowntotheenemy.OneofJohann'sApostlesfellintothehandsofthebishopandpromisedtodisclosethe
Anabaptists'battleplansinexchangeforhislife.HereturnedtoMnster,pretendingtohaveescaped,thensetoutagainonanApostolicmissionand
informedthebishopofeverything.

WecanconcludethatBokelson'saspirationswerefarfromillusory.Hehadamassedanarmyandwasreadytobreakthesiege,shouldtheDutchcometo
hisaid.Hewasconstructingamobilebarricademadeofcarriages.Atnightheranaroundthetownbarefoot,wearingnothingbutashirtandshouting:
"Rejoice,Israel,salvationisathand."Atonepointhesummonedtheentirearmytothesquareinordertomoveoutofthetown.Hethenappeared,wearing
hiscrownandroyalgarments,anddeclaredthatthedayhadnotyetcomeandthathehadsimplywantedtocheckthereadinessofhisforces.Afeastwas
preparedforthepopulacethereweresometwothousandmenandeightthousandwomenaltogether.AfterthemealJohannsuddenlyannouncedthathe
wassteppingdown.ButtheProphetDusentschurproclaimedthatGodcalleduponhisbrotherJohannofLeydentoremainkingandtopunishtheiniquitous.
Bokelsonwasreelected.

Therewereapparentlyrealfrictionsbehindthismasquerade.On

[65]

anotheroccasion,forinstance,Knipperdollingstartedtoleapanddanceaboutstrangelyheevenstoodonhishead.Butinthemidstoftheseanticshe
suddenlycriedout:"Johanniskingoftheflesh,butIshallbekingofthespirit."Bokelsonorderedhimlockedinthetower,asaresultofwhichKnipperdolling
soonthoughtbetterofthingsandthetwowerereconciled.Anotherpoliticalmoveinasimilarlyfantasticguisewasthe"election"ofdukes.Asecretvotewas
takeninthetwelvedistrictsintowhichthetownhadbeendivided.Thenamesofcandidateswereputintoahatanddrawnoutbyspeciallyappointedyoung
boys.ThedukeselectedinthismannerallturnedouttobeProphetsclosetoBokelson.Eachreceivedadukedomoftheempire,thatis,oneofthetown
districts,togetherwithcontrolofthetowngatelocatedinthecorrespondingdistrict.Thislastpointwastherealmeaningofthewholeenterprise,forthe
lansquenets,whomJohanncouldnolongertrust,weretherebyremovedfromstrategicpositionsindefenseofthetown.

Thesepoliticalmaneuversweresupplementedbythesightoftheroyalguardsengagingindailymilitaryexercisesonthemainsquare.

Intheend,however,thelargestockpileofprovisionsranoutandfaminesetin.Thehorseswereeaten,andthisdestroyedanyhopeofbreakingthesiege.
Thedeaconsconfiscatedallstores,andunderthreatofdeathitwasforbiddentobakebreadathome.Allhousesweresearchedandnoonehadtherightto
lockhisdoor.ThecitizensbegantoeatgrassandrootS.Thekingpronouncedthatthiswas"noworsethanbread."Atthismoment,hecalledtogetherthe
dukes,thecourtandallhiswivestoaluxuriousfeastinthepalace.Aneyewitnesswholaterescapedfromthetownreported:"Theybehavedasthoughthey
wereplanningtorulefortherestoftheirlives."(29:p.237)

Fanaticismservedasalightningrod.Thekingcommandedthat"allthatishighshallbedestroyed."Andthecitizensbegantodestroybelfriesandthetopsof
towers.Repressionwaspracticedevermorewidely.Newconspiracieswererevealedconstantly.Oneofthoseaccusedwashackedintotwelveparts,anda
Dutchmanatehisheartandliver.

Thetownwasdoomed.Moreandmoreofthedefendersfled,despitethefactthattrial,tortureandpossibleexecutionawaitedtheminthebesiegers'camp.
Finally,onJuly25,1535,Mnsterwastaken.ThereignoftheAnabaptists,whohadcometopowerFebruary21,1534,hadlastedforayearandahalf.
Manyofthemweremassacredbythelansquenetsduringthefinalassaultothersweretriedandmanyexecuted.Mnsterwasnolongeranevangeliccityit
hadreturnedtotherealmoftheCatholicbishop.

JanBokelsonhidinthemostimpregnabletowerbutlatergavehimselfup.Undertorture,herenouncedhisfaithandacknowledgedthathe"deserveddeath
tentimesover."HepromisedthatifhislifewassparedhewouldbringallAnabaptiststoobedience.Buttonoavail.Inthesquarewhereoncehehadsatona
throne,hewastorturedwithhotirons,andthenhisheartwaspiercedwitharedhotdagger.

[66]

2.ChiliasticSocialismandtheIdeologyoftheHereticalMovements

AbovewehavetriednottoyieldtothetemptationtoselectfromthesourcesonthehistoryofthehereticalmovementsoftheMiddleAgesandReformationonlythose
passagesinwhichsocialistideasareexpoundedthecommunalityofproperty,thedestructionofthefamily,etc.Onthecontrary,wetriedtogiveafullreview,thougha
necessarilyschematicone,ofthemajoraspectsofthehereticaldoctrines.Itwillnowbeourtasktodeterminethelinkbetweenthesetwophenomenai.e.,toascertainthe
rolethattheideasofchiliasticsocialismplayedintheoverallideologyofthehereticalmovements.

Todothis,itisfirstnecessarytodeterminewhetheritispossibletospeakofasingle,unifiedworldviewinthesemovements,whethertherearesufficientfeaturescommon
tothechaoticmassofheresieswhichappearedoverthecourseofsomesevencenturies.Inotherwords,wearedealingwiththequestionoftheinterrelationshipamong
differenthereticaldoctrines.Beginningwiththesecondhalfofthelastcentury,thisquestionbecametheobjectofmuchresearchwhichnotonlyshowedtheexistenceof
closetiesbetweenvarioushereticalgro,upsbutalsogreatlyextendedthehistoryofheresiesintothepast.Itbecameclearthatthereisadirectcontinuitybetweenthe
teachingsofthemedievalsectsandtheheresiesofthefirstcenturiesofChristianity.

Inmostgeneralterms,itispossibletodividetheheresiesoftheMiddleAgesintothreegroups:(1)"Manichean"heresiestheCathars,Albigenses,Petrobrusians(from
theeleventhtothefourteenthcenturies).(2)"Pantheistic"heresies:Amalricians,Ortliebarians,BrethrenandSistersoftheFreeSpirit,Adamites,theApostolicBrethren
andtherelatedgroupsofBeghardsandBeguines(fromthethirteenthtothefifteenthcenturies).(3)Heresieswhich,longbeforetheReformation,developedideasthat
wereclosetoProtestantismWaldensians,Anabaptists,MoravianBrethren(fromthetwelfthtotheseventeenthcenturies).

ThemajorityofthesedoctrineshavethesamesourcethegnosticandManicheanheresieswhich,asearlyasthesecondcenturyA.D.,spreadthroughtheRomanEmpire
andevenbeyonditsborders,forexample,intoPersia.
[67]
theeleventhtothefourteenthcenturies).(2)"Pantheistic"heresies:Amalricians,Ortliebarians,BrethrenandSistersoftheFreeSpirit,Adamites,theApostolicBrethren
andtherelatedgroupsofBeghardsandBeguines(fromthethirteenthtothefifteenthcenturies).(3)Heresieswhich,longbeforetheReformation,developedideasthat
wereclosetoProtestantismWaldensians,Anabaptists,MoravianBrethren(fromthetwelfthtotheseventeenthcenturies).

ThemajorityofthesedoctrineshavethesamesourcethegnosticandManicheanheresieswhich,asearlyasthesecondcenturyA.D.,spreadthroughtheRomanEmpire
andevenbeyonditsborders,forexample,intoPersia.
[67]

Theheresiesofthe"Manichean"groupenteredWesternEuropeprimarilyfromtheEast.Verysimilardoctrines(dualism,beliefintheconnectionoftheOldTestamentwith
theevilGod,thedivisionintonarrowesotericandbroadexotericcircles)canbefoundinthegnosticsectsofthesecondcentury,forexampleamongtheMarcionites,but
theseviewsachievedtheirfullexpressioninManicheanism.

ThePaulicians,whoappearedintheEasternRomanEmpireinthefourthandfifthcenturies,servedasalinkbetweentheearlygnosticheresiesandthemedievalsects.
Theyprofessedpuredualism,consideringoriginalsintobeaheroicdeed:arefusaltoobeytheevilGod.Thisledtoarejectionofmorallawandthedenialofthe
differencebetweengoodandevil.Thisinturnwasmanifestedinthevariousexcessesofthesectarians,asdescribedbytheircontemporaries.(OneofthePaulicianleaders
wascalledBaantheDirty,forinstance,andthereareaccountsofbrigandage.)Intheninthcentury,PauliciansoccupiedanareaofAsiaMinor,fromwhichtheycarriedout
raidsonneighboringtowns,lootingandsellingcaptivesintoslaverytotheSaracens.In867,EphesuswascapturedandsackedthetempleofSt.JohnWaSturnedintoa
stable.DefeatedinthetenthcenturybythearmiesoftheByzantineemperor,thePaulicianswereresettledwholesaleinBulgaria.Heretheycameintocontactwiththe
Bogomils,whoderivedfromtheMessaliansect(mentionedasearlyasthefourthcentury).BogomilteachingwasclosetotheviewsofthemonarchicCatharsitheldthat
thephysicalworldwascreatedbyGod'sapostateeldestson,Satanael.PauliciansandBogomilsalikerejectedthebaptismofchildren,hatedanddestroyedchurches,
sacredimagesandcrosses.

FromtheEasternRomanEmpire,thePaulicianandBogomildoctrinespenetratedintoWesternEurope.(See10and12foramoredetailedaccount.)

Thedoctrinesofthe"pantheistic"trendcanalsobetracedtothegnosticheresies.Epiphanes,aChristianwriterofthefourthcentury,describessectswhicharestrikingly
similartothemedievalAdamites.(Hehimselfbelongedatonetimetosuchagroup.)Onehundredyearslater,Hyppolitusreportsananalogousteachingamongthesectof
Simonians.Inbothcases,blackmasseswerepracticed,accompaniedbyanostentatiousdisregardformoralnorms,allofwhichwasmeanttorevealthesuperhuman
characterof"thepossessorofgnosis."(16:p.77)

Thereisampleevidenceofnumerouslinksamongthedoctrines
[68]

ofthedifferentsects.Wehavealreadymentioned,forexample,thatthenotionofthe"divinity"oftheFreeSpiritswasadevelopmentoftheexclusivepositionofthe
perfectiamongtheCathars.SomehistoriansbelievethattheFreeSpiritsactuallyoriginatedamongtheCathars.InthisconnectionwealsonoteJ.VanMierlo'sargument
thatthetermsbeginusandbeginederivefrom"Albigensis."(15:p.24.TheBeghardsandBeguineswerethemainsourcefromwhichfollowersofthe"FreeSpirits"were
drawn.)

IthasfurthermorebeenestablishedthattheFreeSpiritsinfluencedtheWaldenses,specificallyintheorganizationofthelatterintoanarrowcircleofleadersorApostles
(who,accordingtothedoctrineofthesect,receivedtheirauthorityfromtheangels,regularlyvisitedparadiseandcontemplatedGod).Theclosenessofthetwosectsis
illustratedbytheexampleofNicholasofBasel,whoisvariouslyassigned,byscholarsthoroughlyversedinthematerial,toeithertheFreeSpiritsortheWaldenses.

ThePetrobrusiansectisanotherlinkbetweentheCatharsandtheWaldenses.DllingerandRuncimanconsiderthemtobepartoftheCatharmovement,whileother
historiansrefertothemaspredecessorsoftheWaldenses.Finally,therearenumerousindicationsthatWaldensesandAnabaptistsaretwonamesgivenatdifferent
periodstopeopleinthesamemovement.LudwigKellerdevotedanumberofworkstoelucidatingtheconnectionsbetweentheWaldensesandtheAnabaptists.He
bringsforwardnumerousargumentstoprovethattheyareinfactthesame.(See24and26.)

Theimpressionofdiversitycreatedbythegreatvarietyofnamescannotbetakenasproofofthesects'distinctness.Theirnameswere,forthemostpart,coinedbytheir
enemiesafteraninfluentialpreacheratagiventime(PetrobrusiansfromPeterofBruysHeinrichiansfromHeinrichofToulouseWaldensiansfromValdesOrtliebarians
fromOrtlieb,etc.,justasthetermLutheranlaterderivedfromLuther).Themembersofthesectscalledoneanother"Brethren,""God'speople,""friendsofGod."Thelast
termwasused,forinstance,byWaldensesandAnabaptistsinGermanyaslateasthesixteenthcenturyGottesfreunde,whichalsohappenstobeanexacttranslationof
theWord"Bogomil."

Astrikingfeaturethatcharacterizesalmostallthegroupsinthehereticalmovementistherejectionofbaptismoftheyoungandtherelatedintroductionofasecondbaptism
foradults.TheJustinianCode
[69]

(sixthcentury)alreadycontainsclausesagainsthereticswhopreachasecondbaptism.SecondbaptismismentionedrepeatedlyintheproceedingsoftheInquisitionandin
thewritingsdenouncingtheCatharsandtheWaldenses.ThepracticegivestheAnabaptiststheirnameandsurvivestodayamongtheBaptists.

Thesectariansthemselvesinsistedonthecontinuityofthehereticalmovement.Inthefirstplace,theyassertedtheirancientoriginsfromthedisciplesoftheApostlesor
fromtheChristianswhorefusedobediencetoPopeSylvesteranddidnotacceptthebequestofEmperorConstantine.IntheannalsoftheToulouseInquisitionfor1311,
thereisthetestimonyofaWaldensianweaverwhopresentedsuchaversionofthesect'sorigin,quitetraditionalalreadyatthattime.(24:pp.1819)Accordingtothe
Waldensiantradition,Valdeswasnotthefounderoftheirchurch.Forexample,theycalledPeterofBruys,wholivedinthefirsthalfofthetwelfthcentury,"oneof
ours."(Valdespreachedinthesecondhalfofthecentury.)ThispointofviewistypicalnotonlyfortheWaldensesforinstance,theAnabaptistlistofmartyrs(whichwas
alsoacceptedbytheMennonitesasearlyastheseventeenthcentury)beginswithdescriptionsofthepersecutionofWaldenseswhichtookplacecenturiesbeforethe
Reformation.(24:p.364)

Finally,theheretics'enemies,thosewhoassailedtheirdoctrines,aswellastherepresentativesoftheInquisitors,allemphasizedtheunityofthehereticalmovement.St.
BernardofClairvaux(twelfthcentury),whowaswellversedinthecontemporaryheresies,declaredthattheteachingoftheCatharscontainednothingnewbutmerely
repeatedancienterrors.IntheworkofaRomanInquisitorknownasthe"pseudoRaynier"(1250),wereadthefollowing:"Amongthesectsthereisnonemoredangerous
totheChurchthantheLeonites.Andforthreereasons:First,itisthemostancientofsects.SomesaythatitgoesbacktothetimeofPopeSylvester,otherstothe
Apostles.Further,thereisnocountrywheretheyarenotmetwith."(24:p.5)Bullinger,whowroteabouttheAnabaptistsin1560,says:"Manybasicandgraveerrorsof
theirstheysharewiththeancientsectsofNovatians,Cathars,withAuxentiusandPelagius."(25:p.270)CardinalHosius(15041570),whofoughtthehereticsofhisday,
wrote:"StillmoreharmfulisthesectofAnabaptists,ofwhichkindweretheWaldensianBrethrenalso,whostillrecentlypracticedthesecondbaptism.Itisnotyesterday
northedaybeforeyesterdaythatthisheresygrewupithasexistedsinceAugustine'stime."(25:p.267)IntheSubstantial
[70]
totheChurchthantheLeonites.Andforthreereasons:First,itisthemostancientofsects.SomesaythatitgoesbacktothetimeofPopeSylvester,otherstothe
Apostles.Further,thereisnocountrywheretheyarenotmetwith."(24:p.5)Bullinger,whowroteabouttheAnabaptistsin1560,says:"Manybasicandgraveerrorsof
theirstheysharewiththeancientsectsofNovatians,Cathars,withAuxentiusandPelagius."(25:p.270)CardinalHosius(15041570),whofoughtthehereticsofhisday,
wrote:"StillmoreharmfulisthesectofAnabaptists,ofwhichkindweretheWaldensianBrethrenalso,whostillrecentlypracticedthesecondbaptism.Itisnotyesterday
northedaybeforeyesterdaythatthisheresygrewupithasexistedsinceAugustine'stime."(25:p.267)IntheSubstantial
[70]

andConciseHistoryoftheMnsterRebellion(1589),theAnabaptistsarereferredtobyseveralnames,includingCatharsandApostolicBrethren.(25:p.247)Inhis
Chronicle(1531),SebastianFranckspeaksoftheconnectionamongtheBohemianBrethren,theWaldensesandtheAnabaptists:"Picards,whooriginatewithVaIdes,
formaspecialChristianfolkorsectinBohemia....Theyaredividedintotwoorthreegroupsthelargest,asmalleroneandthesmallest.TheseresembleAnabaptistsin
everything....Theynumberabouteightythousand."(26:p.57)Similarevidencecouldbecitedatlength.

ThenotionofaunityamongorganizedhereticalmovementsisalsotemptinginthatitmakesmorecomprehensiblethemiracleoftheReformation,whenwithinafewyears
organizations,leadersandwriterscropupallacrossEurope.LinksbetweentheleadersoftheReformation(initsearlyphase)andthehereticalmovementsarequite
probable.ThiswasassertedbyopponentsoftheReformation.Forinstance,duringadisputationattheReichstaginWorms,thepapalnuncioreproachedLuther:"Mostof
yourdoctrinesarethealreadydiscardedheresiesoftheBeghards,Waldensians,LyonsPaupers,WyclifitesandHussites."(25:pp.122123)Neitherdidtheleadersof
theReformationdenytheseties.Forexample,intheepistle"TotheChristianNobilityoftheGermanNation"(1520)Lutherwrites:"Itishightimeforustotakeup
seriouslyandfranklythecauseoftheBohemianssothatwecanunitewiththemandtheywithus."(25:p.126)AndZwingliwritestoLutherin1527:"Manypeople,even
earlier,understoodtheessenceofevangelicreligionasclearlyasyoudo.ButofallIsraelnoonedaredtoenterthebattle,fortheyfearedthismightyGoliath."(26:p.9)It
isthoughtlikelythatZwinglibelongedtothecommunityofBrethreninZrich,breakingwiththemaround1524.Lutherapparentlyalsohadcontactsinthesecircles.The
firstimpetustohissubsequentrupturewiththeCatholicChurchwasgivenhimwhenhewasstillanunknownyoungmonk.JohannStaupitz,thegeneralvicarofthe
AugustinianOrder,tooknoticeofhiminoneofhistoursofinspection.StaupitzwashighlyesteemedamongtheBrethren.Inaworkoftheday,forexample,itisevensaid
thathemightbedestined"toleadtheNewIsraeloutofEgyptiancaptivity,"i.e.,tosavethesocietiesoftheBrethrenfrompersecution.Staupitz'sinfluenceonLutherwas
exceptionalatthetime.Lutherlatersaidthatitwashewho"firstlitthelightoftheGospel"inhisheartandraisedhis"danderagainstthePope."LutherwrotetoStaupitz:
"Youleaveme
[71]

toooften.Becauseofyou,Iwaslikeadesertedchildpiningforitsmother.Ibeseechyou,blesstheLord'screationinmealso,asinfulman."(25:p.133)Itwasonly
beginningwith1522thatcertaindifferencesbetweenthetwocametolight,culminating,in15241525,inafinalbreak.

AstrikingpictureemergesofamovementthatlastedforfifteencenturiesdespitepersecutionbythedominantChurchandbysecularauthorities.*Apreciselyfixedsetof
religiousideasaffectingthegeneralattitudetowardlifewaspreservedvirtuallyunchanged,oftendowntothesmallestdetail.Throughoutthisperiod,thetraditionofsecret
ordinationofbishopswasunbrokengeneralquestionsofimporttothemovementweredecidedat"synods,"andwanderingApostlestookthedecreestodistantsocieties.
Onadmittancetothesect,theinitiatesweregivennewnamesknownonlytotheirclosedgroup.Secretsignswereused(forinstance,whenshakinghands)sothebrethren
couldrecognizeoneanother.Houseswerealsomarkedbysecretsignssothattravelingmemberscouldfindaccommodationswiththeirkind.Amongthesectariansitwas
saidthatyoucouldtravelfromEnglandtoRome,stayingonlyathousesoffellowsectariansalongtheway.Therewereclosetiesamongthenationalbranchesofthe
movement.SynodswereattendedbyrepresentativesfromalloverWesternarIdCentralEuropeliteraturewassentfromcountrytocountry.Therewasmutualfinancial
assistanceduringtimesofcalamitypeoplewouldstreaminfromothercountriestohelptheirbrethren.

Thustherearegroundsforattemptingtoestablishacommonideologicalunderpinningfortheentiremovementinordertodeterminetheplaceoftheideasofchiliastic
socialisminthesedoctrines.

Oneofthefundamentaltraitsobservedthroughoutthehistoryofthesectswastheirhostilitytowardsecularauthoritythe"world"andespeciallytowardtheCatholic
Church.Thiscouldbeactiveorpassive,andcouldfindexpressionincallsto"exterminatethegodless,"tokillthePopeorannihilatetheWhoreofBabylon(theChurch),
orinprohibitionsofanykindofintercoursewiththeoutsideworld.

ThiswastheissuethatledtothebreakbetweentheleadersoftheReformation,LutherandZwingli,andthe"Brethren."TheAnabaptist

*Ouraimistodeterminethefundamentalprinciplesthatrelatethedoctrinesofthevarioussects.Wemust,therefore,leavetoonesidetheinterestingquestionofpreciselyhow
theresemblancecameintobeing:whereitwasamatterofdirectsuccession,whereofliteraryinfluenceandinwhatcasesitwasengenderedbysimilarityofhistorical
circumstance.

[72]

"Chronicles"for1525read:"TheChurch,longsuppressed,hasbeguntoraiseitshead....Asthoughtheyhadusedthunderbolts,Luther,Zwingliandtheirfollowershave
destroyedeverything,buttheydidnotcreateanythingbetter....Theyletinalittlelight,buttheydidnotgoontotheendbutjoinedthesecularpowers....Andtherefore,
althoughtherehadbeenagoodbeginningbyGod'swill,thelightofthetruthwasagainextinguishedinthem."(29:p.364)

Thehereticalmovement,thoroughlyhostiletothesurroundingworld,flaresupfromtimetotimewithanallconsumingblazeofhatred.Suchoutbreaksareseparatedby
intervalsofalittlemorethanacentury:themovementfosteredbyDolcinoaround1300,theHussitemovementthatstartedafterHuswasburnedatthestakein1415,the
aggressiveformthatAnabaptismassumedinthe1520s,andtheEnglishrevolutionof16401660.Intheseperiodswealsoobservesocialistideasintheirstarkestforms.
Atothertimesthesetendenciesaremuffled,andweencountersectsthatrejectviolenceandteachingsthatcontainnosocialistambitionswhatsoever.(TheWaldensian
doctrineisanextremeexample.)Itisinteresting,however,thatthetwoextremesofthehereticalmovementwerecloselyinterwoventheycannotbeclearlydistinguished.
Attimes,infact,asectswitchedfromoneextremetotheotherovernight.ThuswelearnthattheCathars,whosedoctrineforbadeanyviolence,in1174attemptedacoup
inFlorence.Merelytouchingaweapon,evenforselfdefense,wasconsideredasin,yetatthesametimethereweregroupsamongtheCatharswhopermittedplunder
andexpropriationofchurches.HistoriansexplaineventsforeshadowingtheAlbigensianwarsintermsofthissortofabruptreversal,asmorepeacefulgroupscomeunder
theinfluenceofmoreaggressiveones:theCathars,whohadbeenforbiddeneventokillananimal,suddenlyeruptedinamilitantspiritthatsweptthemintoawarlasting
morethanthirtyyears.Atcertainperiods,theWaldenses,consideredthemostpeacefulgroup,burnedthehousesofpriestswhopreachedagainsttheirdoctrine.They
alsokilledindividualswholefttheranks,ortheyplacedpricesontheirheads.AsimilarabruptshiftcanbeseenintheApostolicBrethren.Amongtheteachingsascribed
tothemisaprohibitionagainstviolencekillingamanWasconsideredamortalsin.Thisprinciplewassoontransformedsothatpersecutionofthesectwasthecapitalsin,
whileanykindofactionagainstthefoesofthetruefaithwaspermitted.Andacallfor
[73]

thedestructionofthegodlesswasraisedaswell.(9:II:p.397)ThesameabruptshiftoccurredwiththeAnabaptistsinSwitzerlandandinsouthernGermanyatthe
beginningoftheReformation.Apparentlyitwaspossibleforasecttoexistintwostates,"militant"and"peaceful,"andthetransitionfromonestatetotheothercould
tothemisaprohibitionagainstviolencekillingamanWasconsideredamortalsin.Thisprinciplewassoontransformedsothatpersecutionofthesectwasthecapitalsin,
whileanykindofactionagainstthefoesofthetruefaithwaspermitted.Andacallfor
[73]

thedestructionofthegodlesswasraisedaswell.(9:II:p.397)ThesameabruptshiftoccurredwiththeAnabaptistsinSwitzerlandandinsouthernGermanyatthe
beginningoftheReformation.Apparentlyitwaspossibleforasecttoexistintwostates,"militant"and"peaceful,"andthetransitionfromonestatetotheothercould
happensuddenly,andforallpracticalpurposesinstantaneously.

Thehereticalworldview,initshatredfortheChurchandthewayoflifeitengendered,canbeunderstoodultimatelyasanantithesistotheideologyofmedieval
Catholicism.TheMiddleAgesrepresentastupendouseffortonthepartofWesternEuropeanhumanitytobuilditslifeonthebasisofloftyspiritualvalues,tocomprehend
lifeasawaytowardachievingtheidealsofChristianity.Itwasaquestionofreforminghumansocietyandtheworld,withtheaimoftheirtransfigurationintoahigherstate.
ThereligiousprinciplethatunderlaythisworldviewwasthedoctrineoftheincarnationofChrist,aneventthatilluminatedthephysicalworldbymeansofaunionofthe
divineandthematerial.Inthisway,thecourseofhumanactionwasindicated.ActualdirectionwasinthehandsoftheCatholicChurchandresteduponthedoctrineofthe
Churchasamysticalunionofthefaithful,embracingthelivingandthedead.Prayersforthedeadwerebasedonthisteaching,aswereappealsfortheintercessionofthe
saints,sinceallthiswasseenasvariousformsofcommunicationbetweenmembersofoneChurch.

ThegoalsWesternmanhadsetforhimselfwerenotachieved.Undoubtedly,inthiscaseaswithanyphenomenonofsuchscope,thebasiccauseoffailurewasinternal,a
resultoffreechoice,ofthatwhichinrelationtotheCatholicChurchmaybecalleditssin.Muchhasbeensaidonthissubject,andweshallonlymentionthefrequently
encounteredpointofviewaccordingtowhichthefatefuldecisionfortheChurchhadbeeninchoosingthemeansforachievingthegoal.Theforcesoftheworldbecame
suchmeanspower,wealth,coerciveauthority.Butitmustnotbeforgottenthatthischoicewasmadeinanatmosphereofunceasingstruggleagainstforceshostileto
Catholicism.Furthermore,theseforceswereexternal,andservedasasubstantialthoughnotamaincauseofthefailurethathadovertakentheCatholicChurch.Among
suchforces,nottheleastwerethehereticalmovements.Theiractivitiesbelongtothatborderareawhereitissodifficulttodistinguishbetweenthefreeseekingafter
spiritualtruthandaconspiracyhavingasitsaimtheforciblediversion
[74]

ofmankindfromitschosenpath.Wehaveseeninstancesofthewaythatabstractmysticalteachingscouldbeinterpreted,evenasinglegenerationlater,asabasisforthe
destructionofchurchesandcrucifixes,asalicenseforthekillingofmonksandpriests.Thecommonpeople,inturn,respondedtohereticalteachingwithoutbreaksof
violenceagainsttheheretics.ThesewereatfirstcondemnedbytheChurch,butgraduallymutualbitterness,fearoftheheretics'growinginfluenceand,aboveall,the
temptationofworldlypowerledtocampaignsagainstthehereticsandtheinstitutionoftheInquisition.Thecoursethatmedievalsocietyhadsetforitselfbecamemoreand
moretwistedandtheidealsitheldbecameevermoreblurred.

ThereisnodoubtthattheMiddleAgesprovidednolessreasonthanotherperiodsofhistoryfordissatisfactionwithlifeandforprotestagainstitsdarkeraspects.Buteven
thoughcriticismofsocietyandoftheChurchplayedagreatroleintheheretics'message,itseemsimpossibletoregardtheheresiesasmerereactionstoinjusticeandthe
imperfectionoflife.Inanycase,theheresiesthatwehavediscusseddidnotcallforthereformoftheChurchoranimprovementinworldlylife.TheAnabaptists,for
example,didnotallythemselveseitherwiththeProtestantReformationortheCatholicCounterReformation(th'elatterwasquiteeffective).Instead,thedoctrineofthese
sectscalledforthecompletedestructionoftheCatholicChurch,forthedestructionofsocietyasitwasknown,and,untilthisendcouldbeaccomplished,forwithdrawal
fromtheworld.

ItwasagainstthefundamentalideasoftheMiddleAges,whichwehaveoutlinedabove,thatalltheheresieswerecast.Theirteachingsamountedtoadownrightdenialof
thepropositionsenumeratedabove,occasionallypresentedinmysticalform.TheCathardoctrineofthecreationofthematerialworldbyawickedGodorafallenspirit
wasdesignedtodestroythebeliefthattheincarnationofChristhadblessedthefleshandtheworld.Theeffectwastocreateagapbetweenmaterialandspirituallifeand
totearthemembersofthesectawayfromparticipationinlifeasitwasguidedbytheChurch.Inamoresymbolicform,thisjuxtapositionofGodandworldwas
expressedinhatredformaterialrepresentationsofChristandGodtheFather.ItisinterestingthatoneofthemostancientoftheknownheresiesofWesternEuropeis
connectedwiththis.Claudius,BishopofTurin(814839),orderedcrucifixesandsacredimagestoberemovedfromchurches.(9:II:p.50)Agobard,theBishopof
Lyons,whodiedinA.D.842,
[75]

alsocalledforthedestructionofsacredobjects.(9:II:pp.4346)Undoubtedly,theiconoclastmovementwhichspreadthroughouttheByzantineEmpireintheeighth
centurywasofthesameorigin.WementiononlyinpassingthataleadingroleinthismovementwasplayedbyPaulicians,theimmediatepredecessorsoftheCathars.The
sametendencytoseverthetiesbetweenGodandtheworld,betweenspiritandmatter,ledtothedenialofresurrectionofthefleshtypicaloftheCathars.TheWaldensian
hostilitytograveyardsandtheirtraditionofburyingtheirdeadinwastelandsorcourtyardsarealsorelevant.

TheCathardoctrinethatgoodactsdonotleadtosalvationand,asasourceofpride,arepositivelyharmfulwasdirectedagainstindividualparticipationinlife.The
prohibitionsagainstcarryingarms,takingoathsandgoingtocourt,whichwerecommonamongCatharsandWaldenses,hadasimilarfunction.Catharsofsomegroups
wereforbiddenallcontactwithlaymen,exceptforattemptstoconvertthem.

TheideasoftheFreeSpiritsandtheAdamiteswereevenmoreradicaldenialofproperty,family,stateandallmoralnorms.The"divine"leadersofthesectclearly
pretendedtoamuchhigherpositioninlifethandidtheCatholicclergy.Atthesametime,theirideologydeniedallhierarchy,notonlyonearth,butinheavenaswell.The
polemicaldeclarationsthattheywereequaltoGodinallthings,thattheycouldperformmiraclesandthatChristhadachievedastateof"godliness"onlyonthecrossareto
betakeninpreciselythissense.

Thedenialofbaptismforyoungchildren,commontoalmostallthesects,wasbasedontheirrejectioninprincipleoftheChurchasamysticunion.Initsplacetheyset
theirownsect,admissionintowhichwasaccompaniedbybaptismpermittedsolelytoadultswhoconsciouslyaccepteditsprinciples.Thus,incontrasttotheCatholic
Church,thesectwasaconsciousunionoflikemindedpeople.

Alltheseindividualthesescanbereducedtooneaim:overcomingtheconjunctionofGodandtheworld,GodandMan,whichhadbeenaccomplishedthroughChrist's
incarnation(thefundamentalprincipleofChristianity,atleastinitstraditionalinterpretation).Thereweretwowaystoachievethis:denialoftheworldordenialofGod.The
firstpathwastakenbytheManicheansandthegnosticsects,whoseteachingsconcededtheworldtothedomainofanevilGodandrecognizedasthesolegoaloflifethe
liberationfrommatter(forthosecapableofit).Thepantheisticsects,onthecontrary,notonlydidnotrenouncetheworld,butproclaimedtheidealofthedominion
[76]

overit(again,forachosenfew,whileothers,the"rude"folk,wereincludedinthecategoryoftheworld).Intheirteachingsitispossibletofindtheprototypeoftheideaof
"subjugatingnature"whichbecamesopopularinsubsequentperiods.ThedominionovertheworldwasconsideredpossiblenotthroughthecarryingoutofGod'swill but
bydenyingGodandbytransformationofthe"FreeSpirits"themselvesintogods.Thesocialmanifestationofthisideologycanbeseenintheextremetrendsofthe
Taboritemovement.Finally,theAnabaptistsapparentlytriedtofindasynthesisofthesetendencies.Intheir"militant"phase,theypreachedthedominionoftheelectover
theworldmoreover,theideasofdominioncompletelyovershadowedtheChristianfeaturesoftheirworldview(forexample,Mntzerwrotethathisteachingswere
equallycomprehensibletoChristians,Jews,Turksandheathens).Intheir"peaceful"phase,ascanbeseenintheexampleoftheMoravianBrethren,withdrawalfromthe
overit(again,forachosenfew,whileothers,the"rude"folk,wereincludedinthecategoryoftheworld).Intheirteachingsitispossibletofindtheprototypeoftheideaof
"subjugatingnature"whichbecamesopopularinsubsequentperiods.ThedominionovertheworldwasconsideredpossiblenotthroughthecarryingoutofGod'swill but
bydenyingGodandbytransformationofthe"FreeSpirits"themselvesintogods.Thesocialmanifestationofthisideologycanbeseenintheextremetrendsofthe
Taboritemovement.Finally,theAnabaptistsapparentlytriedtofindasynthesisofthesetendencies.Intheir"militant"phase,theypreachedthedominionoftheelectover
theworldmoreover,theideasofdominioncompletelyovershadowedtheChristianfeaturesoftheirworldview(forexample,Mntzerwrotethathisteachingswere
equallycomprehensibletoChristians,Jews,Turksandheathens).Intheir"peaceful"phase,ascanbeseenintheexampleoftheMoravianBrethren,withdrawalfromthe
worldwaspredominant:acondemnationoftheworldandabreakingofalltieswithit.

Theideasofchiliasticsocialismconstitutedanorganicpartofthisoutlook.Thedemandstoabolishprivateproperty,family,stateandallhierarchiesinthesocietyofthe
timeaimedtoexcludetheparticipantsofthemovementfromthesurroundinglife.Thishadtheeffectofplacingtheminahostile,antagonisticrelationshipwiththe"world."
Inspiteofthefactthatthesedemandsdidnotoccupyaquantitativelylargeplaceintheoverallideologyofthehereticalsects,theyweresocharacteristicofitthatthey
couldservetoagreatextentasaninherentdistinguishingfeatureofthewholemovement.ThusDllinger,whomwehavealreadycited,characterizestheattitudeofthe
sectstowardlifeasfollows:"EachhereticaldoctrinethatappearedintheMiddleAgesbore,inopenorconcealedform,arevolutionarycharacterinotherwords,hadit
cometopower,itwouldhavebeenobligedtodestroytheexistingstatestructureandimplementapoliticalandsocialrevolution.Thegnosticsects,Catharsand
Albigenses,whoprovokedthesevereandimplacablemedievallawsagainstheresiesbytheiractivities,andwithwhomabloodystrugglewascarriedon,Weresocialist
andcommunist.Theyattackedmarriage,thefamilyandproperty.Hadtheybeenvictorious,theresultwouldhavebeenatraumaticsocialdislocationandarelapseinto
barbarism.ItisobvioustoanyonefamiliarwiththeperiodthattheWaldenseswiththeirdoctrinaldenialofoathsandcriminallawcouldalsonothavefoundaplacefor
themselvesintheEuropeansocietyoftheday."(41:pp.5051)
[77]

Intheperiodwhensocialistideasweredevelopingwithintheframeworkoftheideologyofthehereticalmovements,theyacquiredaseriesofnewfeatureswhichcannot
befoundinantiquity.Inthisepoch,socialismturnedfromatheoretical,scholasticdoctrineintoarallyingpointandamotivatingforcebehindbroadpopularmovements.
Antiquityknewharshnationalcatastrophesthatculminatedintheruinationofstates.Themostimpoverishedgroupsofthepopulationdidonoccasionseizepower,killthe
richoroustthemfromtownspropertywastakenanddivided:inKerkirain427B.C.,inSamosin412andinSyracusein317.InSparta,KingNabis,in206B.C.,
dividedamonghisfollowersnotonlythepropertybutalsothewivesoftherich.However,thepopularmovementsofantiquitydidnotknowtheslogansofcommunality
ofproperty,communalityofwives,andtheywerenotdirectedagainstreligion.AllthesetraitsemergeintheMiddleAges.

Socialistdoctrinesthemselveschange,acquiringanintolerant,embitteredanddestructivecharacter.

Theideaofdividingmankindintothe"doomed"andthe"elect"makesitsappearance,followedbycallstodestroythe"godless"orthe"enemiesofChrist,"i.e.,the
opponentsofthemovement.

Socialistideologyisimbuedwiththenotionofacomingfundamentalbreak,oftheendanddestructionoftheoldworldandthebeginningofaneworder.Thisconceptis
interwovenwiththeideaof"imprisonment"and"liberation,"which,beginningwiththeCathars,isunderstoodasimprisonmentofthesoulinmatterandasliberationinthe
otherworld.Later,theAmalriciansandtheFreeSpiritssawtheideaasspiritualliberationthroughtheachievementof"godliness"inthisworld.Andfinally,theTaborites
andtheAnabaptistsconceivedofitasmaterialliberationfromthepowerofthe"evilones"andastheestablishmentofthedominionofthe"elect."

Furthermore,socialistideasinthisepochmergewiththeconceptofuniversalhistoryderivedprincipallyfromJoachimofFlore.Therealizationofthesocialistidealis
connectednotwiththedecisionofawiseruler,asinPlato'sconception,butisunderstoodastheresultofapredeterminedprocessencompassingallhistoryand
independentofthewillofindividuals.

Aneworganizationalstructureisevolvedaswellsocialistideasdevelopwithinitandattemptsaremadetoimplementthem.Thisisasectwiththestandard"concentric"
structureanarrowcircleof
[78]

leaderswhoareinitiatedintoallaspectsofthedoctrineandawidecircleofsympathizerswhoareacquaintedonlywithsomeofitsaspects.Thelattergrouptendstobe
linkedwiththesectbytiesofanemotionalcharacterwhicharedifficulttodescribeprecisely.

Theleadingroleinthedevelopmentofsocialismpassestoanewtypeofindividual.Thehermeticthinkerandphilosopherisreplacedbytheferventandtirelesspublicist
andorganizer,anexpertinthetheoryandpracticeofdestruction.Thisstrangeandcontradictoryfigurewillreappearinsubsequenthistoricalepochs.Heisamanof
seeminglyinexhaustibleenergywhensuccessful,butapitifulandterrifiednonentitythemomenthisluckturnsagainsthim.

Inclosingthischapter,weturnourattentiontoaninterestingandapparentlyessentialmattersomethingthereaderhasundoubtedlynoted:theprofounddependenceof
socialistideology(intheformsitattainedintheMiddleAges)onChristianity.Inalmostallsocialistmovements,theideaofequalitywasfoundedontheequalityofall
peoplebeforeGod.ItwasstandardpracticetorefertothecommunityofApostlesinJerusalemasamodelfoundedontheprinciplesofcommunality.ItistoChristianity
thatsocialismowesitsconceptofahistoricgoal,theideaofthesinfulnessoftheworld,itscomingendandtheLastJudgment.Suchacloselinkcanhardlybeexplained
bythedesiretobeinaccordwithacceptedauthorityor(asEngelshasargued)bythefactthatthelanguageofreligionwastheonlyavailableidiominwhichtoexpress
generalhistoricalconceptions.ThefactthatsocialismborrowedsomeofitsfundamentalideasfromChristianityshowsthatthiswasamatternotofmeretransferencebut
ofadeeperinteraction.TheexistenceofcertainrelatedelementsinChristianityandsocialismisindicated,forexample,bythephenomenonofthemonastery,whichseems
torealizesocialistprincipleswithinChristianity(e.g.,theabolitionofprivatepropertyandofmarriage).Itwouldbeextremelyimportanttodiscerntheaspectssharedby
Christianityandsocialism,totracehowtheChristianconceptsareredirectedwithinsocialismandultimatelyturnintoadenialofthefundamentalprinciplesofChristianity
(forexample,whenGod'sjudgmentovertheworldisreinterpretedasthejudgmentofthe"elect"overtheirenemies,orwhentheresurrectionofthedeadistranslatedinto
"deification"inthesectofFreeSpirits).Suchananalysiswouldundoubtedlyexplainagreatdealaboutsocialistideology.
[79]

III.
TheSocialism
ofthePhilosophers
1.TheGreatUtopias

TheEnglishrevolutionoftheseventeenthcenturywasthelastoccasionwhenthehereticalmovementappearedasoneofthemajorforcesshapingthecourseofhistory.

Inlateryears,thechiliasticsectsthathadshakenEuropebecametransformedintosuchpeaceablemovementsasthoseoftheMennonites,theBaptistsandtheQuakers.
Thesocialistideasofthemedievalsectsliveon,albeitinpeacefulform,intheirsuccessors.ThemostgraphicmanifestationoftheseideasarethenumerouScommunist
ofthePhilosophers
1.TheGreatUtopias

TheEnglishrevolutionoftheseventeenthcenturywasthelastoccasionwhenthehereticalmovementappearedasoneofthemajorforcesshapingthecourseofhistory.

Inlateryears,thechiliasticsectsthathadshakenEuropebecametransformedintosuchpeaceablemovementsasthoseoftheMennonites,theBaptistsandtheQuakers.
Thesocialistideasofthemedievalsectsliveon,albeitinpeacefulform,intheirsuccessors.ThemostgraphicmanifestationoftheseideasarethenumerouScommunist
settlementsfoundedbythesesectsinAmericaduringtheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.Hereweencounterattemptstoimplementfamiliarsocialistideals:
communalityofproperty,thebanonmarriageandfamily(expressedeitherascelibacyorascommunalityofwivesandcommunalupbringingofchildren).Butthesocialist
ideasthemselvesacquireanewcolorationtheylosetheiraggressiveness.Alesserroleisassignedtopropagandizingthedoctrine,andthecenterofgravityistransferred
tothelifeoftheisolatedcommunity.Thankstothis,theinfluenceofthesocialistdoctrinedoesnotinthesecasesextendbeyondthelimitsofthecommunitiesthatprofess
them.Inthisform,socialistideaslosetheirincendiaryforceandceasetoinspiremassivepopularmovements.

Thedevelopmentofsocialistideasdidnotcease,ofcourse.Onthecontrary,intheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,socialistwritingsliterallyfloodedEurope.But
theseideaswereproducedby
[80]

differentcircumstancesandbymenofadifferentmentality.ThepreacherandthewanderingApostlegavewaytoapublicistandphilosopher.Religiousexaltationand
referencestorevelationwerereplacedbyappealstoreason.Theliteratureofsocialismacquiredapurelysecularandrationalisticcharacternewmeansofpopularization
weredevised:worksonthisthemenowfrequentlyappearundertheguiseofvoyagestounknownlands,interlardedwithfrivolousepisodes.Bythesametoken,the
audiencetowhomthemessageisaddressedisalsodifferent.Itisnolongerpitchedtopeasantsorcraftsmenbuttothewellreadandeducatedpublic.Thussocialism
renouncesforatimeadirectinfluenceonthebroadmasses.ItisasifafterfailinginitsdirectassaultonChristiancivilization,themovementlaunchesanevasivemaneuver
whichlastsforseveralcenturies.Itisonlyattheveryendoftheeighteenthcenturythatsocialismonceagaincomesoutintothestreet,andwemeetwithafreshattemptto
createapopularmovementbasedonitsideology.*

ThisbreakinthedevelopmentofsocialistideashadbeguntotakeshapefarearlierthantheEnglishrevolutionoftheseventeenthcentury.Inthebeginningofthesixteenth
century,atthetimeofthefirsttentativestepsoftheReformation,aworkappearedthatexhibitednumerousfeaturesofthenewsocialistliteratureThomasMore's
Utopia.Inthisworkwefirstmeettheliterarydevicesthatarelatertobecomestandarde.g.,adescriptionoftraveltoafarofflandandthediscoveryofapreviously
unknown,exoticplacewheretheidealsofsocialismhavebeenrealized.Notsurprisingly,thetitleofthisworkhasbecomeoneofthetermsdenotingtheteachingasa
whole"utopiansocialism."

*Itwouldbeinterestingtoinvestigatetherelationbetweenthesetwoperiodsinthedevelopmentofsocialistideaswithinthehereticalmovementandwithintheframeworkof
Enlightenmentliterature.Whatistheinfluenceoftheformerperiodonthelatter?Throughwhatchannelswasthetraditiontransmitted?Theauthorisawareofonlyonehistorian
whohasstudiedthisquestionLudwigKeller,whodevotedaseriesofworkstoit.Kellerpointsouttwoavenuesbywhichthisoccurredthefirstbeingtheguildsand
workshops,whichwerecloselytiedtothehereticalmovementsthroughouttheMiddleAgesandprovidedarefugeforpersecutedheretics.Thischannelofinfluenceleadstothe
MasonicmovementandthroughittothewritersandphilosophersoftheEnlightenment.Thesecondinvolvestheacademiesof"poets"and"philosophers"oftheRenaissance
andHumanism.OfparticularinterestarethecausesofsuchasharpandsuddenbreakinthecharacterofchiliasticsocialismandthedeclineofhereticalmOvementsingeneral.
Asoneobviousexplanation,wecanpointtothevictoryoftheReformation,whichhadachievedmuchofthatwhichthesectshaddemanded(inparticular,itsatisfiedthose
sectsthathadnotsetthemselvesthegoalofdestroyingtheentiresocialstructure)andtherebydecreasedthedestructiveforceofthesectarianmovement.

[81]

UtopiabyThomasMore.

Thisbookwasfirstpublished(inLatin)in1516,anditscompletetitleis:"ATrulyGoldenHandbook,NoLessBeneficialthanEntertaining,AbouttheBestStateofthe
CommonwealthandtheNewIslandofUtopia."Atthetime,itsauthorwasaninfluentialEnglishstatesmanwithabrilliantcareer.In1529,MorebecameLordChancellor
ofEngland,thefirstofficebelowtheking.Butin1534heemergedasastrongopponentoftheChurchreformthatwasbeingcarriedoutbyHenryVIII.Herefusedto
swearallegiancetothekingasheadofthenewlycreatedAnglicanChurch,wasaccusedofhightreasonandbeheadedin1535.Fourcenturieslater,in1935,hewas
canonizedbytheCatholicChurch.

Utopiaiswrittenintheformofaconversationamongtheauthor,hisfriendPeterGiles,andthetravelerRaphaelHythloday(Hythlodaeus).Hythlodayhadseentheworld
andwasakeenobserveroflife.TakingpartinthevoyageofAmerigoVespucci,hewasleft,athisownrequest,withafewcompanions"nearthelimitsofthelast
voyage."Afterwanderingoverseasandwastelands,HythlodaycameupontheislandofUtopia,wherehefoundastateorganizedaccordingtothejustlawsestablished
longagobythewiselegislatorUtopus.InordertoappraisecorrectlytheimpressionmadebyUtopiaoncontemporaries,weoughttobearinmindthatitwaswrittenin
theverybeginningoftheageofdiscovery,beforeDefoe'sandSwift'sgreatnovels.

ThewholeofUtopiarelatesonewayoranothertotwosubjects:criticismofcontemporaryEuropeansocietyandadescriptionoftheidealstateontheislandofUtopia.
Thiscorrespondsroughlytothedivisionoftheworkintotwoparts.ThecentralthesisofthefirstsectionisthatcontemporaryEuropeanstatesaretoolsofthemercenary
interestsoftherich:

"WhenIweighinmymindalltheotherstateswhichflourishtoday,sohelpmeGod,Icandiscovernothingbutaconspiracyoftherich,whopursuetheirown
aggrandizementunderthenameandtitleoftheCommonwealth."(42:p.138)*

Thetruesourceofthissituationisprivatepropertyandmoney:

"But,MasterMore,tospeakplainlywhatisinmymind,aslongasthereisprivatepropertyandwhilemoneyisthestandardofallthings,Idonotthinkthatanationcan
begovernedeitherjustlyor

*QuotationsfromMorearebasedprimarilyontheEnglishtranslationofH.V.S.Ogden.PagereferencesaretotheRussianedition.

[82]

happily."(42:p.73)"Aslongasprivatepropertyremains,thelargestandbyfarthebestpartofmankindwillbeoppressedwithaninescapableloadofcaresand
 *QuotationsfromMorearebasedprimarilyontheEnglishtranslationofH.V.S.Ogden.PagereferencesaretotheRussianedition.

[82]

happily."(42:p.73)"Aslongasprivatepropertyremains,thelargestandbyfarthebestpartofmankindwillbeoppressedwithaninescapableloadofcaresand
anxieties."(42:p.74)

Bywayofanexample,criminalbehaviorisdiscusseditisattributedentirelytoflawsinthesocialsystem."Whatelseisthis,Iask,butfirstmakingthemthievesandthen
punishingthemforit?"(42:p.57)Thelawsofthedaywhichpunishedthieveswithdeathareconsideredtobenotonlyunjustbutineffectiveaswell.Instead,Hythloday
offersthecustomshehadobservedamongpeoplelivinginthemountainsofPersia,thePolylerites."Icanfindnobettersysteminanycountry."(42:p.59)Thecustom
callsforathieftobeturnedintoastateslave.Asasignofhisstatus,athief'searlobesarenotched.Thelazy"aresoonerpromptedwithblowsthanpunishmentwith
fetters."(42:p.60)Finally,asameasureagainsttheescapeofslaves,informingisencouragedandrewardedbyliberty(forslaves)ormoney(forafreeman).Arunaway
slavewhoiscaughtisexecutedandanyfreemanwhohelpedhimisturnedintoaslave."Youcaneasilyseehowhumaneandadvantageoustheselawsare,"concludesthe
narrator.(42:p.61)

ThegloomydepictionofcontemporaryEuropeiscontrastedwiththeidealstateontheislandofUtopia.More'sUtopiaisnodrytreatiseonpoliticalsystems,butavivid
pictureoflife.Theclothingwornbytheinhabitantsisdescribed,asaretheiroccupationsandamusements,theappearanceoftheirtowns,housesandtemples.This
enablesustodiscernthosetraitstheauthorwishestosingleoutasessential.

Utopiaisarepublicgovernedbyelectedofficialswhoarecalled"Fathers"bytheirsubjects.Alloflifeisregulatedbythestate.Thereisnoprivatepropertyandnomoney.
Theeconomyisbasedonuniversallaborconscription.Inthefirstplace,everyone(oralmostso)isobligedtoworkforacertainperiodoftimeinagriculture:"Forallmen
andwomenthereisonecommonoccupationagriculture,fromwhichnooneisexempted."(42:p.83)Uponreachingacertainage,citizensaresenttoworkinthe
countryside,wheretheylaborfortwoyearsbeforebeingtransferredbacktothecity.Apartfromthis,everyonelearnssomecraft,whichhepracticeswhenheisnotathis
assignedwork.Workisdoneunderthesupervisionofofficialscalled"syphogrants.""Themainandsoleoccupationofthesyphograntsiscareandobservationlestanyone
sitidle."(42:p.84)Thestatealsoregulatesthedistributionofthepopulationbymeansofmassresettlements.
[83]

"Eachcommunityconsistsofhouseholdsforthemostpartmadeupofkinsfolk....Inorderthattheircitiesmaynothavetoomanyortoofewinhabitants,theyallownocity
tohaveoversixthousandhouseholds....Ifthepopulationofanyoftheircitieshappenstodeclinesomuchthatitcannotbemadegoodfromotherpartsoftheisland...the
populationisbuiltupwithcitizensfromthecolonies.Thishashappenedonlytwiceinalltheirhistory,bothtimestheresultofadevastatingplague."(42:p.88)

Thenarratornotesenthusiasticallytheuniformityandstandardizationofdressandwayoflife."Peoplewearthesamesortofclothesthroughouttheisland,exceptforthe
distinctionswhichmarkthedifferencebetweenthemarriedandtheunmarried.Thefashionoftheclothingneverchanges."(42:p.83)"Thecolorofthecloakisthesame
throughouttheisland.Furthermore,itisthenaturalcolorofwool."(42:p.87)Thereisuniformityinotherthingsaswell."Therearefiftyfourcitiesontheisland,alllarge
andwellbuilt,andwiththesamelanguage,customs,institutions,andlaws.Allofthemarebuiltonthesameplan,asfarasthelocationpermits."(42:p.77)"Whoever
knowsoneofthecities,willknowthemall,sincetheyareexactlyalikeinsofarastheterrainpermits."(42:p.80)

Allproductsforconsumptionaredistributedatpublicstorehousesmoreover,everyonemaytakeasmuchasheneeds.Mealsaretakenincentralizedfacilities."Itisnot
forbiddentoeatathome,thoughitisnotthoughtproper.Besidesnoonewouldbesofoolishastoprepareapoormealathomewhenthereisasumptuousonereadyfor
himsonearathand."(42:p.90)Thedescriptionofthesecommonmealsrecallsfoodrationingmorethansimpledistribution."Thebestofeachkindoffoodisfirstserved
totheelders,whoseplacesaredistinguishedbysomemark.Thentherestareservedalike.Theeldersdividethechoicebits,ofwhichthereisnotenoughtogoaround,as
theywish.Thusduerespectispaidthem,yetalltherestfareaswellasthey."(42:p.91)

CommonmealsaretypicalofthegeneraltendencyofthewholeoflifefortheUtopians."Soyouseenoloafingistolerated,andtherearenopretextsforlaziness,or
opportunities.TherearenotavernSoralehouses,nobrothels,nochancesforcorruption,nohidingplaces,nosecretmeetings.Becausetheyliveinfullviewofall,they
mustdotheiraccustomedlaborandspendtheirleisurehonorably."(42:p.92)
[84]

Everyhomehasfoldingdoorswhich,"easilyopenedbyhandandthenclosingofthemselves,giveadmissiontoanyone.Asaresult,nothingisprivatepropertyanywhere.
Everytenyearstheyactuallyexchangetheirveryhomebylot."(42:p.81)

Inordertotakeawalkoutsidethetown,itisnecessarytogetpermissionfromone'sfatherawifemustaskherhusbandandahusbandhiswife.Toleaveforanother
town,permissionmustbeobtainedfromtheproperofficials."Severaltraveltogether,takingaletterfromtheprince,whichcertifiesthatpermissiontotravelhasbeen
grantedandstatesthedayofreturn....Ifanymangoesoutsidehisdistrictwithoutleaveandiscaughtwithoutapassportfromtheprince,heistreatedscornfully,brought
backasafugitiveandseverelypunished.Ifhedoesitagain,heismadeaslave."(42:p.93)(WeshallgivemoredetailsonslaveryinUtopiasomewhatlater.)

InUtopiamarriageismonogamous,butthereisnothingtoindicatewhetheritiscontractedatthewillofthebrideandgroomorisdecidedbyparentsorofficials.Thestate
doessupervisestrictlytheobservanceofchastitypriortomarriageandthefaithfulnessofthespousesafter.Anyoneguiltyofinfractionoftheserulesissoldintoslavery.
Utopianscomparethecontractingofmarriagetothesellingofahorse,andforthisreason,priortoenteringintowedlock,thebrideisshowntothebridegroomnaked
andhetoherfor,itisargued,isnottheblankettakenoffahorsebeforeitissold?

Utopiansarenotburdenedwithheavyworktheyspendonlysixhoursadayonthejob,infact,devotingtherestofthetimetothesciences,theartsand"decent
entertainment."Inspiteofthis,theyexperiencenomaterialneed.ThisisexplainedbythefactthatinEuropethelaborofthepoorcreatesricheswhichgotosupportthe
idle,whileinUtopiaeveryoneworks.(TheenumerationofEuropeanidlefolkiscurious:"almostallthewomen"arefirstonthelist,nextcomepriestsandmonks,followed
bylandlordsandtheirservants.)

Utopiansseemtobeequalineverythinguniversalobligatorylabor,thecolorandcutofdress,housing.Butthisequalityisbynomeansabsolute.Officialsareexempted
fromobligatorywork,aswellasthosewhohavebeenofficially"exemptedforprofoundstudyofthesciences."(42:p.86)Fromthisexemptedclassthescholars,
ambassadors,priestsandhighofficials("tranibors")areselected.Yetelsewhereitisstatedthat"forthemostparteveryonegrowsuplearninghisfather'scraft."(42:p.83)
Itseemstofollowthataclosedclass,
[85]

almostacaste,controlsthegovernment.Asfortherestofthecitizens,thenarratorhasthistosayofthem(speakingofthenecessityofmakinglawsthataresimpleand
requirenocomplicatedinterpretation):"Thecommonfolkwiththeirslowwitsareunabletoarriveatsuchconclusions,andtheirwholelifewouldnotsufficeforit,asthey
spenditearningtheirliving."(42:p.116)
 [85]

almostacaste,controlsthegovernment.Asfortherestofthecitizens,thenarratorhasthistosayofthem(speakingofthenecessityofmakinglawsthataresimpleand
requirenocomplicatedinterpretation):"Thecommonfolkwiththeirslowwitsareunabletoarriveatsuchconclusions,andtheirwholelifewouldnotsufficeforit,asthey
spenditearningtheirliving."(42:p.116)

AndthepictureofequalityisutterlydestroyedwhenwelearnthatlifeinUtopiaislargelybasedonslavery.Slavesdoallthedirtywork.Butslaveryseemstohavemore
thanjustaneconomicfunction.Slavesareobtainedfromtwosources:"Theirslavesareeithertheirowncitizenswhohavebeensentencedtobondageforsomecrime,or
menofothernationswhohavebeencondemnedtodeath.TheUtopiansbuythesemenatalowprice,ormoreoftenobtainthemfreeofchargeandbringthem
home."(42:p.110)"Allkindsofslavesarekeptconstantlyatworkandarealwayschained.TheUtopianstreattheirnativeslavesmoreharshlythantheothers,thinking
thembaseranddeservingofgreaterpunishment."(42:p.Ill)Itisthoughtthatthelaborofsuchpeoplebringsmoreusethantheirdeathwould.Atthesametime,their
exampledetersothers."Ifevenafterthistreatmenttheystillrebelandputupresistance,theyareslaughteredlikewildbeasts."(42:p.114)

TheaccountoftheUtopiansincludesadescriptionoftheprevailingphilosophicalviewsofthecitizens,basedastheyareonthenotionthatpleasureisthesupremegoalof
life.Butpleasurecanberenounced:"Finally,theybelievewhatreligioneasilypersuadesawelldisposedmindtobelieve,thatGodrepaysthelossofashortandtransitory
pleasurewithgreatandendlessjoy."(42:p.107)

PerfectfreedomofconscienceprevailsinUtopia,withonlythisonereservationinstitutedbyUtopus:"Hemadeasolemnandseverelawagainstanywhosinksofarbelow
thedignityofhumannatureastothinkthatthesouldieswiththebody,orthattheuniverseiscarriedalongbychancewithoutanoverrulingprovidence.TheUtopians
believethatafterthislifetherearepunishmentsforwickednessandrewardsforvirtue."(42:p.128)SomeUtopiansconsiderthesuntobeagod,othersthemoon,and
stillothers,certainancientheroes.Buttheyallrecognizesome"universaldeity,unknown,eternal,unfathomable,inexplicable,exceedinghumanintelligence,penetratingall
thisworldnotbyitsbulkbutbyitsforce.HimtheycallTheFather."(42:p.126)
[86]

TheholyservicesoftheUtopiansareinkeepingwiththiskindofabstracttheism.Thetempleshavenoimagesofdeities.Theserviceconsistsofthefaithfuljoiningthe
priestsinsingingpraisetoGod,tomusicalaccompaniment.Womenandmarriedmenmaybecomepriests,andpriestsmaymarry.

Oflate,thenarratorinformsus,ChristianityhasbecomeknowninUtopiaandhasfoundmanyadherentsthere.Itistrue,however,thatapreacherwhohadcalledother
religionspaganandthreatenedtheiradherentswitheternalfirewasarrestedandconvicted.Ofparticularinterestisthenarrator'sopinionthattherapidspreadof
ChristianityinUtopiaisexplainedbytheresemblancebetweenthecommuniststructureoftheUtopianstateandthepracticesoftheancientApostoliccommunitywhich
"areretainedevennowinthepurestofChristiancommunities."(42:p.127)

ThereferencetothecommunistcharacterofthecommunitydescribedintheActsoftheApostleswasafavoriteargumentofthehereticalsects.Itisdifficulttoimagine
whattheauthorcouldhavehadinmindwhenhespokeofthe"purestofChristiancommunities,"exceptoneoranotherofthehereticalsects.

IfwelookuponMoreasamartyrwhogavehislifefortheidealsoftheCatholicChurch,itisstrikinghowremotehisUtopiaisfromanysuchideals.Inadditiontothe
sympatheticdescriptionofahedonisticworldviewandofacolorlesstheisticreligion,itispossibletofinddirect,ifdiscreet,attacksonChristianityandthePope.
Apparentlynoonehasyetsucceededinexplainingawaythisdisparity.

ButifUtopiaisconsideredasaworkofchiliasticsocialistliterature,itseemssurprisinglymoderate.Thereisnomentionofanyabolitionofthefamilyorofcommunalityof
wivesthereisnopublicupbringingofchildren.Itseemsthatthenewandsecularmovementinsocialismdidnotatfirstbaseitselfontheextremebeliefsthathadbeen
formulatedwithinthehereticalmovement.

CityoftheSunbyTommasoCampanella.

Almostacenturypassedafterthefirst"Utopia"beforeUtopiansocialismwasabletoabsorbandassimilatethemoreradicalprinciplesdevelopedinantiquityandthe
hereticalmovements.Campanella'scelebratedworkillustratesthenewsynthesis.

Campanellalivedattheendofthesixteenthandthebeginningoftheseventeenthcenturies.Uptotheageofthirtyfour,hewasa
[87]

Dominicanmonkhewasthenarrestedandspentthenexttwentysevenyearsinprison.TheremainingyearsofhislifehespentinFrance.

Campanellawasaphilosopher,areligiousthinkerandapoet.Heproclaimed(earlierthanBacon)theempiricalnatureofscience,advocatedtheindependenceofscience
fromChurchauthorityanddefendedGalileo(whilehehimselfwasimprisonedbytheInquisition).Inthetheoryofknowledgehewasinterestedinthequestionofthe
meansbywhichhumanconsciousness,basingitselfsolelyonsubjectivesensations,arrivesatobjectivetruth.Hisviewsonthissubjectareclosetothoselaterelaborated
byKant.Hisreligiousviews,affirmingthatallthingsarewithGod,werepantheisticincharacter.

InCalabriain1597,CampanellaorganizedaconspiracyagainsttheSpaniards,towhomthecountrybelongedatthattime.Theconspiracyfailed,andin1599Campanella
wasarrestedandputtotorturein1602hewascondemnedtolifeimprisonment.In1602,whileinprison,hewrotehisbookCityoftheSun.

TheverytitleoftheworkCivitasSolirecallsSt.Augustine'sCivitasDeiCityofGod.Itiswritteninasparsestyle,withoutanyembellishmentslikeexoticadventures
instrangelands.Thebooktakestheformofadialoguebetweentwospeakerswhosenamesarenotevengiven:theChiefHost(apparentlyareferencetothe
GrandmasteroftheKnightsHospitalers)andtheSeafarer(ofwhomitisonlysaidthatheisacitizenofGenoa).Thedialoguebeginswithoutanyexplanationwiththe
wordsoftheHost:"Pleasetellmeofallyouradventuresduringyourlastvoyage."Inreply,theSeafarerrecountsthatonanislandintheIndianOceanhevisitedtheCityof
theSun,thelifeofwhichhethereuponbeginstodescribe.

ThepoliticalsystemoftheCityoftheSunexternallyresemblesatheocracy."TheirsupremerulerisapriestwhoiscalledHoh,meaning'Sun'intheirlanguage,butinour
tonguewewouldcallhimthe'Metaphysic.'"(43:p.146)ThiscurioustranslationMetaphysicforSunisnotaccidental.TheroleoftheSunpriestcouldprofitablybe
comparedtotheheadofatechnocratichierarchy.Thepostisoccupiedbythemosteruditeinhabitantofthecity.Heknows"thehistoryofallnations,theircustoms,
religiousritesandlaws"andiswellversedinallcrafts,physical,mathematicalandastrologicalsciences,andisespeciallyknowledgeableinmetaphysicsandtheology.He
holdshisofficeuntil"anothermanisfoundwiserthanhispredecessorandbettercapabletogovern."(43:p.153)
[88]

TheMetaphysichasthreecorulersPon,SinandMor,meaningMight,WisdomandLove.Eachpresidesoverthecorrespondingaspectsoflife.Insomeofits
unexpecteddetails,thisdivisionisreminiscentofOrwell.Forinstance,theareaofLove'sresponsibilityincludesnotonlythesupervisionoftherelationsbetweenmenand
women(ofwhich,later)butalso"agriculture,stockbreedingand,ingeneral,everythingwhichpertainstofood,clothingandsexualrelations."(43:p.149)TheMetaphysic
religiousritesandlaws"andiswellversedinallcrafts,physical,mathematicalandastrologicalsciences,andisespeciallyknowledgeableinmetaphysicsandtheology.He
holdshisofficeuntil"anothermanisfoundwiserthanhispredecessorandbettercapabletogovern."(43:p.153)
[88]

TheMetaphysichasthreecorulersPon,SinandMor,meaningMight,WisdomandLove.Eachpresidesoverthecorrespondingaspectsoflife.Insomeofits
unexpecteddetails,thisdivisionisreminiscentofOrwell.Forinstance,theareaofLove'sresponsibilityincludesnotonlythesupervisionoftherelationsbetweenmenand
women(ofwhich,later)butalso"agriculture,stockbreedingand,ingeneral,everythingwhichpertainstofood,clothingandsexualrelations."(43:p.149)TheMetaphysic
conferswithhisthreecorulers,butinmajorquestionshisdecisionisfinal.Numerousotherofficialsarealsomentionedtheyareappointedbythefourchiefrulersorother
membersoftheadministration.ThereisalsoaCouncil,towhichallcitizensovertwentyyearsofagebelong,butitseemstopossessonlyanadvisoryfunction.Candidates
forofficearenominatedbytheCouncilandconfirmedataconferenceofofficialsandfinallybythefourrulers.Inthisconnection,oneofCampanella'ssentencesremains
unclear:"Officialsarereplacedaccordingtothewillofthepeople."(43p.175)

Thesocialorganizationofthecityisbasedoncommunallife,theimplementationofwhichisdirectedbytheadministration.

"Allthingsarecommonwiththem.Thedistributionofeverythingisinthehandsoftheofficials,butsinceknowledge,honorandpleasurearecommontoall,noonecan
takeanythingforhimself.Theyassertthatamonguspropertyderivesfromandismaintainedbyoureachhavinganindividualdwellingandawifeandchildrenofhisown.
Fromthisselflovearises."(43:p.149)

Intheauthor'sopinion,thecommunalprincipleisatoddswithmanyotherrelationsbetweenmen:"Iampersuadedthatthefriarsandmonksandclergyofourcountry,if
theywerenotseducedbylovefortheirkinandfriends,wouldbe...moreimbuedwiththespiritofcharity."IntheCityoftheSun,citizens"geteverythingtheyneedfrom
thecommunity,andtheofficialstakecaretoseethatnooneshouldgetmorethanhedeservesandthatnooneberefusedanecessity."(43:p.150)

"Houses,dormitories,bedsandallnecessitiestheyhaveincommon.Buteverysixmonthsthesuperiorsdecidewhoistosleepinwhatcircle,andwhointhefirst
dormitory,whointhesecond..."(43:p.154)

TheSolarians(citizensoftheCityoftheSun)taketheirmealstogether,asin"monasteryrefectories,"buttheofficialsget"largerandbetterportions."(43:p.155)The
latterrewardthechildrenwho
[89]

excelinstudieswithpartofthemostdesirablerations.

Productionisbasedonuniversalobligatorylabor."Therearenoslavesamongthem,"wereadinoneplace.Inanotherpassage,however,thereistheadditionalcomment
that"slavestakenatwarareeithersoldawayorusedfordiggingditchesorotherheavyworkoutsidethecity."(43:p.169)Everyonehasthedutyofworkingfourhours
perday.(LikeMore,theauthorbelievesthatwithuniversalobligatorylabor,thisamountofworkwouldsufficetoprovidethestatewithallthenecessities.)However,only
meniallaborseemstobemeanthere,forlaterweread:"Theremaininghoursarespentinpleasantoccupationwiththesciences,indiscourseandinreading."(43:p.162)
Thusscientificendeavorsarenotincludedinthefourobligatoryhoursof"work."

Thatthislaboristrulyobligatorycanbeseenfromthefollowingdescription:

"Butwhatisexcellentandworthyofimitationwiththemisthis:nobodilyflawcompelsthemtoidleness,exceptingadvancedage,when,however,theyarestillinvitedto
consultations.Thelamestandonguardsincetheyhaveeyesight,theblindcardwoolandpluckfowlforcushionsandfeatherbedsthosewhoaredeprivedofbotheyes
andhandsservethestatewiththeirears,voiceandsoon.Finally,ifsomeonepossessesbutasinglelimb,hemakesuseofitforworkinthecountryside,earningagood
salaryandservingasaninformertoreporttothestateeverythingthathehears."(43:p.163)

TheSolariansworkindetachmentsheadedbyacommander."Thecommandersofbothmen'sandwomen'sdetachments,thatis,theheadsoften,fiftyorahundred
persons,"constitutetheadministrativebodyofthecityimmediatelybelowthefoursupremerulers.(43:p.175)Inthechapteronjudicialprocedures,wereadthatsince
theSolarians"alwayswalkandworkindetachments,theremustbefivewitnessestoconvictacriminal."(43:p.177)Itseemstofollowthatdivisionintodetachments
continuesevenafterwork.Atanyrate,thereisnoquestionthatSolarianlifeisregulatedafterworkaswell.Forinstance,duringhourssetasideforrest,evensedentary
gamesareprohibited.

Theuniformityoflifeiscarriedevenfurther.Menandwomenwearalmostidenticalattireonlythelengthofthecloakdiffersslightly.Theformandcolorofclothingis
prescribed,whetherforwearinsideoroutofthecity.Eventhefrequencywithwhichclothesaretobe
[90]

changedisfixed.Violationofsuchprescriptionsisagravecrime:"Andtheywouldcertainlyputtodeathawomanwhoinordertoappearbeautifulstartedtorougeher
faceorinordertoappeartallbegantowearshoeswithhighheels,ortooktowearinglongdressesinordertohideherunattractivelegs."(43:p.160)

Theprescriptionsconcerningcelebrationoffeastsareequallydetailed,asarethosecoveringthearts.Atcelebrations,"poetshymnthegloriouscommandersandtheir
victories,butifoneofthemaddssomethingofhisownevenifaddingtothegloryoftheheroheisliabletopenalty.Unworthyofthenameofpoetishewhoengagesin
falsefabrications."(43:p.180)

Therelationsofthesexesarekeptunderastillstrictercontrol."Theproductionofoffspringbearsdirectlyontheinterestsofthestate,andinvolvestheinterestsofprivate
personsonlytotheextenttowhichtheyarepartofthestate.Andsinceindividualsforthemostpartbearoffspringwronglyandbringthemupbadly,totheperilofthe
state,thesacreddutyofsupervisingthismatter,whichisconsideredthefundamentalprincipleofstatewelfare,isentrustedtostateofficials,foritisonlythecommunitythat
canvouchsafethisandnotprivatepersons."(43:p.160)

Theprocreationofchildreniscomparedtothebreedingoflivestock:"Andtheymockusinthatwezealouslycareforimprovedbreedsofdogsandhorsesbut,atthe
sametime,neglectthehumanrace....Therefore,maleandfemalebreedersofthebestnaturalqualitiesarechoseninaccordancewiththerulesofphilosophy."(43:p.160)

Aseriesofofficialstheheadsoflaborbrigades,anastrologerandaphysiciandecidewhichmanshouldsharethebedofwhichwomanandhowoften.Copulationitself
takesplaceunderthesupervisionofaspecialofficial.Inthisconnectionanumberofrulesaresetforthwhichwewillrefrainfromquoting.Relationsbetweenthesexesare
consideredtohaveapartfromprocreationonlyoneotherfunction:satisfactionofapurelyphysiologicalneed.Therefore,incasesofextremeneed,menarepermittedto
copulatewithsterileorpregnantWomen.Thisis,however,possibleonlywiththepermissionofaspecialChiefofChildbearingandonapplicationfromlowerofficialsof
thesameagency,whokeepthisaspectoflifeinthecityunderconstantSupervision.Therightsofawomanaredeterminedbysimilarconsiderations:"Ifawomandoesnot
conceivefromonemansheisjoinedwithanotherifsheturnsouttobesterileinthiscasetoo,shepasses
[91]
consideredtohaveapartfromprocreationonlyoneotherfunction:satisfactionofapurelyphysiologicalneed.Therefore,incasesofextremeneed,menarepermittedto
copulatewithsterileorpregnantWomen.Thisis,however,possibleonlywiththepermissionofaspecialChiefofChildbearingandonapplicationfromlowerofficialsof
thesameagency,whokeepthisaspectoflifeinthecityunderconstantSupervision.Therightsofawomanaredeterminedbysimilarconsiderations:"Ifawomandoesnot
conceivefromonemansheisjoinedwithanotherifsheturnsouttobesterileinthiscasetoo,shepasses
[91]

intocommonusebutnolongerenjoysrespect."(43:p.157)

Itgoeswithoutsayingthattheupbringingofchildrenisalsointhehandsofthestate."Thechildren,onceweaned,areplacedinthechargeofthemistresses,iftheyare
girls,orwiththemasters,iftheyareboys."(43:p.159)Childrenbeingeducatedarealsodividedintodetachments.Aftertheirseventhyeartheystartnaturalsciences,
thenproceedtootherdisciplinesatthediscretionoftheadministration.Lesscapablechildrenaresenttothecountryside,butsomewhoprovetobemorecapableare
acceptedbackinthecity.(43:p.152)Finally,educationendsandtheyoungindividualsarereadytoperformtheirbasicfunctiontobecomeofficialsinthestate:
"Subsequently,theyallreceivepositionsintheareaofthosesciencesorcraftsforwhichtheyhavethegreatestaptitude,ineachcaseasadvisedbytheleaderor
supervisor."(43:p.152)

Inthissociety,naturally,therearenokinshiprelations."Allpersonsofthesameagecalloneanotherbrotherthosewhoaretwentytwoyearsoldertheycallfather,and
thosewhoaretwentytwoyearsyounger,son.Andtheofficialsattendtoitcarefullythatnooneoffendsanotherinthisbrotherhood."(43:p.149)

ThelastsentenceshowsthatinordertomaintaincommunallifeintheCityoftheSun,theabolitionoffamily,property,freedomofworkandcreativityareinsufficient.
Campanellarealizesthisclearlyandgivesadetaileddescriptionofthesystemofpunishmentswhichguaranteethestabilityofthesocialstructure.

Consideredascrimesare:"Ingratitude,malice,failuretogiveduerespecttoanother,sloth,despondency,anger,buffooneryandfalsehood,whichtheyhatemorethanthe
plague.Andtheguiltyaredeprivedofthecommontable,orrelationswithwomen,orotherhonorsandadvantages."(43:p.151)Sodomyispunishedbyforcedwearing
ofdisgracefulclothingand,ifrepeated,bydeath."Thoseguiltyofviolencearesubjecttoexecutionorpunishmentaccordingtotheprincipleofaneyeforaneye,atooth
foratoothandsoon."(43:p.176)

Thepunishmentsformilitarycrimesaresevere:"Thefirstmanwhotakesflightcanavoiddeathonlyiftheentirearmypleadsforhislifeandcertainsoldierstakeitupon
themselvestosufferpunishmentfortheguiltyparty.Butthisindulgenceisgivenrarelyandonlywhenthereareextenuatingcircumstances.Amanwhofailedtobringhelp
whenneededtoanallyoracompanionispunishedbytherod
[92]

forfailuretofolloworders,theculpritisthrownintoapit,tobetorntopiecesbywildbeastsheisgivenatruncheonandifhesucceedsinkillingthelionsandbearsthat
attackhim,whichisalmostimpossible,heispardoned."(43:p.167)Particularlynoteworthyhereisthisearlyformulationoftheideathattheaccusedshouldbegranteda
semblanceofrightsinordertogivetheappearanceofjusticetohissentence.

Thereisnoseparationbetweenthejudicialandexecutivebranches:"Everyoneisjudgedbytheseniormasterofhisorhercraft.Thusalltheseniormastersarejudgesand
cansentenceapersontoexile,flogging,reprimand,deprivationofthecommontableandexclusionfromthecompanyofwomen."(43:p.176)Therearenoprofessional
executioners,either."Theyhavenohangmen...soasnottodefiletheirstate....Thedeathpenaltyiscarriedoutonlybythehandofthepeople,whokillorstonethe
transgressor....Someareallowedtotaketheirownlives:suchpersonssurroundthemselveswithsmallbagsofpowderwhichtheysetonfireandburn,whilethosepresent
encouragethemtodiewithdignity.AllcitizensmeanwhilelamentandbeseechGodtoappeaseHiswrath,grievingthattheyhavebeenbroughttothenecessityofcutting
offarottenlimbofthestate.However,theypersuadeandcajolethetransgressoruntilhehimselfacquiescestohispunishmentandwishesforhisdeathotherwisehemay
notbeexecuted.ButifthecrimeiscommittedeitheragainstthelibertyofthestateoragainstGodorthesupremeauthorities,thenthesentenceiscarriedoutwithoutdelay
ormercy."(43:pp.176177)

Punishmentisregardedasanelementintheeducationofcitizens."Thedefendantmakespeacewithhisaccusersandthewitnessesasthoughwithphysicianswhohad
treatedhisdisease,embracingandkissingthem....Andthesentencesaregenuineandreliableremediesandareseenassomethingpleasantratherthanaspunishment."(43:
pp.176,173)

AreligionofthesunispracticedinCampanella'sstate:"AndintheSuntheyperceiveandrecognizeGod,callingtheSunanimage,alikenessandalivingeffigyofGod
fromwhomproceedslight,warmth,vitalpowerandallthingsgood.Therefore,theyhaveerectedanaltarintheformoftheSunandtheirpriestsworshipGodintheSun
andthestars,regardingtheseasHisaltarsandtheskyasHistemple."(43:p.182)

Twospecificaspectsofthesereligiousbeliefscanbenoted.First
[93]

ofall,thisisastatereligion,andthegoverningofthestatecoincideswiththepriestlyfunction.Therefore,theheadofstateissimultaneouslythechiefpriest,andsinceheis
called"Sun"heisapparentlyperceivedasanincarnationofGod."Oftheofficials,onlythesenioronesarepriests.Theirdutiesincludepurgingtheconsciencesofthe
citizensthewholeCityinsecretconfession(whichisalsopracticedamongus)revealsitsoffensestotheauthorities,whothussimultaneouslypurifysoulsandcometo
knowthesinstowhichthepeopleareparticularlygiven."(43:p.178)Henceadministrativeandpriestlyfunctionsareconcentratedinthesamehandswhich,aswehave
seenearlier,possesstheauthoritytoimposeanykindofpenalty.

Atthesametime,thereligionofthesuncanbeseenasvenerationoftheuniverse,rationalisticallyperceivedasanidealmechanism.Inotherwords,itisasynthesisof
religionandnaturalscience(withanastrologicalbias).Thisaccordswithwhatwenotedearlier:thetitleofthechiefpriest,"Sun,"istranslatedas"Metaphysic,"andthe
righttothispostisdeterminedbyvastscientificknowledge.

AsimilarimpressionisproducedbythedescriptionoftheTempleoftheSun,whichoccupiesthecentralpositioninthecity.Itresemblesamuseumofnaturalhistoryfar
morethanachurch."Atthealtaronlyalargegloberepresentingtheskyandanotherrepresentingtheearthareseen.Furthermore,onthevaultofthemaindomeall
celestialstarsfromthefirsttothesixthmagnitudearedepicted,withtheirnamesandtheirpowertoinfluenceterrestrialeventsinscribedbeloweachinthreelinesof
verse."(43:p.145)"Thesmallerdomeiscrownedonlybyakindofweathervaneshowingthedirectionsofthewind,ofwhichtheydistinguishuptothirtysix."(43:p.
146)Theword"only"seemstoemphasizethattheweathervaneoccupiestheplacegiventothecrossinChristianchurches.Ingeneral,onegetstheimpressionthat
throughouthisworkCampanellascatteredremarksindicatinghostilitytotheCatholicChurchortoChristianitymoreover,theseseemcloseinspirittotheattitudeofsome
hereticalsects.Thesehintsaretenderedobliquelyandcautiouslyandnecessarilyso,sinceCityoftheSunwaswrittenintheprisonoftheInquisitionwhereCampanella
wasbeingkeptinacagelikecell.Aveiledtauntofthistypeseemstohavebeenintendedbytheenumerationofstrangefishdepictedonthetownwalls:thelistbeginswith
the"bishopfish"andendswiththe"malememberfish."Thefollowingpassageprobablyservesasimilarfunction:"Deadbodiesarenotburied,buttoprevent
[94]

pestilenceareburnedandturnedintofire,anobleandlivingelementthatcomesfromthesunandreturnstothesun.Bythismethodnochanceisgivenforidolatry."(43:p.
hereticalsects.Thesehintsaretenderedobliquelyandcautiouslyandnecessarilyso,sinceCityoftheSunwaswrittenintheprisonoftheInquisitionwhereCampanella
wasbeingkeptinacagelikecell.Aveiledtauntofthistypeseemstohavebeenintendedbytheenumerationofstrangefishdepictedonthetownwalls:thelistbeginswith
the"bishopfish"andendswiththe"malememberfish."Thefollowingpassageprobablyservesasimilarfunction:"Deadbodiesarenotburied,buttoprevent
[94]

pestilenceareburnedandturnedintofire,anobleandlivingelementthatcomesfromthesunandreturnstothesun.Bythismethodnochanceisgivenforidolatry."(43:p.
180)Thelastsentenceisclearlydirectedagainstthevenerationofrelics.ThisisanearlyattempttoreinforcetheideologicalobjectionstoChristianritesbypurelyutilitarian
andhygienicarguments.

ThefollowingironicsentenceisalsointendedasathrustatChristianity:"Afterallissaidanddone,theyrecognizethathappyistheChristiansatisfiedwiththebeliefthat
suchgreatconfusion[theappearanceofevilintheworld]happenedbecauseofAdam'sfall."(43:p.186)Andagnosticconceptinconcealedformseemstobepresented
inthefollowingsentence:"Theyalsoconsidereditpossiblethattheactsofthelowerworldaregovernedbysomelowerdeityattheconnivanceoftheprimarydeitybut
nowsupposethisopiniontoberidiculous."(43:p.185)

ItisundoubtedlynoaccidentthatJesusChristisdepictedonawallofthecity,inagallerytogetherwith"alltheinventorsofthesciencesandofarmamentandthe
legislators."True,Christoccupies"amosthonorableplace"nexttoMoses,Osiris,Jupiter,Lycurgus,Solonandothers.

SeveralyearsafterCityoftheSun,Campanellawroteanotherwork,OntheBestState,inwhichheanalyzescertainobjectionstothesocialconceptexpressedinhis
firstbook.Hejustifies,inparticular,thecommunalityofpropertybyreferencetotheApostoliccommunity,andcautiouslydefendsthecommunalityofwivesbyquoting
variousFathersoftheChurch.Especiallyinterestingisthepassagewhereheassertsthatthepossibilityofsuchastateisconfirmedbyexperience:"Andthis,moreover,has
beendemonstratedbymonksandlatelybytheAnabaptistswholiveincommunesiftheypossessedthetruedogmaofthefaith,theywouldhavesucceededinthiseven
more.Oh,weretheynothereticsandshouldtheydojusticeaswepreachit,thentheywouldserveasanexemplarofthistruth."

"TheLawofFreedom"byGerrardWinstanley.

Inthepreviouschapter,wespokeaboutthesocialistmovementoftheDiggersofthetimeoftheEnglishrevolution.Wealsoquotedfrompamphletsbythemostimportant
theoreticianofthismovement,GerrardWinstanley."TheLawofFreedom"isthemostsystematicandcompleteexpositionofhisideas.Thisworkbelongstoutopian
literatureandcontainsadetailed
[95]

planofthenewsocietythatisbased,toasignificantdegree,onsocialistprinciples.

"TheLawofFreedom"waspublishedin1652.Itbeginswithasalutationto"HisExcellencyOliverCromwell,GeneraloftheCommonwealth'sArmyinEngland,Scotland
andIreland."WinstanleypointsouttoCromwellthatdespitethevictoryoftherevolutionandtheexecutionoftheking,thepositionofthecommonfolkhasnotimproved.
Theycontinuetobeburdenedwithtaxesandtosufferundertheswayoftherich,thelawyersandthepriests.Thepromisethat"allpoperyandepiscopacyandtyranny
shouldberootedout"hasnotbeenkeptthesoldiersnowaskwhattheywerefightingfor.AndWinstanleyappealstoCromwelltogivetruelibertytotheoppressed
commonpeople.

Themainpartoftheworkbeginswithanattempt"tofindoutwheretruefreedomlies."Winstanleybelievesthatitresidesinthefreeuseofthefruitsoftheearth."Aman
hadbettertohavehadnobodythantohavenofoodforit."(35:pp.295)Morespecifically,truefreedomconsistsofthefreeuseofland.Forthesakeofland,kings
declarewars,ministerspreach,andtherichoppressthepoor.Andthis"outerbondage"engenders"innerbondage":"theinwardbondagesofthemind,ascovetousness,
pride,hypocrisy,envy,sorrow,fears,desperationandmadness,arealloccasionedbytheoutwardbondagethatonesortofpeoplelayuponanother."(35:p.295)

Proceedingfromthismaterialistviewofsociety,Winstanleydevelopsaplanforanewsocialstructureinwhichprivatelanduseisabolishedandwhere"external"and
"internal"bondagedisappearasaresult.Subordinationofprivateintereststocommoninterestsisputforwardasthebasicprincipleofsocialorganization."Thereisbut
bondageandfreedom,particularinterestorcommoninterestandhewhopleadstobringinparticularinterestintoafreecommonwealthwillpresentlybeseenandcast
out,asonebringinginkinglyslaveryagain."(35:p.342)

Morespecifically,accordingtoWinstanley'sscheme,privatelandownership,tradeandmoneyaredoneawaywith.Landistilledbyindividuallargefamiliesunderthe
supervisionandcontrolofstateofficials.Implementsarekeptineachfamilybutnotasprivatepossessions:theheadofthefamilyisresponsiblefortheircare,under
penaltyoflaw.Horsesareallottedbythestate.Aftertheharvest,allproduceisbroughttoastatewarehouse.
[96]

Craftsmenareinthesamepositiontheygetrawmaterialsfromstatestorehousesanddelivertheirproductsthere.Theyworkeitherinfamiliesorincommunalworkshops.
Citizensaretransferredbytheadministrationfromonefamilytoanother,dependingonthedemandformanpowerortheirskillsforaspecificjob.

Besidesfreecitizens,thosewhohavebeendeprivedoftheirfreedombythecourtsalsowork.SometimesWinstanleyreferstothemasbondsmen.Theyworkatthesame
jobsasthefreemenbutgenerallydothemoremenialtasks.Theyaresupervisedbyofficialscalledtaskmasters.

"Iftheydotheirtasks,[thetaskmaster]istoallowthemsufficientvictualsandclothingtopreservethehealthoftheirbodies.Butiftheyprovedesperate,wantonoridle,
andwillnotquietlysubmittothelaw,thetaskmasteristofeedthemwithshortdiet,andtowhipthem,forarodispreparedforthefool'sback,tillsuchtimeastheir
proudheartsdobendtothelaw....

"Andifanyoftheseoffendersrunaway,thereshallbehueandcrysentafterhim,andheshalldiebythesentenceofthejudgewhentakenagain."(35:p.335)

Thestatusofslavedoesnotautomaticallyextendtorelatives,iftheyhavedonenowrong.Thepurposeofslaveryistoreeducatecitizenswhohavestrayedinorderto"kill
theirprideandunreasonableness,thattheymaybecomeusefulmeninthecommonwealth."(35:p.386)

Allnecessitiesareobtainedfromstateshopsfreeofcharge.Here,adifficultyclearlyarises,for"covetous,proudandbeastlymindedmendesiremore,eithertolieby
themtolookupon,orelsetowasteandspoilitupontheirlustswhileotherbrethrenliveinstraitsforwantoftheusethereof.Butthelawsandfaithfulofficersofafree
commonwealthdoregulatetheunrationalpracticeofsuchmen."(35:p.369)Indeed,accordingtothelaw,theheadofafamilythatconsumesmorethanitneedsis
punishedfirstbypublicreprimandandthenbybeingmadeabondsmanforafixedterm.Thesamesolutionisproposedforanotherdifficultyhowtoprovidemotivation
foreveryonetoworkthenecessarytimeandwiththenecessaryproductivityintheabsenceofamaterialincentive.Acitizenwhorefusestocarryoutassignedworkora
youthavoidingapprenticeshipinacraftisfirstpunishedbypublicreprimand.Ifthisdoesnothelp,heisthenwhipped,andshouldherepeathisoffenseoncemore,heis
madeabondsman.
[97]
commonwealthdoregulatetheunrationalpracticeofsuchmen."(35:p.369)Indeed,accordingtothelaw,theheadofafamilythatconsumesmorethanitneedsis
punishedfirstbypublicreprimandandthenbybeingmadeabondsmanforafixedterm.Thesamesolutionisproposedforanotherdifficultyhowtoprovidemotivation
foreveryonetoworkthenecessarytimeandwiththenecessaryproductivityintheabsenceofamaterialincentive.Acitizenwhorefusestocarryoutassignedworkora
youthavoidingapprenticeshipinacraftisfirstpunishedbypublicreprimand.Ifthisdoesnothelp,heisthenwhipped,andshouldherepeathisoffenseoncemore,heis
madeabondsman.
[97]

Thebasiceconomicandadministrativeunitofthestateisthefamily.Itisheadedbya"father"or"master."Thelistoftheofficialsofthefreecommonwealthbeginsthus:"In
aprivatefamily,afatherormasterisanofficer."(35:p.324)Regardinghisrelationshiptootherfamilymembers,heis"tocommandthemtheirworkandseetheydoit,
andnotsufferthemtoliveidleheiseithertoreprovebywordsorwhipthosewhooffend,fortherodispreparedtobringtheunreasonableonestoexperienceand
moderation."(35:p.325)

Apparently,bloodrelationshipsdonotplayasubstantialrole.The"father"cangetdismissedforsomeoffenseandbereplacedbyanotherpersonfamilymemberscanbe
transferredtoanotherfamilyifnecessary.

Beginningwiththefamily,thestateisbuiltupofbiggerandbiggerunitsthatareadministeredbytheofficialslistedbyWinstanley.Thosewhogoverntheunitimmediately
superiortothefamilyare:"apeacemaker,afourfoldofficeofoverseers,asoldier,ataskmaster,anexecutioner."Thepeacemakerisobligedtoappealtothe
conscienceofoffendersortodispatchthemtoaprovinceorcountyatthediscretionofajudge.Thetaskmasterssuperviseproductionandconsumptionwithinthe
families.Asforsoldiers,theauthorstatesthatinfact,"allofficialsaresoldiers."(35:p.333)Thefunctionofsoldiers(inthedirectsenseoftheword)istoofferassistance
toofficialsandtoprovidedefenseforthemduringtimesofdisorder.Thetaskmasterisinchargeofthosesentencedtoforcedlabor.Theexecutionerisobligedto"cutoff
thehead,hangorshoottodeath,orwhiptheoffenderaccordingtothesentenceoflaw."(35:p.335)

Allposts,fromthelowesttothehighest,arefilledbyelectiononayearlybasis.Thecountryisgovernedbyaparliament,alsoreelectedannually.Allcitizensmayvote
fromtheageoftwentyandareeligibleforelectionatforty.Manycitizens,however,aredeprivedofactiveparticipationingoverningsomeareevendisenfranchised."All
uncivillivers,asdrunkards,quarrellers,fearfulignorantmen,whodarenotspeaktruthlesttheyangerothermenlikewiseallwhoarewhollygiventopleasureandsports,
ofmenwhoarefulloftalkalltheseareemptyofsubstance,andcannotbeexperiencedmen,thereforenotfittobechosenofficersinacommonwealthyettheymayhave
avoiceinthechoosing.

"Secondly,allthosewhoareinterestedinthemonarchicalpowerandgovernmentoughtneithertochoosenorbechosenofficersto
[98]

managethecommonwealth'saffairs,forthesecannotbefriendstocommonfreedom."(35:p.321)Othersdeprivedofrightsinclude:"Allthosewhohavebeensohastyto
buyandsellthecommonwealth'sland,andsotoentangleituponanewaccount....Thesearecovetousmen,notfearingGod,andtheirportionistobecastwithoutthe
cityofpeaceamongstthedogs."(35:pp.322,323)

Earlier,duringthefirstperiodoftheDiggermovement,Winstanleyhadbeenanopponentofallcoercionandstatepower.Hebelievedthatlawwasnecessaryforthose
livingunderthecurseofpropertybutthatitbecomesunnecessaryforthosewholiveunderprinciplesofjusticeandcommunity.Inthepamphlet"LettertoLordFairfax,"
heassertsthatnoonewhoobeyedjustlawwoulddaretoarrestorenslaveaneighbor.

Followingthelogicofallsuchmovements,however,Winstanley,inhis"LawofFreedom"(publishedjustthreeyearslater),readilygrantsthatinthestateheisplanningit
willbepossibletoarrestand(literally)enslaveone'sneighbor.Hisworkcontainsadetailedaccountofthepunishmentstobeinvoked:"Hewhostrikeshisneighbourshall
bestruckhimselfbytheexecutioner,blowforblow,andshallloseeyeforeye,toothfortooth,limbforlimb,lifeforlifeandthereasonisthatmenmaybetenderofone
another'sbodies,doingastheywouldbedoneby."(35:pp.375380)Strikinganofficialispunishablebyayearofforcedlabor."Hewhoendeavourstostirup
contentionamongneighbours,bytalebearingorfalsereport,"isatfirstreproved,thenwhippedthirdoffendersbecomeservantsforthreemonths,andiftheoffenseis
reportedonceagain,"heshallbeaservantforever."(35:p.380)Forcedlaboristhepenaltyforfailingtorenderassistancetothetaskmasterorforattemptingtoengage
inbuyingandselling.Anactualsaleorpurchaseoflandispunishablebydeath.Amanwhocallslandhisownistobe"setuponastool"andhelduptoridicule,andifhe
becomesabusive,hecanbeexecuted.

Thearmyisfundamentaltothestate.ItisdividedintotheofficersCorps,madeupofallofficials,andthesoldiers,madeupofthegeneralpopulation.

"Theuseorworkofafightingarmyinacommonwealthistobeatdownallthatarisetoendeavortodestroythelibertiesofthecommonwealth."Itmustdefendthestate
againstthosewho"seektheirowninterestandnotcommonfreedom,andthroughtreacherydoendeavortodestroythelawsofcommonfreedom,andtoenslaveboththe
land
[99]

andpeopleofthecommonwealthtotheirparticularwillsandlusts."(35:p.357)Thearmyalsoopposesforeignenemiesithasonemorefunctiontheestablishmentofthe
"LawofFreedom"inotherlands."IfalandbeconqueredandsoenslavedasEnglandwasunderthekingsandconqueringlaws,thenanarmyistoberaisedwithasmuch
secrecyasmaybe,torestorethelandagainandsetitfree,thattheearthmaybecomeacommontreasurytoallherchildren."(35:p.358)

Inmanyrespects,Winstanley'ssocialistconcepts,aswehaveseen,aremuchmoremoderatethanthoseofhispredecessorsMoreand,especially,Campanella.Only
privateownershipofland,laborproductsand,partly,thatwhichlatercametobecalledthe"meansofproduction"areabolished.Thereisnomentionofcommunalwives
orthecommunalupbringingofchildren.Infact,Winstanleyfrequentlyobjectstomoreextremeviews,obviouslyattackingothermoreradicaltrends.Inthesection"A
shortdeclarationtotakeoffprejudice,"hewrites:"Some,hearingofthiscommonfreedom,thinktheremustbeacommunityofallthefruitsoftheearthwhethertheywork
orno,thereforestrivetoliveidleuponothermen'slabor.Others,throughthesameunreasonablebeastlyignorance,thinktheremustbeacommunityofallmenand
womenforcopulation,andsostrivetoliveabestiallife."(35:p.302)Theauthorassertsthat,onthecontrary,familieswillliveseparatelyandowntheirownfurnishingsin
peace.(35:p.288)Lawsmustinsulatecitizensfromthosewhoholdsuch"falseopinions"andpunishsuch"ignorantandinsanebehavior."

Inonearea,however,WinstanleywentmuchfurtherthanMoreandCampanellainhisattitudetowardreligion.ThelukewarmattitudetowardreligionandtheChurchof
theearliertwowritersgoeshandinhandwiththeirslanttowardpantheismandtheirtendencytodeifythe"mechanismoftheUniverse."InWinstanley,ontheotherhand,
wemeetwithanopenhostilitytotheChurchandacompletereplacementofreligionbyethicsandrationalscience.Heseesthechiefgoalofthereligionofhisdayas
assistingtherichinexploitingthepoor."Thisdiviningdoctrine,whichyoucallspiritualandheavenlythings,isthethiefandtherobber."(35:p.351)"Thisdoctrineismade
acloakofpolicybythesubtleelderbrother,tocheathissimpleyoungerbrotherofthefreedomsoftheearth."Winstanleyasserts:"Theywhopreachthisdiviningdoctrine
aremurderersofmanyapoorheartwhoisbashfulandsimple."(35:p.352)"Sothatthisdiviningspiritualdoctrineisacheatforwhilemenaregazinguptoheaven,
imagining
[100]

afterahappinessorfearingahellaftertheyaredead,theireyesareputout,thattheyseenotwhatistheirbirthright,andwhatistobedonebythemhereonearthwhile
acloakofpolicybythesubtleelderbrother,tocheathissimpleyoungerbrotherofthefreedomsoftheearth."Winstanleyasserts:"Theywhopreachthisdiviningdoctrine
aremurderersofmanyapoorheartwhoisbashfulandsimple."(35:p.352)"Sothatthisdiviningspiritualdoctrineisacheatforwhilemenaregazinguptoheaven,
imagining
[100]

afterahappinessorfearingahellaftertheyaredead,theireyesareputout,thattheyseenotwhatistheirbirthright,andwhatistobedonebythemhereonearthwhile
theyareliving."(35:p.353)Buttheendofthisdeceptionisnear,accordingtotheauthor:

"Andallthepriestsandclergyandpreachersofthesespiritualandheavenlythings,astheycallthem,shalltakeupthelamentation,whichistheirportion,'Alas,alas,that
greatcityBabylon,thatmightycitydivinity,whichhathfilledthewholeearthwithhersorceryanddeceivedallpeople,sothatthewholeworldwonderedafterthisBeast
howisitfallen,andhowisherjudgmentcomeuponherinonehour?'Andfurther,asyoumayread,Rev.18:10."(35:p.354)

InWinstanley'sfuturesociety,ministersofreligionwillbeelectedforoneyear,justasalltheofficialsare.Thedutiesofthecommonwealth'sclergyconsistofcarryingout
functionsthat,fromtheusualpointofview,havenothingwhatevertodowithreligion.Theministerisobligedtogivesermonson"theaffairsofthewholeland,asitis
broughtinbythepostmaster"andon"thelawofthecommonwealth,"andtocommenton"theactsandpassagesofformeragesandgovernments,settingforththebenefits
offreedombywellorderedgovernments,"aswellason"allartsandsciences...physic,chirurgery,astrology,astronomy,navigation,husbandryandsuchlike."Finally,
speeches"maybemadesometimesofthenatureofmankind,ofhisdarknessandofhislight,ofhisweaknessandofhisstrength,ofhisloveandofhisenvy."(35:pp.
345346)Moreover,anyexperiencedpersonmaydeliverasermon,notonlyaminister.

Thus,underthenameofclergy,Winstanleyintendsaclassofpeopleengagedinpropagandizingtheofficialworldviewandfulfilling,toanextent,theroleofeducators.To
theobjectionsofahypothetical"zealousbutignorantprofessor,"Winstanleyreplies:"ToknowthesecretsofnatureistoknowtheworksofGodandtoknowtheworks
ofGodwithinthecreationistoknowGodhimself,forGoddwellsineveryvisibleworkorbody."(35:p.348)

2.TheSocialistNovel

Inthesixteenthcenturyandthefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcentury,Weencounterseveralworksofsocialistthoughtseparatedbylengthyintervalsofseveraldecadesor
evenlonger.Towardtheendoftheseventeenthcenturyandintheeighteenth,thesituationchangesasteadystreamofsocialistliteraturecomesintobeing.Socialist
ideology
[101]

comesintofashionandacquiresaninfluenceinoneformoranother,amajorityofthethinkersofthetimeareaffectedbyit.

Wecandistinguishtwotrendsinthegeneralcourseofthings:entertainingsocialistnovelsintendedforabroadaudienceandthedriersocialistliteratureofaphilosophical
andsociologicalcharacter.ThesourcesofbothtypesofwritingareinMoreandCampanella,butbythelateseventeenthcenturythedifferencesbecomesubstantialand
thetwocurrentseachattainadistinctcharacter.

HistoryoftheSevarites(L'HistoiredesSvarambes)byDenisVairassemaybeconsideredthefirstofthetypicalsocialistnovels.VolumeI,particularlyinterestingasa
specimenofthisnewliterature,waspublishedin1675.Adventuresatseaarerecounted,ashipwreck,landingonallunknowncontinentandthestoryofthetravelers'life
onshore.Finally,thetravelersmeettheinhabitantsofthecontinentandbecomeacquaintedwiththeirstrangelife.InsteadofthedrydescriptionsofMoreandCampanella
wearegivenvividtravelimpressionsrenderedbythenarrator,CaptainSiden.Almosttheentirebookisdevotedtotheaccountofhistravelsacrossthelandofthe
Sevaritesandwhathesawthere.Onlythelasttenpagescontainadescriptionofthestateandeconomicstructureoftheplace.

ThestatewasfoundedbyaPersiannamedSevarias,whodiscoveredthecontinentandencounteredthesavagetribeslivingthereinconditionsofprimitivecommunism
withcommunalityofpropertyandwives.Byaseriesofruses,heconvincesthemthathehasarrivedfromthesuntotellthemthelawsandthewilloftheGodoftheSun.
Theselawswereacceptedbythepeopleandhaveshapedthestructureoftheirstate.

ThereligionoftheSunisacceptedandtheSunitselfisproclaimedkingoftheland.TheSunappointsaviceroyfromamongtheinhabitants.Inpractice,thepostofviceroy
isfilledbylotfromamongfourcandidatesproposedbythecouncilofhighofficials.Theviceroyhasabsolutepower,limitedonlybytherightofthecounciltodeclarehim
mentallyincapacitated.Beneaththeviceroythereisacomplexhierarchyofofficials,partlyelectedbythepeopleandpartlyappointedfromabove.Theseofficialsenjoy
numerousprivileges:theyhavemorewivesthanothercitizens,personalslaves,betterhouses,foodandclothing.

Thegreatmassofthepopulation(allhandsomeandwellbuiltpeople)liveacarefreeandhappylifeinwellorganizedcitiesandmagnificent
[102]

communalabodes.Athirdpartofthedaytheyworkunderthesupervisionofofficialsandspendtherestofthetimesleepingorenjoyingthemselves.

Beneaththemonthesocialladderarethestateandprivateslaves,whoareobtainedastributefromconquerednations.Theydotheheavyworkandtheirwomenserveas
concubinestocitizensandforeignguests.

Theeconomyisbasedoncompletestateownership:Sevarias"abolishedtherightofproperty,deprivedprivatepersonsofitandwilleditsothatalllandandwealthshould
belongexclusivelytothestatetodisposeofitinsuchawaythatsubjectscouldreceiveonlywhatwasgrantedthembyofficials."(44:p.422)Theentirepopulationlives
andworksincommunesofathousandpersonsthesearelocatedinlargesquarehouses.Thecommunesturnintheproductsoftheirworktothestatewarehouses,where
theyalsoreceivealltheirnecessities.Inparticular,theyareallissuedstandardclothingitvariesonlyincolor,dependingontheagegroupoftheowner.

"Thestatetakescareofallthis,demandingneithertaxesnortolls,andthewholepeopleunderthegovernmentofthemonarchlivesinhappyaffluenceandwithwell
securedrest."Allcitizensareobligedtoworktomaintainthestatewarehousesand"forfearlesttheygrowrestiveinplentyandentertainmentorbesoftenedby
idleness."(44:p.423)

Allthecitizensofthelandarebeautifulandoffinebearing.Cripplesareexiledtoremotetowns,asaresterilewomen.

Thegovernmentpainstakinglyseestothecompleteisolationofthecountryfromtheexternalworld,buttheSevaritesareawareofthelatestdevelopmentsinengineering
andthesciencesinEuropeandAsia.Thisispossiblebecausepeoplearesentregularlytoforeignlandsinordertolearnlanguagesandallotherusefulknowledge.When
abroad,citizensareforbiddentotellanythingatallabouttheircountry.Toguaranteethattheyreturnhome,theyarenotpermittedtoleavetheirnativelanduntiltheyare
abletoputupatleastthreechildrenasapledge.

HistoryoftheSevaritesgivesusanotionofthesocialistnovelsthatfollowedit.Weshallthereforeonlybrieflynoteafewotherexamplesthatillustratevariousaspectsof
thisgenre.
andthesciencesinEuropeandAsia.Thisispossiblebecausepeoplearesentregularlytoforeignlandsinordertolearnlanguagesandallotherusefulknowledge.When
abroad,citizensareforbiddentotellanythingatallabouttheircountry.Toguaranteethattheyreturnhome,theyarenotpermittedtoleavetheirnativelanduntiltheyare
abletoputupatleastthreechildrenasapledge.

HistoryoftheSevaritesgivesusanotionofthesocialistnovelsthatfollowedit.Weshallthereforeonlybrieflynoteafewotherexamplesthatillustratevariousaspectsof
thisgenre.

TheSouthernLand(LaTerreaustraleconnue),ascribedbyBayletoGabrieldeFoigny,amonkfromLorraine,appearedin1676.Itis
[103]

thestoryofavoyagetothestillunknownfifthpartoftheglobe,intheSouthernHemisphere.Thelanddiscoveredbythetravelersisinhabitedbyanandrogynouspeople
the"Australians."Theirlifeisfoundedoncompletefreedom.Everyoneactsashisreasondictates.Thereisonlyasinglelawaccordingtowhichallmustgivebirthtoat
leastonechild.

Theinhabitantsexistincompleteinnocence,knowingneitherclothingnorgovernmentnorthewords"thine"and"mine."Everyonereceivesanidenticalupbringing,which
fromearlyinfancyinstillsintheinhabitanttheideathatallareequal.(45)

TheAdventuresofTelemachus(LesAventuresdeTlmaque)byFenelonappearedin1699.Theinterestofthisbookliesinthefactthatitsurveysnotonlytheideal
socialistsocietybutintermediateformsaswell.The"first"and"second"phasesofsocialismarediscussed.InquestofOdysseus,Telemachusvisitstwodifferent
communities:BoeticaandSalentum.LandtenureinBoeticaiscommunal.AllpropertyIand,fruitoftheearthandtrees,cows'andgoats'milkisheldincommon.Most
oftheinhabitantsaretillersorherdsmen.Theartsareconsideredharmfulandtherearealmostnocraftsmen.Thecitizensseetheirhappinessinsimplicity,thankstowhich
noonefeelsanydeprivation.Theyliveinfamiliesinconditionsofperfectequality.

SalentumhadbeenbroughttoeconomicruinbytheextravagantandproudKingIdomeneus.Mentor,thewiseoldmanwhoaccompaniesTelemachus,andwhoisin
realitythegoddessMinervaindisguise,establishesanewregimewhichisanintermediatestageonthepathtocompletecommunality.Thepopulationisdividedintoseven
classes,eachwithitsownprescribedtypeofdwelling,clothing,food,furnitureandparcelofland.Privateownershipispreserved,butinalimitedformnoonepossesses
morelandthanisnecessaryforhissubsistence.Tradeisalsopermitted.(46)

TheRepublicofPhilosophersortheHistoryoftheAjaoiens,attributedtoFontenelle,appearedin1768.Astormtossessometravelersontoanunknownshore,the
islandofAjao.TheislandhadmanyyearsbeforebeenconqueredbytheAjaoiens,whoannihilatedalargepartoftheindigenouspopulationandmadeslavesoftherest.
Productionisbasedonslavelabor.Theslavesliveinbarracks,wheretheyarelockedinatnight.Thenumberofslavesisstrictlycontrolledexcesschildren
[104]

wereoncekilled,butatpresenttheyaretakentotheshoreofChinaandabandonedthere.

ThefreepopulationoftheislandtheAjaoiensliveincompletecommunality.Thewords"mine"and"thine"areunknowntothem.Theentirelandbelongstothestate,
whichregulatesitscultivationanddistributesitsproducts.Everyoneisobligedtoworkinagricultureforacertainlengthoftime.Craftsareorganizedinthesameway.

Itisthedutyofallcitizenstoenterintomarriagemoreover,everymanhastwowives.Childrenarebroughtupnotbytheirparentsbutinstateschools.TheAjaoienshave
nocults,nopriestsorsacredbooks.Theyworshipnatureastheirgoodmother.Theyrecognizenosupremebeingbutbelievethateverythinglivinghasintelligence.They
believethatthesoulismaterialandmortal.(47)

TheSouthernDiscoverybyaFlyingManortheFrenchDaedalus:VeryPhilosophicalNovelbyRestifdelaBretonneappearedin1781.Thecomplicatedplot(a
lovestory,theinventionofameansofflyingwithartificialwings,thefoundingofanewstateintheSouthernHemisphere)leadstothediscoveryofMegapatagonia the
antipodeofFrance.Thebasiclawofthiscountryiscommunality:"Withoutperfectequalitythereisneithervirtuenorhappiness....Leteverythingbeheldincommon
amongequals....Leteveryoneworkforthecommongood."(48:p.133)Twelvehoursdailyaregivenovertoworkincommonandtheothertwelvetorelaxationand
sleep.Mealsaretakenincommon.Allsocialdistinctionsaredeterminedsolelybyage:powerisinthehandsoftheoldmen.

Marriageistemporary,contractedforoneyear.Emotionsarenotmuchtakenintoaccountonlyservicestothestateentitlesonetobeautifulgirls.Therightoffirstchoice
thereforebelongstooldmenof150yearsormore.

Whenthewifebecomespregnant,themarriageisdissolved.TheWomannursesherchildatfirst,thenhandsitovertoofficialtutors.Therelationsbetweenfathersand
childrenare"essentiallythesameasbetweenpersonswhohardlyknowoneanother.Allchildrenarechildrenofthepeople."(48:p.138)

Dramaticworksandpaintingareforbidden.TheMegapatagoniansassertthatthey"wishonlyrealthingsandonlyhavetimetoenjoythegenuinepleasures,neverthinking
ofimaginaryones."However,thereismusicamongthem,andtheysingsongsglorifyinggreatmen,
[105]

pleasureandlove.Allothersubjectsarebannedfrompoeticexpression.

Theethicsofthissocietyisbasedonobtainingthegreatestpossiblepleasure:"Getridofallunpleasantsensationsuseeverythingthatlegitimatelysuppliespleasure,but
withoutweakeningoroverstrainingtheorgans."(48:p.149)"Whatespeciallystrengthenssoundmoralsamongusisthefactthatmoralquestionsarenotlefttothewhim
ofprivatepersons.Thankstoourequalityandourcommunality,theacceptedmoralityisuniformandpublic."(48:p.151)

Megapatagoniansdescribethecontentoftheirreligiousdoctrinethus:"Touseone'sorgansinaccordancewiththeintentionofnature,abusingnothingandneglecting
nothing."(48:p.140)Inanswertothequestionoftemples,theypointtotheskyandtotheearth.Theyesteemthesunastheuniversalfatherandtheearthastheuniversal
mother.

3.TheAgeofEnlightenment

Wenowturntosociologicalandphilosophicalsocialistliterature,onceagaintouchingonbutafewworkswhichexertedthegreatestinfluenceonthedevelopmentof
chiliasticsocialism.

JeanMeslier'sTestamentstandsoutamongwritingsofthistypebymanyaspectsofitscomposition,byitsunusualfate,aswellasbytheastonishingfigureofitsauthor.
Throughouthisadultlife,JeanMeslier(16641729)wasapriestinChampagne.HisTestamentbecameknownincopiesandexcerptsonlyin1733,afterhisdeath.
VoltaireandotherrepresentativesoftheEnlightenmentfoundthebookofgreatinterest,butsodangerousthattheyneverdaredtopublishitscompletetext.Thefirstfull
editionappearedonlyin1864,inAmsterdam.
Wenowturntosociologicalandphilosophicalsocialistliterature,onceagaintouchingonbutafewworkswhichexertedthegreatestinfluenceonthedevelopmentof
chiliasticsocialism.

JeanMeslier'sTestamentstandsoutamongwritingsofthistypebymanyaspectsofitscomposition,byitsunusualfate,aswellasbytheastonishingfigureofitsauthor.
Throughouthisadultlife,JeanMeslier(16641729)wasapriestinChampagne.HisTestamentbecameknownincopiesandexcerptsonlyin1733,afterhisdeath.
VoltaireandotherrepresentativesoftheEnlightenmentfoundthebookofgreatinterest,butsodangerousthattheyneverdaredtopublishitscompletetext.Thefirstfull
editionappearedonlyin1864,inAmsterdam.

ThemaindistinguishingfeatureoftheTestamentisthatitssocialistconceptionismerelyanoutgrowthofthecentralideaofthework:thestrugglewithreligion.Meslier
sawnothinginreligionotherthanasocialrole,whichconsists,inhisopinion,ofthefurtheranceofviolenceandsocialinequalitybymeansofdeceitandpropagationof
superstitions:

"Inshort,allthatyourtheologistsandpriestspreachtoyouwithsucheloquenceandfervor...allthisisinrealitynothingbutillusion,error,falsehood,fabricationand
deception:thesethingswerefirstinvented
[106]

byslyandcunningpoliticians,repeatedbyimpostorsandcharlatans,thengivencredencebyignorantandbenightedmenfromthecommonfolk,andfinallysupportedby
thepowerofmonarchsandthemightywhoconnivedatthedeceitanderror,superstitionsandfraudulence,andperpetuatedthembytheirlawssoastobridlethemasses
inthiswayandmakethemdancetotheirtune."(49:I:pp.6769)

ThesetwopassionshatredforGodandforanykindofinequalityorhierarchyarethedrivingforcesoftheTestament.Meslierconsidersreligiontoberesponsiblefor
themajorityofhumanmisfortunes.Inparticular,itsowsdissentandpromotesreligiouswars.Butatthesametime,hehimselfcallswithsincereconvictionforanuprising,
thekillingofkings,andtheannihilationofallwhocouldbeconsideredmorefortunateandprosperous.

"Inthisconnection,Iamremindedofthewishofonemanwhoexpressedthedesirethat'allthemightyofthisworldandthenoblelordsbehangedandstrangledwith
loopsmadeofpriests'bowels.'Thisjudgmentiscertainlysomewhatcoarseandharsh,butthereissomenaivefranknessaboutit.Itisbriefbuteloquentandinafew
wordsexpresseswhatpeopleofthiskindreallydeserve."(49:I:p.71)

ToMeslierreligionwasanabsurdsuperstitionthatcannotsurvivetheslightestbrushwithreason.Ofallthereligions,themostabsurdisthereligionoftheChristians,whom
hecallsChristworshipers.Butitwouldbewrongtoseekthereasonforthisattitudeinanoverlyrationalisticturnofmindoftheauthor.RefutingChristianity,Meslierisat
thesametimereadytobelievethewildestsuperstitionsandtorepeatthemostabsurdrumors.Forinstance,itseemsnonsensicaltohimthatGodcouldhavehadbuta
singleSon,whilemuchlessercreaturesaremuchbetterendowed.Manyanimalsbeartenortwelveoffspringatonce.

"TheysaythataPolishcountessnamedMargarethasgivenbirthtothirtysixbabiesatonce.AndaDutchcountess,alsoMargaret,whohadlaughedatapoorwoman
burdenedwithchildren,gavebirthtoasmanychildrenastherearedaysintheyear,thatis,365,andallofthemlatergotmarried.(SeetheAnnalsofHollandand
Poland.)"(49:II:p.19)

ItisclearthatMeslier'spointofdepartureisahatredforGodandthathisargumentsaremerelyanattempttojustifythissentiment.
[107]

ThepersonofChristisespeciallyhatefultohim,andhereheliterallyrunsoutoftermsofabuse."AndwhatofourGodandChristworshipers?Towhomdothey
ascribedivinity?Tothepaltrymanwhohadneithertalent,norintelligence,norknowledge,norskill,andwasutterlyscornedintheworld.Whomdotheyascribeitto?
ShallIsay?IndeedIshall:theyascribeittothelunatic,demented,wretchedbigotandillstarredgallowsbird."(49:II:p.25)Thechampionoftherightsofthepoor
perceivesirrefutableproofofChrist'steachinginthefactthat"hewasalwayspoor,andwasmerelythesonofacarpenter."(49:II:p.26)

Religionisthesourceofmostsocialevilsand,inparticular,ofinequality,whichismaintainedsolelybyitsauthority.Meslierrecognizestheneedfor"somedependenceand
subordination"ineverysociety.Butatpresent,powerisbasedonviolence,murderandcrime.InhisTestamentthereisnothingsaidaboutconcretemeasuresfor
improvingthepositionofthepoornorabouttherichdoingsomethingtohelp.Thebookmerelyfansthehatredoftheformerforthelatter.

"Youaretold,dearfriends,aboutdevilstheyfrightenyouwiththedevil'snamealoneyouareforcedtobelievethatdevilsarethemostevilandrepulsiveofcreatures,that
theyaretheworstenemiesofhumankind,thattheystriveonlytoruinpeopleandrenderthemunhappyinhellforever....Butknow,dearfriends,thatforyouthemostevil
andtruedevils,thoseyououghttofear,arethosepeopleofwhomIspeakyouhavenoworseandnomoreevilenemiesthanthenobleandtherich."(49:II:p.166)

Theessenceandtruecauseofinequalityisprivateproperty,whichalsoisjustifiedbyreligion.

"Forthisreasonsomedrinkandstuffthemselves,wallowinginluxury,whileothersdiefromstarvation.Forthisreasonsomearealmostalwayshappyandgay,while
othersareeternallysadandgrieving."(49:II:p.201)

Meslier'sentiresocialprogramcomesdowntoafewlines:

"Whatagreathappinessitwouldbeforpeopleiftheyusedalllife'sblessingstogether."(49:II:p.209)

Inajustsociety,Meslierfeels,productionandconsumptionmustbeorganizedaccordingtoprinciplesofcommunality.

"Peopleoughttopossessallwealthandrichesoftheearthtogether
[108]

andonequaltermsandalsousethemtogetherandequitably."(49:II:p.198)

Food,clothing,educationforchildren,oughtnottodiffergreatlyindifferentfamilies.Everyoneoughttoworkundertheguidanceofwiseelders(inanotherpassage,
Meslierspeaksaboutelectedofficials).

Thesemeasureswouldleadtomiraculousresults.Noonewouldbeinneedeveryonewouldlovehisneighbor.Heavywork,deceit,vanity,wouldalldisappear.Then,
Mesliersays,"nounhappypeoplewouldbeseenonearth,whereasatpresentwecomeacrossthemoneveryhand."(49:II:p.217)

Familyrelationswouldalsochange,foragreatevilintroducedbythechurchwouldfallawaytheindissolubilityofmarriage."Itisnecessarytoprovidetheidentical
freedomtomenandtowomentocometogetherwithouthindrance,followingtheirowninclination,andthefreedomalsotoseparateandleaveoneanotherwhenlife
togetherbecomesintolerableorwhenanewattractionmovesthemtocontractinganewunion."(49:II:p.214)
Thesemeasureswouldleadtomiraculousresults.Noonewouldbeinneedeveryonewouldlovehisneighbor.Heavywork,deceit,vanity,wouldalldisappear.Then,
Mesliersays,"nounhappypeoplewouldbeseenonearth,whereasatpresentwecomeacrossthemoneveryhand."(49:II:p.217)

Familyrelationswouldalsochange,foragreatevilintroducedbythechurchwouldfallawaytheindissolubilityofmarriage."Itisnecessarytoprovidetheidentical
freedomtomenandtowomentocometogetherwithouthindrance,followingtheirowninclination,andthefreedomalsotoseparateandleaveoneanotherwhenlife
togetherbecomesintolerableorwhenanewattractionmovesthemtocontractinganewunion."(49:II:p.214)

Meslier'sTestamentleavestheimpressionofaprofoundlypersonalworkrevealingintimateaspectsofitsauthor'spersonality.Therefore,thepassagesthatbeardirectly
onthispersonalityareespeciallyinteresting.

ThebookopenswithMeslieraddressinghisparishioners:

"Dearfriends,duringmylifetimeIwasunabletosayopenlywhatIhavethoughtabouttheorderandmethodofgoverningmen,oftheirreligionandtheirrights,forthis
wouldhavebeenfraughtwithhighlydangerousandlamentableconsequences.Therefore,Idecidedtotellyouthisaftermydeath."(49:I:p.55)Mesliersaysofhimself:"I
neverwassofoolishastoattachanysignificancetothesacramentsandabsurditiesofreligionIhaveneverfeltbenttotakepartinthemoreventospeakofthemwith
respectandapproval."(49:II:p.73)"WithallmyheartIdetestedtheabsurddutiesofmyprofessionandespeciallytheidolatrousandsuperstitiousmassesand
nonsensicalandridiculousholycommunionthatIwasobligedtoperform."(49:I:p.77)

Thebookendswiththesewords:

"AfterallIhavesaid,letpeoplethinkaboutme,letthemjudgemeandsayofmeanddowhatevertheyplease.Idonotcare.Letpeopleadaptthemselvesandgovern
themselvesastheyplease,let
[109]

thembewiseormad,letthembekindorevil,letthemspeakofmeastheypleaseaftermydeath.Iwillhavenothingtodowithitatall.Ihavegivenupalmostany
participationinthethingsoftheworld.ThedeadwithwhomIwilltravelthesameroadaretroubledbynothing,theycarefornothing.AndwiththisnothingIshallend
here.Imyselfamnotmorethannothingandsoonwillbe,inthefullsenseoftheword,nothing."(49:II:p.377)

Thesewerenotidlewords:Mesliercommittedsuicideattheageofsixtyfive.

ThehistoryoftheTestamentiscurious.Itsfulltext(orperhapsaseriesofextracts)cameintothehandsofVoltaire,whowasgreatlyimpressed.Hewroteofthework:
"Thisisacompositionofabsolutenecessityfordemons,anexcellentcatechismofBaalzebub.Knowthatitisararebook,aperfection."(49:III:p.405)

Tothosehecalled"brethren,"Voltairewroterepeatedly,urgingthemtocirculateextractsfromtheTestament.

"KnowthatGod'sblessingisonournascentchurch:Inoneoftheprovinces,threehundredcopiesofMeslierhavebeendistributed,whichhasproducedmanynew
converts."(49:III:p.417)

Theworkwasthoughttobedangerous.Inarguingforitspublication,Voltairewrote:

"Isitimpossible,withoutcompromisinganyone,toturntothatgoodoldsoulMerlin?Iwouldnotwishforanyofourbrethrentotaketheslightestrisk."(49:III:p.416)

"LetusthankthegoodpeoplewhodistributeitgratisandpraytotheLordtoblessthisusefulreading."(49:III:p.419)

"Youhavecleverfriendswhowouldbenotunwillingtohavethisbookinasafeplacemoreover,itissuitablefortheedificationofyouth."(49:III:p.408)

"JeanMesliermustconvincethewholeworld.WhyishisGospelsolittlecirculated?YouaretooretiringinParis!Youarehidingyourlamp."(49:III:p.410)

"InaChristianfashion,IwishfortheTestamentofthepriesttobemultipliedlikethefiveloavestonourishfourorfivethousandsouls."(49:III:p.411)

Later,in1793,whentheConventionwascarryingoutaprogramofdeChristianizationandintroducingthecultofReason,AnacharsisClootsproposedputtingupinthe
templeofReasonastatueofthe
[110]

firstpriesttorejectreligiouserror"thebrave,magnanimousandgreatJeanMeslier."

TheCodeofNatureortheTrueSpiritoftheLawbyMorellyappearedin1755.Almostnothingisknownabouttheauthorargumentsarestillgoingonastowhether
heeverexistedorwhether"Morelly"issimplyapseudonym.

AttherootofMorelly'ssystemisanotionaboutthenaturalstateorthe"codeofnature"towhichmankindshouldadhereinordertoliveamoralandhappylife.The
breakingawayfromthenaturalstatewascausedbyprivateproperty,thecauseofallhumanmisery.Onlybyabolishingitwillmankindreturntoitsnaturalandhappystate.

Partfouroftheworkcontainsasystemoflawswhich,accordingtoMorelly,oughttoserveasthefoundationofanidealsociety.

Acentralplaceisoccupiedbythree"fundamentalandinviolablelaws."Thefirstabolishesprivateproperty.Anexceptionismadeonlyforthingswhichapersonuses"for
hisneeds,hispleasures,orhisdailywork."Thesecondlawproclaimsallthecitizenstobepublicpersonswhomthestateprovideswithworkandmaintenance.Thethird
lawproclaimsuniversalobligatoryservice"inconformitywiththeDistributiveLaws."

Allcitizensfromtheageoftwentytotwentyfiveareobligedtobeengagedinagriculturetheyaretheneitherretainedintheirplaceormadeartisans.Attheageofforty,
everyonehastherightoffreechoiceofprofession.

Everythingproducedisdistributedthroughcommunalstorehouses.Tradeandbarterareforbiddenbythe"inviolablelaw."

Thepopulationlivesintownsbrokenupintoequalblocks.Allbuildingsareofthesameshape.Everyonewearsclothingofthesamefabric.

Onreachingacertainage,everyoneistomarry.Childrenarebroughtupinthefamilyuntiltheageoffive,thentheyareplacedininstitutionsdesignatedfortheirfurther
upbringing.Thetraining(aswellasthefoodandclothing)ofallchildrenisabsolutelythesame.Attheageoften,childrenmovetoworkshopstocontinuetheirtraining.
Everythingproducedisdistributedthroughcommunalstorehouses.Tradeandbarterareforbiddenbythe"inviolablelaw."

Thepopulationlivesintownsbrokenupintoequalblocks.Allbuildingsareofthesameshape.Everyonewearsclothingofthesamefabric.

Onreachingacertainage,everyoneistomarry.Childrenarebroughtupinthefamilyuntiltheageoffive,thentheyareplacedininstitutionsdesignatedfortheirfurther
upbringing.Thetraining(aswellasthefoodandclothing)ofallchildrenisabsolutelythesame.Attheageoften,childrenmovetoworkshopstocontinuetheirtraining.

Thenumberofpersonswhodevotethemselvestoscienceandtheartsisstrictlylimited"foreachtypeofoccupationandforeachtownaswell."
[111]

"Moralphilosophy"islimitedonceandforalltothepropositionsworkedoutinMorelly'streatise:

"Nothingwillbeaddedbeyondthelimitsprescribedbylaw."(50:p.202)

Ontheotherhand,unrestrictedfreedomofinvestigationisgrantedintheareaofnaturalscience.

ThelawssetforthbyMorellyaretobeengravedoncolumnsorpyramidserectedinthemainsquareofeachtown.

Anyoneattemptingtochangethesacredlawsistobedeclaredmadandimmuredinacaveforlife:

"Hischildrenandallhisfamilywillrenouncehisname."(50:p.238)

WehavealreadycomeacrossallthesepropositionsinMoreandCampanella.ButMorelly'ssystemisofinterestinthatitcontainstheideaofthedevelopmentofsociety
fromaprimitivestatetosocialism.

Mankindoncelivedinanaturalstate,theGoldenAge,thememoryofwhichispreservedamongallpeoples.Butthisstatewaslostduetothemistakenintroductionof
privatepropertybylegislators.Areturntoaconditionwherenoprivatepropertyexistswilltakeplacethankstoprogress,whichMorellyconsiderstobethebasicdriving
forceofhistory.

"ThephenomenathatIobservedemonstrateeverywhere,eveninagnat'swing,thepresenceofaconsistentdevelopment.Iexperience,Ifeeltheprogressofreason.Iam
justified,therefore,tosaythatbysomemiraculousanalogytherealsoexistfavorabletransformationsinthemoralfield,andthatdespitetheirpowerandpleasantness,the
lawsofnaturedoonlygraduallygaincompletepowerovermankind."(50:p.159)

Onlyafterhavingexperiencedvariousformsofrulewillthepeopleunderstandwhatistrulygood.ThesocietydescribedbyMorellywillariseultimately,asaninevitable
triumphofreason,andmankindwillcometotheendofitsjourneyfromtheunconsciousGoldenAgetotheconsciousone.

ThespreadofsocialistideasintheAgeofEnlightenmentmaybejudgedbytheopensympathywithwhichtheyarereferredtointhemostinfluentialworkoftheday the
famousEncyclopdie.Inanarticleon"TheLegislator"(IX,1765),theauthorofwhichisapparentlyDiderot,thefundamentalgoalofeverylegislatorisdescribedasthe
replacementofthe"spiritofproperty"bythe"spiritofcommunity."
[112]

Ifthespiritofcommunityisdominantinastate,itscitizensdonotregretthattheyhaverejectedtheirownwillforthesakeofthecommonwilllovefortheirhomeland
becomestheironlypassion.ThesesomewhatvaguepronouncementsarerenderedmoreconcretebyreferencestothelawsofPeruasmodelsoflawsbasedonthespirit
ofcommunity.*

"ThelawsofPerustrovetounitethecitizensbybondsofhumanitywhilethelegislationofothercountriesforbiddoingharmtoanother,inPeruthelawsprescribe
tirelesslydoinggood.Lawsestablishing(totheextentpossibleinthelimitationsofanaturalstate)thecommunalityofpropertyweakenedthespiritofpropertythesource
ofallevil.ThemostfestivedaysinPeruwerethosedayswhenthecommonfieldwasbeingtilled,thefieldofanoldmanoranorphan.Hewhowaspunishedbynotbeing
permittedtoworkinthecommonfieldconsideredhimselfamostunhappyman.Eachcitizenworkedforallthecitizensandbroughtthefruitsofhislabortostategranaries
andreceivedthefruitofothercitizens'laborasreward."(Quotedin51:p.127)

Later,in1772,Diderotreturnedtothoughtsonthesocialistformofstateorganization.InhisworkSupplementauvoyagedeBougainville,hedescribesthelifeofthe
peopleofTahiti,whoseislandthetravelerissupposedtohavevisited.

Thesavageshaveeverythingincommon.Theyworktheirfieldstogether.Marriagedoesnotexistandchildrenarebroughtupbythecommunity.Addressingthetraveler,
anoldTahitiansays:

"Here,everythingbelongstoall,whileyouhavepreachedadifferencebetween'mine'and'thine.'"(52:p.43)"Leaveusourmorals.Theyarewiserandmorevirtuous
thanyours.Wedonotwanttoexchangewhatyoucallignoranceforyouruselessknowledge.Wehaveeverythingthatweneedandwhateverisusefultous.Dowe
deservecontemptmerelybecausewedidnotinventsuperfluousnecessities?Don'tinspireinuseitheryourfalsenecessitiesoryourchimericalvirtues."(52:p.44)

"Ourgirlsandwomenbelongtoall....AyoungTahitiangirlgivingherselfuptothedelightsofayoungTahitianboy'sembracewouldwaitimpatientlyforhermotherto
undressherandbareher

*Inthefirstchapterofthenextsectionofthisbook,thereaderwillfindinformationonthesocialandeconomicstructureoftheIncaempire,whichiswhatismeantherebyPeru.

[113]

breasts....Withoutshameorfearsheacceptsinourpresence,surroundedbyinnocentTahitians,tothesoundofflutesandthedance,thecaressesofhimwhowaschosen
byheryouthfulheartandthesecretvoiceofherfeelings.Areyoucapableofreplacingwithamoreworthyandgreaterfeelingthefeelingthatweinstilledinthemandwhich
inspiresthem?"(52:pp.4345)

Diderot'sattitudetowardsocialisttheoriesmayalsobejudgedbythefactthatwhenMorelly'sCodeofNaturewasincludedinvariouscollectionsofhisworks,hedidnot
protest.ThistestifiesnotonlytoDiderot'smoralprinciplesbuttohissympathyforsocialistideasaswell.
breasts....Withoutshameorfearsheacceptsinourpresence,surroundedbyinnocentTahitians,tothesoundofflutesandthedance,thecaressesofhimwhowaschosen
byheryouthfulheartandthesecretvoiceofherfeelings.Areyoucapableofreplacingwithamoreworthyandgreaterfeelingthefeelingthatweinstilledinthemandwhich
inspiresthem?"(52:pp.4345)

Diderot'sattitudetowardsocialisttheoriesmayalsobejudgedbythefactthatwhenMorelly'sCodeofNaturewasincludedinvariouscollectionsofhisworks,hedidnot
protest.ThistestifiesnotonlytoDiderot'smoralprinciplesbuttohissympathyforsocialistideasaswell.

Deschamps'sTruthortheTrueSystem.Inconclusion,wewilltakenoteofoneofthetheoreticiansofsocialismintheeighteenthcentury,theBenedictinemonk
Deschamps.Duringhislifetime,hepublishedLettersontheSpiritoftheTimes(1769)andTheVoiceofReasonAgainsttheVoiceofNature(1770),both
anonymously.ButhismostoriginalideasarecontainedinhisTruthortheTrueSystem,whichremainedinmanuscriptandwaspublishedonlyinourcentury(andin
completeformonlyinthelastfewyearssee53).

Deschampsistheauthorofoneofthemoststrikingandinternallyconsistentsocialistsystems.Heisalsoaphilosopherofthehighestorder,andissometimesreferredtoas
aprecursorofHegel.Thatisunquestionablycorrect,butwhilefollowingapathsimilartotheoneHegelwouldtakelater,Deschampsalsodevelopedmanyconcepts
whichweretobeenunciatedbyHegel'sdisciplesoftheleftFeuerbach,Engels,andMarx.AndinhisconceptionofNothingnessheanticipatesinmanyrespectsthe
contemporaryexistentialists.

Deschamps'soutlookisveryclosetomaterialism,althoughitdoesnotcoincidewithmaterialismentirely.Heseesonlymatterintheworld,buthisunderstandingofitis
unusual.

"Theworldhasexistedalwaysandwillexisteternally."(53:p.317)Initthereisanunendingprocessgoingonoftheappearanceofcertainpartsoutofothersandtheir
destruction."Allbeingsemergeoneoutoftheother,enteroneintotheother,andallthevariousspeciesareessentiallyonlyaspectsofauniversaltype....Allbeingshave
lifeinthemnomatterhowdeadtheyseem,fordeathismerelyalessermanifestationoflifeandnotitsnegation."(53:p.127)

LifeforDeschampsisequatedtovariousformsofmotion.Hesaysofnature:"Everythinginitpossessesacapacityforfeeling,life,
[114]

thought,reason,i.e.,motion.Forwhatdoallthesewordsmeanifnottheactionormotionoftheparticlesweconsistof?"(53:p.135)

Thisdeterminesman'splaceintheuniverseand,inparticular,hisfreedomofaction:"Ifwebelievethatwepossessawillandfreedom,thatresults,first,fromtheabsurdity
thatforcesustobelieveinaGodandconsequentlytobelievethatwehaveasoulwhichhasitsmeritsandfaultsbeforeGod,and,secondly,becausewecannotseethe
innerspringsofourmechanism."(53:pp.136137)

DeschampsconsidersGodtobeanideacreatedbymankind,aproductofdefinitesocialrelationsbasedonprivateproperty.Religiondidnotexistbeforetheserelations
tookshape,anditwillnolongerexistwhentheyaredestroyed.Religionitselfisnotonlytheresultoftheoppressionofpeoplebutalsoameansfacilitatingthisoppression.
Itisoneofthebasicobstaclestothetransitionofmankindtoahappiersocialcondition.

Deschampssays:"Theword'God'mustbeeliminatedfromourlanguages."(53:p.133)Nevertheless,hewasapassionateopponentofatheism.Ofhissystemhehasthe
followingtosay:"Atfirstglance,itmightbepossibletothinkthatitisaconciseformulationofatheism,forallreligionisdestroyedinit.Butuponconsideration,itis
impossiblenottobeconvincedthatitisnotaformulationofatheismatall,forinplaceofarationalandmoralGod(whomIdosubjecttodestruction,forhemerely
resemblesamanmorepowerfulthanothermen)Isetbeinginthemetaphysicalsense,whichisthebasisofmoralitythatisfarfromarbitrary."(53:p.154)

Deschampshasinmindhisunderstandingoftheuniverse,towhichheascribedthreespecificaspects.Thefirstistotality[letout],thatis,theuniverseasaunityofallits
parts.Thistotalityisthe"basiswhosemanifestationsareallvisiblebeings,"butwhichhasanother,nonphysicalnaturewhichisunlikeitsparts.Therefore,itcannotbeseen
butcanbecomprehendedbyreason.Thesecondaspectiseverything[tout],thatis,theuniverseasasingleconcept.

"Totalitypresupposesthepresenceoftheparts.Everythingdoesnotpresupposethis....Iunderstandeverythingasexistenceinitself,existencebyitself...inother
words...existencethroughnothingbutitself."(53:pp.8788)"Everything,notconsistingofparts,existsitisinseparablefromtotality,whichconsistsofpartsandof
whicheverythingissimultaneouslyaconfirmationandanegation."(53:p.124)

ButperhapsthemoststrikingofDeschamps'sthreeaspectsofthe
[115]

universeisthethirditstressesthenegativecharacterofdefinitionsofeverything."Everythingisnolongeramassofentitiesbutamasswithoutparts...notasingleentity
existinginmanyentities...butasingularentitywhichdeniesanyexistenceapartfromitself...aboutwhichitispossibleonlytodenythatwhichisassertedintheother for
itisnotsentientandnottheresultofsentiententitiesbut,rather,nothing[rien],nonbeingitself,whichalonecannotbeanythingbutthenegationofwhatissentient."(53:
pp.125126)"Everythingisnothing."(53:p.129)"Nodoubtnoonebeforemehaseverwrittenthateverythingandnothingareoneandthesame."(53:p.130)For
Deschamps,thisprincipleisbasictohisdoctrineonexistence:"Whatisthecauseofexistence?Answer:Itscauseresidesinthefactthatnothingissomething,inthatitis
existence,inthatitiseverything."(53:p.321)HerehefindsaplaceforGodaswell:"Godisnothing,nonexistenceitself."(53:p.318)Apparently,theseprinciples,
alongwiththedeductionsresultingfromthem,arewhatDeschampsopposestoatheism,whichhedeclaresapurelynegative,destructivedoctrine.Hecallsitthe"atheism
ofcattle,"i.e.,ofbeingswhohavenotovercomereligion,andwhohavenotevendevelopedtothelevelofreligion.

Deschamps'sarrogantandscornfulattitudetowardcontemporaryphilosophersoftheEnlightenmentisconnectedwiththisview.Heaccusesthemofcreatingunscientific
schemesbasedonfantasy.

"LetourdestroyerphilosophersrealizehowfutileandworthlessweretheireffortsdirectedagainstGodandreligion.Thephilosopherswerepowerlesstocarryouttheir
task,untiltheytouchedupontheexistenceofthecivilcondition,whichaloneisthecauseoftheappearanceoftheideaofamoralanduniversalbeingandofall
religions."(53:p.107)"Theconditionofuniversalequalitydoesnotderivelogicallyfromthedoctrineofatheism.Italwaysseemed,toouratheistsaswellastothe
majorityofpeople,tobeaproductoffantasy."(54:p.41)

Andfantasiesofthissortarebynomeansharmless.Thereareonlytwowaysout:thepathproposedbyreligionandDeschamps'ssystem.Tounderminereligionbefore
thegroundispreparedfortheauthor'ssystemistohastenthecomingofadestructiverevolution.InTheVoiceofReason,Deschampssays:

"Thisrevolutionwillobviouslyhaveitssourceinthecontemporaryphilosophicaltrends,althoughthemajoritydoesnotsuspectthis.Itwillhavemuchmorelamentable
consequencesandbringmuchmore
[116]
thegroundispreparedfortheauthor'ssystemistohastenthecomingofadestructiverevolution.InTheVoiceofReason,Deschampssays:

"Thisrevolutionwillobviouslyhaveitssourceinthecontemporaryphilosophicaltrends,althoughthemajoritydoesnotsuspectthis.Itwillhavemuchmorelamentable
consequencesandbringmuchmore
[116]

destructionthananyrevolutioncausedbyheresy.Butisthisrevolutionnotalreadybeginning?Hasdestructionnotalreadybefallenthefoundationsofreligion,aretheynot
readytocollapse,andalltherestaswell?"(Quotedin54:p.6)

Tothenegativecharacterofthephilosophes'atheismDeschampsopposeswhatheseesasthepositivecharacterofhisownsystem:

"ThesystemIamproposingdeprivesusofthejoysofparadiseandtheterrorsofhelljustlikeatheismbut,incontrasttoatheism,itleavesnodoubtastotherightness
ofthedestructionofhellandparadise.Beyondthat,itgivesusthesupremelyimportantconviction,whichatheismdoesnotandcannevergive,thatforusparadisecan
existonlyinoneplace,namely,inthisworld."(53:p.154)

Deschamps'ssocialandhistoricaldoctrineisbasedonmetaphysics.Itisderivedfromaconceptionoftheevolutionofmankindinthedirectionofthegreatest
manifestationoftheideaofoneness,oftotality:

"Theideaoftotalityisequivalenttotheideaoforder,harmony,unity,equality,perfection.Theconditionofunityorthesocialconditionderivesfromtheideaoftotality,
whichisitselfunityandunionforpurposesoftheirownwellbeing,peoplemustliveinasocialcondition."(53:p.335)

ThemechanismofthisevolutionisthedevelopmentofthesocialinstitutionswhichdetermineallotheraspectsofhumanlifeIanguage,religion,morality....Forexample:

"ItwouldbeabsurdtosupposethatmancamefromthehandsofGodalreadymature,moralandpossessingtheabilitytospeak:speechdevelopedalongwithsocietyasit
becamewhatitistoday."(53:p.102)

Deschampsconsidersvariousmanifestationsofeviltobetheresultofsocialconditionsheincludesevenhomosexuality,forexample.

Thesocialinstitutionsthemselvestakeshapeundertheinfluenceofmaterialfactorssuchasthenecessityofhuntingingroupsandtheguardingofherds,aswellasthe
advantagesofman'sphysicalstructureinparticular,thatofhishand.

Deschampsdividestheentirehistoricalprocessintothreestagesorstatesthroughwhichmankindmustpass:

"Formanthereexistonlythreestates:thesavagestateorthestateoftheanimalsintheforestthestateoflaw,*andthestateofmorals.Thefirstisastateofdisunity
withoutunity,withoutsocietythesecond

*ElsewhereDeschampscallsthisthecivilstate.

[117]

stateoursoneofextremedisunitywithinunity,andthethirdisthestateofunitywithoutdisunity.Thislastiswithoutdoubttheonlystatecapableofprovidingpeople,
insofarasthisispossible,withstrengthandhappiness."(53:p.275)

Inthesavagestatepeoplearemuchhappierthaninthestateoflaw,inwhichcontemporarycivilizedmankindlives:

"Thestateoflawforus...isundoubtedlyfarworsethanthesavagestate."(53:p.184)Thisistruewithrespecttocontemporaryprimitivepeoples:"Wetreatthemwith
disdain,yetthereisnodoubtthattheirconditionisfarlessirrationalthanours."(53:p.185)Butitisimpossibleforustoreturntothesavagestate,whichhadtocollapse
andgivebirthtothestateoflawbyforceofobjectivecausesfirstandforemost,bytheappearanceofinequality,authorityandprivateproperty.

Privatepropertyisthebasiccauseofallthevicesinherentinthestateoflaw:"Thenotionsofthineandmineinrelationtoearthlyblessingsandwomenexistonlyunder
coverofourmorals,givingbirthtoalltheevilthatsanctionsthesemorals."(53:p.178)

Thestateoflaw,inDeschamps'sopinion,isthestateofthegreatestmisfortuneforthegreatestnumberofpeople.Evilitselfisconsideredanoutgrowthofthisstate:"Evilin
manispresentonlyduetotheexistingcivilstate,whichendlesslycontradictsman'snature.Therewasnosuchevilinmanwhenhewasinasavagestate."(53:p.166)

Butthoseveryaspectsofthestateoflawthatmakeitespeciallyunbearablepreparethetransitiontothestateofmoralswhichseemstobethatparadiseonearthabout
whichDeschampsspokeinapassagequotedearlier.Hisdescription,repletewithvividdetail,containsoneofthemostuniqueandconsistentofsocialistutopias.

Alloflifeinthestateofmoralswillbecompletelysubordinatedtoonegoalthemaximumimplementationoftheideaofequalityandcommunality.Peoplewilllivewithout
mineandthine,allspecializationwilldisappear,aswillthedivisionoflabor.

"Womenwouldbethecommonpropertyofmen,asmenwouldbethecommonpossessionofwomen....Childrenwouldnotbelongtoanyparticularmanor
woman."(53:p.206)"Womencapableofgivingsuckandwhowerenotpregnantwouldnurseallchildrenwithoutdistinction....Buthowisit,youwillobject,thata
womanisnottohaveherownchildren?No,indeed!Whatwouldsheneedthatpropertyfor?"(53:p.212)Theauthorisnotalarmedbythefactthat
[118]

suchawayoflifewouldleadtoincest."Theysaythatincestgoesagainstnature.Butinfactitismerelyagainstthenatureofourmorals."Allpeople"wouldknowonly
societyandwouldbelongonlytoit,thesoleproprietor."(53:pp.211212)

Fortransitionintothisstate,muchthatisnowconsideredofvaluewouldhavetobedestroyed,including"everythingthatwecallbeautifulworksofart.Thissacrifice
wouldundoubtedlybeagreatone,butitwouldbenecessarytomake."(53:p.202)Itisnotonlytheartspoetry,painting,architecturethatwouldhavetodisappear,
butscienceandtechnologyaswell.Peoplewouldnolongerbuildshipsorstudytheglobe."AndwhyshouldtheyneedthelearningofaCopernicus,aNewtonanda
Cassini?"(53:p.224)

Languagewillbesimplifiedandmuchlessrich,andpeoplewillbegintospeakonestableandunchanginglanguage.Writingwilldisappear,togetherwiththetediouschore
Fortransitionintothisstate,muchthatisnowconsideredofvaluewouldhavetobedestroyed,including"everythingthatwecallbeautifulworksofart.Thissacrifice
wouldundoubtedlybeagreatone,butitwouldbenecessarytomake."(53:p.202)Itisnotonlytheartspoetry,painting,architecturethatwouldhavetodisappear,
butscienceandtechnologyaswell.Peoplewouldnolongerbuildshipsorstudytheglobe."AndwhyshouldtheyneedthelearningofaCopernicus,aNewtonanda
Cassini?"(53:p.224)

Languagewillbesimplifiedandmuchlessrich,andpeoplewillbegintospeakonestableandunchanginglanguage.Writingwilldisappear,togetherwiththetediouschore
oflearningtoreadandwrite.Childrenwillnotstudyatalland,instead,willlearneverythingtheyneedtoknowbyimitatingtheirelders.

Thenecessityofthinkingwillalsofallaway:"Inthesavagestatenoonethoughtorreasoned,becausenooneneededto.Inthestateoflaw,onethinksandreasons
becauseoneneedstointhestateofmorals,onewillneitherthinknorreasonbecausenoonewillhaveanyneedtodothisanylonger."(53:p.296)Oneofthemostvivid
illustrationsofthischangeofconsciousnesswillbethedisappearanceofallbooks.Theywillfindauseintheonlythingthattheyareinrealitygoodforlightingstoves.All
bookseverwrittenhadastheirgoalthepreparationforthebookwhichwouldprovetheiruselessnessDeschamps'sstudy.Itwilloutlivetherest,butfinallyit,too,willbe
burned.

People'sliveswillbesimplifiedandmadeeasier.Theywillscarcelyuseanymetalsinstead,almosteverythingwillbemadeofwood.Nolargehouseswillbebuiltand
peoplewillliveinwoodenhuts."Theirfurniturewouldconsistonlyofbenches,shelvesandtables."(53:p.217)"Freshstraw,whichwouldlaterbeusedascattlelitter,
wouldservethemasagoodbedonwhichtheywouldallresttogether,menandwomen,afterhavingputtobedtheagedandthechildren,whowouldsleep
separately."(53:p.221)Foodwouldbeprimarilyvegetarianand,thus,easytoprepare."Intheirmodestexistencetheywouldneedtoknowveryfewthings,andthese
wouldbejustthethingsthatareeasytolearn."(53:p.225)Thischangeoflifestyleisconnected
[119]

tofundamentalpsychicchanges,whichwouldtendtomake"theinclinationofeachatthesametimethecommoninclination."(53:p.210)Individualtiesbetweenpeople
andintenseindividualfeelingswoulddisappear."Therewouldbenoneofthevividbutfleetingsensationsofthehappylover,thevictorioushero,theambitiousmanwho
hadachievedhisgoal,orthelaureledartist."(53:p.205)"Alldayswouldbealike."(53:p.211)Andpeoplewouldevencometoresembleoneanother."Inthestateof
morals,noonewouldweeporlaugh.Allfaceswouldbealmostidenticalandwouldexpresssatisfaction.Intheeyesofmen,allwomenwouldresembleallotherwomen
andallmenwouldbelikeallothermenintheeyesofwomen!"(53:p.205)People'sheads"willbeasharmoniousastheynowaredissimilar."(53:p.214)"Muchmore
thaninourcase,theywouldadheretoasimilarmodeofactionineverything,andtheywouldnotconcludethatthisdemonstratesalackofreasonorunderstanding,aswe
thinkaboutanimals."(53:p.219)

Thisnewsocietywillgiverisetoanewworldview."Andtheywouldnotdoubtandthiswouldnotfrightenthemintheleastthatpeople,too,existonlyasaresultofthe
vicissitudesoflifeandsomedayaredestinedtoperishasaconsequenceofthesamevicissitudesand,perhaps,tobeeventuallyreproducedoncemorebymeansofa
transformationfromoneaspecttoanother."(53:p.225)"Becausethey,likeus,wouldnottakeintoaccountthattheyweredeadearlier,thatis,thattheirconstituentparts
didnotexistinthepastinhumanformtheywouldalso,beingmoreconsistentthanwe,notplaceanysignificanceontheterminationofthisexistenceinthisforminthe
future."(53:p.228)"Theirburialswouldnotbedistinguishablefromthoseofcattle."(53:p.229)For:"theirdeadfellowswouldnotmeanmoretothemthandeadcattle.
...Theywouldnotbeattachedtoanyparticularpersonsufficientlysothattheywouldfeelhisdeathasapersonallossandmournit."(53:p.230)"Theywoulddieaquiet
death,adeaththatwouldresembletheirlives."(53:p.228)

4.TheFirstSteps

WehaveseenhowsocialismwasnurturedbythephilosophyoftheEnlightenment.ThenewinfantcameintotheworldatthetimeoftheGreatRevolutionandwassuckled
byMotherGuillotine.Butittookitsfirststepsdownlife'spathaftertheheroicepochoftheTerror
[120]

hadalreadypassed.Itistouchingtoseetraitsofthefutureshakerofkingdomsandshattererofthronesemergefromthecharminginfantileawkwardness.

In1796,afterRobespierre'sfallandduringtheruleoftheDirectoire,asecretsocietywasfoundedinParis.Itplannedapoliticalcoupandworkedoutaprogramfora
futuresocialistorganizationofthenation.ThesocietywasheadedbytheSecretDirectoryofPublicSalvation,whichreliedonanetworkofagents.Amongitsleading
memberswerePhilippeBuonarrotiandFranoisEmile(wholatercalledhimselfCaiusGracchus)Babeuf.Amilitarycommitteewascreatedtopreparefortheuprising.
Theconspiratorshopedforthesupportofthearmy.Accordingtotheircalculations,seventeenthousandmenwouldcometotheiractiveaid.Afteraninformer'stip,the
leadersoftheconspiracywerearrestedtwoofthem,includingBabeuf,wereexiled.

Whenhereturnedfromexile,Buonarroticontinuedtopropagandizehisviews.Themajorityofthesocialistrevolutionariesofthedaywereunderhisinfluence.In
particular,hefoundedacircleinGenevawhichwastoexertagreatinfluenceonWeitling(whoseroleintheformationofMarx'sviewsiswellknown).

Numerousdocumentsinwhichthesocietysetforthitsviewswerepublishedbythegovernmentimmediatelyaftertheconspiracywasuncovered.Adetaileddescriptionof
theconspiracyanditsplanswaslatergivenbyBuonarrotiinhisbookConspiracyofEquals.

Thecentralprincipleofthissociety'sprogramwastheneedforequalityatanycost.Thiswasreflectedintheverytitleofthework.Theprincipleofequalitywaslaiddown
intheir"Manifesto"withinvulnerableGalliclogic:

"Allmenareequal,aretheynot?Thisprincipleisirrefutable,foronlyamanwhohaslosthisreasoncaninfullearnestnesscallnightday."(55:II:p.134)

Havingestablishedthisunshakablefoundation,the"Manifesto"proceedstodrawconclusionsfromthisaxiom:

"Wetrulywantequalityordeath.Thisiswhatwewant."(55:II:p.134)"Foritssake,wearereadyforanythingwearewillingtosweepeverythingaway.Letallthearts
vanish,ifnecessary,aslongasgenuineequalityremainsforus."(55:II:p.135)"Lettherebeanend,atlast,totheoutrageousdifferencesbetweentherichandthepoor,
thehighandthelow,thelordsandtheservants,thegovernorsandthegoverned."(55:II:p.136)
[121]

Thisleddirectlytothecommunalityofproperty:

"Theagrarianlaw,thatis,thedivisionofarableland,wasatemporaryrequirementofunprincipledsoldiers,ofcertaintribes,whowerepromptedmorebyinstinctthanby
reason.Weaspiretosomethingmoreloftyandjustthecommunityofproperty."(55:II:p.135)

Therightofindividualpropertywastobeabolished.Thecountrywastobeturnedintoasingleeconomicunitbuiltexclusivelyonbureaucraticprinciples.Trade,exceptfor
thesmallesttransactions,wastobestoppedandmoneywithdrawnfromcirculation.
"Theagrarianlaw,thatis,thedivisionofarableland,wasatemporaryrequirementofunprincipledsoldiers,ofcertaintribes,whowerepromptedmorebyinstinctthanby
reason.Weaspiretosomethingmoreloftyandjustthecommunityofproperty."(55:II:p.135)

Therightofindividualpropertywastobeabolished.Thecountrywastobeturnedintoasingleeconomicunitbuiltexclusivelyonbureaucraticprinciples.Trade,exceptfor
thesmallesttransactions,wastobestoppedandmoneywithdrawnfromcirculation.

"Itisnecessarythateverythingproducedonthelandorinindustrybekeptingeneralstorehousesforequitabledistributionamongcitizensunderthesupervisionofthe
appropriateofficials."(55:II:p.309)

Simultaneously,universalobligatorylaborisintroduced.

"IndividualswhodonothingforthefatherlandcannotenjoypoliticalrightsofanykindtheyareasforeignersaffordedthehospitalityoftheRepublic."(55:II:p.206)

"Todonothingforthefatherlandmeansnottoserveitbyusefullabor....Thelawtreatsasusefullaborthefollowingendeavors:agriculture,stockraising,fishing,
navigation,mechanicalandartisancrafts,pettytrade,transportationofmenandgoods,militaryarts,educationandscientificactivities....Personsengagedinteachingor
sciencemustsubmitcertificatesofloyalty.Onlyinthiscaseistheirlaborconsidereduseful....Officialssuperviseworkandseetoitthatjobsareequitablydistributed.
...Foreignersareforbiddentotakepartinpublicgatherings.Theyareunderthedirectsupervisionofthesupremeadministration,whichcandeportthemtoaplaceof
correctivelabor."(55:II:pp.296297)Underpainofdeaththeyareforbiddentopossessweapons.

Thecreatorsofthisplanwereawarethatcarryingitoutwouldentailanunprecedentedgrowthinthenumberofofficials.Theyposethisquestioninbroadterms:

"Indeed,neverbeforehasanationpossessedtheminsuchgreatnumbers.Apartfromthefactthatincertaincircumstanceseverycitizenwouldbeanofficialsupervising
himselfandothers,itisbeyonddoubtthatpublicofficeswouldbeverynumerousandthenumberofofficialsverygreat."(55:I:p.372)

Hereishowtheinterrelationshipofindividualswiththebureaucracyisconceived:

"InthepublicstructuredevisedbytheCommittee,thefatherlandtakescontrolofanindividualfromhisbirthtillhisdeath."
[122]

Theauthoritiesbeginbyeducatingthechild:

"Protecthimfromdangerousfalsetendernessandbythehandofhismotherleadhimtoastateinstitutionwherehewillacquirethevirtuesandknowledgenecessaryfor
thetruecitizen."(55:I:p.380)

Youthsaretransferredfromstateschoolstomilitarycampsonlylater,undertheguidanceofofficials,dotheyundertake"usefullabor."

"Themunicipaladministrationistobekeptconstantlyawareofthepositionoftheworkingpeopleofeveryclassandoftheassignmentstheyarefulfilling.Itistoinformthe
supremeadministrationinthisregard."(55:II:p.304)"Thesupremeadministrationwillsentencetoforcedlabor...personsofeithersexwhosetsocietyabadexampleby
absenceofcivicmindedness,byidleness,aluxuriouswayoflife,licentiousness."(55:II:p.305)

Thispunishmentisdescribedlovinglyandingreatdetail:

"TheislandsofMargueriteandHonor,theHyres,OlronandRaretobeturnedintoplacesofcorrectivelabor,whereforeignerswhoaresuspiciousandpersons
arrestedforaddressingproclamationstotheFrenchpeoplewillbesent.Therewillbenoaccesstotheseislands.Theywillbeadministeredbyanorganizationdirectly
subordinatetothegovernment."(55:II:p.299)

Afterthesedarkpictures,thesectioncalled"FreedomofthePress"isapositivejoy.

"Itwillbenecessarytodevisemeansbywhichalltheassistancethatcanbeexpectedofthepresscanbeextractedfromit,withouttheriskofonceagainendangeringthe
justiceofequalityandtherightsofthepeopleorofabandoningtheRepublictointerminableandfataldiscussions."(55:I:p.390)

The"means"turnouttoverysimple:

"Noonewillbeallowedtoutterviewsthatareindirectcontradictiontothesacredprinciplesofequalityandthesovereigntyofthepeople....Thepublicationofanywork
havingapsuedocriticalcharacterisforbidden....Allworksaretobeprintedanddisseminatedonlyiftheguardiansofthewillofthenationconsiderthatitspublication
maybenefittheRepublic."(55:I:p.391)

OnecannotbutadmirehowthecreatorsofthissystemmanagedtoConcernthemselveswiththeslightestneedofthecitizenofthefutureRepublic.

"Ineverycommune,publicmealswillbetaken,withcompulsoryattendanceforallcommunitymembers....Amemberofthenational
[123]

communitywillbeabletoobtainhisdailyrationonlyinthedistrictofhisresidence,exceptwhenheistravelingwiththepermissionoftheadministration."(55:II:pp.306
307)

"Entertainmentthatisnotavailabletoeveryoneistobestrictlyforbidden."(55:I:p.299)Thisisexplainedinanotherpassage:"...forfearlestimagination,releasedfrom
thesupervisionofastrictjudge,shouldengenderabominablevicessocontrarytothecommonweal."(55:I:p.348)

The"Equals"informusthattheyarefriendsofallnations.Buttemporarily,aftertheirvictory,Franceistobestringentlyisolated.

UntilothernationswouldadheretothepoliticalprinciplesofFrance,noclosecontactswiththemcanbemaintained.Untilthen,Francewillonlyseeamenaceforherselfin
theircustoms,institutionsand,especially,theirgovernments."(55:I:p.357)

ItappearsthattherewasdisagreementamongEqualsoveronequestion.Buonarrotifeltthatadivineprincipleandimmortalityofthesoulshouldberecognized,sincefora
society"itisessentialthatcitizensrecognizeaninfalliblejudgeoftheirsecretthoughtsandacts,whichcannotbepersecutedbylaw,andthattheyshouldbelievethata
naturalresultoffaithfulnesstohumanityandthefatherlandwillbeeternalbliss."(55:I:p.348)"Allsocalledrevelationoughttobebanishedbylaw,togetherwithmaladies
thegermsofwhichoughttobegraduallyeradicated.Untilthatoccurs,allweretobefreetogiveventtowhims,solongasthesocialstructure,universalbrotherhoodand
UntilothernationswouldadheretothepoliticalprinciplesofFrance,noclosecontactswiththemcanbemaintained.Untilthen,Francewillonlyseeamenaceforherselfin
theircustoms,institutionsand,especially,theirgovernments."(55:I:p.357)

ItappearsthattherewasdisagreementamongEqualsoveronequestion.Buonarrotifeltthatadivineprincipleandimmortalityofthesoulshouldberecognized,sincefora
society"itisessentialthatcitizensrecognizeaninfalliblejudgeoftheirsecretthoughtsandacts,whichcannotbepersecutedbylaw,andthattheyshouldbelievethata
naturalresultoffaithfulnesstohumanityandthefatherlandwillbeeternalbliss."(55:I:p.348)"Allsocalledrevelationoughttobebanishedbylaw,togetherwithmaladies
thegermsofwhichoughttobegraduallyeradicated.Untilthatoccurs,allweretobefreetogiveventtowhims,solongasthesocialstructure,universalbrotherhoodand
theforceofthelawwouldnotbedisrupted."(55:I:pp.348349)Buonarrotibelievedthat"theteachingofJesus,ifdepictedasflowingoutofthenaturalreligionfrom
whichitdoesnotdiffer,couldbecomeasupportofareformbasedonreason."(55:I:p.168)ButBabeufheldamorenarrowview:"Iattackrelentlesslythemainidol,
untilnowveneratedandfearedbyourphilosophers,whodaredtoattackonlyhisretinueandsurroundings....ChristwasneitherasansculottenoranhonestJacobinnor
awisemannoramoralistnoraphilosophernoralegislator."(55:II:p.398)

AcademicianV.P.Volgin,aneminentspecialistontheliteratureofutopiansocialism,notestheimportantinnovationintroducedbyBabeufandtheEqualsincomparison
withothersocialistthinkers.WhilepredecessorslikeMore,CampanellaandMorellyfocusedonapictureofafullyformedsocialistcommunity,Babeufponderedthe
problemsofthetransitionalperiodaswell,suggestingmethodsfor
[124]

establishingandstrengtheningthenewlybornsocialistsystem.Indeed,therecordsoftheEqualsyieldmuchthatisfascinatingandinstructiveinthisconnection.

Itgoeswithoutsayingthatinanalreadyestablishedsocialistsociety,legislativepoweristobeentirelyinthehandsofthepeople.Inalldistricts,"assembliesofpopular
sovereignty"arecreatedeachismadeupofallthecitizensofagivendistrict.Delegatesappointeddirectlybythepeopleconstitutethe"CentralAssemblyof
Legislators."(Theprocedurefor"appointment"isnotfurtherspecified.)Thelegislativepoweroftheseassembliesisrestricted,however,bycertainbasicprincipleswhich
"thepeoplethemselvesarenotempoweredtoviolateortoalter."Inadditiontolegislativeassemblies,andparalleltothem,senatesconsistingofoldmenaretobe
instituted.Supremepowerwastobegivenovertoacorporationof"GuardiansoftheNationalWill."Thiswasconceivedasakindof"tribunalresponsibleforoverseeing
thelegislators,sothatthosewhoabusetherightofissuingdecreeswouldnotencroachuponlegislativepower."(55:I:p.359)

Intheperiodimmediatelyfollowingtherevolution,however,adifferentstructureofgovernmentwasenvisaged."Whatkindofauthoritywouldthisbe?Suchwasthe
delicatequestionthattheSecretDirectoryhassubjectedtothoroughscrutiny."(55:I:p.216)Theanswertothis"delicatequestion"couldbesummedupasfollows:
powerwouldbeconcentratedinthehandsoftheconspiratorsorpartlysharedwithindividualsappointedbythem.

"ItwillbeproposedtothepeopleofParistoinstituteaNationalAssemblyvestedwithsupremepowerandconsistingofdemocrats,onefromeverydepartment
meanwhiletheSecretDirectorywillinvestigatethoroughlyastowhichofthedemocratsoughttobeputforwardaftertherevolutioniscompleted.TheDirectorywillnot
ceasetoactbutwillcarryonsupervisionofthenewAssembly."(55:I:p.293)Afterprolongedhesitation,theconspiratorsalmostmadeuptheirmindsto"askthepeople
foradecreewhichwouldentrustthelegislativeinitiativeandtheimplementationoflaws"tothemalone.(55:I:p.290)

Inthesectionentitled"IntheInitialStageofReformtheAgenciesMustBeEntrustedOnlytoRevolutionaries,"weread:

"AtrueRepublicshouldbefoundedonlybythoseselflessfriendsofhumanityandthefatherlandwhosewisdomandcourageexceedthewisdomandcourageoftheir
contemporaries."(55:I:p.375)
[125]

Therefore,acommitteecomposedofthese"selflessfriendsofhumanity"wouldseetoitthat"publicinstitutionsconsistingsolelyofthebestrevolutionaries"shouldhave
onlyaverygradualchangeofpersonnel.(55:I:p.375)

Inmoreconcreteterms,sixtyeightdeputieschosenfromamongthoseservingintheConventionofthedayweredesignatedbytheCommitteetobeleftinplace.Tothese
weretobeaddedanotheronehundreddeputies"selectedbyusjointlywiththepeople."

Beginningwiththefirstdayoftherevolution,economicreformsweretobeundertaken,assetforthintheir"economicdecree."Howgoodtolearnthatimplementationwas
tobeonapurelyvoluntarybasis.Allthosewhowouldrenouncetheirpropertyvoluntarilywouldmakeupalargenationalcommunity.Buteveryonewouldretaintheright
nottojointhiscommunity.Thosewhodidnotwouldacquirethestatusof"foreigners"withalltheattendantrightsanddutiessketchedinabove.Theeconomicpositionof
"foreigners"isdefinedinthe"DecreeonTaxation,"whichcontains,amongotherpoints,suchthingsas:

"1.Thesoletaxpayersaretheindividualswhodonotjointhecommunity....

"4.Thesumoftaxpaymentsineachcurrentyearistwicetheamountoftheprecedingyear....

"6.Personsnotpartytothenationalcommunitymayberequired,incaseofnecessityandagainstpaymentoffuturetaxes,tosupplyproduceandmanufacturedgoodsto
thestorehousesofthenationalcommunity."(55:II:pp.312313)

Thedecree"OnDebts,"articlethree,statesthatdebtsowedby"anyFrenchmanwhohasbecomeamemberofthenationalcommunitytoanyotherFrenchmanare
annulled."(55:II:p.313)

Othermeasuresdesignedtostrengthenthenewlyestablishedregimeandtopromoteitsreformswereelaborated.Forinstance,"distributionofthepossessionsof
emigrants,conspiratorsandenemiesofthepeopletodefendersofthefatherlandandtothepoor."(55:II:p.253)

Itistemptingtothinkthatitwasprofoundknowledgeoflife,basedonpersonaltragicexperience,thatpromptedthe"selflessfriendsofhumanity"toplaninstitutingthe
followinghighlyimportantreforms,ontheveryfirstdayoftherevolution:

"Objectsbelongingtothepeople[!]andinhockwillbeimmediatelyreturnedwithoutcharge....Oncompletionoftheuprising,indigent
[126]

citizensnowresidinginpoorlodgingswillnotreturntotheirhabitualabodestheywillbeimmediatelyinstalledinthehousesoftheconspirators."(55:II:p.281)(The
readershouldnotethattheparticipantsinthe"ConspiracyofEquals"usedtheterm"conspirator"nottorefertothemselvesbutrathertothegovernmentandto
representativesofhostileclasses.)

Unfortunately,thedisciplesoftheAgeofReasondidnotleaveamoredetailedaccountofthisoperation.Hadtheeconomyofthetimeattainedsohighalevelthatthe
numberofindigentcitizensnolongersurpassedthatofthe"conspirators"?Or,ifthelodgingsofthe"conspirators"wouldnotsufficetoaccommodatealltheindigent,in
whatwaywouldtheluckynewownersofapartmentsbechosen?Thedocumentsofthe"ConspiracyofEquals"areoflittlehelponthesepoints,*butwelearnsomeother
citizensnowresidinginpoorlodgingswillnotreturntotheirhabitualabodestheywillbeimmediatelyinstalledinthehousesoftheconspirators."(55:II:p.281)(The
readershouldnotethattheparticipantsinthe"ConspiracyofEquals"usedtheterm"conspirator"nottorefertothemselvesbutrathertothegovernmentandto
representativesofhostileclasses.)

Unfortunately,thedisciplesoftheAgeofReasondidnotleaveamoredetailedaccountofthisoperation.Hadtheeconomyofthetimeattainedsohighalevelthatthe
numberofindigentcitizensnolongersurpassedthatofthe"conspirators"?Or,ifthelodgingsofthe"conspirators"wouldnotsufficetoaccommodatealltheindigent,in
whatwaywouldtheluckynewownersofapartmentsbechosen?Thedocumentsofthe"ConspiracyofEquals"areoflittlehelponthesepoints,*butwelearnsomeother
interestingdetails.

"Thefurnitureoftheabovementionedrichwillbeconfiscatedasnecessaryfortheadequatefurnishingofthedwellingsofthesansculottes."(55:II:p.282)

Finally,terrorwasenvisagedasoneofthemeasuresofstrengtheningtheregime.ThetribunalswhichhadactedduringtheJacobinterroruntiltheninthofThermidor,
1794,weretoberestored.And:"Onpainofbeingheldoutsidethelaw,returntoprisonallpersonswhowereheldthereuntiltheninthofThermidorofyearII,ifthey
havenotcompliedwiththecalltolimitthemselvestothenecessitiesforthebenefitofthepeople."(55:I:p.404)"Anyresistancemustbeimmediatelysuppressedby
forcethepersonsinvolvedaretobeexterminated.Alsoliabletocapitalpunishmentarepersonssoundinganalarmthemselvesorcausingotherstodosoandforeigners,
nomatterwhattheirnationality,whoareapprehendedonthestreet."(55:II:p.232)MembersoftheexistinggovernmentmembersofthetwoCouncilsandofthe
ExecutiveDirectorateweretobeexecuted."Thecrimewasevidentandthepunishmenthadtobedeathagreatexamplewasessential."(55:I:p.283)

"IntheInsurgentCommittee,viewswerecurrenttotheeffectthatthecondemnedweretobeburiedundertherubbleoftheirpalaces,whoseruinswouldservetoremind
futuregenerationsofthejustpunishmentmetedouton.theenemiesofthepeople."(55:I:p.284)

Inelaboratingtheirsystemofreformsandpracticalmeasures,the

*Althoughthereisthefollowingremark:"Itwouldbeanerrortoconfusethesystematicdistributionoflodgingsandclotheswithpillage."(55:I:p.282)

[127]

activistsofthe"ConspiracyofEquals"didnotclosetheireyestoobjectionswhichtheymightencounter:"Disorganizers,rebels,theysaytous,allyouwantismassacre
andplunder."Suchchargesaresweptaside,however:"Neverhassobroadaplanbeenconceivedandbroughtintoexistence."(55:II:p.136)"Letthemshowus,"they
wouldexclaim,"anotherpoliticalsystemwithwhichsuchgreatresultscouldbeobtainedwithmoreeasilyimplementedmeans."(55:I:p.339)

Wenotewithsorrowhowsuchaperfectlyconceivedsystemwasconstantlyhamperedinpracticebyahostofpettyandsqualiddifficulties.Firstofall,theconspirators
didnotavoidwhatRabelaiscalled"theincomparablegrief,"thatis,lackofmoney.Inthesectionentitled"TheParticipantsintheConspiracyDespisedMoney,"Buonarotti
says:

"Certainstepswereundertakentoobtainmeans,butthegreatestsumthattheSecretDirectoryeverhadatitsdisposalwas240francsincash,contributedbythe
ambassadorofanallied[?]republic."(55:I:251)

WecannothelpbutsympathizewhenBuonarottilaments:"Howdifficultitistodogoodarmedonlywithmeansacknowledgedbyreason."(55:I:p.251)

Andasecondmisfortunebefellourheroesinternaldiscordoverdividingpowernotyetseized.TheCommitteewasatfirstjoinedbyasmallgroupthatcalleditselfthe
Montagnards.Butsoon,"theCommitteewasinformedthattheyhadsecretlyundertakenmaneuverstogetaroundtheconditionswhichhadbeenagreeduponsoasto
guaranteethatsupremepowerintheRepublicwouldbeintheMontagnards'hands.TheCommitteewassothoroughlyconvincedtheycoulddonogoodthatitconsidered
theslightestmovementwhichgavethemanypowertobeanunforgivablecrime."(55:I:p.286)

Andfinally,athirdmisfortune:TheCommitteeturnedouttobeundertheinfluenceofanagentprovocateur.Grisel,amemberofthemilitarycommittee,"hurriedhis
trustingcolleaguesalong,overcameobstacles,suggestednewmeasuresandneverforgottoencouragethosearoundhimwithexaggeratedpicturesoftheloyaltyofthe
Grenelledemocraticcamp."(55:I:p.265)AnditwasthisGriselwhowasdenouncingtheCommitteetotheauthorities!

TheInsurgentCommitteewasalreadyworkingoutthedetailsoftheuprising.Oneofitsmemberswaswritingaproclamationcalled:"TheInsurgentCommitteeof
PublicSalvation...Thepeoplehavetriumphed,tyrannyisnomore...."(55:I:p.400)
[128]

"Atthispoint,thewriterwasinterruptedandseized,"saysBuonarotti,whoseemsnottohavelosthisFrenchwit.Thearmyandthepeoplehadnotsupportedthe
conspirators:"Thestandingarmy,withweaponsinhand,helpedthecampaignagainstdemocracy,whilethepopulationofParis,persuadedthatthosearrestedwere
thieves,remainedapassivewitness."(55:I:p.417)

Thecircumstancesofthisastonishingepisodepromptedustoresorttoaformofpresentationthatperhapsseemsoutofplaceinournarrative.Butthisdissonancereflects
acuriousobjectivepropertyofthephenomenonunderstudy.Atthemomentoftheirinception,socialistmovementsoftenstrikeonebytheirhelplessness,theirisolation
fromreality,theirnaIvelyadventuristiccharacterandtheircomic,"Gogolian"features(asBerdyaevputit).Onegetstheimpressionthatthesehopelessfailureshaven'ta
chanceofsuccess,andthatinfacttheydoeverythingintheirpowertocompromisetheideastheyareproclaiming.However,theyaremerelybidingtheirtime.Atsome
point,almostunexpectedly,theseideasfindabroadpopularreception,andbecometheforcesthatdeterminethecourseofhistory,whiletheleadersofthesemovements
cometorulethedestinyofnations.(InthiswayafrightenedMntzerclimbedovertheAllstedtcitywall,havingdeceivedhissupporters,onlytobecome,soonthereafter,
oneoftheleadingfiguresinthePeasantWarwhichshookGermany.)ItwouldseemthattherewasnocontradictionwhenDostoyevskypeopledhisnovelThePossessed
with"threeandahalf'nihilistsincapableofmakingaseriousdisturbanceinaprovincialtown,whileatthesametimepredictinganimminentrevolutionthatwouldcarry
awayonehundredmillionlives.

Summary

WeshallattempttosumupthosenewfeaturesofsocialistideologythatwehaveencounteredinutopiansocialismandinworksoftheEnlightenment.

1.IfintheMiddleAgesandduringtheReformationsocialistideasdevelopedwithinmovementsthatwerereligious,atleastformally,utopiansocialismtendstobreakwith
religiousformandgraduallyacquireacharacterhostiletoreligion.InMoreandCampanellawewereabletopointoutanalienatedandattimesironicattitudetoward
Christianity.Winstanleyisopenlyhostiletocontemporaryreligions.
[129]
WeshallattempttosumupthosenewfeaturesofsocialistideologythatwehaveencounteredinutopiansocialismandinworksoftheEnlightenment.

1.IfintheMiddleAgesandduringtheReformationsocialistideasdevelopedwithinmovementsthatwerereligious,atleastformally,utopiansocialismtendstobreakwith
religiousformandgraduallyacquireacharacterhostiletoreligion.InMoreandCampanellawewereabletopointoutanalienatedandattimesironicattitudetoward
Christianity.Winstanleyisopenlyhostiletocontemporaryreligions.
[129]

Deschampsrejectsallreligion,declaringtheideaofGodtobeahumaninvention,theresultofmankind'soppressedstateandaninstrumentofoppression.Initsstead,he
putsforwardtheenigmaticconceptionofGodwhoisNothing.Finally,MeslierbaseshisworldoutlookonahatredofreligionandChristianityandofChristinparticular.
Thusonecanspeakofagradualmergingofsocialistideologyandatheism.

2.TheSocialismofthisepochborrowstheideaderivedfrommedievalmysticism(JoachimofFlore's,forinstance)thathistoryisanimmanentandorderlyevolutionary
process.However,thegoalandthedrivingforceinvestedinthisprocessbythemysticsknowledgeofGodandmergingwithHimiseliminated.Instead,progressis
recognizedasthemotivatingforceofhistory,andhumanreasonisseenasitssupremeproduct.

3.Socialistdoctrinespreservethenotionofthemedievalmysticsaboutthethreestagesinthehistoricalprocess,aswellastheschemeofthefallofmankindandits
returntotheoriginalstateinamoreperfectform.Thesocialistdoctrinescontainthefollowingcomponents:

a.Themythofaprimordial"naturalstate"or"goldenage,"whichwasdestroyedbythatbearerofevilcalledprivateproperty.

b.Acastigationofthewaythingsare.Contemporarysocietyispronouncedincurablydepraved,unjustandmeaningless,readyonlytobescrapped.Onlyonitsruinscananew
socialstructurebebuilt,astructurethatwouldguaranteepeopleeveryhappinessofwhichtheyarecapable.

c.Theprophecy ofanewsocietybuiltonsocialistprinciples,asocietyinwhichallpresentshortcomingswoulddisappear.Thisistheonlypathformankindtoreturntothe
"naturalstate,"asMorellyputit:fromtheunconsciousGoldenAgetotheconsciousone.

4.Theideaof"liberation,"whichwasunderstoodbythemedievalheresiestobeliberationofthespiritfromthepowerofmatter,istransformedintoanappealfor
liberationfromthemoralityofcontemporarysociety,fromitssocialinstitutionsand,mostofall,fromprivateproperty.

Atfirst,reasonisrecognizedtobethedrivingforceofthisliberation,butgraduallyitsplaceistakenoverbythepeople,thepoor.Intheworldviewoftheparticipantsin
the"ConspiracyofEquals,"wecanseethisconceptioninfinishedform.Asaresult,newconcretefeaturesappearintheplanfortheestablishmentofthe"societyofthe
future":terror,occupationoftheapartmentsoftherichbythepoor,confiscationoffurniture,abolitionofdebts,etc.
[130]

PARTTWO
STATESOCIALISM

[131]

IV.
SouthAmerica
1.TheIncaEmpire

Inthefirstpartofthisstudy,wehaveseenhowthestablesetofsocialideasthatwehavecalledchiliasticsocialismwasexpressedinvariousperiodsofhumanhistory,
overthecourseofatleasttwoandahalfmillennia.Weshallnowtrytotracetheattemptstoimplementtheseideasinparticularsocialstructures.Ourprimarygoalisto
showthathere,justasinthecaseofchiliasticsocialism,wearedealingwithauniversalphenomenon,onebynomeanslimitedtoourcentury.Weshallreviewseveral
examplesofstateswhoselifewasbuilt,ingreatpart,onsocialistprinciples.

WeencounterhereafarmoredifficulttaskthantheonethatoccupiedusinPartIofthisstudy.Afterall,anauthorofaworkinwhichsocialistprinciplesarepropounded
mustproceedfromthenotionthattheseideasarenovelandunusualtohisreader.Heisthereforecompelledtoexplainthem.Butinthescanteconomicandpolitical
documentationthathasbeenpreservedfromremoteepochs(andsometimescultureswithoutwrittenlanguagesareinvolved),themeaningsofthetermsusedarenot
elucidatedforthereaderofthefuture.Suchdocumentswereintendedforpeopletowhomtheterminologywouldhavebeenunderstandable.Toreconstructfrom
scatteredhintsthewayoflife,tocomprehendthelegalandeconomicrelationsofthemembersofasocietyfarremovedintime,isthereforeataskofextremedifficulty,
muchmoredifficultthantoreconstructtheappearanceandbehaviorofaprehistoriccreaturefromthefossilremains.Inmostcases,we
[132]

seethehistoriansofferingaseriesofopinionsratherthananydefinitiveformulation.

Ifthepresentepochisexcluded,itwasonlyoncethatEuropeanswereabletoobserveatfirsthandastateofthistype.Manyintelligentandobservanttravelersleft
accountsofthisstate,andcertainofitsnativesacquiredEuropeancultureandleftnarrativesaboutthewayoflifeoftheirfathers.Thisphenomenon,whichisfarmore
importantforthehistorianofsocialismthandescriptionsoftheappearanceandbehaviorofadinosaurwouldbeforapaleontologist,isTawantinsuyutheIncaempire
conqueredbySpanishinvadersinthesixteenthcentury.

TheSpaniardsdiscoveredtheIncastatein1531.Atthattime,ithadexistedforsometwohundredyearsandhadachieveditspeak,encompassingtheterritoryof
contemporaryEcuador,Bolivia,Peru,thenorthernhalfofChileandthenorthwesternpartofArgentina.Accordingtoseveralsources,itspopulationwastwelvemillion.

Theempire,astheSpaniardsfoundit,wasaswellorganizedasitwashuge.Accordingtotheiraccounts,thecapital,Cuzco,rivaledthebiggestEuropeancitiesofthat
time.Ithadapopulationofabout200,000.TheSpaniardswerestruckbythemagnificentpalacesandtemples,withfaadesasmuchastwohundredmeterslong,the
aqueductsandthepavedstreets.Thehouseswerebuiltoflargestonessofinelypolishedandfittedtogetherthattheyseemedtobeofonepiece.Outside,Cuzco,there
wasafortressthatwasbuiltofstonesweighingtwelvetonseachitsoamazedtheSpaniardsthattheyrefusedtobelieveitcouldhavebeenmadebymen,withoutthehelp
TheSpaniardsdiscoveredtheIncastatein1531.Atthattime,ithadexistedforsometwohundredyearsandhadachieveditspeak,encompassingtheterritoryof
contemporaryEcuador,Bolivia,Peru,thenorthernhalfofChileandthenorthwesternpartofArgentina.Accordingtoseveralsources,itspopulationwastwelvemillion.

Theempire,astheSpaniardsfoundit,wasaswellorganizedasitwashuge.Accordingtotheiraccounts,thecapital,Cuzco,rivaledthebiggestEuropeancitiesofthat
time.Ithadapopulationofabout200,000.TheSpaniardswerestruckbythemagnificentpalacesandtemples,withfaadesasmuchastwohundredmeterslong,the
aqueductsandthepavedstreets.Thehouseswerebuiltoflargestonessofinelypolishedandfittedtogetherthattheyseemedtobeofonepiece.Outside,Cuzco,there
wasafortressthatwasbuiltofstonesweighingtwelvetonseachitsoamazedtheSpaniardsthattheyrefusedtobelieveitcouldhavebeenmadebymen,withoutthehelp
ofdemons.(56:p.114,57:pp.7282)

Thecapitalcitywasjoinedtotheoutlyingpartsoftheempirebyexcellentroadways,innowayinferiortoRomanroadsandfarbetterthantheonesinSpainatthetime.
Theroadsranalongdikesinswampyterrain,cutthroughrockandcrossedgorgesbymeansofsuspensionbridges.(56:pp.106,113,57:pp.9396)Anefficiently
organizedserviceoffootmessengersguaranteedcommunicationsbetweenthecapitalandtherestofthecountry.Aroundthecapitalandothertowns,aswellasalongthe
roads,therewerestatestorehousesfullofproduce,clothing,utensilsandmilitaryequipment.(56:pp.6167,57:pp.100101,58:pp.6167)

InstarkcontrasttothesuperborganizationoftheIncastate,itsleveloftechnicalknowledgewasastonishinglyprimitive.Mosttools
[133]

andweaponsweremadeofwoodandstone.Ironwasunknown,aswastheplow,andlandwastilledwithawoodenhoe.Theonlydomesticanimalwasthellama,from
whichmeatandwoolwereobtainedbutwhichwasnotusedforfarmingortransportation.Allfarmworkwasperformedmanually,andtravelwaseitherbyfootorby
palanquin.Finally,theIncashadnowritingsystem,althoughtheycouldtransmitgreatamountsofinformationbymeansofquipu,acomplexsystemofknottedstrings.*

Hencethelowleveloftechnologyhadtobecompensatedforbyperfectorganizationofhugemassesofthepopulation.Asanaturalresult,privateinterestsweretoa
considerableextentsubordinatedtothoseofthestate.Andso,aswemightexpect,weencountercertainsocialistfeaturesinIncasociety.

Whatfollowsisabriefsketchofitsstructure.Fortunately,muchinformationisavailable.Theconquistadorsprovedtobemorethanmindlessmilitarymentheygrasped
muchofwhattheysawandsomeoftheiraccountshavesurvived.IntheirwakecameCatholicpriests,whoalsoleftdetaileddescriptions.Finally,theconquistadors
marriedgirlsfromtheIncarulingcircles,andthechildrenoftheseunions,whobelongedtotheSpanisharistocracy,atthesametimeretainedclosetieswiththelocal
population.TothembelongthemostvaluabledescriptionsoflifeintheIncastatepriortotheSpanishconquest.

ThepopulationoftheIncastatewasdividedintothreestrata:

1.Incastherulingclass,descendantsofatribethatinthepasthadconqueredanancientstatenearLakeTiticaca.Variousauthorsrefertothemasaristocracy,theelite,
thebureaucracy.Fromthisclasscametheadministrators,thearmyofficercorps,priestsandscholarsandofcourse,theabsoluterulerofthecountry,theInca.Thisclass
washereditary,butchiefsofconqueredtribesandevensoldiersdistinguishedinwarmightoccasionallyenterit.

2.Thebulkofthepopulationpeasants,herdsmen,artisans.Theyhadtwotypesofobligationtothestate:militaryandlabor.Bothofthesewillbedescribedbelow.
Sometimestheywereutilizedinotherwaysbythestate,forinstancetosettleanewlyconqueredterritory,ortoprovidematerial(women)forhumansacrifices.

3.Thestateslavesyanacuna.Accordingtolegend,theydescendedfromatribethathadoncerebelledagainstthestate,had

*Cf.58:p.358.Accordingtolegend,writinghadbeenprohibitedbythefounderoftheIncaempire.

[134]

beencrushed,andhadbeensentencedtoextermination.Butinresponsetoapleabyhiswife,theIncachangedthesentencetoperpetualslavery.Thereafterthemembers
ofthisgroupoccupiedthelowestpositioninthecountry.Theyworkedthestatelands,herdedthellamasbelongingtothestateandservedasservantsinthehousesofthe
Incas.(57:pp.124125)

ThebasicformofpropertyintheIncaempirewasland.Theoretically,alllandbelongedtotheIncaandwasdistributedbyhimtotheIncasandpeasantsfortheiruse.The
landsreceivedbytheIncaswerehereditary,buttheywereapparentlymanagedbyadministrators,whiletheIncasthemselvesmerelymadeuseoftheproduce.These
landswereworkedbypeasantsinamannerdescribedbelow.Peasantsalsoreceivedlandforusefromthestate.Thebasicunitwasthetupuaplotlargeenoughto
sustainoneperson.EveryIndianreceivedonetupuatmarriage,anotherforeachsonandhalfatupuforeachdaughter.Afterthedeathofatenant,thelandrevertedtothe
state.(56:pp.6869,57:pp.126127,58:p.274)LandnotdividedintotupuwastreatedasbelongingtotheSunGodandservedtosupportthetemplesandthe
priests.TheremaininglandbelongedtotheIncaclassordirectlytothestate.Alltheselandswereworkedbypeasantsaccordingtoadetailedschedule.Controloverall
farmworkwasexercisedbyclerks.Forexample,theygavethedailysignalforthepeasantstobeginworkbysoundingaconchfromaspeciallyconstructedtower.(56:
pp.7071,58:p.247)

ThepeasantswereliabletomilitaryserviceandtoobligatorylabortillingthelandofthetemplesandtheIncas,buildingnewtemplesandpalacesfortheIncaortheIncas,
mendingroads,buildingbridges,workinginthegoldandsilverminesownedbythestate,andsoon.Someofthesedutiesrequiredmovingthepeasantstodistantareasof
theempire,inwhichcasethestateundertooktofeedthem.(56:p.8889)

Therawmaterialsforcraftswereprovidedbythestatefinishedproductsweredeliveredtoit.Forexample,llamaswereshornbystateslaves,thewooldistributedby
officialstopeasantsforspinningandthefinishedmaterialsubsequentlycollectedbyotherofficials.

Thelawdividedthelifeofamalepeasantintotenperiodsandprescribedtheobligationsofeachagegroup.Thus,fromageninetosixteen,thepeasantwastobea
herdsman,fromsixteentotwenty,amessengeroraservantinthehouseofanInca,etc.Evendutiesof
[135]

thelastagegroup(oversixty)werespecified:spinningrope,feedingducks,andsoon.Cripplesformedaspecialgroup,buttheytoo,asGuamnPomadeAyalareports,
weredesignatedforcertainwork.Similarprescriptionsexistedforwomen.Thelawrequiredconstantactivityfromthepeasants.Awomanonherwaytoanotherhouse
wastotakewoolwithherandtospinontheway.(56:p.80,57:pp.129131)AccordingtothechronicleofCiezadeLen,peasantsweresometimesmadetoperform
completelyuselessworksimplysoasnottobeidleforexample,theywereforcedtomoveahillofdirtfromoneplacetoanother.(56:p.81,57:p.132)Garcilasodela
Vegainformsusthatworkwasfoundforcripples.(58:p.300)Healsocitesalawagainstidlersamanwhotilledhisfieldbadlywashitseveraltimeswithastoneinthe
shouldersorfloggedwitharod.(56:p.276)Thecompletelyincapacitatedandtheagedweremaintainedbythestateortheruralcommunity.

Forwork,thepeasantswerejoinedintogroupsoftenfamilies,fivesuchgroupsintoalargergroup,etc.,uptotenthousandfamilies.Therewasanofficialheadforeach
weredesignatedforcertainwork.Similarprescriptionsexistedforwomen.Thelawrequiredconstantactivityfromthepeasants.Awomanonherwaytoanotherhouse
wastotakewoolwithherandtospinontheway.(56:p.80,57:pp.129131)AccordingtothechronicleofCiezadeLen,peasantsweresometimesmadetoperform
completelyuselessworksimplysoasnottobeidleforexample,theywereforcedtomoveahillofdirtfromoneplacetoanother.(56:p.81,57:p.132)Garcilasodela
Vegainformsusthatworkwasfoundforcripples.(58:p.300)Healsocitesalawagainstidlersamanwhotilledhisfieldbadlywashitseveraltimeswithastoneinthe
shouldersorfloggedwitharod.(56:p.276)Thecompletelyincapacitatedandtheagedweremaintainedbythestateortheruralcommunity.

Forwork,thepeasantswerejoinedintogroupsoftenfamilies,fivesuchgroupsintoalargergroup,etc.,uptotenthousandfamilies.Therewasanofficialheadforeach
group.ThelowermembersofthishierarchywereappointedfromthepeasantryhigherpostswereoccupiedbyIncas.(57:pp.9697,59:p.77)

Notonlyworkbutthewholelifeofthecitizenrywascontrolledbyofficials.Specialinspectorscontinuouslytraveledaboutthecountryobservingtheinhabitants.To
facilitatesupervision,peasants,forinstance,wereobligedtokeeptheirdoorsopenduringmeals(thelawprescribedthetimeofmealsandrestrictedthemenu).(56:p.96,
57:p.132)Otheraspectsoflifewerealsostrictlyregimented.OfficialsissuedeveryIndiantwocloaksfromthestatestoresoneforworkandtheotherforfestivals.
Withineachindividualprovince,thecloakswereindistinguishableinstyleandcoloranddifferedonlyaccordingtothesexoftheirbearers.Thecloakwastobeuseduntilit
waswornout.Changesincutandcolorwereforbidden.Therewerelawsagainstotherextravagances:itwasforbiddentohavechairsinthehouse(onlybencheswere
allowed),tobuildhousesofalargersizethanauthorized,etc.Eachprovincehadaspecialobligatoryhairstyle.(55:p.91,57:p.132)Suchprescriptionsextendedto
otherclasses,forinstance,thequantityandsizeofgoldandsilvervesselsthatanofficialoflowerrankcouldpossesswerestrictlylimitedaccordingtohisstation.(56:pp.
9192)

Theinhabitantsofnewlyconqueredareaswereunderespecially
[136]

severecontrol.Residentsfromcentralprovincesweredispatchedtonewregions,wheretheywereentitledtoenterthehousesofthesubjugatedpeopleatanytimeofday
ornightandwereobligedtoreportonanysignofdiscontent.

Peasantswerenotallowedtoleavetheirvillageswithoutspecialpermission.Controlwasmadeeasierbythedifferencesinthecolorofclothingandthevariedhairstyles.
Specialofficialssupervisedtrafficonbridgesandatgates.Thestateitself,however,carriedoncompulsoryresettlementonalargescale.Resettlementsometimeswas
occasionedbyeconomicfactorspeopleweremovedtoaprovincedevastatedbyanepidemicortransferredtoamorefertilearea.Occasionally,thereasonwas
political,aswiththeresettlementofinhabitantsfromtheoriginalprovincesoftheempiretonewlyconqueredlandsor,onthecontrary,thedispersionofanewlyconquered
tribethroughoutthemoreloyalpopulationoftheempire.(56:pp.99100,59:p.58)

Familylifewasalsounderthecontrolofthestate.Allmenwereobligedtoenterintomarriageuponreachingacertainage.Onceeachyear,everyvillagewasvisitedbya
specialofficialwhoconductedapublicmarriageceremony,inwhicheveryonewhohadcomeofagethepreviousyeartookpart.Spaniardswhodescribedthecustomsof
theIncastateoftenassertedthatthepreferenceofthepersonbeingmarriedwasnotaskedfor.AndSantillan,writingattheendofthesixteenthcentury,reportsthat
objectionswerepunishablebydeath.Ontheotherhand,FatherMorareportsthatamancouldindicatethathehadalreadypromisedtomarryanothergirl,andthe
officialwouldthenreviewthematter.Itisclear,however,thattheopinionofthebridewasneversolicited.(57:pp.158,160)

MembersofthetopsocialgrouptheIncashadtherighttoseveralwives,ormoreprecisely,concubines,sincethefirstwifehadaspecialpositionwhiletheotherswere
relegatedtotheroleofservants.Marriagewiththefirstwifewasindissolubleconcubinescouldbedrivenoutandwouldthereafternotbeallowedtomarryagain.(57:p.
156)Thenumberofconcubinespermittedbylawdependedonthesocialstatusofthemanitcouldbetwenty,thirty,fifty,etc.(57:p.134)FortheIncaandhis
immediatefamily,therewasnolimitationwhatever.Themultitudeofwivesandtheconsequentlylargenumberofoffspringresultedinaneverincreasingproportionof
Incasinthegeneralpopulation.

Therewasaspecialcategoryofwomenthesocalledelect.Each
[137]

year,officialsweresenttoallsectionsofthecountrytoselectgirlseightornineyearsold.Thesewerecalledthe"elect."Theywerebroughtupinspecialhouses(called
"convents"insomeSpanishaccounts).Everyyearduringaspecialcelebration,thosewhohadreachedthirteenyearsofageweresenttothecapital,wheretheInca
himselfdividedthemintothreecategories.Some,calledSolarMaidens,werereturnedtothe"convent,"wheretheyweretoengageinactivitiesassociatedwiththe
worshipofthegodsofsun,moonandstars.Theyhadtoobservechastity,althoughtheIncacouldgivethemtohiscircleasconcubinesortakethemforhimself.Girlsfrom
thesecondgroupweredistributedbytheIncaaswivesorconcubines.AgiftofthiskindfromtheIncawasregardedasahighdistinction.Finally,athirdgroupwas
intendedforthehumansacrificesthattookplaceregularly,butonaparticularlylargescaleatthecoronationofanewInca.Thelawprovidedforthepunishmentofparents
whoshowedtheirgriefwhentheirdaughterswerechosenforthe"elect."(57:pp.161162)

Apartfromthe"elect,"allunmarriedwomenwerealsoatthedisposaloftheIncas,butnotasprivatepropertyrather,theywereallottedtothembygovernmentofficials
foruseasconcubinesandservants.TheoppressedstatusofwomenintheIncastateisparticularlynotableagainstthebackgroundoftheneighboringIndiantribes,where
womenenjoyedmuchindependenceandauthority.(57:p.159)

Itisclearthatsuchtotalregulationoflifeandtheomnipresentstatecontrolwouldhavebeenimpossiblewithoutamultifacetedbureaucraticapparatus.Thebureaucracy
wasbuiltonapurelyhierarchicalprinciple.Everyofficialhadcontactonlywithhissuperiorandhissubordinatesofficialsofthesamerankcouldcommunicateonlythrough
theircommonchief.(56:p.96)Themainfunctionofthisbureaucracywasthekeepingofaccountsbymeansofthesophisticatedandasyetundecipheredsystemof
knottedstrings.

Theideaofthequipuwasacuriouslyaccuratereflectionofthehierarchicalstructureofthestatemachinery.Ahierarchywasintroducedintothematerialareaaswellfor
instance,alltypesofarmswerearrangedby"seniority."Thelancewasconsideredtobeseniortootherweaponsnextcamethearrow,thenthebow,andsoon.
Accordingtotheseniorityoftheseobjects,theyweredenotedbyknotstiedhigherorloweronastring.Learningtheartofquipubeganwithlearningtheprinciplesof
"seniority"byrote.

Informationencodedinthiswaywaspassedupthebureaucratic
[138]

laddertothecapital,whereitwasexaminedandpreservedbytypes:military,population,provisions,etc.IntheSpanishchroniclesitisassertedthateventhenumberof
stonesforslings,thenumberofanimalskilledinhuntingandothersuchdatawerekept.GuamnPomadeAyalawrites:"Theykeepanaccountofeverythingthatoccursin
theirstate,andineveryvillagetherearesecretariesandtreasurersforthat....Thestateisgovernedwiththehelpofquipu."(56:pp.9495)

Thereareaccountsoftrulyremarkableadministrativeachievements,suchasthecreationofarmiesofworkersnumbering20,000menoranoperationinwhich100,000
bushelsofmaizearedistributedamongapopulationofalargeregionaccordingtostrictlyfixednorms.(56:p.102)

TheworkersinthebureaucracyweretrainedinschoolsthatonlychildrenoftheIncaswerepermittedtoattend.(Thelawforbadeeducationforthelowerlevelsofthe
stonesforslings,thenumberofanimalskilledinhuntingandothersuchdatawerekept.GuamnPomadeAyalawrites:"Theykeepanaccountofeverythingthatoccursin
theirstate,andineveryvillagetherearesecretariesandtreasurersforthat....Thestateisgovernedwiththehelpofquipu."(56:pp.9495)

Thereareaccountsoftrulyremarkableadministrativeachievements,suchasthecreationofarmiesofworkersnumbering20,000menoranoperationinwhich100,000
bushelsofmaizearedistributedamongapopulationofalargeregionaccordingtostrictlyfixednorms.(56:p.102)

TheworkersinthebureaucracyweretrainedinschoolsthatonlychildrenoftheIncaswerepermittedtoattend.(Thelawforbadeeducationforthelowerlevelsofthe
population.)Teachingwasperformedbytheamautasor"scholars."Theirdutiesincludedthewritingofhistoryintwoversions:one,objectiverecordsintheformof
quipu,whichwerepreservedinthecapitalandintendedonlyforspecialauthorizedofficials,andtheotherintheformofhymnstobenarratedtothepeopleatfestivals.Ifa
dignitarywasdeemedunworthy,hisnamewasremovedfromthe"festival"history.(56:pp.7576,78)

ThelawsregulatinglifeintheIncastatereliedonasophisticatedsystemofpunishment.Penaltieswereseverealmostalwaysdeathortorture.Thisistobeexpected:
whenalllifeisregulatedbythestate,anyinfringementofthelawisacrimeagainstthestateand,inturn,affectstheveryfoundationofthesocialsystem.Thusamanguilty
ofcuttingdownatreeorstealingfruitinastateplantationwassubjecttothedeathpenalty.Abortionwaspunishedbydeathforthewomanandforanyonewhomayhave
assistedher.(59:p.173)

Thesystemprovidedforanextraordinaryvarietyofcapitalpunishments:thevictimcouldbehangedbythefeetorstonedorthrownintoagorgeorhangedbythehair
overaclifforthrownintoapitwithjaguarsandpoisonoussnakes.(57:p.42)Forthemostseriousoffenses,therewereprovisionsfortheexecutionofallrelativesofthe
accused.GuamnPomadeAyala'smanuscriptcontainsadrawingoftheslaughterofawholefamilywhosechiefmemberhadbeendeterminedtobeasorcerer.Burying
thebodiesofexecutedcriminalscouldbeprohibitedasafurtherpunishment.Burialofthebodiesofmutineers
[139]

wasforbidden,forexample.Theirfleshwasthrowntowildbeasts,anddrumsweremadeoftheirskin,bowlsoftheskullsandflutesofthearmandlegbones.Finally,a
victimcouldbeputtotorturebeforeexecution."Hewhokillsanothertorobhimwillbepunishedbydeath.Beforetheexecutionhewillbetorturedinjailsothatthe
penaltyshouldbeharder.Thenhewillbeexecuted."(57:p.143)

Manyformsofpunishmentdifferedlittlefromexecution.Forinstance,CiezadeLen,Cobo,MoraandGuamnPomadeAyaladescribejailsinundergroundcavesin
whichjaguars,bears,venomoussnakesandscorpionswerekept.Incarcerationinthistypeofprisonwasusedasatestofguilt.Generally,thisformoftrialwasusedinthe
caseofpeoplesuspectedofplottingrebellion.Personssentencedtolifeimprisonmentwerekeptinotherundergroundjails.(57:p.142)Apenaltyoffivehundredlashes
(providedbylawasapunishmentfortheft)probablywastheequivalentofadeathsentence.Therewasapunishmentcalledthe"stoneexecution,"whereahugestonewas
tossedontothevictim'sshoulders.AccordingtoGuamnPomadeAyala,thiskilledmanyandcrippledothersforlife.

Otherpunishmentsconsistedofforcedlaborinstategoldandsilverminesoroncocaplantationsindifficulttropicalclimates.Forcedlaborcouldbeeitherforlifeorfora
fixedterm.Finally,minoroffendersweresubjecttovariouscorporalpunishments.(57:p.144)

Itgoeswithoutsayingthatequalitybeforethelawdidnotexist.Foroneandthesamecrimeapeasantmightbeexecuted,whileanIncawouldgetoffwithapublic
reprimand.AsCoboreports:"ThepremiseherewasthatforanIncaofroyalblood(allIncasweretheoreticallyrelated),apublicreprimandwasaheavierpenaltythan
deathforapleebeian."(56:p.79,57:p.143)

Seductionofanother'swifewasaccordedcorporalpunishment.ButifapeasantseducedanIncawoman,bothwereexecutedasGuamnPomadeAyalarecounts,both
werehangednakedbythehairoveracliffuntiltheydied.(57:p.146)

Acrimeagainstpropertywasalsopunisheddifferentlydependingonwhethertheinterestsofthestateoraprivatepartywereinvolved.Someoneguiltyofpickingfruitona
privateestatecouldavoidpunishment,ifhecouldprovethathehaddonesooutofhunger.ButiftheownerwasanInca,theguiltypartywassubjecttodeath.(57:p.
145)

Thecompletesubjugationoflifetotheprescriptionsofthelaw
[140]

andtoofficialdomledtoextraordinarystandardization:identicalclothing,identicalhouses,identicalroads.Repetitionofthesamedescriptivedetailsischaracteristicofthe
oldSpanishaccounts.Thecapitalcity,builtofidenticalhousesmadeofidenticalblockstoneanddividedintoidenticalblocks,undoubtedlycreatedtheimpressionofa
prisontown.(56:p.117)

Asaresultofthisspiritofstandardization,anythingtheleastbitdifferentwaslookeduponasdangerousandhostile,whetheritwasthebirthoftwinsorthediscoveryofa
strangelyshapedrock.Suchthingswerebelievedtobeamanifestationofevilforceshostiletosociety.Eventsweretoshowthatthefearofunplannedphenomenawas
quitejustified:thehugeempireprovedpowerlessagainstlessthantwohundredSpaniards.Neithertheirfirearmsnortheirhorses(animalsunknowntotheIndians)can
explainthisextraordinaryturnofevents.ThesamedifferenceinarmamentswasafterallinvolvedinthesubjugationoftheZulus,buttheywereabletomountalongand
successfulresistancetolargedetachmentsofEnglishforces.ThereasonforthecollapseoftheIncaempiremustapparentlybesoughtelsewhereinthecompleteatrophy
ofindividualinitiative,intheingrainedhabitofactingonlyatthedirectionofofficials,inthespiritofstagnationandapathy.

Ondegardo,aSpanishjudgewhoservedinPeruinthesixteenthcentury,notedasimilarphenomenon.Inhisbooks,heconstantlylamentsthecompleteregimentationof
lifeandtheremovalofallpersonalstimuliwhichledtoaweakeningofand,sometimes,thecompletedestructionoffamilyrelationships.Grownchildren,forinstance,often
refusedtotakecareoftheirparents.(56:p.127)Baudin,aFrenchstudentofLatinAmericanhistory,seesinmanytraitsofthecontemporaryIndianstheaftermathofInca
ruleindifferencetothefateofthestate,lackofinitiative,apathy.(56:pp.124125)

TowhatextentisitpossibletocalltheIncastatesocialist?Withoutanydoubt,itismuchmoreentitledtothisdesignationthananyofthecontemporarystatesthatregard
themselvesasbelongingtothiscategory.SocialistprincipleswereclearlyexpressedinthestructureoftheIncastate:thealmostcompleteabsenceofprivateproperty,in
particularofprivatelandabsenceofmoneyandtradethecompleteeliminationofprivateinitiativefromalleconomicactivitiesdetailedregulationofprivatelifemarriage
byofficialdecreestatedistributionofwivesandconcubines.Ontheotherhand,wedonotencounter
[141]

eithercommunalwivesorcommunalupbringingofchildren.Awife,thoughgivenbythestatetothepeasant,washisalone,andchildrengrewupinthefamily(ifthespecial
classofgirlschosentobe"elect"isexcluded).Nevertheless,theIncastateseemstohavebeenoneofthefullestincarnationsofsocialistidealsinhumanhistory.

ThisisindicatedbythestrikingsimilaritybetweentheIncawayoflifeandnumeroussocialistutopias,sometimesdowntothesmallestdetail.InhisworkTheIncasof
Peru,BaudintellsthatduringareportontheIncastateattheParisAcademyofSciences,amemberaskedwhetheritwouldnotbepossibletoshowaninfluenceofthe
IncasonThomasMore'sUtopia.(56:p.165)Thiswouldhavebeenquiteimpossible,ofcourse:More'sUtopiawaswrittenin1516,whilePeruwasdiscoveredbythe
Spaniardsin1531.Thesimilaritiesare,therefore,allthemorestrikingandshowhowsocialistprinciplesinevitablyledtothesameconclusionsinthecenturieslong
eithercommunalwivesorcommunalupbringingofchildren.Awife,thoughgivenbythestatetothepeasant,washisalone,andchildrengrewupinthefamily(ifthespecial
classofgirlschosentobe"elect"isexcluded).Nevertheless,theIncastateseemstohavebeenoneofthefullestincarnationsofsocialistidealsinhumanhistory.

ThisisindicatedbythestrikingsimilaritybetweentheIncawayoflifeandnumeroussocialistutopias,sometimesdowntothesmallestdetail.InhisworkTheIncasof
Peru,BaudintellsthatduringareportontheIncastateattheParisAcademyofSciences,amemberaskedwhetheritwouldnotbepossibletoshowaninfluenceofthe
IncasonThomasMore'sUtopia.(56:p.165)Thiswouldhavebeenquiteimpossible,ofcourse:More'sUtopiawaswrittenin1516,whilePeruwasdiscoveredbythe
Spaniardsin1531.Thesimilaritiesare,therefore,allthemorestrikingandshowhowsocialistprinciplesinevitablyledtothesameconclusionsinthecenturieslong
practiceoftheIncaadministratorsandinthemindoftheEnglishphilosopher.

Butlatersocialistwritersundoubtedlywereunderthestronginfluenceofwhattheyhadheardofthe"PeruvianEmpire."Inoneofhisworks,Morellydescribesasociety
thatlivesin"naturalconditions"andwithoutdistinctionbetween"thine"and"mine,"andsaysthatthe"Peruvians"hadlawsofthiskind.Wehavealreadyquoted(inPartI)
asimilarpassagefromthearticle"TheLegislator"intheEncyclopdie,andweinvitethereadertocompareDiderot'sdescription(pp.112114above)withthehistorical
facts.ItisquitepossiblethattheIncamodelprovidednumerousdetailsinthedepictionofthefuturesocietybythewritersoftheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies.Itis
easyenoughtoimaginehowreadilytheyabsorbedthestoriesthencurrentinEuropeofarealsocietysocloseinspirittotheirideals.Thisleadstoageneralproblemof
greatinterestthatoftheinfluenceexertedonthesocialistliterature,beginningwithPlato,bythe"socialistexperiment,"thatis,bythepracticalimplementationofsocialist
idealsinEgypt,MesopotamiaandPeru.

2.TheJesuitStateinParaguay

AlthoughonewouldhavethoughtthattheSpanishconquistadorshadwrittenanendtosocialisminSouthAmerica,ithadacontinuationnevertheless.Someonehundred
toonehundredfiftyyearslater,inanareanotfarfromtheformerIncastate,apoliticalsysteminthe
[142]

IncatraditionwasestablishedinParaguaybytheJesuits.

ThehistoryofSpanishpenetrationintoParaguaybeginsin1516,whenDonJuanDazdeSolsdiscoveredthemouthoftheParanriverandconqueredthesurrounding
territories.In1537,JuandeSalazardeEspinozafoundedAsuncin,thecapitalofthenewprovinceofParaguay.

ThenativeinhabitantsofParaguaywereIndiansoftheGuaranitribe.MissionaryworkamongthemwasfirstundertakenbytheDominicanmonkLasCasas.TheJesuits
tookpartinthiseffortlater.Withtherealisticapproachsotypicaloftheirorder,theydecidedtomakeacceptanceofChristianitypracticallyadvantageousandso
attemptedtoprotecttheirconvertsfromtheIndians'mainenemy,theslavetraderscalledpaulistas(fromthestateofSaoPaulo,thecenteroftheslavetradeatthetime).
SuppressionoftheslavetradehadbeenbeyondtheSpanishcrown'scapabilitiesforyears.YettheJesuitssucceededinprovidingsecurityagainstraidsforIndiansinlarge
areasofParaguay.Toachievethis,theyaccustomedtheIndianstoasedentarylife,placingtheminlargesettlementscalledreductions.Thefirstreductionwassetupin
1609.ItseemsthataplanexistedatfirstforthecreationofagreatstatewithaccesstotheAtlanticOcean,butpaulistaraidsmadethisimpossible.Beginningin1640,the
JesuitsarmedtheIndiansandfoughtthroughtoanareawheretheysettledtheirflock.Itwasalmostinaccessible,borderedononesidebytheAndesandontheotherby
therapidsoftheriversParana,LaPlataandUruguay.Theentireterritorywascoveredwithanetworkofreductions.Asearlyas1654,theJesuitsMachetaand
CataladinoobtainedfromtheSpanishcrownanexemptionoftherealmoftheSocietyofJesusfromsubordinationtotheSpanishcolonialforcesandfrompayingtithesto
thelocalbishop.TheauthorizationtoarmtheIndianswasafurtherexceptiontotheabsolutebanintroducedbytheSpanishgovernmentinallpartsofSouthAmerica.The
Jesuitssoonhadastrongfightingforceattheirdisposal.

IntheirdealingswiththeSpanishgovernment,theJesuitssteadfastlydeniedthattheyhadcreatedanindependentstateinParaguay.Itistruethatcertainaccusationswere
exaggerated,asforexamplethebookaboutthe"EmperorofParaguay,"whichincludedhisportrait,aswellascoinsallegedlymintedatcourt,bothbeingnothingbuta
contrivanceoftheJesuits'enemies.ButitisalsoafactthattheareacontrolledbytheJesuitswassoisolatedfromtheexternalworldthat
[143]

itcouldinfactbeconsideredanindependentstateoradominionofSpain.JesuitsweretheonlyEuropeansintheregion.Theyprevailedonthegovernmenttopassalaw
thatallowednoEuropeantoentertheterritoryofthereductionswithouttheJesuits'permission.Inanycase,novisitorwasallowedtostaylongerthanthreedays.The
IndianswerenotabletoleavetheirreductionsexceptinthecompanyoftheFathers.Inspiteofnumerousgovernmentdemands,theJesuitsrefusedtoteachtheIndians
theSpanishlanguagetheydevisedawritingsystemforthelocalGuaranilanguage.TheJesuitswholivedintheareawerenotSpaniardsforthemostpart,butincluded
Germans,ItaliansandScots.Theterritoryhadanarmyofitsownandengagedinindependentforeigntrade.Allthisdoestendtojustifytheterm"Jesuitstate,"whichis
usedbymostscholarswhohavewrittenonthesubject.

ThepopulationoftheJesuitstateattheheightofitsdevelopmentwas150,000to200,000inhabitants.MostofthesewereIndiansinaddition,thereweresometwelve
thousandblackslavesandbetweenonehundredfiftyandthreehundredJesuits.Thestatecametoanendin17671768,whentheJesuitsweredrivenoutofParaguayas
partofthegeneralcampaignoftheSpanishgovernmentagainstthemovement.In1773,theSocietyofJesuswasabolishedaltogetherbyPopeClementXIV.

ThemainorganizationalprinciplesofthereductionswereworkedoutbyFatherDiegodeTorres.ItissignificantthathebeganhismissionaryworkinPeru,wheretheInca
statehadnotyetbeenentirelyforgotten.TheSpanishauthoritieswereexploitingtherichsilverminesinthearea,andtheywereconcernedaboutkeepingtheIndiansin
oneplace.Tothisend,itwasproposedthatthesocialstructureoftheIncaperiodbemaintainedinitsessentials.AshecalledforthesettingupofreductionsinParaguay,
DiegodeTorreswrotethat"thelocalitymustbegovernedbythesamesystemasinPeru."(61:p.117)ManyobservershavecometotheconclusionthattheJesuits
consciouslycopiedthestructureoftheIncaempire.

Asalreadymentioned,theentirepopulationofJesuitParaguaywasconcentratedinthereductions.TheseusuallynumberedsometwOthousandtothreethousandIndians,
withthesmallestonescontainingaboutfivehundredinhabitantsandthebiggestmission(St.Javier)numberingthirtythousand.EachreductionwasrunbytwoJesuit
Fathers,onebeingasarulemucholderthantheother.ThereweregenerallynootherEuropeansinthesettlement.TheseniorFather,or"confessor,"
[144]

devotedhimselfprimarilytoreligiousfunctions,whiletheyoungeractedashisassistantanddirectedeconomicmatters.Togetherthetwopossessedabsolutepowerinthe
reduction.AstheJesuitJuandeEscadnstates,inaletterwrittenin1760:"SecularpowerbelongstotallytotheFathers,asmuchasorevenmorethanspiritual
power."(61:p.146)

ThepriestsnormallyappearedbeforetheIndiansonlyatdivineservices.Atothertimes,theycommunicatedwiththemthroughintermediariesdrawnfromthelocal
population.Theselocalofficials,calledcorregidorsandalcaldes,wereselectedannuallyfromalistcompiledbytheFathers.Electionwasbyashowofhands.The
corregidorsandalcaldeswerecompletelysubordinatetotheFathers,whocouldabolishorchangeanyoftheformers'orders.DeEscadnwritesthatthecorregidorsand
alcaldesreportedtooneoftheFatherseverymorningtogettheirdecisionsapprovedandtoreceiveinstructionsastotheworkorderoftheday."Thiswasaccomplished
asinagoodfamily,wherethefathertellseveryonewhathemustdofortheday."(61:p.148)"ThelimitedintelligenceoftheIndianscompelledthemissionariestotake
careofallaffairsandtoguidetheminsecularaswellasinspiritualmatters,"astheJesuitCharlevoix(inHistoryofParaguay)quoteshiscontemporaryAntoniodeUlloa.
ThepriestsnormallyappearedbeforetheIndiansonlyatdivineservices.Atothertimes,theycommunicatedwiththemthroughintermediariesdrawnfromthelocal
population.Theselocalofficials,calledcorregidorsandalcaldes,wereselectedannuallyfromalistcompiledbytheFathers.Electionwasbyashowofhands.The
corregidorsandalcaldeswerecompletelysubordinatetotheFathers,whocouldabolishorchangeanyoftheformers'orders.DeEscadnwritesthatthecorregidorsand
alcaldesreportedtooneoftheFatherseverymorningtogettheirdecisionsapprovedandtoreceiveinstructionsastotheworkorderoftheday."Thiswasaccomplished
asinagoodfamily,wherethefathertellseveryonewhathemustdofortheday."(61:p.148)"ThelimitedintelligenceoftheIndianscompelledthemissionariestotake
careofallaffairsandtoguidetheminsecularaswellasinspiritualmatters,"astheJesuitCharlevoix(inHistoryofParaguay)quoteshiscontemporaryAntoniodeUlloa.

TherewerenolawsonlythedecisionsmadebytheFathers.Theyheardconfession,whichwasobligatoryfortheIndians,andassignedpenaltiesforalloffenses.
Penaltiesincluded:facetofacereprimand,publicreprimand,flogging,imprisonment,andbanishmentfromthereduction.Manyauthorsassertthattherewasnocapital
punishment,althoughCharlevoixwritesaboutacertainunsubmissivelocalofficialwhowasburnedupinafiresentbyGod.(62:p.13)Anoffenderwasfirstmadeto
repentinchurch,wasdressedasaheretic,andwasthensubjectedtothepunishment.DeUlloawrites:"Theyhadsuchgreatconfidenceintheirpastorsthattheyregarded
evenanunprovokedpenaltyasdeserved."(60:p.140,62:p.31)

TheentirelifeofthereductionwasbasedontheprinciplethattheIndiansweretopossesspracticallynothingoftheirownneitherlandnorhousesnorrawmaterialsnor
handicrafttools.TheIndiansdidnotevenbelongtothemselves.Thus,deEscadnwrites:"Theseplots,aswiththeotherlandsofthemission,belongtothecommunityand
noinhabitanthasmorethantherighttousethem.Therefore,theyneversellanythingtooneanother.Thesameistrueofthehouses
[145]

inwhichtheylive....Thecommunitytakescareofallthehouses,makesrepairsandbuildsnewonesasneeded."(61:p.148)

Thereductionwasdividedintotwoparts:tupamb(God'sland)andabamb(privateland).Thedifferencewasnotintheformoftenure,sincebothtypesbelongedtothe
mission,butsimplythattupambwastilledcollectively,whileabambwasdividedintoplotsanddistributedamongindividualfamilies.

MuratoriwritesthatabambwaslenttotheIndiansforworking.(60:p.145)AplotoflandwasgrantedtoanIndianwhenhemarried.Itwasnothereditary,andifthe
mandied,hiswidowandchildrendidnotretaintheplot.Thelandrevertedtoacommonfundandthedependentsbecamewardsofthemission.Charlevoixsaysthat
workonindividualplotswasregulatedbytheadministrationinthesamewayasoncommonland.(60:p.145)InthemonthlyCatholicMissions,itwasreportedthat
seedsandtoolsforworkingtheindividualplotswerelentbythecommunity.Inthemajorityofmissions,familieslivedoncropsharvestedfromtheirindividualplots.
However,incertainreductionstheywererequiredtodeliverapartoftheirharvesttothemission,withrationslaterdispensedinreturn.Inanycase,workontheindividual
plotsandthecropsproducedonthemwereunderstrictcontroleverywhere.Charlevoixwrites:"Itwasknownhowmuchaplotoflandyieldedandthecropsfromitwere
underthesupervisionofthosewhowereparticularlyconcernedwithlookingafterit.AndiftherehadbeennostricthandovertheIndians,theywouldsoonhavefound
themselveswithnomeansofsubsistence."(62:p.37)

WorkonthecommunallandwasobligatoryforallIndians,includingadministratorsandartisans.Beforework,oneoftheFathersdeliveredasermon.TheIndiansthenset
outforthefieldsincolumns,tothesoundofdrumandflute.Theyreturnedfromworksingingupliftingsongs.Workwassupervisedatalltimesbyinspectorsandspies
whoapprehendedidlers."Culpritswereseverelypunished,"writesMuratori.(60:p.159)

Allcropsessentialtothemission'seconomyweregrownoncommunalland.Eyewitnessesareunanimousinpointingoutdifferencesinthecultivationofindividualand
communallands:whilecommunallandswerecarefullytilled,theindividualplotslookedneglected.TheJesuitsconstantlycomplainedoftheindifferenceoftheIndiansto
working
[146]

theirownfieldstheypreferredtobepunishedforabadlycultivatedplotandtoliveonthecommunalstores.TheIndianswerecapableofeatingtheseedgraindistributed
tothemandcomingbackformoreandasoundfloggingseveraltimesover.TheJesuitssawthereasonforthisnotinthepeculiaritiesofthesocialsystemtheyhad
establishedbutinthe"childish"natureoftheIndians.FatherJ.Cardielwrotein1758:"For140yearswehavebeenfightingthis,buttherehashardlybeenany
improvement.Andsolongastheyhavebutachild'sintelligence,thingswillnotgetbetter."

Thecommunitiespossessedhugeherdsofhorsesandoxenthatwerepasturedinthepampas.CommunaloxenweregiventotheIndianstoworktheirplots."Sometimes
theIndiankillsoneorbothoxentoeatmeatathispleasure.Helaterreportsthattheyhavebecomelostandpaysforthelosswithhisback."(Escadn,61:p.149)

Themeatofcommunaloxenwasdistributedamongtheresidentstwoorthreetimesaweek.Ontheappointedday,theinhabitantscametothestorehouse,wherethe
storekeepercalledeveryone'snameanddispensedastandardportionofmeat.Indiansalsoreceivedarationoflocaltea.

Variouscraftswereencouragedinthereductions,andahighlevelofworkmanshipwasachieved.Woolwasdispensedtothewomentobespunathome,thefinished
clothbeingcollectedonthefollowingday.Alltoolsandrawmaterialsbelongedtothereductionandnottotheindividualcraftsman.Moreover,alargepartofthe
craftsmenworkedincommunalworkshops.JosCardielwrites:"Allcraftworkisdonenotinthehome,sincethatwouldbeveryineffectiveitisperformedinthe
courtyardsofthecollegium."(61:p.164)Themissionshadstonemasons,brickmakers,armsmakers,millers,clockmakers,artists,jewelersandpotters.Construction
includedbrickfactories,kilnsforproducingquicklime,millspoweredbyhorsesandbymen.Organsweremade,bellscast,booksprintedinforeignlanguages(for
export).Bythebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury,everyreductionhadaSundialoramechanicalclockoflocalmanufacture,accordingtowhichtheworkdaywas
regulated.

Allproductsweredeliveredtothestorehouses,whereIndianswhocouldwriteandkeepaccountswereemployed.PartoftheproductionWasdistributedtothe
population.Fabricsweredividedintoequalpiecesanddistributedbyname,onedaytogirls,thenexttoboys,
[147]

thentomenandfinallytowomen.Eachmanwasgiven5.5metersofcanvasforclothingayearandeachwoman,4.5meters.Eachreceivedaknifeandanaxoncea
year.

Themajorportionofthearticlesproducedinthereductionwasforexport.Giventhelargeherds,vastamountsoftannedskinswereproducedthereweretanningand
shoemakingshopsinthemissions,withtheentireproductionbeingexportedIndianswerenotallowedtowearshoes.

TheartisanskillsoftheIndiansamazedmanyobservers.CharlevoixwritesthattheGuaranisucceeded"asthoughinstinctivelyinanycrafttheyundertook....Forinstance,
itwasenoughtoshowthemacrucifix,acandlestick,anamuletandtogivethemthenecessarymaterialforthemtomakeanidenticalcopy.Theirworkcouldbe
distinguishedfromtheoriginalmodelonlywithdifficulty."(60:pp.115116)OtherobserversalsostresstheimitativecharacteroftheIndiancraftsmanship.

Tradedidnotexisteitherwithinreductionsorbetweenthem.Therewasnomoney.EachIndianheldacoininhishandsonlyonceinhislifetimeduringthewedding
ceremony,whenhehandeditasagifttohisbride,thecoinbeingreturnedimmediatelythereaftertothepriest.
TheartisanskillsoftheIndiansamazedmanyobservers.CharlevoixwritesthattheGuaranisucceeded"asthoughinstinctivelyinanycrafttheyundertook....Forinstance,
itwasenoughtoshowthemacrucifix,acandlestick,anamuletandtogivethemthenecessarymaterialforthemtomakeanidenticalcopy.Theirworkcouldbe
distinguishedfromtheoriginalmodelonlywithdifficulty."(60:pp.115116)OtherobserversalsostresstheimitativecharacteroftheIndiancraftsmanship.

Tradedidnotexisteitherwithinreductionsorbetweenthem.Therewasnomoney.EachIndianheldacoininhishandsonlyonceinhislifetimeduringthewedding
ceremony,whenhehandeditasagifttohisbride,thecoinbeingreturnedimmediatelythereaftertothepriest.

Ontheotherhand,foreigntradewasconductedonalargescale.Reductionsexported,forinstance,morelocalteathanalltherestofParaguay.TheJesuitstatewasalso
compelledtoimportsomeitemsaboveall,saltandmetals(especiallyiron).

Allreductionswerebuiltaccordingtooneplan.Inthecentertherewasasquareplazaonwhichachurchwassituated.Thesquarewasborderedbythejail,the
workshops,storehouses,thearmory,aweavingshopinwhichwidowsandfemaleoffendersworked,ahospitalandaguesthouse.Therestoftheterritorywasbrokenup
intoequalsquareblocksofhouses.

ClayplasteredcanecabinsservedasdwellingsfortheIndians.Ahearthwaslocatedinthemiddleofthestructuresmokewasallowedtogooutthroughthedoor.People
sleptwithoutbeds,eitheronthefloororinahammock.TheAustrianJesuitSepp,whocametoParaguayin1691,describesthesehousesasfollows:"Thedwellingsofthe
nativesaresimpleoneroomcabinsmadeofearthandbrick.Theyhavelittletorecommendthem.Inside,father,mother,sistersandbrotherscrowdtogetherwiththedog,
cats,mice,rats,etc.Therearecockroaches
[148]

everywhere.Thestenchisunbearabletosomeoneunaccustomedtoit."FuneswritesinTheCivilHistoryofParaguaythat"thehouseshadneitherwindowsnorany
meansofventilationtherewasalsonofurnitureallresidentsofthemissionssatonthegroundandateontheground."(63:p.26)Itwasonlyshortlybeforetheywere
drivenoutofParaguaythattheJesuitsbegantobuildmoresuitablequartersfortheIndians.Thedwellingswerenotconsideredprivateproperty,andanIndianwasnot
permittedtogivehishouseaway.

IncontrasttotheIndiandwellings,thechurcheswereimpressiveintheirsplendor.Theywerebuiltofstoneandrichlydecorated.ThechurchinthemissionofSt.Javier
accommodatedbetweenfourthousandandfivethousandpersonsitswallswereoverlaidwithshinyplatesofmica,thealtarswerecoveredwithgold.

AtdawnabellwasrungtowakeuptheIndiansandtocallthemtoprayers(obligatoryforall).Theythenwenttoworktoanotherpealofthebells.Theyretiredtobedon
signalalso,andafterdarkthesettlementwaspatrolledbydetachmentsofthemostreliableIndians.Specialpermissionwasrequiredtobeoutsideatnight.(61:p.176,62:
p.29)

Thereductionwassurroundedbyawallandamoat.Gateswereguardedcarefullyentryandexitwasforbiddenwithoutapass.ContactamongIndiansfromdifferent
reductionswasnotpermitted.NoneoftheIndians,exceptforsoldiersandherdsmen,hadtherighttoridehorseback.Allmeansofconveyanceboats,canoes,carriages
belongedtothecommunity.(63:p.44)

AllIndiansworeidenticalclothingmadefrommaterialobtainedfromthecommunalstores.Onlyofficialsandofficersdresseddifferently,butonlywhenonduty.Atother
times,theiruniformsandtheirarmswerekeptinastorehouse.

Marriageswerecontractedtwiceayearatsolemnceremonies.Thechoiceofawifeorhusbandwasundercontrolofthepriests.Ifayouthtookalikingtoagirlorvice
versa,thiswastakenintoaccountandthepartyconcernedwasinformed.ButtheFathers,apparently,alsofunctionedindependentlyanddecidedonmarriages
themselves,regardlessoftheyoungpeople'spreferences.Inatleastonerecordedinstance,alargegroupofyoungmenandwomentookflightinprotestoverthese
practices.Afterprolongednegotiations,theyreturnedtothereduction,buttheFatherswereforcedtosanctionthemarriagestheydemanded.(63:p.43)
[149]

Childrenbeganworkingatanearlyage.Charlevoixwritesthat"assoonasachildreachedtheageatwhichhecouldwork,hewasbroughttoaworkshopandassignedto
acraft."(60:p.116)TheJesuitswereconcernedthatthepopulationofthereductionsgrewverylittle,despiteunusuallygoodconditionsfromtheIndianpointofview,
suchasmedicalaidandsafeguardsagainstfamine.Tostimulatethebirthrate,theydidnotallowIndianmalestowearlonghair(asignofadulthood)untilthebirthofa
child.Thesamepurposewassoughtbyringingabellatnightsummoningthemtoperformtheir"maritalduties."(64:p.31)

TheJesuitsjustifiedtheircontroloverallaspectsoftheIndians'livesbyreferencetothelatter'slowdevelopment.ThefollowingjudgmentbyFunesistypical:"Never
actingaccordingtoreason,theyoughttohaveseveralcenturiesofsocialchildhoodbeforereachingthatmaturitywhichisthepreliminaryconditionofthefullenjoymentof
liberty."(62:p.371)Intheletterquotedearlier,theJesuitEscadnwrites:"Intruthandwithouttheslightestexaggeration,noneofthemhasgreaterfaculty,intelligenceand
capacityofcommonsensethanasweobserveinEuropeinchildrenwhocanread,writeandlearn,butwhoareneverthelessinnoconditiontodecidefor
themselves."(61:p.146)MeanwhiletheJesuitsthemselvesweredoingeverythingpossibletostifletheIndians'initiativeandinterestintheresultsoftheirlabor.Inthe
Reglamentoof1689,wefindthefollowingadvice:"Itispermissibletogivethemsomethingtomakethemfeelsatisfied,butthisneedstobedoneinsuchawaythatthey
donotdevelopasenseofinterest."OnlytowardtheendoftheirruledidtheJesuitstry(nodoubtforeconomicreasons)topromoteprivateinitiative,forinstance,by
turningovercattletoindividuals.Buttheseexperimentsfailedtobringanyresults.Oneexception,recordedbyCardiel,wasacaseinwhichasmallherdwasbuiltup,
thoughitsownerwasamulatto.(60:p.146)

TheJesuits'enemies,theanticlericalwriterAsarainparticular,reproachedthemforhavingstarvedtheIndiansandburdenedthemwithwork.Buttheimpressiongained
fromJesuitsourcesseemsmoreconvincingandlogical:hungerfreeexistence,resteverySunday,guaranteeddwellingandacloak....Yetthisalmostsuccessfulattemptat
reducinghundredsofthousandsofpeopletoalifeaslivedinananthillseemsfarmoreterribleapicturethanthatofahardlaborcamp.
[150]

TheJesuitsinParaguay(andelsewhereintheworld)fellvictimtotheirownsuccess.Theybecametoodangerous:inthereductions,theyhadcreatedawellequipped
armyofuptotwelvethousandmen,whichwasapparentlythepredominantmilitaryforceintheregion.TheyinterferedininternalconflictsandtookthecapitalofAsunci n
byassaultonmorethanoneoccasion.TheydefeatedPortuguesetroopsanddeliveredBuenosAiresfromaBritishsiege.Duringamutiny,theviceroyofParaguay,Don
JosdeAntequera,wasdefeatedbythem.SeveralthousandGuariniparticipatedinthebattles,equippedwithfirearmsandincludingsomecavalryunits.TheJesuitarmy
begantoinspiremoreandmoreapprehensionintheSpanishgovernment.

ThefalloftheJesuitswasgreatlyhastenedbythewidespreadrumorsoftheenormousrichestheyweresupposedtobeaccumulating.Therewastalkofgoldandsilver
minesandoffabulousrevenuefromforeigntrade.ThelatterrumorseemedparticularlyplausibleinviewofcheapIndianlaborandtheunusualfertilityoftheland.

AfterdrivingtheJesuitsout,governmentofficialsrushedintolookforhiddentreasureanddiscoverednothing.Thestorehousesinthereductionsprovedbitterly
disappointingandcontainednoneoftherichesthattheyweresupposedtoyield:theeconomyhadnotbeenprofitable!

AfterthecollapseoftheJesuitstate,mostoftheIndiansdriftedawayfromthereductionsandreturnedtotheirformerreligionandtheirnomadicwayoflife.
ThefalloftheJesuitswasgreatlyhastenedbythewidespreadrumorsoftheenormousrichestheyweresupposedtobeaccumulating.Therewastalkofgoldandsilver
minesandoffabulousrevenuefromforeigntrade.ThelatterrumorseemedparticularlyplausibleinviewofcheapIndianlaborandtheunusualfertilityoftheland.

AfterdrivingtheJesuitsout,governmentofficialsrushedintolookforhiddentreasureanddiscoverednothing.Thestorehousesinthereductionsprovedbitterly
disappointingandcontainednoneoftherichesthattheyweresupposedtoyield:theeconomyhadnotbeenprofitable!

AfterthecollapseoftheJesuitstate,mostoftheIndiansdriftedawayfromthereductionsandreturnedtotheirformerreligionandtheirnomadicwayoflife.

ItisinterestingtonotetheappraisalgiventoJesuitactivityinParaguaybythespokesmenoftheEnlightenment.AlthoughtheJesuitswereconsideredtheirgreatest
enemies,thephi1osophescouldnotfindloftyenoughtermstocharacterizetheParaguayanstate.InTheSpiritoftheLaws(Book4,Chapter6),Montesquieuwrites:
"TheSocietyofJesushadthehonor...ofproclaimingforthefirsttimeevertheideaofreligionincombinationwiththeideaofhumanity....TheSocietyattractedtribes
scatteredinvillages,providedthemwithsecurelivelihoodandclothedthem.Itwillalwaysbeadmirabletogovernpeoplesoastomakethemhappy."

AndVoltaire,inthiscasespeakingabout"l'infme,"expressedevengreaterrespectinhisEssayonRights:"ThespreadofChristianityinParaguaybytheeffortsofthe
Jesuitsalonewas,inacertainsense,atriumphofhumanity."
[151]

V.
TheAncientOrient
TheIncaempire(aswellastheotherstatesofpreColumbianAmerica,theAztecsandtheMayans)developedincompleteisolationfromtheOldWorldandexertedno
appreciableinfluenceonourcivilization.Therefore,itismuchmoreimportantforustostudythemanifestationofsocialisttendenciesinthoseancientcivilizationswhichare
directlylinkedtoourculturaltradition.Inthischapter,wepresentcertainfactsthatbearonancientMesopotamiaandEgypt.

1.Mesopotamia

ThestatestructureinMesopotamiadevelopedoutoftheholdingsofindividualtemplesthatwereabletogathertogethergreatnumbersoffarmersandartisansthanksto
thewidespreaduseofirrigation.ThissocialpatterntookshapeinancientSumertowardtheendofthefourthandthebeginningofthethirdmillenniaB.C.Extant
inscriptions(mostofthemwerepictographspredatingcuneiformwriting)providelittleinformationaboutthissociety.Itwasheadedbyapriestsanguwhilethemain
workforceconsistedofpeasantswhoweretenantsonthelandaroundthetemple,whichprovidedthemwithdraftanimalsandseedgrain.

TowardthemiddleofthethirdmillenniumB.C.,anewtypeofsocialorganizationemergedsmallregionscoalescedintoseparate"kingdoms"headedbyakingcalledensi
orpatesi.Theeconomicsystemofthisperiodisusuallycalledroyalorensial.Insideeachkingdom,thetemplesremainedthebasiceconomicunits.Aclassicexample
[152]

ofaneconomiccenterofthiskindistheestateofthetempleofthegoddessBauinLagash(twentyfifthandtwentyfourthcenturiesB.C.).Detailedaccountsandrecords
havebeenpreservedintheformofahugenumberofcuneiformtablets.Thedatapermitsareconstruction'ofmanyfeaturesoflifeinSumerduringthisepoch.

ThereweretwomeansofprovidingforthepeopleemployedinthedomainofthegoddessBau:allowancesinkindandthegrantingoflandplotsfor"sustenance."The
lesserpartofthetemple'slandwasgivenovertothelatterfunctionthebulkofthelandwastilledbypartiesofworkersunderthesupervisionofthetemple.These
workerswerelookeduponaspartoftheestateandwerecalled"peopleoftheestateoftheBaugoddess."(65:p.142)Theyreceivedamonthlyallowanceinkindfrom
thetemplestores.Inthetemple'srecordsnumerouslistsoftheseworkershavebeenpreservedsomelistswerereproducedyearafteryear.Herewemeetsuchgroupsas
"porters"and"menwhodonotraisetheireyes"(interpretedasunskilledlaborers),"slavewomenandtheirchildren,""menwhoreceivetheirallowancesaccordingto
separatetablets."Allreceivedapproximatelythesameallowance.Inthelists,workersfigureinpartiesheadedbyaforeman"thechieffarmer."Mendidnotreceive
subsistencefortheirfamilies,butappearedonlyasindividuals.Womenandchildrenarementionedseparatelyorphansformedaspecialcategory.(65:p.166)The
workersseemtohavehadnoprivateholdingstheycouldnotstoreprovisionsforthemselves,butneitherweretheyobligedtobuywhattheyneededelsewhere.The
templestorehousesprovidedthemwithallthenecessities.Tabletsrecordthenamesofthepartychief,therecipientandthedispensingofficial.Evidently,workers(usually
everymonth)cametothestorehousesinpartiestogettheirrations,whichconsistedprimarilyofgrain.(65:p.151)

Anothergroupconsistedof"mengettingsustenance."Theyreceivedallowanceslessfrequently(threeorfourtimesayear),butasaruletheamountwasproportionally
larger.Inaddition,theyreceivedplotsofland,whichinmostcasesweretiny.Theseplotswereredistributedfrequently.(65:p.174)Themostnumerouscategoryinthis
groupconsistedof"shubIugal,"whoalsoworkedonthetempleestateunder"chieffarmers."Theycarriedoutirrigationworkandperformedmilitaryduties.They
receivedplowsandgrainforworkingtheallottedplotsfromthetemplestorehouses.Theirpositionchangedfromtimetotime.Thus,forexample,the"reformerking"
Urukaginagranted
[153]

themtherighttohavetheirownhousesandcattle.Thegroupof"mengettingsustenance"alsoincludedclerksandofficialswhosupervisedtheagriculturalworkinthe
fields.Theirplotswerefrequentlymanytimeslarger(65:pp.154155)

Acertainamountoflandwasrented.Howevermostofitwastilledbytheworkforceofthetempleestate.(65:p.175)Themanagementofagriculturalworkwasinthe
handsoftheensialadministration.Workersdidnottillseparateplotsindividually,butworkedinpartiesunderthesupervisionofachieffarmer.Theplotsallottedto
individualswerealsoworkedinthismanner.(65:pp.170171)WenotethatthesamesystemwasemployedintheIncastate.Workersdeliveredallproducetothe
administration.Allimplementsofproduction,includingdraftanimals,wereissuedtotheforemenoftheworkingpartiesfromthestorehousesonadailybasis.Plows,hoes,
flails,packs,collarsandyokesforoxenwereallkeptinthestores.Skinsofanimalsthathaddiedweredeliveredbythe"chieffarmers"tothestorehouse.Thecentralstore
providedfodderfortheoxenanddonkeys.Allthesetransactionswererecordedingreatdetail.(65:pp.176177)

Theharvestedgrainwasdeliveredbytheindividualchieftotheadministrationoftheestate,andaftermilling,itwasbroughttothestorehousefordistribution.Accounts
werekeptofeverything,includingthesizeofthefieldsfromwhichthegrainhadbeenreceived.

Dateplantationsandvineyardswerecultivatedinthesamemanner.Itseemsthatfixednormsexisted.Onedocumentlistsanamountofdatesreceivedinexcessofthe
normas"arrears"fromthepreviousyear.(65:p.179)Theforesters,whogotsustenanceinkind,workedindetachmentsinwoodlots,fromwhichtimber(highlyvaluedin
alightlyforestedcountry)wasbroughttothestorehouses.Livestockwasraisedinthesameway,herdsmenoftemplecattlereceivingfoodrationsforthemselvesand
fodderfortheanimalsaccordingtofixednorms.(Fishermenalsoworkedinpartiesandhadnormstofillandtheobligationofdeliveringtheirentirecatchtothe
storehouses.)(65:p.184)
Dateplantationsandvineyardswerecultivatedinthesamemanner.Itseemsthatfixednormsexisted.Onedocumentlistsanamountofdatesreceivedinexcessofthe
normas"arrears"fromthepreviousyear.(65:p.179)Theforesters,whogotsustenanceinkind,workedindetachmentsinwoodlots,fromwhichtimber(highlyvaluedin
alightlyforestedcountry)wasbroughttothestorehouses.Livestockwasraisedinthesameway,herdsmenoftemplecattlereceivingfoodrationsforthemselvesand
fodderfortheanimalsaccordingtofixednorms.(Fishermenalsoworkedinpartiesandhadnormstofillandtheobligationofdeliveringtheirentirecatchtothe
storehouses.)(65:p.184)

Artisansworkedinthesamefashion.Animalskins,metal(copperandbronze),andwoolwerereceivedfromthestoresmanufacturedarticleswereinturndeliveredthere.
They,too,receivedfoodsuppliesfromtheestate.(65:p.187)

AllworkersemployedbythetempleofthegoddessBauwereguaranteedclothingormaterialforclothing.(65:p.192)
[154]

Inthedocumentationonthetempleestates,prisonerofwarslavesarerarelymentioned.Inscriptionsspeakingofvictoriesinbattletellofenemieskilledbutnotof
prisonerstaken.AndthenamesofthefarmworkersareofpurelySumerianorigin.Slavesareseldomtreatedasaseparategroup,andwhentheyare,womenare
generallymeant.

Apartfromworkerspermanentlyemployedonthetempleestate,therewasanothergroupofinhabitantswhowererecruitedforirrigationandfarmworkormilitaryservice
onlyoccasionally.Itispossiblethattheseweresemiindependentfarmworkers.Sincethecharacteroftheirworkoutsidethetempleestateisnotrecorded,weknow
nothingaboutit.Thenumberoftheseworkersisestimateddifferentlybyvarioushistorians.A.Deimel,whohastranslatedandcommenteduponagreatnumberof
cuneiforminscriptionsfromthisperiod,believesthatthetempleeconomywastypicalofthe"entireeconomiclifeofthattime....Almostallpropertywasinthepossession
ofthetemple....AlmosttheentirelittlekingdomofUrukagina*was,inalllikelihood,dividedamongtemples."(67:p.78)Manyhistorianstodaydonotsharethisview.
(66,68,69)I.M.Diakonovcitesanumberofcalculationsestimatingtheamountoftemplelandintheentirestate.(66:Chapter1)Hebelievesthat"inthetimeof
Urukagina,thetempleeconomycomprisedperhapshalfthetotalterritoryofthestate."(66:p.251)Thesizeofthepopulationsofthisepochcanalsonotbedetermined
exactly.TheworkforceoftheBauestateisestimatedat1,200persons.(67:p.78)ButthiswasonlyasinglesmalltempleestateinthekingdomofLagash.Thekingof
Lagash,Urukagina,washimselftheheadofafarlargertempleestatebelongingtothegodMingirsu.Usingdeliveriesasameasurement,itmaybeassumedthatthistemple
alonehaddozensoftimesmoreworkersthanthetempleofthegoddessBau.

TheepochofsmallstatesandroyalhouseholdsinMesopotamia(thetwentyfifthandtwentyfourthcenturiesB.C.)wasfollowedbyaperiodoffiercewarfarewhich
endedintheconquestofMesopotamiabytheAkkadiankingSargon,whosubjugatedtheensioftheothercities.Itwasaboutthistime,apparently,thattheideaofa
"worldempire"firstarose,somethingwhichlaterinspiredCyrus,AlexanderandCaesar.Sargon'sstatewastrulyhugeincomparisonwiththesmallcitystatesofthe
precedingepoch.ItextendedfromthePersianGulf

*ThetempleofthegoddessBauwaspartofthiskingdom.

[155]

totheMediterranean.Ahighpricehadtobepaidforthecreationofthisempirefaminespreadinthelandandtherewerenumerousrebellionswhichdidnotceaseeven
underSargon'ssuccessors.ThestateultimatelydisintegratedundertheimpactofthemountaintribeofGutiyas,whoseizedpartofMesopotamia.

Inthetwentysecondcentury,MesopotamiawasagainunitedunderUtuchegal,therulerofthecityofUruk,whotookthetitle"KingoftheFourLandsoftheWorld."
Afterhisdeath,anewdynastywasestablishedbyKingUrNammuthisisreferredtoasthethirddynastyofUr.Mesopotamia,ElamandAssyriacameunderitsrulein
thetwentysecondandtwentyfirstcenturies.Itwasacentralizedstatewithasingleeconomymanagedbyanimperialbureaucracy.

Thekingheadedthestateasanabsolutesovereign.Hewassurroundedbyabureaucracyof"king'smen"or"slavestotheking,"amongwhomthehighestpostbelonged
tothe"greatemissary."(66:pp.256,259,262)Inthisepoch,wenolongerencounteranobilityawareofitsgenealogyandtracingitsrootstoadeity.Thetopelementin
thestateconsistedofbureaucrats,administrators,royalwarchiefs,priests,alllivingongovernmentallowances.Thegoverningbodyitselfdidnotreflecttheformercity
states.Theensi,althoughretainingtheirtitle,weremergedwiththeroyalofficialstheywereappointedbytheking,sometimesonlyforalimitedperiod,andwereshunted
aboutfromonetowntoanother.Theirprimarydutywastomanagetheroyalestatesandperformadministrative,judicialandreligiousfunctions.Templesbegantolose
theireconomicindependenceandcameundertheprotectionoftheking.(65:pp.247,250)

Productionwascentralizedtothesamedegreeastheadministrationofthecountry.Formerensialestatesenteredintothestateeconomyassubordinateunits.Partiesof
workers,incasesofnecessity,wereshiftedfromonetowntoanother.Numerousrecordshavebeenpreservedconcerningthedistributionofallowancestosuchnewly
arrivedparties(fromLagashtoUr,fromUrtoUruk,etc.)(65:pp.248,264)Alllinesofauthoritycametogetherinthecapital,Ur.Controlwasaccomplishedbymeans
ofenvoys,inspectorsandmessengersofvariousranks.Theseobtainedsuppliesinthetownsthroughwhichtheypassed.Asmalltablet,forinstance,recordsaroutine
transactioninwhichamessengerwassuppliedwithprovisions.Localrecordswerekeptbyscribes,whoaffixedtheirsignaturetoalmostallarchivaldocuments:"Scribeat
theStorehouse,""ScribeattheGranary,"etc.(65:p.251)
[156]

Thesystemofaccountingdevelopedtothepointofvirtuosity.Thechiefsoflarge(formerensial)estatessubmittedannualreportstothecapital,whilecertainartisan
workshopshadtopresentreportsseveraltimespermonth.Descriptionsofallfieldsandhouseholdswerekept,togetherwithmapscharacterizingindividualplots:stony,
fertile,clayey,etc.Dateplantationswereregistered,withindicationsoftheyieldofeachtree.Therewereinventoriesofthegoodsinthestorehousesgrain,rawmaterials,
finishedarticles.(65:p.249,pp.253254,255)Anequallydetailedrecordofmanpowerwaskept:therewereseparatelistsofworkersoffullstrength,oftwothirds
strength,ofonesixthstrength.Normsfortheirallowanceswereadjustedaccordingly.Listsofthesick,thedeceasedandthoseabsentfromwork(includingthecauseof
absence)weresubmittedregularly.(65:pp.256257)

Stateagriculturewasbasedalmostexclusivelyoncultivationoflandbypartiesofworkersreceivingpermanentallowancesfromthestate.Rentalofplotsismetwithonly
asanexception.(65:pp.339,312313)Thefactthatcertainfieldsareidentifiedwithaparticularpersonorgroupindicatesonlythatcropsharvestedfromthefieldsin
questionsupportedthesepersonsnotthattheyweretheownersofthem.Thustherewerefieldsforsupplyinghighpriests,scribes,foremenofworkers,diviners(alower
orderofpriests),craftsmen,herdsmen,etc.Alltheselands,aswellaslandintendedforsustainingfarmworkers,wereunderthedirectionofsupervisors.(65:pp.301,
316317,398,411)

Groupsoftentotwentymenworkedinthefieldsallyearround.Theworkersweresometimestransferredfromonesupervisortoanotherorevenfromonecitytoanother
orsenttotheworkshops.Withtheworkquotas,thenotionofa"manday"ofworkwasintroduced(itwasdeterminedbydividingtheworkdonebythenorms).These
figureswerereportedinaccounts.Therationallowancedependedontheamountofworkperformed.Foremenreceivedseed,draftanimals,plows,hoesandothertools
fromthecentralstores.(65:pp.271,273,274,275,299300,302)
orderofpriests),craftsmen,herdsmen,etc.Alltheselands,aswellaslandintendedforsustainingfarmworkers,wereunderthedirectionofsupervisors.(65:pp.301,
316317,398,411)

Groupsoftentotwentymenworkedinthefieldsallyearround.Theworkersweresometimestransferredfromonesupervisortoanotherorevenfromonecitytoanother
orsenttotheworkshops.Withtheworkquotas,thenotionofa"manday"ofworkwasintroduced(itwasdeterminedbydividingtheworkdonebythenorms).These
figureswerereportedinaccounts.Therationallowancedependedontheamountofworkperformed.Foremenreceivedseed,draftanimals,plows,hoesandothertools
fromthecentralstores.(65:pp.271,273,274,275,299300,302)

Thesamesystemexistedincattlebreeding.Dairyproducts,cattleandhidesdeliveredbyherdsmentothestorehouseswererecorded.Abasketoftabletshasbeen
preservedthatcontainstherecordsonacertainestate'sanimalsthathaddiedorhadbeenslaughteredoveraperiodofthirteenyears.Feedforlivestockalsowas
dispensedatthestorehouses.

Inthecrafts,anewformoflargestateworkshopappeared.In
[157]

Ur,eightbigworkshopswereunitedunderthesupervisionofasingleperson.Thismanagerinscribedallaccounts(submittedseveraltimesamonth).Theproductsofthe
workshop'swenttothestatestores,fromwhichthemanagerreceived,inturn,rawmaterialsandhalffinishedgoods,aswellasthecraftsmen'sprovisions.(65:p.286,
343)Forinstance,woolandlinenfabricsfromtheweaverswenttosewersforbordersandhems,thentofullersandfinallytothestorehouses.Plainclothingwasmadefor
theworkersandabettersortofdressforadministrators.Reportsfromtheworkshopscontaindataontheoutput,expenditureonlinen,expenditureongrainforthe
sustenanceofthecraftsmenandfiguresonnumbersabsentanddeceased.(65:pp.349,350)

Fordispensingmetalsandreceiptofmetalarticlestherewerespecialofficialswhoweighedthegoodsandinscribedtherecords.

Craftsmenweredividedintopartiesheadedbyforemen.Workerscouldbetransferredfromoneforemantoanother.Theallowanceacraftsmanreceiveddependedonhis
production(relativetothenorm)andhisskill.Chiefsofworkshopscouldobtainmanpowerfromoutsideincaseofnecessity.Bythesametoken,craftsmenfromthestate
workshopscouldbesenttoworkontheland,inrivertransportation,etc.Thesameterm(gurushi)wasoftenusedtodenotecraftsmenandfarmworkers.(65:pp.267,
299300,346)

Theconstructionofshipswasorganizedonthesameprinciplesasthecrafts.

Likethecrafts,tradewasamonopolyofthestate.(66:p.262)Inbothstateandtemplerecords,slavesarementionedbutslavewomenappearmuchmorefrequently.
Atfirsttheseweremostlyweavers,butlatertheycametobeemployedinotherworkaswell.Maleslavesarementionedalmostexclusivelyinreferencetothecapital.
Evidently,thechildrenofslavewomenwereabsorbedintothegeneralmassofunskilledlabor.(65:pp.279280)

Asearlier(forexample,intheestateoftheBautemple),thereexistedworkerswhowerenotfullytiedtothestatebutwererecruitedonlyfortheheightoftheworking
seasonandpaidingrain.Theirproportionintheoverallpopulationisunclear.

A.I.Tiumenevcitesdataaccordingtowhichhiredworkersconstitutedfrom5to20percentoftheworkforce.(65:p.362)I.M.Diakonovbelievesthatthe"percentage
ofthelandseizedfortheking'shousehold(includingthetemplehousehold)wasenormous."Forthethird
[158]

dynastyofUr,heargues,wemusttake60percentasaminimumfigure.(66:p.151)Diakonovdoesnot,however,substantiatethiscalculation.

Aseriesofextantdocumentstestifiestothefactthatprivatepropertyplayedacertainroleineconomiclife:forexample,certainbillsofsaleforchildrensoldintoslavery.
Butinthemainsphereofeconomiclife,agriculture,thesignificanceofprivatepropertycouldnothavebeengreat.Amongthehugenumberofsurvivingrecordsofbusiness
transactionsofthatepoch,thereisnotasingleoneextantthatdealswithlandsales.(66:p.250)Specializedhandicraftexistedonlywithintheking'shouseholdI.M.
Diakonovassertsthatthereexistednotradeworkshopsotherthanthoseofthestate.(66:p.262)

DuringthethirddynastyofUr,materialinequalityreachedextraordinaryproportions.Theallowancesforadministratorsexceededthoseoftheworkersbyafactoroften
ortwenty.(65:p.405)Thedifficultexistenceledbythelowersegmentsofthepopulationisreflectedinthegreatnumberofrecordsdealingwithescapes.Wehave
reports(withanindicationofthenamesoftherelativesoftheescapee)ontheflightofagardener,afisherman'sson,aherdsman'sson,abarber,apriest'sson,apriest,
etc.(65:pp.367368)

Anotherindexoftheconditionsisthestrikingmortalityfigurespreservedinthearchives.Inconnectionwiththeapportioningofgrain,itisrecordedthat,inoneparty,10
percentofallworkersdiedinoneyear'stimeinanotherparty,14percentinathird,28percent.Onetabletstatesthattwowomenoutofseventeendiedduringacertain
month,andinayear'stime,eighteenof134.Inonelistthedeathofmorethan100womenoutof150isreported.Stillhigherwasthemortalityrateforchildren,who
(togetherwithwomen)wereemployedinheavywork,suchasbargehauling.Ingeneral,thenotation"deceased"isencounteredwithextraordinaryfrequency.Thegeneral
mortalityrateisestimatedat20to25percent,andinfieldworkitisthoughttohavebeenevenhigherupto35percent.(65:pp.365367)

Thissystemofexploitationunderminedthefoundationsofthestate,whichabruptlybegantodisintegrateundertheonslaughtoftheAmoritetribes.ThefallofUrisdated
2007B.C.Ahymndescribingthiseventwaslaterincorporatedintoaliturgyittellsofcorpsesrottinginthestreets,ofguttedstorehouses,oftownsturnedtoruins,andof
womenabductedtoforeigncities.ThedestructionoftemplesinNippur,
[159]

Kish,Uruk,Isin,Eridu,LagashandUmmaisalsomentioned.Thecatastrophewasallinclusive.Thestatecrumbledintosmallprincipalities,andtherefollowedaperiodof
internecineconflictwhichcametoanendonlyin1760B.C.withtheaccessiontothethroneofHammurabiinBabylon.(65:pp.269271)

ThequestionofthesocialstructureinancientSumerandofthesocialpositionofitsruralpopulationhaslonginterestedhistorians.TheviewofSovietscholarsthatSumer
belongedtoaslaveowningtypeofsystemisnotgenerallyacceptedelsewhere,noristheusualSovietdesignationofSumerasakindofpatriarchalslavestatewithtwo
economicsectors(astatesector,whereslavesbelongedtothestate,andanindependentsectorbasedonfamilymembership).(See,forexample,69.)Themostwidely
acceptedpointofviewassignsthemainpartoftheworkforcetothestatusofthehalffreegurushi.AccordingtoI.J.Gelb,thesewerenativeinhabitantswhowere
"undoubtedlyfreeatfirstbutgraduallylosttheirmeansofsustenanceforsomereasonorotherandasaresultofdirectorindirectforcewerecompelledtowork
continuallyorperiodicallyinotherhouseholds."(69:p.84)Theywerenotslavesandcouldnotbesoldtheyhadfamiliesoftheirown.Buttheyhadnorighttomovefreely
fromplacetoplaceandwereobligedtoworkonstatelands,fortemplesorforthearistocracy(inthelatter'scapacityasstateofficials).Alongwiththese,therewas
anothercategoryofworkers(mentionedinthe"gemduma"texts),whoapparentlyhadnofamiliesandwerepermanentlyemployedintemplehouseholds.Thegreat
majorityofwarprisonerscouldnothavebeeneffectivelyutilizedintheeconomy.Thegapbetweenthelargefiguresreportedforprisonerstakenandthesmallnumberof
suchpersonsinthehouseholdrecordsleadsGelbtotheconclusionthatmostcapturedenemysoldierswerekilled.Onthebasisofacertaintext,I.J.Gelbevenargues
thatwarprisonersweredriventospecial"deathcamps"andkilledlater.(70:p.74)Thosewhomanagedtosurvivewereturnedintostateslaves,buttheirstatusgradually
"undoubtedlyfreeatfirstbutgraduallylosttheirmeansofsustenanceforsomereasonorotherandasaresultofdirectorindirectforcewerecompelledtowork
continuallyorperiodicallyinotherhouseholds."(69:p.84)Theywerenotslavesandcouldnotbesoldtheyhadfamiliesoftheirown.Buttheyhadnorighttomovefreely
fromplacetoplaceandwereobligedtoworkonstatelands,fortemplesorforthearistocracy(inthelatter'scapacityasstateofficials).Alongwiththese,therewas
anothercategoryofworkers(mentionedinthe"gemduma"texts),whoapparentlyhadnofamiliesandwerepermanentlyemployedintemplehouseholds.Thegreat
majorityofwarprisonerscouldnothavebeeneffectivelyutilizedintheeconomy.Thegapbetweenthelargefiguresreportedforprisonerstakenandthesmallnumberof
suchpersonsinthehouseholdrecordsleadsGelbtotheconclusionthatmostcapturedenemysoldierswerekilled.Onthebasisofacertaintext,I.J.Gelbevenargues
thatwarprisonersweredriventospecial"deathcamps"andkilledlater.(70:p.74)Thosewhomanagedtosurvivewereturnedintostateslaves,buttheirstatusgradually
changedfromthatofslavestothatofthesemifreeworkers.(70:pp.9596)McAdamsalsobelievesthattheeconomyofancientSumerwasakindofamalgamof
severalkindsofdependencefromanobligationtoworkonstatefieldspermanentlytoadependencebasedonallowancesofwater,grainandtoolswithonlyasmall
contingentofactualslaves.
[160]

Therewerefewslavesintheserviceoftheelite,andtheirconditiondidnotdiffersubstantiallyfromthenumerousotherformsofdependence.(68:p.117)Thebulkofthe
workforce,atleastinthelargerestates,consistedofthesemifreegurushi.Eventhesmallplotsoflandnotbelongingtothetempleortothestatewerenevertheless
subjecttocontrols.Purchaseshadtobesanctionedbytheadministrationcultivationdependedonobtaininggrainandplowsfromthecentralstorehouses.(68:pp.105
106)Themajorityofrecordsdealingwithlandtransactionsconsistsofnotationsoftransferofsmallplotsoflandtothelargeestatesbelongingtorepresentativesofruling
families.(68:p.106)

2.AncientEgypt

Theperiodofhistorytowhichtheprecedingsectionisdevotedwasnotananomalyoraparadoxdiscontinuouswiththebasicdevelopmentofhistory.Onthecontrary,
wehaveseenanexample,perhapsthemoststrikingone,ofastyleoflifetypicalofthethirdandsecondmillenniaB.C.intheregionthattakesinCrete,Greece,Egypt
andAsiaMinor.Thesewerethemostdevelopedcountriesoftheancientworld.Toagreatextent,thesametendencieswereapparentinthestatesoftheIndusbasin.

Thisepochmarkstheriseofanewsocialstructurewhichwasdestinedtoplayadecisiveroleinthefuturehistoryofmankind:thestate.Thebasicsocialunitofthe
earlierperiodwasasettlementaroundatempleoravillagecloselytiedtoterritoryfamiliartothefathersandgrandfathersoftheinhabitants.Allthiswasnowreplacedby
thestate,whichfrequentlyunitedheterogeneousethnicgroupsandcontrolledvastterritories,whichitconstantlystrovetoincreasestillfurther."Worldempires"appeared,
pretendingtohegemonyoverthe"whole"worldandactuallysucceedingingainingcontroloveraconsiderablepartofthecivilizedworldofthetime.

ThefirstsuchempirewasthatofSargon.Insteadofcomparativelysmallgroupsinwhichmostmemberskneweachotherpersonally,asocietyappearedforthefirsttime
inhistorythatunitedhundredsofthousandsormillionsofindividualswhowereruledfromasinglecenter.

Thisupheavalinthecourseofhistorycannotbeexplainedbytechnologicalorculturalprogress,despitesuchachievementsastheinvention
[161]

ofwriting,thewidespreaduseofirrigation,theconstructionofcities,theuseoftheplowandthepotter'swheel,andthesystematicuseofmetals.Inspiteofthese
advances,thenewepochwasbasedchieflyonthemassapplicationoftheachievementsoftheneolithicandbronzeages.Theforcethatprovokedthechangesmustbe
soughtelsewhere:itresultedfromtheunitingofhumanmassesonanunprecedentedscaleandthesubjugationofthesemassestothewillofacentralpower.The
"technologyofpower"andnotthe"technologyofproduction"wasthefoundationuponwhichthenewtypeofsocietywasbased.(68:p.12)Thestate,bymeansofits
bureaucracyofscribesandclerks,tookcontrolofthefundamentalaspectsofeconomicandspirituallife,justifyingthisbytheideaoftheking'sabsolutepoweroverhis
subjectsandoverallsourcesofincome.

Toillustratethegeneraltendenciesofthisepoch,weshallcitesomedataontwoperiodsinthehistoryofancientEgypt.

TheAncientKingdom(FirstSixthDynasties).*Alllandwasconsideredtobethepharaoh's.Partwastransferredtotemporaryindividualuse,butmostofitmadeup
theking'sdomaini.e.,itwasuseddirectlybythestate.Thepeasantswerelookeduponforthemostpartasfruitoftheearthandweretransferredtogetherwithland.
Actsoftransfertypicallycontainformulationslike"thelandwithmenisgiven,"or"landwithmenandcattle."Peasantsworkedunderthesupervisionofofficials.The
officialsdeterminedthenormsfordelivery(calculatedaneweachyear,dependingontheharvestandtheannualflood).Moreover,thepeasantsweresubjectedto
obligatorylabor("thehours")forbuildingandotherstatework,mostnotablyforconstructionofthepyramids.AccordingtoHerodotus(laterconfirmedbyF.Petri's
research),thescaleofbuildingwassuchthattoconstructtheCheopspyramid,100,000menworkedfortwentyyears.Thepeasantsdidmandatoryworkfortheking's
relativesaswell,andforthenobility.Allthese"hours"andnormswereregulatedandrecordedineachregionbyfourdepartments,whichwereinturnsubordinatedtothe
centralstorehousesandcentraloffices.

Itseemsthatthecategoryofagriculturalworker,denotedbythewordmrt,wasespeciallycommon.PharaohPepiIIdecreedtheremovaloftheseworkerstoother
regionstoprovideforthefulfillment

*Asurveyoftheperiodcanbefoundin71,whichisthesourceofmostofourinformation.

[162]

oftheirstateduties.Accordingtosomesources,theselaborerslivedinspecialworkers'houses.

Thecraftswereconcentrated,forthemostpart,instateandtempleworkshops,wheretheworkersweresuppliedwithtoolsandrawmaterial,whilethefinishedproducts
wereturnedovertostorehouses.Shipbuilders,carpenters,joiners,masons,potters,metalworkers,glassandceramicsworkers,eitherworkedinpalaceandtemple
shopsordependedonthemforrawmaterialsandorders.Highlyskilledartisanswiththestatusofhiredfreeworkerswereintheminority.Anumberofimportant
branchesofcraftproductionweremonopolizedbyroyalandtempleworkshops.Forexample,thetemplesmanufacturedpapyrusforwritingmaterialaswellasformats,
ropes,footwearandshipbuilding.

WhileMeyer(72)considersitpossiblethattheAncientKingdomhadanumberofindependentartisansandtraders,Kees(73:p.164)thinkstherewasnosuchcategory.

Tradewasexclusivelyintheformofbarter.Gold,copperandgrainwereusedsometimesasameasureofvalue,buttheentireprocessofexchangewasbasedonreal
value.Exchangeofthissortisdepictedinnumeroustombfrescoes.Andamongtheobjectsdonatedtothecultforthereposeofthedead,noneseemstohaveamonetary
character.Thefamous"PalermoStone"enumeratesthepharaoh'sdonationstothetemples.Theseincludeamostdiverselistofvaluables,includingland,people,rationsof
beerandbread,cattleandfowl.

Officialsalsowerepaidinproduce.Atcourt"theylivefromtheking'stable"intheprovinces,onthedeliveriesduetothem,inkeepingwiththeirrank.
Tradewasexclusivelyintheformofbarter.Gold,copperandgrainwereusedsometimesasameasureofvalue,buttheentireprocessofexchangewasbasedonreal
value.Exchangeofthissortisdepictedinnumeroustombfrescoes.Andamongtheobjectsdonatedtothecultforthereposeofthedead,noneseemstohaveamonetary
character.Thefamous"PalermoStone"enumeratesthepharaoh'sdonationstothetemples.Theseincludeamostdiverselistofvaluables,includingland,people,rationsof
beerandbread,cattleandfowl.

Officialsalsowerepaidinproduce.Atcourt"theylivefromtheking'stable"intheprovinces,onthedeliveriesduetothem,inkeepingwiththeirrank.

Certainpersonsofhighstandingreceivedgrantsofland.Butsuchlandsdidnotformsingleholdings(withtheexceptionofinstancesneartheendoftheperiod)theywere
scatteredinvariouspartsofthecountry.Thepersonstowhomlandswereassignedhadnopoliticalrightswithintheseterritories.

Thesocialstructurewasbuiltaroundthebureaucracy.BeginningwiththeSecondDynasty,aninventoryofallpropertyinthestatetookplaceeverytwoyears.(Itwas
calledthe"inventoryofgoldandfields"orthe"inventoryoflargeandsmalllivestock.")Toaccomplishthistask,theking'sscribesweresentfromhousetohouse,
accompaniedbyadetachmentofsoldiers.Normsfordeliveriesandtaxeswereestablishedonthebasisoftheinventory.Therepresentativesofcentral
[163]

authorityinthevillageswerethe"villagejudge"andthe"villagescribe."

Themultitudeoftitlesfortheofficialsisanindicationofthedegreeofbureaucraticcontroloverlife:villagescribe,villagejudge,chiefofcanals,lakescribe,chiefofsea
construction(thefleet),builderofpalaces,overseerofgrainsandgranaries,etc.BeginningwiththeFourthDynasty,theeconomiclifeofthecountrywasregulatedbytwo
departments:oneforfields,theotherforpersonnel.

Theofficialswhogovernedseparateregionswerenotitsrulersinthefeudalsense.Althoughtheyusuallycamefromthe"aristocracy"bybirth,andtheirofficialtitlewasnot
infrequentlypassedfromfathertoson,neverthelessthepositionofanofficialwasdeterminednotbyhisbirthrightbutbytheking'sgraceinotherwords,bythegiven
official'spositioninthebureaucratichierarchy.Noonepossessedtheautomaticrighttorulebybirth.Servicebeganusuallyinthelowerranks,andasuccessfulofficial
movedfromoneprovincetoanotherfrequently,withoutacquiringstableconnectionsanywhere.Onofficialseals,thenameofanofficialwasneverindicatedonlyhis
positionandthepharaoh'sname.Inscriptionsfoundintombsmakenoreferencetothesocialoriginofthedeceasedoreventohisfather'sname(exceptinthecaseof
princesoftheblood).Anofficial'scareerandmaterialwelfaredependedentirelyonthestateaspersonifiedbythepharaoh,whocouldevengrantimmortality(byallowing
constructionofatombnearhisownburialplace).AsMeyersays:"EgyptbythetimeofMena[creatorofaunitedstatecomprisingUpperandLowerEgypt]wasnotan
aristocraticstatebutabureaucraticstate."(72:p.156)Furthermore:"TheAncientKingdomisanextremeexampleofacentralizedabsolutemonarchyruledbya
bureaucracythatdependedonlyontheroyalcourtandwaseducatedinstateschoolsforthetrainingofofficials."(72:p.193)

TheEighteenthDynasty(SixteenthFourteenthCenturiesB.C.)*Morethanamillenniumlater,weobserveasystemofeconomicrelationsbasedonalmostidentical
principles.Thestate,inthepersonofthepharaoh,ownedallsourcesofincome,andanyonemakinguseofthemwasunderhispermanentcontrol.Periodiccensuseswere
usedtokeeptrackofland,property,occupations,positions.Allactivitywastobesanctionedbythestateanychangeofoccupationcouldtakeplace

*Basedonthesurveypresentedin74.

[164]

onlywithofficialauthorization.Withtheexceptionofthepriestsandthemilitarynobility,thepopulationbothurbanandruralwasunitedintocommunitiesorguilds
controlledbystateofficials.

LandrelationsduringthisepochwereshapedbytherecentwarfortheliberationofthecountryfromtheHyksosinvaders.Themilitarynobility,whicharoseduringthis
struggle,possessedasmallportionoftheland.Theirholdingswerepasseddown,asarule,byrightofprimogeniturefromfathertoson,butultimatecontrolofeventhese
landsbelongedtothepharaoh.Thusheirsassumedpossessionoflandonlyafterthiswasconfirmedbythecentralauthorities.

Withtheexceptionoftheselandsandthetemplelands,otherlandbelongedtothestateinthepersonofthepharaohandwastilledbypeasantsunderstatecontrol.Inthe
tombofVizierRekhmara,forexample,theagriculturalworkersareshownalongwiththeirwivesandchildrengettingsacksofgrainandreturningemptyonesinexchange,
underthesupervisionofanofficial.

ThenormsfordeliveryofagriculturalgoodsweredeterminedinadvanceonthebasisoftheNilefloods.

Cattlebreedingwasalsosubordinatedtoabroadgovernmentaladministrationheadedbythe"overseerofhornedcattle,hoofedandfeatheredlivestock."

Withtherareexceptionofindividualsinsomecraftsthatrequiredspecialskill,allartisanswereunitedinguildsandcontrolledbyofficials.Theheadsofagricultural
communitiesandcraftworkshopswereresponsibleforthetimelyfulfillmentoftheplanforstatedeliveries.Iftheplanwasnotcarriedout,thoseresponsiblewerepunished
bybeingsenttoagriculturalandconstructionwork.

Merchantssentabroadactedasthestate'sagents.Allimportswerealsocontrolledbytheadministrationoftenforeignmerchantswereobligedtodealonlywithstate
officials.Theadministrationcontrolledinternaltradeaswellallmarketswereunderitssupervision.

Despitethefactthatalmosttheentirepopulationwastoagreatextentdirectlydependentonthestate,thesocietyofthetimecannotbecalledeitheraslavesystem,asin
classicalantiquity,orafeudalsystem.Writtenrecordscontainnumeroustermsindicatingdependenceonthestatei.e.,peoplesenttocompulsoryworkorwarprisoners
usedinbuildingandotherstateworks.However,notoneofthesetermscanbeinterpretedasslaveunderthepersonalcontrolofanotherindividualandemployedin
economicactivity.
[165]

Appendix
ReligioninAncientEgyptandMesopotamia

WhilethereissomedocumentationthatthrowslightontheeconomicstructureoftheancientstatesofEgyptandMesopotamia,itismuchmoredifficultto
formanideaoftheintellectuallifeandgeneraloutlookofthesesocieties.Theonlysourcesofinformationatourdisposalbearonreligion.

CharacteristicofthereligionsoftheancientEastisthespecialrolethatthekingplayedbothinagivencultitselfandinallreligiousnotionsofthetime.Not
onlywasheanearthlyincarnationofagod,butgodhoodwastheking'ssecond,heavenlynature,hissoul.Hence,religionwastoalargeextenttransformed
ReligioninAncientEgyptandMesopotamia

WhilethereissomedocumentationthatthrowslightontheeconomicstructureoftheancientstatesofEgyptandMesopotamia,itismuchmoredifficultto
formanideaoftheintellectuallifeandgeneraloutlookofthesesocieties.Theonlysourcesofinformationatourdisposalbearonreligion.

CharacteristicofthereligionsoftheancientEastisthespecialrolethatthekingplayedbothinagivencultitselfandinallreligiousnotionsofthetime.Not
onlywasheanearthlyincarnationofagod,butgodhoodwastheking'ssecond,heavenlynature,hissoul.Hence,religionwastoalargeextenttransformed
intoworshipofadeifiedking.*

Hocart(75)hasamassedagreatamountofmaterialonthecultofkingworship.However,hisobservationsrefertomoreprimitivesocietieswhenthedeified
kingplayedanalmostexclusivelycultrole.ItwascharacteristicofMesopotamiaandEgypttomergethisfunctionwiththeroleofanabsoluterulerofthe
country.

AgreatnumberoffactssupportingthispointofviewareavailableinJ.Engnell'sstudy(76),fromwhichweshallquoteseveralexamples.

Egypt.Thekingisheldtobedivinefrombirthandevenbeforebirthheisconceivedbygodwhobecameincarnatedinhisearthlyfather.Thegodsformthe
childinthemother'swomb.Hehasnoearthlyparents.Asonehymnreads:"Amongthepeoplethouhastnofatherthatconceivedthee,amongthepeople
thouhastnomotherthatconceivedthee."(76:p.4)

Themainfunctionofthekingistobethehighpriestallotherpriestsareonlyhissurrogates.Themaingoalofthecultistheidentificationofthekingwithgod.
ThekingisidentifiedwithRatheSun.ThisidentificationisreflectedinthesocalledroyalnameHorus.Thatwhichischaracteristicofthesupremegodis
relevanttothekingbythemightofhiswordshecreatestheworld,heisthesupportofworldlyorder,heisallseeingandallhearing."Thouartlikefather
Raarisinginthefirmament.Thyraysoflightpenetratetocaves,andthereisnoplaceonearthnotlitbythybeauty."(76:p.6)Tothepharaohisattributed
thedualnatureofthesupremegod,bothgoodandwrathful.

ThekingisalsoidentifiedwithHorus,thesonofOsiris,hencewithOsirisaswell.HorusisthelivingkingOsirisisthedeadking.Osirisisthepersonification
ofthefunctionoffecundityinthesupremegodandinthatcapacitywasincarnateinthepharaoh.ThedeathofOsiriswasdepictedinritualfestivitieshis
passagethroughtheunderworldandhisresurrection,hisincarnationinHorus,theearthlyking.Thiswassimultaneouslythefestivityofthepharaoh's
coronation.

*Atleastthisistrueoftheofficialreligion.Touchinginscriptionsuncoveredinbarracksoccupiedbythebuildersofthepyramidsshowthattherealsoexisteda
popularreligionbasedondeepfeelingsofpersonalmergingwiththedeity.

[166]

TheidentificationofthepharaohandOsirishasevengivenrisetospeculation(Sothe,Blackman)thatOsirisisthedeifiedimageofarealkingwhose
archetypalactivitiesanddeathserveasthebasisofthecultofOsiris.(76:p.8)

Thepharaoh'sfunctionasdefenderofthestateagainstitsenemiesisidentifiedwithamythicalstrugglebetweenRaandadragon.Thepharaoh'svictoriesare
describedinvividmetaphors:heattackslikeastorm,likeadevouringflame,dismemberinghisenemies'bodiestheirbloodflowslikewaterduringtheflood,
theirbodiesareheapedhigherthanthepyramids,etc.Thepharaoh'senemiesarecalledchildrenofdestruction,thecondemned,wolves,dogs.Theyare
identifiedwiththedragonApopi.

Inhisstateactivitiesthepharaohislikenedtoagoodshepherd,shelter,arock,afortress.Theverysameepithetsareappliedtothesupremegod.

Hymnsaddressedtothepharaohincludesuchsentimentsas:

"Hehathcometous,hehathmadethepeopleofEgypttolive,hehathopenedthethroatsofthepeople."

"Rejoice,thouentireland:thegoodlytimehathcome,theLordhathappearedintheTwoLands."(76:p.13)

"Thewaterstandeth,andfailethnot,theNileisrunninghigh.

"Thedaysarelong,thenightshavehours,themonthscomearight.

"Thegodsarecontentandhappyofheart,andlifeisspentinlaughterandwonder."(76:pp.1314)

Mesopotamia.ThekingwasconsideredtobebornofagoddesshisfatherwasAnu,Enlilorsomeothergodwhowascalledthe"fatherconceiver."Inhis
mother'swomb,theking'sbodyandsoulareendowedwithdivinequalities.(76:p.16)

Duringtheritualcelebrationofthecoronation,thekingdiessymbolicallyandisrebornasagod.

Itisinterestingthatthemoreancienttextsarethemoredefiniteaboutthedivinityoftheking.Invisualrepresentations,thekingoftencannotbedistinguished
fromagodhemighthavethesamehairstyle,forinstance.Theking'snamehasadivinecharacterandisusedasanoath.(76:p.18)Inthegodkingidentity
therearetwoaspects.Thekingisthesupremesungodand,atthesametime,thegodoffertility.

ThusthekingPursinofUriscalledthe"truegod,"thesunoverhisland.Hammurabisays:"IamthesungodofBabylon,whocauseslighttoriseoverthe
landofSumerandAkkad."(76:p.23)DuringritualceremoniesthekingactedasthegodofthesunMarduk.Thisidentificationwasproclaimedasdogma
inrelationtotheroleofthekinginthecult,butinanearlierperioditevidentlywasseeninliteralterms.

Ontheotherhand,thenotionofthekingasanembodimentofthegodoffertilityTammuzseemssofundamentalthatscholarslikeFeiginconsiderTammuza
historicalkingwhosedeificationinitiatedthecult.(76:p.24)

InthereligionofMesopotamia,theimageofatreeoflifethatgrants

[167]
 historicalkingwhosedeificationinitiatedthecult.(76:p.24)

InthereligionofMesopotamia,theimageofatreeoflifethatgrants

[167]

thewateroflifeplaysagreatrole.Thekingisoftenidentifiedwithit.ThusitissaidofKingShulgi:"ShepherdShulgi,thouwhohastthewater,shed
water...GodShulgiistheseedoflife...thearomaticplantoflife."Thelivesofpeoplearefromtheking:"TheKinggiveslifetomen...lifeiswiththeKing."(76:
p.28)

Inacertainhymnthekingspeaks:"Iamtheking,myreignisendless....Iamhewhorulesoverallthings,themasterofthestars."(76:p.29)

Identicalepithetsareusuallyappliedtokingandtogod:master,ruler,shepherd,lawfulshepherd,ruleroflands,ruleroftheuniverse.

Wequoteseveralmorefragmentsfromthehymns:

"Hethatoverfloweththefaceofthelandwiththeflood..."(76:p.39)

"Hewhomthegreatgodslookuponwithbrightregard..."(76:p.42)

"Whobringsbacklifetothosewhohavebeensickformanydays..."(76:p.44)

Andinconnectionwithnature:

"Thecorngrewfiveellshighinitsears."

3.AncientChina

ThehistoryofChinaisanextraordinarilyinterestingexampleofhowthetendenciesofstatesocialismfindexpressioninamultitudeofformsoveratremendousspanof
time.BelowweshallcitesomedatabearingontheperiodbetweenthethirteenthandthethirdcenturiesB.C.Thisepochisdividedintotwoparts:theancient(theYinand
theearlyChouofclassicalChinesehistoriography)andthelateChunChiuandCh'in.TheboundarybetweenthemliesinthefifthcenturyB.C.

TheYineracomprisestheearliestnonmythicperiodinChinesehistory.Songsandchroniclessupplysomeinformationonit,inadditiontoarchaeologicalevidence.Some
ofthemostimportantknowledgeabouttheYincomesfrominscriptionsonbonesandtortoiseshellsusedfordivining.TheseinscriptionsareassignedbyMaspero(77)to
thetwelfthtoeleventhcenturiesB.C.andbyKuoMoJo(78)tothefourteenthtothirteenthcenturies.Thesourcespointtoasocietybasedonhuntingandagriculture.
Cultivationwasbyandlargeconfinedtoriverbanksartificialirrigationwaslittleused.Themanufactureofbronzeutensilsandspinningandweavingachievedahighlevelof
technicalproficiency.Awritingsystemhadbeendevelopedandthecalendarwasinuse.

Powerbelongedtothekingorwang.Inalaterchroniclealegendary
[168]

king,PanKeng,inorderinghispeopletopopulatenewareas,says:"Youareallmycattleandpeople."(78:p.22)Hewarnsthatincaseofdisobediencetheywillhave
theirnosescutoffandalltheirdescendantswillbedestroyed"sothatbadseedshouldnotgetintothecity."(78:p.22)Thecommentarytoanancientchronicle(sixth fifth
centuriesB.C.)statesthat"Chou[thewangofYin]hadhundredsofthousands,millionsofpeople."(78:p.22)ThatthewangoccupiedacentralplaceinYinsocietyis
indicatedbythehugenumberofhumansacrificesthataccompaniedhisburial.Thegraveofawangwassurroundedbyuptoonethousandcorpses.Ontheotherhand,
suchmassslaughter,apparentlyofwarprisoners,madethespreadofslaveryratherimprobable.

Inagriculturenotraceofindividuallandallotmenthasbeenfound.Controloverworkonthelandwasinthehandsofagriculturalofficials.Thebureaucraticnatureof
agricultureissuggestedbyinscriptionsondiceusedinfortunetelling.Forexample,theaugurydirectsthewang"toorderthecommonfolktogotothefieldsforthe
harvest."Or:"Thecommonfolkaretobeorderedtosowmillet."(79:p.125)

TheconquestoftheYinempirebythenomadicChoutribetransformedthelatterintoaprivilegedclassofsociety,butlittlechangedinthegeneralstructureoflife.As
before,workonthelandwascontrolledbyofficialssubordinatetotheking.Numeroussongsdescribeagriculturebasedontheuseoflargegroupsofpeasantsdirectedby
officialswhoindicatewhere,whenandwhattosow.Forexample,landofficialswereinstructedasfollows:"ourrulersummonsusall...ordersyoutoleadtheplowmento
sowgrain...quicklytakeyourinstrumentsandbegintoplow....Lettenthousandpairsgoout...thiswillbeenough."(79:p.125)Elsewhereasimilarsceneispictured:"A
thousandpairsofpeopleontheplainandonthemountainslopeweedandplowthefield."(79:p.129)Oftheharvestitissaid:"Therearelargegranarieseverywhere.
...Inthem,millionsoftanofgrain...Athousandgranariesmustbeprepared....Tenthousandgrainbasketsmustbeprepared."Finally,thewanggiveshisapprovalthe
ultimategoaloflabor:"Allthefieldsarecompletelysown....Thegrainistrulygood....Thewangwasnotangryhesaid,'Youpeasantshavelaboredgloriously.'"(79:pp.
128,134)

ThehistoricalbookHanShu,writteninthefirstcenturyA.D.,describestheorganizationofagriculturalworkthus:"Beforethepopulationwentouttowork,thevillage
headtookuphisplaceontheright
[169]

oftheexit,theagriculturalofficialsonthelefttheylefttheirplacesaftereveryonehaddepartedforthefields.Intheevening,thesamethingwasrepeated."(78:p.31)

Alineinasongruns:"Rainfallsonourcommonlandandonourownfields."(79:p.135)Thus,apartfromthefieldsinwhichthousandstoiledunderthesupervisionof
officials,therewereindividualplotsanalogoustothosethatexistedinPeruandintheJesuitstate.

Historicalsourcespointtothestatedistributionofland."Atdefinitetimesthepopulationwascountedandthelanddistributed."(80:p.149)And:"Theindividualattheage
oftwentyreceivedafield,attheageofsixtyreturnedit,atanageoverseventylivedinstatedependency,uptotenyearsofagewasbroughtupbyelders,onreachingage
elevenwasforcedtoworkbytheelders."(78:p.31)

Alllandandallpeoplewereconsideredtobethewang'sproperty:"Undertheheavens,thereisnolandthatdoesnotbelongtothewang,inthewholeworldfromone
endtotheothertherearenopeoplewhoarenotthewang'sunderlings."(78:p.29)

Landandfolkweregrantedbythewangtothearistocracyfortemporaryuse,withouttherightofsaleortransferevenbyinheritance.Manycasesarerecordedofland
Historicalsourcespointtothestatedistributionofland."Atdefinitetimesthepopulationwascountedandthelanddistributed."(80:p.149)And:"Theindividualattheage
oftwentyreceivedafield,attheageofsixtyreturnedit,atanageoverseventylivedinstatedependency,uptotenyearsofagewasbroughtupbyelders,onreachingage
elevenwasforcedtoworkbytheelders."(78:p.31)

Alllandandallpeoplewereconsideredtobethewang'sproperty:"Undertheheavens,thereisnolandthatdoesnotbelongtothewang,inthewholeworldfromone
endtotheothertherearenopeoplewhoarenotthewang'sunderlings."(78:p.29)

Landandfolkweregrantedbythewangtothearistocracyfortemporaryuse,withouttherightofsaleortransferevenbyinheritance.Manycasesarerecordedofland
beingconfiscatedandevenofaristocratsbeingreducedtotherankofthecommonpeople.Officials,scholarsandartisansgottheirsustenancefromspecificplotsofland
tilledbythepeasantswholivedonthem.

Besidestheirimmediateobligations,peasantshadanumberofotherduties.Incaseofwar,theywereto"putonarmorandtakepoleaxesinhand."(78:p.32)Theywere
obligedtoworkonconstructionprojects.Inonesong,itissaid:"Tillers!...Thisyeartheharvestisalreadyin....Itistimetobuildapalace....Bydaymakereadyreeds.
...Intheeveningweaverope....Hurryandfinishthebuilding."(79:p.147)

Thecraftswerepartlythepeasants'obligationaswell.IntheHanShuitissaid:"Inwinter,whenthepopulationreturnedtothevillage,thewomengatheredtogetherinthe
eveningsandwereengagedinspinning.Inonemonththeyfulfilledthenormsetforfortyfivedays."(78:p.31)

Therewere,however,professionalartisansalso.Theybelongedtoaspecialorganizationinwhichtheartisansofsimilarspecialtiesformedclosedcorporationsdirectedby
overseers.Artisansandoverseers,aswellasmerchants,receivedallowancesfromthestate.
[170]

Alltheessentialaspectsoflifewereunderthecontroloftheking'sadministration.Therewerethreebasicareasofsupervision:agriculture,warandpublicworks.The
headsofthesethreedepartmentswerecalledthethreeeldersandwereregardedasthehighestrankingofficialsoftheempire.Allagriculturalproductionwas
subordinatedtothedepartmentofagricultureor"plenty."*Itsofficialsscheduledtherotationofcrops,thetimeofsowingandofharvesting.Theyassignedthedutiesto
groupsortoindividualpeasantsandsupervisedtheprivateexchangeofagriculturalproductsatthemarkets.Thelifeofthepeasantwasalsoundertheircontrol:marriage,
villageholidaysandlitigation.

Theprimarytaskofthemilitarydepartmentwasthesuppressionofuprisings.Alsoamongitsfunctionswererecruitingandtrainingandallquestionsoftheconductofand
preparationforwarthearsenal,foodstores,horses.Thisdepartmentalsoorganizedthehugehuntingexpeditionsthattookplacefourtimeseachyear.Thedepartmentof
publicworkshadauthorityovertheland(whilethepeoplewhoworkedthelandweremanagedbythedepartmentof"plenty").Itestablished"boundarylines,"thatis,
undertooktheperiodicredistributionoflanditdirectedirrigationwork,thebuildingofroads,thecultivationofvirginlands.Artisans,architects,sculptorsandarmorers
wereatitsdisposal.(77:pp.7375)

Althoughtherewereobjects(shells,copperbars)thatwereusedasconvenientmeansofexchange,alldeliveriestothestateconsistedofproduce:grain,canvas,etc.
Privatetransactions,inmostcases,alsohadthecharacterofexchangeinkind.

Inmanyrespects,marriagehadnontraditionalforms.AmongtheinscriptionsfromtheYinperiod,wefindlistingsofwivesbelongingtotwohusbands.(81:p.12)Inthe
Chouepoch,marriageamongthepeasantswastoalargeextentregulatedbythestate.Forexample,inonesourceweread:"Menareorderedtomarrybyagethirty,
girls,byagetwenty.Thismeansthatthedeadlineformarriagebothformenandforwomencannotbeextended."(80:p.147)Ataspecifictimeinspring,theemperor
announcedthedayforweddings.Aspecialofficialcalledamediatorinformedthepeasantsthatthetimefor"thejoiningofyouthsandgirls"hadcome.TheFrench
SinologistMasperobelievesthatmarriageinthetruesenseexistedonlyforthearistocracy,forwhichithadtheeffectofsustainingthereligiouscult.Common

*ThistranslationwassuggestedbyMaspero(77)in1927,longbeforeOrwell's1984.

[171]

folkdidnotestablishclansandthefamilydidnothaveareligiouscharacter.MarriagewasdenotedbydifferenttermsforthearistocracyandthepeasantryMaspero
translatestheformertermas"marriage"andthelatteras"union."(77:p.117)

Legalfunctionsweredividedbetweentheciviladministrationandthelegaldepartment.Civilauthoritiesassignedpenaltiesforminorcrimesaspecificnumberofblows
withastick.Incasesofrepeatedoffense,theguiltypartywashandedovertothelawdepartment.Fivekindsofpunishmentwereprovidedforbylawforseriousoffenses:
capitalpunishment,castration(or,forwomen,incarceration),cuttingoffoftheheel,cuttingoffofthenose,branding.AcodexattributedtoKingMuofthebeginningofthe
Chouperiodcontainsalistofthreethousandoffenses,ofwhichtwohundredwerepunishablebydeath,threehundredbycastration,fivehundredbycuttingofftheheel,
onethousandbycuttingoffthenoseandonethousandbybranding.Thecodexfromtheendofthisepochlists2,500offenses,fivehundredineachofthefivecategories
ofpunishment.(77:p.77)

Inmanyrespects,thesocietyoftheChouperiodresemblesthatoftheIncaempireatthetimeoftheSpanishinvasion.ButinChina,historymadepossibleafurther
elaborationofthesocialstructure.TheChoustatedidnotfallvictimtoaforeigninvader,butratherdevelopedundertheinfluenceofinternalfactors.Andquiteunexpected
featuresappeared.BythefifthcenturyB.C.,theempire,officiallyunderthedominionoftheChouking,brokeupintowhatwereinrealitysmallindependentstatesthat
engagedinpermanentwarfare.(Thisageis,infact,calledthe"epochofthefightingkingdoms.")Butthecollapseofthemonolithicstatemechanismwascompensatedfor
bythedevelopmentofindividualfactors.TheteachingsofConfuciusproclaimedman'sprimarygoaltobethemoralandethicalperfectionofhispersonalityandthe
integrationofculturewithsuchspiritualqualitiesasjustice,loveofmankind,loyalty,nobility.Amultitudeofphilosophicalschoolscameintobeingvagrantscholarsbegan
toplayagreatroleinthelifeofsociety.

Thisisaperiodofrapidculturalandeconomicgrowth.Thelanguageandwritingsystemsofthedifferentkingdomswascodified.Thenumberofcitiesandtownsincreased
rapidly,andtheybegantoplayagreaterroleinthelifeofthecountry.Thechroniclestellofcitiesinwhichcarriagescollidedinthestreetsandthecrowdsweresuchthat
clothingputoninthemorninggotwornoutbyevening.Largeirrigationsystemswereconstructed.Anetworkofcanalswas
[172]

built,connectingallthekingdomsofChina.Implementsmadeofironcameintowideuse.Almostallagriculturalinstruments,suchashoes,spades,axes,sickles,were
madeofiron.ThroughoutChinalargeirondepositswerebeingworkedtherewerehugesmeltingfurnacesrunbycrewsofhundredsofslaves.Citiesandwholeregions
specializedinproducingdifferentarticles:silk,arms,salt.Undertheinfluenceofincreasingtradelinks,almostallkingdomsbegantomintidenticalcoins.(83:pp.24 32)

Somewhatlater,however,anewtendencyappeared:thedesiretomakeuseofthehighertechnicalandintellectuallevelinordertocreateastrictlycentralizedsocietyin
whichtheindividual,toafargreaterdegreethanbefore,wouldbeundercontrolofthestate.Itseemsthatthisisnottheonlytimeinhistorythatdevelopmentshavetaken
suchaturn.Forexample,H.Frankfort(83)believesthatthefirststatesinMesopotamiaandEgyptaroseinananalogousfashion,i.e.,asaresultofsubjectingthe
built,connectingallthekingdomsofChina.Implementsmadeofironcameintowideuse.Almostallagriculturalinstruments,suchashoes,spades,axes,sickles,were
madeofiron.ThroughoutChinalargeirondepositswerebeingworkedtherewerehugesmeltingfurnacesrunbycrewsofhundredsofslaves.Citiesandwholeregions
specializedinproducingdifferentarticles:silk,arms,salt.Undertheinfluenceofincreasingtradelinks,almostallkingdomsbegantomintidenticalcoins.(83:pp.24 32)

Somewhatlater,however,anewtendencyappeared:thedesiretomakeuseofthehighertechnicalandintellectuallevelinordertocreateastrictlycentralizedsocietyin
whichtheindividual,toafargreaterdegreethanbefore,wouldbeundercontrolofthestate.Itseemsthatthisisnottheonlytimeinhistorythatdevelopmentshavetaken
suchaturn.Forexample,H.Frankfort(83)believesthatthefirststatesinMesopotamiaandEgyptaroseinananalogousfashion,i.e.,asaresultofsubjectingthe
economicandintellectualachievementsofthetempleeconomiestothegoalsofacentralgovernment.

AuniqueplaceinthethoughtandactivityoftheChinaofthe"fightingkingdoms"periodisoccupiedbyKungsunYang,betterknownasShangYang.Hewastherulerof
ShangprovinceinthemiddleofthefourthcenturyB.C.andhistheoreticalviewsaresetforthinTheBookoftheRulerofShang.(84)Thisworkisbelievedtohavebeen
writteninpartbyShang,inpartbyhisdisciples.

AccordingtoShang'steaching,twoforcesdeterminethelifeofsociety.OneofthemShangcallstherulerorthestate,evidentlyregardingthemasdifferenttermsfor
essentiallythesamething.Shangidentifieshimselfwiththisforce.Theaimofthewholetreatiseistopointoutthebestpathsandmeansforachievingthegoalsofthisforce
inthemostperfectfashion.Thegoalconsistsessentiallyofincreasingtothemaximumdegreepossibletheruler'sinfluenceandpowerbothinsidethecountryandbeyond
itsbordersthroughexpansion.Theidealisfulldominionundertheheavens.Theotherforceisthepeople.Theauthordescribestheinterrelationsbetweentherulerandthe
peopleasanalogoustothosebetweentheartisanandhisrawmaterial.Thepeoplearelikenedtooreinthehandsofametalworkerortoclayinthehandsofapotter.
Andevenmoretheaspirationsofthetwoforcesarediametricallyopposedtheyareenemies,theonegettingstrongeronlyattheexpenseoftheother."Onlyhewhohas
conqueredhisownpeoplefirstcanconquerastrongenemy."(84:p.210)"Whenthepeopleareweakthestateisstrongwhenthestateisweakthe
[173]

peoplearestrong.Hencethestatethatfollowsatruecoursestrivestoweakenthepeople."(84:p.219)ThesectioninShang'sbookfromwhichthelastquotationistaken
isinfactentitled:"HowtoWeakenthePeople."

Inordertotransformhispeopleintoclayinhishands,therulerisadvisedtorenounceloveofman,ofjusticeandofthepeoplequalitiesthattheauthorcategorizes
collectivelyasvirtue.Thesequalitiesshouldnotbeassumedamongthepeopleeithertheymustberuledlikeacollectionofpotentialcriminalswithanappealmadeonlyto
fearandselfishadvantage."Ifthestateisgovernedbyvirtuousmethods,largenumbersofcriminalsaresuretoappear."(84:p.156)"Inastatewherethedepravedare
treatedasiftheywerevirtuous,seditionisinevitable.Inastatewherethevirtuousaretreatedasiftheyweredepraved,ordershallreignandthestatesurelyshallbe
powerful."(84:p.163)"Whenthepeoplederiveprofitfromthewaysinwhichtheyareused,theycanbemadetodoanythingtherulerwishes....However,shouldthe
rulerturnawayfromthelawandbegintorelyuponhisloveforthepeople,therewillbeanoutbreakofcrimeintheland."(84:p.220)

Thelawisatthebasisoflifeitrulesoverthepeoplethroughfearand,toalesserextent,throughtheprofitmotive:"Thelawisthebasisforthepeople....Asituationis
consideredjustwhendignitariesareloyal,whensonsarerespectfultotheirparents,whenjuniorsareobservantoftheirseniors,whenthedistinctionbetweenmanand
womanisestablished.Butallthisisachievednotthroughjusticebutbymeansofimmutablelaws.Andthen,evenastarvingmanwillnotstraintoreachforfood,justasa
condemnedmanwillnotclingtolife.Hewhoisperfectlywisedoesnotvaluejustice,buthevalueslaws.Ifthelawsareabsolutelyclearanddecreesareabsolutely
obeyed,nothingmoreisneeded."(84:pp.215216)

Ofthetwokeyfactors,punishmentandreward,withthehelpofwhichthelawgovernsthepeople,considerablepreferenceisgiventothefirst:"Inastatestrivingfor
dominionundertheheavens,thereareninepunishmentstoonereward,andinstatesdoomedtodisintegrate,thereareninerewardstoonepunishment."(84:p.165)Itis
onlypunishmentthatbreedsmorality:"Virtueoriginatedwithpunishment."(84:p.165)Speakingofhowtoapplypunishment,theauthorseesonlythefollowing
alternatives:masspunishmentappliedacrosstheboardorthelessfrequentlyusedbutparticularlyharshpunishment.Hedefinitelyrecommendsthesecondcourse:"People
canbemade
[174]

worthywithoutmasspunishment,ifthepunishmentissevere."(84:p.212)Inthisheevendiscernsamarkoftheruler'sloveforhispeople:"Shouldpunishmentsbesevere
andrewardsfew,therulerloveshispeopleandthepeoplearereadytogiveuptheirlivesfortheruler.Shouldrewardsbeconsiderableandpunishmentsmild,theruler
doesnotlovehispeople,andthepeoplewillnotgiveuptheirlivesforhissake."(84:pp.158159)

Theprimarygoalofpunishmentistoseverthetiesthatbindpeopletogethertherefore,awholesystemofinformersmustsupplementpunishment."Ifthepeopleareruled
asvirtuous,theywilllovethoseclosesttothemiftheyareruledasdepraved,theywillbecomefondofthissystem.Unityamongpeopleandtheirmutualsupportspring
fromthefactthattheyareruledasvirtuousestrangementamongthepeopleandmutualsurveillancespringfromtheirbeingruledasdepraved."(84:pp.162163)The
ruler"shouldissuealawonmutualsurveillanceheshouldissueadecreethatthepeopleoughttocorrecteachother."(84:p.214)"Regardlessofwhethertheinformeris
ofthenobilityorofloworigin,heinheritsfullythenobility,thefieldsandthesalaryoftheseniorofficialwhosemisconducthereportstotheruler."(84:p.207)
Denunciationistiedtoasystemofextendedmutualliability."Afathersendinghissontowar,theeldersendinghisyoungerbrother,orthewifeseeingoffherhusband,
shallallsay:'Don'tcomebackwithoutvictory!'Andtheywilladd'Shouldyoubreakthelawordisobeyanorder,weshallperishtogetherwithyou.'"(84:p.211)"Ina
wellregulatedcountry,husband,wifeandtheirfriendswillnotbeabletoconcealacrimeonefromtheotherwithoutcourtingdisasterfortherelativesoftheculpritthe
restwillnotbeabletocovereachothereither."(84:p.231)

Theauthorpicturesthisentiresystemasamoreprofoundandsignificantformofhumanity,apathtowardthedyingawayofpunishment,executionanddenunciation,
almostawitheringawayofthestatethroughitsmaximumincreaseinstrength."Ifpunishmentbemadesevereandasystemofmutualresponsibilityforcrimeis
established,peoplewillnotdaretoexposethemselvestotheforceoflaw.Andwhenpeoplebegintofeartheresults,theverynecessityofpunishmentwilldisappear."(84:
p.207)"Therefore,ifbywar,warcanbeabolished,thenevenwarispermissibleifbymurder,murdercanbeabolished,thenevenmurderispermissibleifby
punishment,punishmentcanbeabolished,thenevenharshpunishmentispermissible."(84:p.210)"Suchismymethodofreturningtovirtue,bythepath
[175]

ofcapitalpunishmentandreconciliationofjusticeandviolence."(84:p.179)

WhatisthesocialstructurethatShangYangproposestoachievebythesemeans?Hesinglesouttwoconcernsforthesakeofwhichotherhumaninterestsshouldbe
suppressedandtowhicheverythingshouldbesubordinated:agricultureandwar.Heascribessuchexclusiveimportancetotheseentitiesthatheintroducesaspecialterm
todefinethem,translatedas"concentrationontheOneThing"or"unification."Thewholefutureofthecountrydependsuponthisfactor:"Thecountrythatachieves
unification,beitforoneyear,willbepowerfulfortenyearsthestatethatachievesunificationfortenyearswillbepowerfulforahundredyearsthestatethatachieves
unificationforahundredyearswillbepowerfulforathousandyearsandwillachievedominionundertheheavens."(84:p.154)Onlythefollowingactivitiesmustbe
encouragedbythestate:"Hewhowantsthefloweringofthestateshouldinspireinthepeopletheknowledgethatofficialpostsandranksofnobilitycanbeobtainedonly
byengagingintheOneThing."(84:p.148)

Alleconomicactivitywastohaveasinglegoalagriculture.Twoexplanationsaregivenforthis:inthefirstplace,"whenallthoughtsareturnedtoagriculture,peopleare
todefinethem,translatedas"concentrationontheOneThing"or"unification."Thewholefutureofthecountrydependsuponthisfactor:"Thecountrythatachieves
unification,beitforoneyear,willbepowerfulfortenyearsthestatethatachievesunificationfortenyearswillbepowerfulforahundredyearsthestatethatachieves
unificationforahundredyearswillbepowerfulforathousandyearsandwillachievedominionundertheheavens."(84:p.154)Onlythefollowingactivitiesmustbe
encouragedbythestate:"Hewhowantsthefloweringofthestateshouldinspireinthepeopletheknowledgethatofficialpostsandranksofnobilitycanbeobtainedonly
byengagingintheOneThing."(84:p.148)

Alleconomicactivitywastohaveasinglegoalagriculture.Twoexplanationsaregivenforthis:inthefirstplace,"whenallthoughtsareturnedtoagriculture,peopleare
simpleandeasilygoverned."(84:p.153)Secondly,agriculturehelpsfeedthearmyduringprolongedwars.Colonizationandcultivationofvirginlandsisproposed
peasantsaretobeattractedfromotherlandstothisendbypromisesofreleasefromlaborandmilitarydutiesforthreegenerations.Itseemsthatthepeasantswhosettled
onvirginlandswereusuallyundergreatercontrolandbelongedtoa"royaldomain."Thustheproposaltobefreeforthreegenerationsmusthavesoundedespecially
attractive.Overandover,proposingthisorthatofficialmeasure,ShangYangconcludesthepassagewiththewords:"Andthenthevirginlandsarecertaintobe
cultivated."

Forthenobility,theonlywaytorichesandacareermustbethroughmilitaryservice:"Allprivilegesandsalaries,officialpostsandranksofnobility,mustbegivenonlyfor
serviceinthearmytheremustbenootherway.Foronlybythispathisitpossibletotakeaclevermanandafool,noblesandcommonfolk,bravemenandcowards,
worthymenandthosegoodfornothing,andextractallthatisintheirheadsandtheirbacksandforcethemtorisktheirlivesforthesakeoftheruler."(84:p.204)

Inmilitaryactivitythereisnoplaceformoralconsiderations.On
[176]

thecontrary:"Ifthearmycommitsactionsthattheenemywouldnotdaretocommit,thenthismeansthatthecountryisstrong.Ifinwarthecountrycommitsactionsthe
enemywouldbeashamedofcommitting,thenitwillhavegainedanadvantage."(84:p.156)

Theruler,too,isreleasedfrommoralobligationstowardhissoldiers.Herulesoverthem,asoverallpeoplebymeansofrewardsandpunishments.Threeenemyheads
cutoffresultsinapromotiontotherankofnobility."Ifafterthreedaysacommanderhasnotconferredthistitleuponanyone,heissentencedtotwoyearshardlabor....A
warriordisplayingcowardiceistorntopiecesbycarriages,awarriordaringtodisapproveofanorderisbranded,hisnoseiscutoffandheisthrowndownatthecity
wall."(84:pp.218219)Aswiththegeneralpopulation,thewarriorisboundbyextendedresponsibility.Soldiersaredividedintofivesandforailoffensebyoneallare
executed.

Thus:"Itisnecessarytodrivepeopleintosuchastatethattheyshouldsufferifnotengagedinagriculture,thattheyshouldliveinfeariftheyarenotengagedinwar."(84:
p.234)Therefore,all"external"occupations(thatis,notpartoftheOneThing)aresystematicallysuppressed.Asaresult,activitiesoutsidedirectstatecontrol,thosein
whichpersonalinitiativeandindividualityweredisplayed,werethefirsttobecutoff.Hencetheabolitionofprivatetradeingrainisproposed.Thenmerchantswillbe
compelledtoturntoworkingtheland,and"wastelandsarecertaintobecultivated."Taxesweretoberaisedsharplysoastomaketradeunprofitable.Andingeneralthe
roleofgoldwastobediminishedsothatitshouldplaytheleastpossiblerole."Whengoldappears,graindisappearsandwhengrainappears,golddisappears."(84:p.
161)Merchantsandtheirpeopleshouldbedrawnintoperformingstatelaborduties.Thecraftsarealsonottobeencouraged:"Commonpeopleareengagedintradeand
aremastersofvariouscraftssoastoavoidagricultureandwar.Ifsuchthingstakeplace,thestateisindanger."(84:p.148)Hiredlaborshouldbeabolishedsothat
privatepersonswouldnotbeabletoundertakeconstructionwork.Miningandwatertransportationshouldbecomestatemonopolies:"Iftherightofownershipto
mountainsandreservoirsisconcentratedinthesamehand,thenlandslyingfallowwillcertainlybecultivated."Andinhabitantsshouldbeattachedtotheland."Ifthe
peoplearedeprivedoftherightoffreemigration,thenlandslyingfallowwillcertainlybecultivated."(84:pp.144145)Allthesemeasurescanbesummedupinone
generalprinciple:"Undertheheavenstherehardlywaseveracasewhereastatedidnotperish
[177]

wheninfestedwithwormsorwhenacrackappeared.Thatiswhyawiserulermakeslawseliminatingprivateinterests,therebydeliveringthestatefromwormsand
cracks."(84:p.198)

Theimplementationoftheseprinciples,however,ispreventedbyaforcewhichthebookdealswithatlength.TodenotethisforceShangYangusesatermthatis
translatedas"parasites"or(literally)"lice."Sometimessixparasitesareenumerated,sometimeseight,instillotherinstancesten.ThesearetheShihChingandtheShu
Ching(TheBookofSongsandTheBookofHistory,thesourcesofartisticandhistoricaleducation),music,virtue,venerationofoldcustoms,loveofmankind,
selflessness,eloquence,wit,etc.Elsewhere,knowledge,talentandlearningareadded.Whatseemstobemeantiscultureinitsbroadestunderstandingandinvolvinga
certainlevelofethicalandmoraldemands.Theexistenceofsuch"parasites"isincompatiblewiththeOneThingthattheauthorelaborates,aswellaswithhiswhole
program."Iftherearetenparasitesinastate...therulerwillnotbeabletofindasinglemanwhomhemightusefordefenseortowagewar."(84:p.151)"Whereverthere
existtheseeightparasitessimultaneously,theauthoritiesareweakerthantheirpeople."(84:p.162)Inthiscase,thestatewillbetornapart."Ifknowledgeisencouraged
andnotnippedinthebud,itwillincrease,andwhenitwillhaveincreased,itwillbecomeimpossibletoruletheland."(84:p.182)"Iftheeloquentandtheintelligentare
valued,ifvagrantscholarsarebroughtintotheserviceofthestate,ifamanbecomeswellknownthankstohislearningandpersonalglory,thenwaysareopenintheland
totheunrighteous.Ifthesethreekindsofpersonsarenotcheckedintheirpath,itwillbeimpossibletoengagethepeopleinwar."(84:p.224)AndShangYangwarns
darkly:"Thepeopleinthewholecountryhavechanged,theyhavetakentoeloquenceandfindpleasureinstudytheyhavestartedtoengageinvariouscraftsandtrade
theyhavebeguntoneglectagricultureandwar.Ifthistrendcontinues,thehourofdeathisnearfortheland."(84:p.152)Inoldentimes,hesays,thingswerenotthisway:
"Thegiftedwereofnouseandtheungiftedcoulddonoharm.Therefore,theartofrulingwellconsistspreciselyintheabilityofremovingthecleverandthegifted."(84:p.
231)Finally,thisideaisexpressedinitsmostnakedform:"Ifthepeoplearestupid,theycanbeeasilygoverned."(84:p.237)

ShangYang'steachingisreminiscentofasocialutopia,adescriptionofan"idealstate,"inwhich"privateinterestsareeliminated,"love
[178]

forkindredbeingsisreplacedbyloveforstateorder,allaspirationsareconcentratedontheOneThingandtheentirestructureismaintainedbyasystemofinformers,guilt
byassociationandharshpunishments.ButinonerespectShangYangoccupiesaspecialplaceamongauthorsofsuchtreatises.Manyofthemmadeattemptsto
implementtheirideals.Plato,forinstance,soughtarulerwhowouldorganizeastateinthespiritofhisteaching.Plato'sattemptsendedwhentheSyracusetyrant
Dionysius,uponwhomhehadsethishopes,soldhimintoslavery.ShangYang,however,foundhisrulerandhadtheopportunitytorealizehisideals.Theprinceofthe
stateofCh'inmadehimfirstministerandShangYangsucceededincarryingoutanumberofreforms.HereiswhatisknownofShangYang'slegislation:

1.Farmers("thoseengagedintheessentialthing")werefreedfromobligatoryservice.

2.Thosediscoveredengagingin"nonessential"activitieswereturnedintoslaves.

3.Ranksofnobilitywereobtainableonlythroughmilitaryservice.Highpositionsinthegovernmentcouldbegivenonlytothosewhohadalreadyearnedtherankof
nobility.Thosewithoutrankwereforbiddentodisplayluxuries.(Inthisway,therulingclasswastransformedfromahereditaryaristocracyintoofficialsdependentonthe
favoroftheirsuperiorsandthemonarch.)

4.Thestatewasdividedintoprovincesruledbystateofficials.
2.Thosediscoveredengagingin"nonessential"activitieswereturnedintoslaves.

3.Ranksofnobilitywereobtainableonlythroughmilitaryservice.Highpositionsinthegovernmentcouldbegivenonlytothosewhohadalreadyearnedtherankof
nobility.Thosewithoutrankwereforbiddentodisplayluxuries.(Inthisway,therulingclasswastransformedfromahereditaryaristocracyintoofficialsdependentonthe
favoroftheirsuperiorsandthemonarch.)

4.Thestatewasdividedintoprovincesruledbystateofficials.

5.Largefamiliesweresplitup,andgrownsonswereforbiddentolivewiththeirfathers.(Thismeasureisseenasanattempttodestroythevillagecommunity.)

6.Fieldsweremarkedoffwithboundarylines.Anumberofhistoriansseeinthisthedestructionofcommunityandthesubordinationofthepeasantrydirectlytoofficials
othersviewitasindicativeofthefreedomtobuyandsellland.(ThespiritofShangYang'sbookwouldseemtorenderthelatterinterpretationquiteunlikely.)

7.Capitalpunishmentwasintroducedforthetheftofahorseoranox.

8.Everyfivehouseholdswereunitedintoaunitofsharedresponsibilityandlinkedtoanotherfive.Ifonememberofthegroupoftenhouseholdscommittedacrime,the
othersweretoreporthimotherwisetheyweretobecutinhalf.Theinformerwastoberewardedinthesamemannerasonewhohadkilledanenemy.

Theselawsmetwithgreatresistance,butShangYangmanaged
[179]

tocopewiththeopposition.Individualsexpressingtheirdiscontentwereremovedtothefrontierregions.Dangerstruckfromquiteadifferentquarter.Hispatrondiedand
theheirtothekingdom,whohatedShangYang,executedhimalongwithhisentirefamily.ButShangYang'sreformswereleftineffectandled,ashehadasserted,tothe
achievementofhegemonyundertheheavensbytheCh'inkingdom.InthethirdcenturyB.C.,ChinawasunitedinthehighlycentralizedCh'inempireinwhichtheideasof
ShangYangwereimplementedevenmoreconsistentlyandonagreaterscale.

Attheheadofthestatestoodtheruler,whotookthetitleHuangti,atermwhichexistedrightupuntil1912.Itistranslatedas"emperor,"althoughithasmoreelevated
connotations,somethinglike"DivineSovereignoftheEarth."ThefirstemperorproclaimedthatheshouldbecalledShihHuangtihisheirsweretobecalledtheSecond
shih,theThirdshih,andsoonuptotenthousandgenerations.(Infact,thedynastywasoverthrowninthereignofhisson.)Theemperorwasproclaimedthesolehigh
priestofthestate.Inscribedonasteleerectedbytheemperorarethewords:"Withinthelimitsofthesixpoints[thefourdirections,plusupanddown]everywhereisthe
landoftheEmperor.Whereverman'sfoothastroddentherearenopeoplewhodonotsubmittotheEmperor."(82:p.162)

Ahistoricalconceptcurrentatthetimeheldthatthehistoryofundertheheavensconsistedofasuccessionoffiveepochs,correspondingtothefiveelements:earth,
wood,metal,fireandwater.Blackwasdesignatedthestatecolor,correspondingtowater,andtheword"people"wasreplacedbytheterm"theblackheaded."The
numbersix,whichindicatedwater,wasdeclaredtobesacred,andcountingwastobebasedonthisnumber.The"responsibleunit,"whichhadcontainedfivepeople,now
includedsix.

Thehistoricallyproduceddivisionofthecountrywasabolished.Instead,theempirewasdividedupintothirtysixregions,andthoseintheirturnintodistricts.Thecountry
wasrunbyacentralizedbureaucracy.Inspectors,whoweredirectlyresponsibletotheemperor,supervisedtheworkofallofficialsandreportedonittothecapital.
Duringcriticalperiodssuchinspectorswerealsoappointedtothearmy.Districtauthoritieswereinchargeoftheruralelders,ofthekeepersofpublicmorals,ofthe
keepersofbarnsandgranaries,ofwatchmenandpostmasters.Cultsandritualswereunifiedandlocalobservancessuppressedtemplesdirectlysubordinatedtothestate
werebuilt.Officials
[180]

ofspecialdepartmentswerechargedwithkeepingtrackoftheseactivities.Otherspecialofficialswereinchargeofmilitaryandeconomicaffairs,orofservicetothe
personoftheemperor.Theoverwhelmingmajorityofofficialsreceivedregularallowancesingrain.Onlyhighofficialsandtheemperor'ssonsutilizedtheincomeofcertain
regions,inwhich,however,theydidnotenjoyanypoliticalrights.

InaccordancewithShangYang'steaching,agriculturewasproclaimedtobethe"essentialthing."Ontheemperor'ssteleitsaid:"Theemperor'smeritconsistsinhishaving
forcedthepopulationtoengageintheessentialthing.Heencouragedagricultureanderadicatedthesecondary."(82:p.161)

Theemperorwasconsideredtobetheownerofallland.ItseemsthatwhentheEmperorWangMangproclaimedalllandtobelongtothecrown(firstcenturyA.D.),he
wasonlycallingtomindanalreadyestablishedtradition.Thisarrangementwasreflectedinobligatorydeliveriesandaseriesofmilitaryandlabordutiesthepeasants
performed.Nevertheless,thereexistsinformationconcerningthebuyingandsellingoflandbyprivatepersons.Still,agriculturewasapparentlybasedonthecommune,
whichwasusedasameansofsubordinatingthepeasantrytothestate.Communeofficialswereobligedtoseethatthepeasantswenttothefieldsontimeandwerenotto
allowbackintothevillageapeasantwhohadnotfulfilledhisnorm.OnetreatiseofthedayrelatesthatduringanillnessofoneoftheCh'inkings,communesthatsacrificed
oxenforhisrecoverywerepunished.Evidently,thecentralauthoritiesdidnotconsiderthatcommuneshadtherighttodisposeoflivestockinanyway.Ahistoricalrecord
oflatertimestellsaboutaninscriptionsomeonecutonastone:"WhenEmperorCh'inShihHuangdies,thelandwillbedivided."Theguiltypartywasnotfound,butthe
stonewasgroundtopowderandallinhabitantsofthevicinitywereexecuted.(82:p.180)ThisincidentsuggeststhatinCh'inShihHuang'sreigncertainmeasurestakento
socializethelandprovokeddiscontentamongthepopulace.

Animportantmeansbywhichsubordinationofagriculturetostatecontrolwasimplementedwastheemperor'smonopolyonwater.Aspecialdepartmentoversawsluices,
dikesandirrigationcanals.(ItshouldbekeptinmindthatintheCh'inepoch,irrigationbegantoplayanextremelyimportantroleinagriculture.)Anothermeasurethat
servedthepurposeofextendingtheauthorityofthestatewastheresettlementofgreatmassesofpeasantstonewlyconqueredterritories,
[181]

wheretheywereevidentlyundermoredirectcontrol.

LittleinformationaboutprivatecraftsintheCh'inempirehassurvived.Therearereferencestoownersofironsmeltingworkshopswhobecameextremelyrich.Onthe
otherhand,therearedescriptionsoflargestatearmsmanufacturingworks,whoseentireproductionwenttostatestorehouses.Itisknownthatthestateconfiscatediron
armsfromthepopulace,anditisthereforelikelythatallproductionofarmswasconcentratedinthehandsofthestate.Animperialstelereads:"Allimplementsandarms
weremadeafteronepattern."(82:p.161)Thestatehadamonopolyontheminingofsaltandore.Wholearmiesofworkerslaboredinstateworkshopsandonstate
constructionsites.Itisknownthatsomeofthemwerestateslavesthestatusofothersisunclear.Thestatecarriedoutconstructionprojectsonanunprecedentedscale.
Immenselylongroads,thesocalledimperialhighways,werebuilt,crisscrossingthecountryfromoneendtotheother.Thewidthoftheseroadsreachedfiftypaces,and
therewasaraisedsectioninthemiddlesomesevenmeterswide.Thislatterwasintendedforusebytheemperorandhiscourt.Thefortificationserectedearlierbythe
variousstatesweredemolishedandthecelebratedGreatWallofChinaconstructedtodefendthenorthernfrontier.TheregionoftheWallwasconnectedwiththecapital
byaroadthatwentdirectlyfromnorthtosouthwithoutattemptingtobypassthenaturalobstacles.("Mountainsweredugthroughvalleysfilledin,andastraightroadwas
built.")(82:p.171)Tremendousresourceswereexpendedonthebuildingofpalaces(inthevicinityofthecapital,270wereerected)andonconstructingtheemperor's
armsfromthepopulace,anditisthereforelikelythatallproductionofarmswasconcentratedinthehandsofthestate.Animperialstelereads:"Allimplementsandarms
weremadeafteronepattern."(82:p.161)Thestatehadamonopolyontheminingofsaltandore.Wholearmiesofworkerslaboredinstateworkshopsandonstate
constructionsites.Itisknownthatsomeofthemwerestateslavesthestatusofothersisunclear.Thestatecarriedoutconstructionprojectsonanunprecedentedscale.
Immenselylongroads,thesocalledimperialhighways,werebuilt,crisscrossingthecountryfromoneendtotheother.Thewidthoftheseroadsreachedfiftypaces,and
therewasaraisedsectioninthemiddlesomesevenmeterswide.Thislatterwasintendedforusebytheemperorandhiscourt.Thefortificationserectedearlierbythe
variousstatesweredemolishedandthecelebratedGreatWallofChinaconstructedtodefendthenorthernfrontier.TheregionoftheWallwasconnectedwiththecapital
byaroadthatwentdirectlyfromnorthtosouthwithoutattemptingtobypassthenaturalobstacles.("Mountainsweredugthroughvalleysfilledin,andastraightroadwas
built.")(82:p.171)Tremendousresourceswereexpendedonthebuildingofpalaces(inthevicinityofthecapital,270wereerected)andonconstructingtheemperor's
mausoleum.

Theseactivitiesofthestate,aswellasthewarsthatwerebeingconstantlywagedonthesouthernandnorthernfrontiers,requiredtheemploymentofcolossalmassesof
people.ThestateresortedtoapolicyofresettlementonawidescaleunreliablesegmentsofthepopulationweremovedtotheformerCh'inkingdomandmorereliable
groupssenttothenewlyconqueredregions.Theresettlementof120,000familiesisrecordedinoneplace50,000inanothercase,30,000elsewhere.

Theentirepopulation,exceptofficialdom,wassubjecttoinnumerablemilitaryandlaborduties.Militaryserviceincludedanobligatorymonthoftrainingforallmenatage
twentythree,oneyearofserviceintheregulararmy,andborderpatrolapartfrommobilization.Thenumberofmenemployedinmilitaryservicewasimmense:armies
[182]

of500,000and300,000arementioned.Evenmorepeoplewereinvolvedinlaborduties.Inthebuildingofasinglepalace,700,000wereemployed.Thebasiclabor
obligationsincludedthebuildingofcanals,palaces,theGreatWall,etc.thetransportationofgoodsforthestate(mainlymilitarysupplies),transportationworkoncanals
andrivers.Militaryandlabordutieswerenotalwaysdistinguishedonefromtheother.Inthesouth,thearmybuiltcanalsfortransportofsuppliesinthenorth,a300,000
manarmy,alongsidemobilizedinhabitantsandstateslaves,wereengagedinthebuildingoftheGreatWall.Onesourcegivesthefollowingpicture:"Menwhohadcomeof
agewerebeingdriventowork....Alongtheroadstherelaysomanycorpsesthattheycouldhavefilledtheditches."(79:p.395)

Suchmeasuresevokedmassflightofthepopulationtoforests,mountainsandmarshyregions.Othersjoinedthenorthernnomads,ormigratedtotheKoreanstate.Anew
termappearsinthesourcesthecategoryof"peopleinhiding."Itwasnotonlythepoorwhofled.TheemperorwhocametopoweraftertheoverthrowoftheCh'in
Dynastydecreedthatthosewhoreturnedtotheirdistrictswouldgetbacktheirfieldsandranks.

TheCh'inpenalcodewasconsistentwiththeideasofShangYang.Itisbasedontheprincipleofguiltbyassociation.Sixrelativesansweredforeachperson.Thecriminal
wasexecutedtheothersmadeintostateslaves.Officialswereboundbyanotherformofmutualliability:theofficialwhohadappointedaguiltypartyandanyotherswho
knewofthecrimebutdidnotreportitweresubjectedtothesamepunishmentastheculprit.Inothercases,executionof"relativesofthethreebranches"couldbecarried
outi.e.,relativesonthefather'sside,themother'sandthewife's.Thisedictreads:"First,brandallthecriminal'srelativesofthethreebranchesofrelationship,cutofftheir
leftandrightheelsandbeatthemtodeathwithsticks.Theirheadsarethentobecutoffandtheirfleshandbonesthrownonthecitysquare.Ifthecriminalwasaslanderer
oraconjurer,histongueisfirstcutout.Thisisknownasexecutionthroughthefivepunishments."(79:p.379)Amilderformofpunishmentwastheexterminationofthe
criminal'simmediaterelativesonly.

Thereexistedanextraordinaryvarietyofexecution:quartering,cuttingintohalves,cuttingintopieces,decapitationwithexhibitionoftheheadonthesquare,slow
strangulation,buryingalive,boilinginacauldron,breakingofribs,smashingofthecrownofthehead.
[183]

Otherkindsofpunishmentincludedthecuttingoffofthekneecaporofthenose,castration,brandingandbeatingwithsticks.Convictiontohardlaborforfromseveral
monthstoseveralyearswaswidelyused,aswasenslavement.Onechroniclerecounts:"Alltheroadswerecrowdedwiththecondemnedinscarletshirts.Andthejails
werefilledtooverflowinglikemarketscrowdedwithpeople."(85:p.58)

PerhapsthemostnotoriouseventinthereignofCh'inShihHuangisthesocalledbookburning.Theideawastosuppressanythoughtindependentofthestateandto
obliteratehistoricalsourcesthatdifferedfromofficialones.Theemperor'schiefcounselorproposedtheformofthedecree.Inhisletterhewrote:"Atpresent,Your
Majestyhasperformedgreatdeedswhoseglorywillspreadthroughtenthousandgenerations.This,ofcourse,cannotbeunderstoodbyfoolishscholars....Atpresent,
whenYoutheEmperorhaveunitedthecountry,separatedblackfromwhiteandestablishedunity,theyhonortheirscienceandassociatewithpeoplewhodisapproveof
lawsanddirectives.Whentheylearnofanedicttheydiscussitinaccordancewiththeirscholarlyprinciples.Whentheyenterthepalacetheydisapproveintheirsouls
whentheycomeoutagaintheyengageinopendiscussion....Andifthisisnotforbidden,thentheconditionoftheruleratthetopwillbecomeworse,andatthebottomthe
partieswillgainstrength.Itwouldbeusefultoforbidit."(81:pp.150152)

Therefollowsuggestionsforconcretemeasuresthatwere,infact,acteduponbytheemperor.Theedictinquestionreads:"Allbookswhicharenotconcernedwiththe
officialhistoryoftheCh'instate,exceptbookswhichareunderthekeepingofhighofficials,aretobeburned....Allwhostilldareundertheheavenstoconceal[books
deemedseditious]aretobebroughttothechiefsandtheguardsandburnedtogetherwiththeirbooks.Allwhodiscusstheseworksaretobepubliclyexecuted.Allwho
usetheexamplesofthepasttocondemnthepresentaretobeexecuted....Officialsseeingorknowinganythingaboutthehidingofbookswhodonottakemeasuresare
tobetreatedlikethosewhoconcealbooks....Thosewhodonotturninbookswithinthirtydaysaftertheproclamationofthisedictaretobebrandedascriminalsand
exiledtothebuildingoftheWall....Booksonmedicine,divinationandplantgrowingarenotsubjecttodestruction."(79:p.381)

Thepointofthesemeasureswastodeprivethepopulationofthemeansofindependentstudy.Privatepersonshadnorighttopossessanybooksexceptthosedevotedto
verynarrowutilitarianproblems.
[184]

Manybookswerepreservedinstatedepositoriestowhichonlyspecialofficialshadaccess.ButhistoricalworksonkingdomsotherthantheCh'inempirewere
completelydestroyed.

Bookswerenottheonlyvictimsofpersecution.Attheorderoftheemperor,460Confucianscholarswereburiedalive,andafargreaternumberwereexiledtofrontier
regions.

Subsequently,whenConfucianismbecametheofficialideologyoftheChineseempire,Ch'inShihHuang'spersecutionscametobeseenasanepitomeofbarbarism.But
hostilitytowardConfucianteachingsonthepartofrulersmanifesteditselfinthelaterperiodsaswell.ItissaidofthefounderofadynastythatsucceededtheCh'inthathe
"doesnotlikeConfucianscholars.Whenamanintheheaddressofa'guest'oraConfucianenters,hequicklytearstheheaddressoffandurinatesintoitonthespot."(79:
p.389)

Inourday,theCommunistPartyofChinahascalledthepeopletoastruggleagainstthe"followersofConfuciusandLinPiao."Andbackin1958,atthesecondplenary
meetingoftheCentralCommitteeoftheChineseCommunistParty(EighthCongress),MaoTsetungsaidofEmperorCh'inShihHuang:

Heissuedanorderthatread:"Thekinofhimwhoforthesakeofantiquityrejectsthepresentwillbeeradicatedtothethirdgeneration."Ifyouadhereto
"doesnotlikeConfucianscholars.Whenamanintheheaddressofa'guest'oraConfucianenters,hequicklytearstheheaddressoffandurinatesintoitonthespot."(79:
p.389)

Inourday,theCommunistPartyofChinahascalledthepeopletoastruggleagainstthe"followersofConfuciusandLinPiao."Andbackin1958,atthesecondplenary
meetingoftheCentralCommitteeoftheChineseCommunistParty(EighthCongress),MaoTsetungsaidofEmperorCh'inShihHuang:

Heissuedanorderthatread:"Thekinofhimwhoforthesakeofantiquityrejectsthepresentwillbeeradicatedtothethirdgeneration."Ifyouadhereto
antiquityanddonotrecognizethenew,allyourfamilywillbeslaughtered.Ch'inShihHuangburiedonly460Confuciansalive.However,hehasalongway
togotocatchupwithus.Duringthepurge,wedidawaywithseveraltensofthousandsofpeople.WeactedliketenCh'inShihHuangs.Iassertthatweare
betterthanCh'inShihHuang.Heburiedalive460people,andwe,46,000onehundredtimesmore.Indeed,tokill,thentodigagraveandburysomeone
thisalsomeanstoburyalive.WeareabusedandcalledCh'inShihHuangsandusurpers.Weacceptthisandconsiderthatwehavestilldonelittleinthis
respectmuchmorecanbedone.

Appendix
WasThereSuchaThingasan"AsiaticSocialFormation"?

Everyonewhohaseverpassedanexaminationon"historicalmaterialism"isfamiliarwiththebasicoutlineofhumanhistory.Historyisseenasasequenceof
socialformations:primitivecommunal,slaveowning,feudal,bourgeoisandcommunist.Thisfundamentalhistoricallaw,however,didnotcrystalizewith
perfectclarityatonceandcertaincomradesstillhaveconfusedideasonthequestion.

TheproblemisthattheFoundersoftheScientificMethodofHistoryoccasionallyreferredtooneothertypeofinformationthe"Asiatic,"

[185]

elsewherereferredtoasthe"AsiaticModeofProduction."(SeethecorrespondencebetweenMarxandEngels,Marx'sessay"BritishRuleinIndia"andhis
prefaceto"TowardaCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy.")Thedistinguishingfeatureofthisformation,thetraitthatconstitutesthebasisofthepoliticaland
religioushistoryoftheEastandthe"keytotheEasternsky,"wasidentifiedastheabsenceofprivateownershipofland.

TherewaslivelydiscussionofthisquestioninSoviethistoricalscholarshipinthetwentiesandthirties,especiallyinconnectionwiththehistoryoftheancient
NearEast.TheargumentwaswonbyacademicianV.V.Struveandhisfollowers,whomaintainedthecorrectMarxistpointofview,accordingtowhichthe
ancientkingdomsoftheNearEastwereslaveowningsocieties.ThequestionmighthavebeenconsideredcompletelyclosedwiththepublicationofStalin's
famousChapter4oftheShortCourseontheHistoryoftheCPSU(1938),whereinthenowuniversallyfamiliar"fivefold"schemeofhistoricaldevelopment
wasenunciated:itdidnotincludeany"Asiaticformation."

Thisatmosphereofperfectclaritywascloudedbytheappearanceinprint,in1939,ofamanuscriptbyMarxthattheauthorhadnotoriginallyintendedfor
publication:"TheFormsPrecedingCapitalistProduction."(86)Marxhereplaces"Asiatic,ancient,feudalandmodernbourgeoismodesofproduction"ina
singlelineofdevelopmentasthe"progressiveepochsofeconomicsocialformation."Soonafterthispublication,anarticledesignedtopreventany
misinterpretationappearedinVestnikdrevneiistorii.(87)ItwasbyacademicianStruve,whowrote:"Bythis,onceandforall,anendisputtotheattempts
ofcertainhistorianstoascribetoMarxtheideaofaspecial'Asiatic'socioeconomicformation."Hewarnssternly:"Asiaticsocietyisaslaveowningsociety."
WhatMarxsaysabout.slaveryintheEastintheworkinquestionisofcourseverygood,butheunfortunatelyusestherathervagueconceptof"universal
slavery,"whichisdifficulttofitintoahistoricalframeworkthatisbasedontheideaofclass.

Representativesofvariousotherschoolsofthoughtwerequicktorespond.TheCommunistrenegadeandreactionaryK.Wittfogelstoopedtofilthy
insinuationsaboutanallegedanalogybetweenthe"Asiatic"and"socialist"formations.HeevenattemptedtousethisanalogytoexplainwhyMarxandEngels,
bytheendoftheirlives,hadstoppedmentioningthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction."*Needlesstosay,theslanderouscharacter

*ReferencetoWittfogel'sargument(in89)thatMarxborrowedthenotionofaspecific"Asiatic"typeofstatefromtheworksofAdamSmith,JamesMill,John
StuartMill,RichardJones(theconceptitselfgoesbacktoMontesquieuandBernier),anduseditinhisschemeofthedevelopmentofsocietyonthebasisof
production.Fromthe1860son,however,MarxandEngelsengagedinsharppolemicswithBakuninandhisadherents.BakuninassertedthatMarxandEngels'
idealofstatesocialismwould"engenderdespotismatoneextremeandslaveryattheother."Inthiscontext,theanalogytoAsiaticdespotismbecametooobvious
forcomfort.Hereisthereason,Wittfogelbelieves,whyMarxandEngelsrefrainedfrommentioningthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction"intheirlaterworks.

[186]

ofWittfogel'sstatementswasthoroughlyexposedbyMarxisthistorians,althoughanumberofthemalsostartedtoshowaninterestinthisquestion,which,
onewouldhavethought,hadbeenfullysettled.InforeignMarxistjournals,dozensofauthorstookpartinthediscussion.Theresponsecameintheformofa
collectionofarticles.(88)(Inthiscollectionseethesurveyentitled"DiscussionoftheAsiaticModeofProductionintheForeignMarxistPress,"whichisthe
sourceoftheinformationgivenbelow.)

Oneofthefirstcontributionstothisdiscussionwasanarticlepublishedin1957byB.WeIskopf,ahistorianfromtheGermanDemocraticRepublic.She
expressestheopinionthattheancientOrientcannotbeadequatelycategorizedbyeithertheconceptof"classical"slaveryortheconceptof"patriarchal"
slavery.Thosesocieties,theauthorbelieves,fittherubricof"Asiaticmodeofproduction"inthesamewayasancientChina,IndiaandAmerica.In1958,F.
Tkei,reviewingpropertyrelationshipsintheChouepoch,cametotheconclusionthattherewasnoprivateownershipoflandatthetime.Andinstudies
publishedin1963,hecharacterizesthisepochasaperiodof"Asiaticmodeofproduction."R.Pokoracomestothesameconclusionregardingancient
China.

Studiesinwhichthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction"isdiscoveredinevernewcountriesandnewhistoricalperiodshavebeenmultiplyingrapidly.J.Suret
Canale,a"MarxistAfricanist"(andtheauthorofthesurveyunderreviewhere)seesthisformationinprecolonial,tropicalAfrica.P.Boiteaudiscernsiton
MadagascarR.Gallissot,inprecolonialMaghrebandAlgiers(inthelatter,however,inanimperfectform)M.Tchechkov,inprecolonialVietnamK.
Manivanna,inLaosofthefourteenthtotheseventeenthcenturiesM.Olmeda,inpreColumbianMexicoS.Santis,inInca,AztecandMayanstatesS.
Divitcioglu,intheOttomanempireofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.Itturnsoutthattracesofthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction"canbefoundinpresent
states(butofcoursenotinthesenseproposedbytherenegadeWittfogel).J.Chesneauxwritesofthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction":

"Itdoesnotbelongonlytothepast,however.Nodoubtithasleftdeeptracesonsubsequenthistory.Thetraditionof'supremeunity'isanexample.Hasit
not,innumerousAfroAsiancountries,promptedtheestablishmentofasystemcontrolledbyanallpowerfulheadofstatewhoalsoenjoystheconfidenceof
themasses?"(88:p.55)
 Divitcioglu,intheOttomanempireofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.Itturnsoutthattracesofthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction"canbefoundinpresent
states(butofcoursenotinthesenseproposedbytherenegadeWittfogel).J.Chesneauxwritesofthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction":

"Itdoesnotbelongonlytothepast,however.Nodoubtithasleftdeeptracesonsubsequenthistory.Thetraditionof'supremeunity'isanexample.Hasit
not,innumerousAfroAsiancountries,promptedtheestablishmentofasystemcontrolledbyanallpowerfulheadofstatewhoalsoenjoystheconfidenceof
themasses?"(88:p.55)

Thesehistoriansacribethefollowingnewfeaturestothe"Asiaticmodeofproduction":

1.Aspecialconceptofproperty.Firstofall,thisisexpressedintheabsenceofprivateownershipofland,asnotedinWeIskopf'sfirststudy.Tkeieven
assertsthatnoprivatelandownershipeverexistedinAsia.Gallissotspeaksabout"publicproperty."AndL.Sedovwrites:"Thatwhichdistinguishesall
stagesinthedevelopmentoftheAsiaticmodeofproduction...isanalmostcompleteabsenceofprivatepropertyasasystemofrelations."

2.Aminorrolefortrade.Chesneauxbelievesthatcommercialturnover

[187]

andcommercialexchangeplayedonlysecondaryrolesandwerelimitedto"additionalfoodstuffs"intheconsumptionofthecommunities.

3.Aspecialmeansofexploitationthatwas,asChesneauxputsit,"fundamentallydifferentfromclassicalslaveryorfromserfdomuniversalslavery."C.
Perrinsinglesoutthebasicfeaturesofthismeansofexploitation:

a.Useofalargemassofessentiallyunpaidpeasantstemporarilycutofffromtheirfarmsandfamilies.

b.Extravagantuseofthelaborforcenotonlyonthebuildingofcanals,dikes,andsoon,butonconstructionofthedespot'spalaces,pyramids,
etc.

c.Themassesforcedintohard,unskilledphysicallabor.

d.Peasantcommunitiescompelledbythedespottoprovidelaborforpublicworksonagrandscale.

e.Suchexploitationisimplementedbymeansofcollectivesformedfromtheruralcommunitiesthisrequiresadespotic,centralizedrule.

4.Aspecialroleforthestatewhenitactsas"supremeunity"toexploitruralcommunities(WeIskopf,Perrin)and"controlsdirectlythebasicmeansof
production"(Gallissot).

The"Asiaticformation"presentsextraordinarydifficultiesforscientificMarxiststudy.Inparticular,ithasprovedalmostimpossibletosubjectittoclass
analysis.Chesneaux,forinstance,iscompelledtocometotheconclusionthatclasscontradictionsarepresenthere"inanoriginalway,"viz.,theyexist
withoutanyclearappropriationbytherulingclassoftheownershipofthemeansofproduction.Therulingclassturnsouttobenotagroupofpeople(!)but
"thestateitself,initsessence."

Tkeiwrites:"Ofalltherelatedproblems,themostfrequentlydiscussedisthequestionofhowsocietiesoftheAsiaticmodeofproductionweredividedinto
classes."(88:p.62)TkeiandChesneauxcometoa"functionalclasstheory,"accordingtowhichthedivisionintoantagonisticclassesisbasednotonthe
exploiters'ownershipofthemeansofproductionbutratheron"sociallyusefulfunctions"definedbytherulingclass.Sedovsharesthisviewandadvocatesa
theoryofa"stateasaclass."Finally,Tchechkovassertsthattheterm"class"isnotapplicableatalltotherulingsocialgroupinprecolonialVietnam.There
wasinsteadahierarchyof"functionaries,"withtheemperoras"firstamongfunctionaries."Thiselitewasconstantlyreplenishedthroughasystemof
examinationsandtests.Forthisgroupofelite"scholarfunctionaries,"ownershipofthemeansofproductiondidnotdeterminetheirplaceinthehierarchy,but
onthecontrary,theirrankinthehierarchydeterminedtheireconomicposition.Theruling"stateasaclass"exploitedthepeasantmembersofthecommunity
notbyowningthemeansofproductionbutbyvirtueofitsfunctionalroleingoverningsocietyandtheeconomy.

ThetriedandtestedtoolofscientificresearchquotationfromtheMarxistclassicsprovedtobeofnohelpinsolvingthisextremelydifficultproblem:

[188]

"WhatwasMarx'sopiniononsocialstratificationandtheclassstructureunderthe'Asiaticmodeofproduction'?WesearchtheworksofMarxinvainfora
formulaorasimpleandclearanalysisbearingonthisquestion.Duetothepressoftime,Marxdidnotevengiveacompleteanalysisoftheclassstructure
undercapitalism.InChapter52,VolumeIII,ofhisCapital,Marxbegantoexpoundhisideasonthesubject*butwasabletowriteonlythefirstlinesofa
preface."(88:p.63)OnecannothelpsharingTkei'ssadthoughtsonthisscore.

WhyisthemattersocomplicatedthatitdoesnotyieldeventotherefinedtooloftheMarxistscientificmethod?

Apparentlythisistobeexplainedbythefactthatwearespeakingaboutphenomenathataresoremoteintimeandsoalientoourwayofthinkingthatthe
modernMarxisthistorianfindsitexceptionallydifficulttovisualizealltheseunknownandstrangesocialrelations.

Summary

Wehavebroughtforwardaseriesofexampleswhichallowustodrawsomeconclusionsonthecharacterofsocialisttendenciesintheeconomics(andtoanextent,inthe
ideologies)ofcertainstatesofSouthAmericaandtheancientEast.Allthesestateswereofaveryprimitivetype,moresothantheancientclassicalcivilizationsorthe
medievalandcapitalistsocieties.(Wedidnottouchonthesocialiststatesofthetwentiethcentury,assumingthemtobefamiliartothereader.)Intheliteratureonthe
subjectwefindindicationsofanalogousstateselsewhere(forexample,theancientstatesoftheIndusvalleyorofpreColumbianMexico).Wenowwishtosummarizethe
basicfeaturesofthistypeofsociety,relyingmainlyonHeichelheim(90).

Alleconomicrelationshipswerebasedontheassumptionthatthestate,inthepersonoftheking,wastheproprietorofallsourcesofincome.Anyuseofthesesources
wastoberedeemedbydeliveriestothestateorbyperformanceofobligatorywork.Laborconscriptionbythestatewasconsideredjustasnaturalasuniversalmilitary
conscriptionistoday.Laborerswereorganizedintodetachmentsandarmies(oftenunderthecommandofofficers)andweresettoworkontremendousconstruction
projects.Theyworkedstatefields,repaired,dugandcleanedirrigationandnavigationsystems,builtroads,bridges,citywalls,palacesandtemples,pyramidsandother
tombs.Theywereusedintransportingthegoodsofthestate.Sometimessuchdutieswereimposedonconqueredpeoples,and,asHeichelheimbelieves,
subjectwefindindicationsofanalogousstateselsewhere(forexample,theancientstatesoftheIndusvalleyorofpreColumbianMexico).Wenowwishtosummarizethe
basicfeaturesofthistypeofsociety,relyingmainlyonHeichelheim(90).

Alleconomicrelationshipswerebasedontheassumptionthatthestate,inthepersonoftheking,wastheproprietorofallsourcesofincome.Anyuseofthesesources
wastoberedeemedbydeliveriestothestateorbyperformanceofobligatorywork.Laborconscriptionbythestatewasconsideredjustasnaturalasuniversalmilitary
conscriptionistoday.Laborerswereorganizedintodetachmentsandarmies(oftenunderthecommandofofficers)andweresettoworkontremendousconstruction
projects.Theyworkedstatefields,repaired,dugandcleanedirrigationandnavigationsystems,builtroads,bridges,citywalls,palacesandtemples,pyramidsandother
tombs.Theywereusedintransportingthegoodsofthestate.Sometimessuchdutieswereimposedonconqueredpeoples,and,asHeichelheimbelieves,

*I.e.,theclassstructureofcapitalistsociety.

[189]

itwaspreciselythisthatgaverisetothewholesystemofdutiesi.e.,thestatebegantotaketheexploitationofconqueredpeoplesasamodelinthetreatmentofitsown
subjects.(90:p.176)

Mostlandeitherbelongedtothestateorwascontrolledbyit.Templelandswereusuallyunderthecontrolofthestateofficialswhodirectedworkonthem.Thepeasants
gottools,seedsandcattlefromthestateandwereoftentoldexactlywhattosow.Theywereobligedtoworkthestateandtemplefieldsonasetschedule.Thebulkof
theagriculturalpopulationdependedtoalargedegreeonthestate,butinmostcasesthepeasantswereneitherslavesnorprivatechattel.I.J.Gelb(69)appliestheterm
"serfs"tothemi.e.,"attached"and"protectedpeasants."Hewrites:"TheproductivelaborpopulationofMesopotamiaandtheancientEastingeneral,inMycenaeanand
HomericGreece,laterinSpartaandonCrete,inThessaliaandinotherpartsofGreece(withtheexceptionofAthens),aswellasinIndia,China,etc.,isthebasicwork
forceemployedeitherallthetimeorpartofthetimeonthepubliclandsofthestate,ofthetempleorofthelargelandowners,whoasaruleactedsimultaneouslyasstate
officials.Thisworkforcewashalfindependent."(69:p.83)

Slavesinthemajorityofcaseswerehouseservants.InconnectionwiththeclassicalEast,Meyersays:"Itishardlypossiblethatslavery...playedabasicroleinthe
economy."(91:p.190,quotedin89)

Tradeandhandicraftswerecontrolledbythestateinananalogousway.Toagreatextent,thestatesuppliedartisanswiththeirtoolsandrawmaterials,andmerchants
withmoney.Bothartisansandmerchantswereorganizedintoguildsheadedbystateofficials.InEgypt,forinstance,allforeigntradewasmonopolizedbythestate,right
uptothetimeoftheMiddleKingdom.Internaltradewasstrictlycontrolledbythestate,includingthepettiestdealings.Mostgoodsweredistributeddirectlybythestate.

Moneydidnotplayanysignificantroleintrade.Evenquitevaluableobjectswerefrequentlyexchangedwithoutmoneypayment,althoughapricewasmentionedinthe
records.M.Webercallsthis"exchangewithmoneyvaluation."Fromtwelvetotwentyformsofprimitivemoneywereusuallyemployed,theirvaluestrictlyregulatedbythe
state.Thiswasonemoreimportantleverincontrollingtheeconomy.

Theking'shouseholdwasthebasiceconomicforceinthecountry.Weberdescribesthisstructureastheking'soikos,underliningthefactthattheentirestatewasruled
fromonecenterastheestateof
[190]

asinglemaster.InEgypt,thenamePharaoh("bighouse")correspondsliterallytothewordoikos.Heichelheimassertsthatthestatecontrolledabout90percentofthe
wholeeconomy.Hewrites:

"ThekingsoftheancientOrientwereeconomicallythecenterpointsfromwhichthegreaterpartofthecapitalinvestmentandtheeconomiclifeoftheempiresradiated.
Fromhereonlycapitalsurpluswhichhadbeenamassedbythepeoplecouldbereinvestedordistributed,forproductivepurposes,amongindividualsortowholegroups
ofpeople.Scholarshaveattempted,andnotwithoutsomejustification,todescribethesystemofgovernmentoftheancientOrientasapatriarchalsocialism."(90:pp.
169170)

Justaseconomiclifewasdirectedbythestate,asembodiedintheking,sotoothedominantpatterninideologywastheconceptofadeifiedking,seenasthebenefactor
andsaviorofmankind.InanotherpassageHeichelheimcharacterizesthisconcept:

"Hesavedthehumanracebybecomingahumanbeing,aneschatologicalbreakthroughforeachgenerationwhichmadethekingcompletelydifferentfromeventhemost
powerfulhighpriestornoble.Thekingsavedmankindbyhisoverpoweringmysticalstrengthinpeaceandwar,byhisjusticeinupholdingafairandbenevolentlaw,and
bysharingandinvestingtheenormouscapitalathisdisposaltothebenefitofhispoorersubjects."(90:p.166)

Naturally,suchanideologicalandeconomiccentralizationmadethemostdrasticmeasuresofsuppressionofthepopulationbothmorallypermissibleandtechnically
necessary.ThusinIndia,inthelawsofManu,itissaid:"Orderintheworldismaintainedthroughpunishment....Punishmentistheking."(Quotedin89:p.138)InEgypt
everyofficialhadtherighttoimposephysicalpunishmentonhissubordinates.Theaweinspiredbythepharaohissymbolizedbythesnakeinhiscrownheissometimes
depictedaskilling,dismemberingandboilingpeopleinthenetherworld.(Citedin89:p.142)Theritualnameofoneofthefirstpharaohswas"TheScorpion."

SocialisttendenciesintheancientstateswerestudiedindetailbyWittfogel(89),fromwhomwehavealreadyborrowedanumberofspecificfacts.Theauthor'sgeneral
approachinvolvesunitingaseriesofstates(intheancientOrient,preColumbianAmerica,EastAfricaandsomeregionsofthePacific,particularlytheHawaiianIslands)
intoaspecialhistoricalformationthathecalls"hydraulicsociety"or"hydrauliccivilization."AccordingtoWittfogel,artificialirrigationplayed
[191]

afundamentalroleinallthesesocieties.*Theauthordefinestheconceptofa"hydraulicsociety"verybroadly,includinginthiscategoryalmostallnoncapitalistcountries,
withtheexceptionofGreece,RomeandthestatesofmedievalEurope.ButhesinglesouttheIncastate,Sumer,ancientEgyptandtheHawaiianIslandsas"primitive
hydraulicsocieties"inotherwords,almostthesamegroupofstatesthatinterestsus.Wittfogelpointsoutnumerousfeaturesthesesocietieshaveincommonwiththe
socialiststatesofthetwentiethcentury.Thushenotesthesimilarrolesplayedbyirrigationandheavyindustry.Bothareactivitiesthatdonotdirectlyproduceanygoods
butconstituteanecessarybasisforproduction.(89:pp.2728)Thiskeysectoroftheeconomyisthepropertyofthestate,whichinthiswayachievescompletecontrol
overtheeconomicandpoliticallifeofthecountry.

Heichelheimpointstosimilarparallels:

Forscholarswhohavestudiedthisdevelopmentindetail,itisnosecretthattheplannedeconomyandthecollectivismofourmodernAgeofMachineshas
returnedsubconsciouslytoancientOrientalconditionswhereverwetrytoabolishortomodifytheindividualisticandlibertarianformsofsocietywhichhave
beencharacteristicfortheIronAgeofthelastthreegloriousmillennia.Insteadourturbulenttwentiethcenturyshowsatendencytolinktogetherourown
traditionalstateorganization,society,economicandspirituallifewiththerudimentsofancientOrientalcollectivistformsoforganizationastheyhavesurvived
overtheeconomicandpoliticallifeofthecountry.

Heichelheimpointstosimilarparallels:

Forscholarswhohavestudiedthisdevelopmentindetail,itisnosecretthattheplannedeconomyandthecollectivismofourmodernAgeofMachineshas
returnedsubconsciouslytoancientOrientalconditionswhereverwetrytoabolishortomodifytheindividualisticandlibertarianformsofsocietywhichhave
beencharacteristicfortheIronAgeofthelastthreegloriousmillennia.Insteadourturbulenttwentiethcenturyshowsatendencytolinktogetherourown
traditionalstateorganization,society,economicandspirituallifewiththerudimentsofancientOrientalcollectivistformsoforganizationastheyhavesurvived
subconsciouslyinthelifeandcustomsofmanymodernnations....Themoderngreatpowersarecloserinanalogytothegreatempiresofthecuprolithicand
bronzeagesthanisgenerallyrealized,ortosimilarlaterformsofrulewhichdevelopedfromancientOrientalfoundationseitherdirectlyorindirectly.
Wheneverourcenturyshowssomeattempttoachievenotpersonallibertybutwidespreadcontrolithasstrongaffinitiestotheplannedcitylifeofthekingsof
MesopotamiaandAsiaMinor,theruleofthepharaohsinEgypt,theearlyChineseemperors....Thespiritualtieswhichthenineteenthcenturyhadwith.
..Israel,GreeceandRomearemoreoftenreplaced,toagreaterdegreethanweknow,byareturntoancientOrientalfoundations.(90:pp.99100)

*McAdams(68)citestheexamplesofancientMesopotamiaandpreColumbianMexicotoassertthatirrigation,contrarytoWittfogel'sopinion,didnotplayadeterminingrolein
theformationofsuchsocieties(pp.6768).Itshouldbenoted,however,thatWittfogeldoesallowthatan"agrodespoticstate" couldcomeintoexistencewithoutaneconomy
basedonirrigation.(89:p.3)

[192]

PARTTHREE
ANALYSIS

[193]

VI.
TheContours
ofSocialism
Intheprecedingsectionsofthisbookwehavegatheredtogethercertaindatainordertoindicatewhenandinwhatformssocialismhasappearedinhumanhistory.The
datapresenteddonot,ofcourse,constituteasystematichistoryofsocialism.Itisratheradottedoutline,acollectionofdisparatefactsselectedinamannerthatmakes
possibleajudgmentaboutsomegeneralfeaturesoftheentirephenomenon.Utilizingthesefacts,wecannowapproachthemainsubjectofourinvestigationsocialismasa
historicalconcept.

Itisnaturalenoughtobeginwithanattempttoformulateadefinitionofsocialism,ifnotaformaldefinitionthenatleastanexplanationingeneraltermsofthemeaningthat
weattributetothisconcept.Itisofcoursenotsimplyamatterofprovidingempiricaldatainthefirstpartofthebook,andthenextractingcommonunifyingfeatures.After
all,thematerialwasselectedonthebasisofspecificindicators,aswepointedoutinthebeginning.Nevertheless,thereisnothingcircularhere.*Wehavedrawnattention
tosimilarfeaturesinaseriesofhistoricalphenomena.Nowwemusttrytodeterminewhetherthesephenomenapossesssufficientunitytomakeitpossibletolookonthem
asamanifestationofthesamegeneralconcept.Inthisway,theproblemofdefinitionconvergeswiththequestionoftheexistenceofsocialismasahistoricalcategory.
Suchanapproachseemstobeappropriateintheconsiderationofanygeneralconcept,asforexampleintheidentificationofanewbiologicalspecies.

Webegin,therefore,withanenumerationofthebasicprinciples

*Althoughwedidusetheterm"socialism"longbeforeundertakingtodefineit.

[194]

manifestedintheactivitiesofsocialiststatesandinthesocialistideologiesdescribedearlier.

1.TheAbolitionofPrivateProperty

Thefundamentalnatureofthisprincipleisemphasized,forinstance,byMarxandEngels:"ThetheoryofCommunismmaybesummedupinasinglesentence:'Abolitionof
privateproperty,'"(CommunistManifesto).

Thisproposition,initsnegativeform,isinherentinallsocialistdoctrineswithoutexceptionandisthebasicfeatureofallsocialiststates.Butinitspositiveform,asan
assertionabouttheactualnatureofpropertyinasocialistsociety,itislessuniversalandappearsintwodistinctvariants:theoverwhelmingmajorityofsocialistdoctrines
proclaimthecommunalityofproperty(implementedinmoreorlessradicalfashion),whilesocialiststates(andsomedoctrines)arebasedonstateproperty.

2.TheAbolitionoftheFamily

Themajorityofsocialistdoctrinesproclaimtheabolitionofthefamily.Inotherdoctrines,aswellasincertainsocialiststates,thispropositionisnotproclaimedinsuch
radicalform,buttheprincipleappearsasadeemphasisoftheroleofthefamily,theweakeningoffamilyties,theabolitionofcertainfunctionsofthefamily.Again,the
negativeformoftheprincipleismorecommon.Asapositivestatementaboutspecificrelationshipsbetweenthesexesorbetweenparentsandchildren,itappearsin
severalvariantsasthetotalobliterationofthefamily,communalityofwivesandthedestructionofalltiesbetweenparentandchildtothepointwheretheymaynoteven
knoweachotherasanimpairmentandaweakeningoffamilytiesorasthetransformationofthefamilyintoaunitofthebureaucraticstatesubjectedtoitsgoalsand
control.
Themajorityofsocialistdoctrinesproclaimtheabolitionofthefamily.Inotherdoctrines,aswellasincertainsocialiststates,thispropositionisnotproclaimedinsuch
radicalform,buttheprincipleappearsasadeemphasisoftheroleofthefamily,theweakeningoffamilyties,theabolitionofcertainfunctionsofthefamily.Again,the
negativeformoftheprincipleismorecommon.Asapositivestatementaboutspecificrelationshipsbetweenthesexesorbetweenparentsandchildren,itappearsin
severalvariantsasthetotalobliterationofthefamily,communalityofwivesandthedestructionofalltiesbetweenparentandchildtothepointwheretheymaynoteven
knoweachotherasanimpairmentandaweakeningoffamilytiesorasthetransformationofthefamilyintoaunitofthebureaucraticstatesubjectedtoitsgoalsand
control.

3.TheAbolitionofReligion

Itisespeciallyeasyforustoobservesocialism'shostilitytoreligion,forthisisinherent,withfewexceptions,inallcontemporarysocialiststatesanddoctrines.Onlyrarely
istheabolitionofreligionlegislated,
[195]

asitwasinAlbania.Buttheactionsofothersocialiststatesleavenodoubtthattheyareallgovernedbythisveryprincipleandthatonlyexternaldifficultieshaveprevented
itscompleteimplementation.Thissameprinciplehasbeenrepeatedlyproclaimedinsocialistdoctrines,beginningwiththeendoftheseventeenthcentury.Sixteenth and
seventeenthcenturydoctrinesareimbuedwithcoldskepticalandironicattitudestowardreligion.Ifnotconsciously,then"objectively,"theypreparedhumanityforthe
convergenceofsocialistideologyandmilitantatheismthattookplaceattheendoftheseventeenthcenturyandduringthecourseoftheeighteenth.Theheretical
movementsoftheMiddleAgeswerereligiousincharacter,butthoseinwhichsocialisttendencieswereespeciallypronouncedweretheonesthatwereirrevocably
opposedtotheactualreligionprofessedbythemajorityatthetime.CallstoassassinatethePopeandtoannihilateallmonksandpriestsrunlikearedthreadthroughthe
historyofthesemovements.TheirhatredforthebasicsymbolsofChristianitythecrossandthechurchisverystriking.Weencountertheburningofcrossesandthe
profanationofchurchesfromthefirstcenturiesofChristianityrightuptothepresentday.

Finally,inPlato'ssocialistsystem,religionisconceivedasanelementinthestate'sideology.Itsroleamountstoeducation,theshapingofcitizens'opinionsintotheforms
necessarytothestate.Tothisend,newreligiousobservancesandmythswereinventedandtheoldonesabolished.Itseemsthatinmanyofthestatesoftheancient
Orient,officialreligionplayedananalogousrole,itscentralfunctionbeingthedeificationoftheking,whowasthepersonificationoftheallpowerfulstate.

4.CommunalityorEquality

Thisdemandisencounteredinalmostallsocialistdoctrines.Itsnegativeformisseeninthestrivingtodestroythehierarchyofthesurroundingsocietyandincalls"to
humbletheproud,therichandthepowerful,"toabolishprivilege.Thistendencyfrequentlygivesrisetohostilitytowardcultureasafactorcontributingtospiritualand
intellectualinequalityand,asaresult,leadstoacallforthedestructionofcultureitself.ThefirstformulationofthisviewcanbefoundinPlato,themostrecentin
contemporaryleftistmovementsintheWestwhich
[196]

considerculture"individualistic,""repressive,""suffocating,"andcallfor"ideologicalguerrillawarfareagainstculture."

Weseethatasmallnumberofclearcutprinciplesinspiredthesocialistdoctrinesandguidedthelifeofthesocialistsocietiesinthecourseofseveralmillennia.Thisunity
andinterrelatednessofvarioussocialistdoctrineswasfullyrecognizedbytheirrepresentatives:ThomasMntzercitesPlatoasanauthorityJohannofLeydenstudies
Mntzer,CampanellaconsiderstheAnabaptistsasanexampleoftheembodimentofhissystem.MorellyandtheanonymousauthorofthearticleintheEncyclopdie
pointtotheIncastateasacorroborationoftheirsocialviews,andinanotherarticlefromtheEncyclopdie("TheMoravians,"writtenbyFaiguet),theMoravianBrethren
arecitedasanexampleofanidealcommunalorder.Amonglatesocialists,SaintSimoninhislastwork,NewChristianity,declares:"TheNewChristianitywillconsistof
separatetendencieswhichforthemostpartwillcorrespondtotheideasofthehereticalsectsofEuropeandAmerica."Furtherexamplesofthissenseofkinshipamong
thesocialistcurrentsofdifferentepochscouldeasilybeproduced.WeshallonlypointheretothenumerousworkswithtitlessuchasForerunnersofScientific
Socialismproducedbyspokesmenofthesocialistcamp,whereamong"forerunners"onecanfindPlato,Dolcino,Mntzer,MoreandCampanella....

Itisofcoursetruethatindifferentperiodsthecentralcoreofsocialistideologywasmanifestedindifferentforms:wehaveseensocialismintheformofmysticalprophecy,
ofarationalisticplanforahappysocietyorofascientificdoctrine.Ineachperiod,socialismabsorbscertainoftheideasofitstimeandusesthelanguagecontemporaryto
it.Someofitselementsarediscardedothers,onthecontrary,acquireespeciallygreatsignificance.Thisisnotunusual:suchapatternappliestoanyotherphenomenonof
suchhistoricalscope.

Inanotherworkonsocialism,Ireferredtoreligionasanexampleofthesamekindofhistoricalphenomenonwhichistransformedinthecourseoftimejustassocialism
hasbeen.Now,however,itseemstomethatthisjuxtapositionratherunderscorestheuniquecharacterofsocialistideologyitsunprecedentedconservatism.Sincethe
timewhensocialism'sbasicprincipleswereformulatedinPlato'ssystem,thereligiousconceptsofmankindhavebeencompletelytransformed:
[197]

theideaofmonotheismhasacquireduniversalsignificanceintheworldtheconceptofasingleGodinthreeessences,Godmanhood,salvationbyfaithandaseriesof
otherfundamentalideashavearisen.Atthesametime,thebasicprinciplesofsocialismhavenotchangedtothisdayithasonlyaltereditsformandmotivation.

Theunityandcohesivenessofthesystemofsocialistconceptionsbecomesapparent,togetherwithanastonishingconservatism,inthewaythatcertaindetailsrecuragain
andagaininsocialistsocietiesanddoctrinesthatarelittlerelatedonetotheotherandsometimeswidelyseparatedintime.Theprobabilityofaccidentalrecurrenceis
negligible,unlessweassumethatthesimilaritiesareinexorablydeterminedbytheirexceptionalspiritualcloseness.Weshallciteonlyfourexamplesfromthelargenumber
ofsuchcoincidences:

a.ThecoincidenceofmanydetailsinMore'sUtopiaandtheaccountsoftheIncastate,whichleadtothequestionposedintheFrenchAcademyconcerningtheinfluence
oftheseaccountsonMore(whichwouldhavebeenchronologicallyimpossible).

b.Thecustomofmummificationoftheheadsofstateandburialinsteppedtombsofpyramidlikedesign,whichismetwithinstateswithstrongsocialisttendencies
(althoughthestatesinquestionmaybeseparatedbymanythousandsofyears).

c.InDeschamps'sTrueSystemwefindthisvividdetail:Describingthefuturesocialistsociety,hesaysthat"nearlyallpeoplewillhavealmostthesameappearance."
DostoyevskyexpressesthesamethoughtinthenotebookstoThePossessed.ThecharacterwhoiscalledPyotrVerkhovenskyinthenovelandNechayevinthe
notebookshasthistosayaboutthefuturesociety:"Inmyopinionevenmenandwomenwithparticularlyattractivefacesshouldbeprohibited."(92:XI:270)Dostoyevsky
gatheredmaterialforhisnovelfromtheideologicalpronouncementsofthenihilistsandthesocialists,butneitherhenortheycouldhaveknownDeschamps'swork,which
waspublishedonlyinourcentury.

d.InTheRepublic,Platowrotethat,amongtheguardians,"nonehaveanyhabitationorstorageareawhichisnotopenforalltoenteratwill."Aristophanesspeaksabout
thisinalmostthesamewordsinhisEcclesiazusae:"I'llknockoutwallsandremodelthecityintoonebighappyhousehold,whereallcancomeandgoastheychoose."
notebookshasthistosayaboutthefuturesociety:"Inmyopinionevenmenandwomenwithparticularlyattractivefacesshouldbeprohibited."(92:XI:270)Dostoyevsky
gatheredmaterialforhisnovelfromtheideologicalpronouncementsofthenihilistsandthesocialists,butneitherhenortheycouldhaveknownDeschamps'swork,which
waspublishedonlyinourcentury.

d.InTheRepublic,Platowrotethat,amongtheguardians,"nonehaveanyhabitationorstorageareawhichisnotopenforalltoenteratwill."Aristophanesspeaksabout
thisinalmostthesamewordsinhisEcclesiazusae:"I'llknockoutwallsandremodelthecityintoonebighappyhousehold,whereallcancomeandgoastheychoose."

Thisparticularcoincidencemaybeexplainedbythefactthattheauthorslivedduringthesameepoch,butthemotifisencountered
[198]

againinMore,who,inordertounderscorethekindofcommunalityinwhichtheUtopianslived,describestheentrancestotheirdwellings:

"Thedoorsaremadewithtwoleavesthatareneverlockedorboltedandaresoeasytoopenthattheywillfollowtheslightesttouchandshutagainalone.Whoever
wishesmaygoin,forthereisnothinginsidethehousethatisprivateoranyman'sown."

More,ofcourse,hadreadPlatoandcouldhaveborrowedthethoughtfromhim.ButwemeetwithalawagainsttheclosingofdoorsintheIncastateaswell.Stilllater,in
CrimeandPunishment,thecharacterLebeziatnikovexpoundsonthequestionoffreeentryintoroomsinthefuturesociety:"Ithasbeendebatedoflatewhethera
memberofthecommunehastherighttogointotheroomofanothermember,maleorfemale,atanytime...well,itwasdecidedthathedoes."(92:VI:p.284)Thisisnot
merelyanartisticcontrivance.Dostoyevskyunderstoodthenatureofsocialismandanticipateditsfutureroleperhapsmoreastutelythananyotherthinkerofthelast
century.Ofthemultitudeofpettydetailsthatheknewaboutnihilistcircles,heselectedsomeofthemostcharacteristic,amongthesetheverysamefreeentranceinto
dwellingsmentionedalmosttwoandahalfthousandyearsearlierbyPlato.

Andfinally,weencounterthismotifinthefirstyearsaftertherevolutioninRussia.Theforceoftheexplosionexperiencedthendislodgedandthrewtothesurfacedeeply
buriedelementsofsocialistideologythathadearlierremainedalmostunnoticedandthatwerelateragaindisplacedfromview.Wewillthereforebeturningfrequentlyto
thisperiod,whichpresentsmultiplefacetsofsocialisminanentirelynewlight.Inparticular,thereappearedatthetimenumerousideasonhowthenewformsoflifecould
overcometheoldwaysandmakelifemorecollectiveforexample,byreplacingindividualkitchenswithhugefactorylikekitchenfacilities,orbyhousingthepopulationin
dormitoriesinsteadofapartments.Oneenthusiastpublishedabookbased,asheclaims,onTrotsky'sideas(93):"ItshouldbemadeclearthatIdonotconsidertheidea
ofroomsnecessaryIbelievethatitwillbepossibletoconsideraroomonlyasthelivingspaceofanindividualperson.Afterall,isolationinaroomisquiteunnecessary
forcollectiveman....Theisolationneededincertainhoursoflovecanbehadinspecialpleasuregardenswherethemanandhisfemalecompanionwillbeabletofindthe
necessarycomforts."
[199]

Itwouldseemthatsocialistideologyhastheabilitytostampwidelyseparatedorevenhistoricallyunlinkedsocialistcurrentswithindelibleandstereotypedmarkings.

Itseemstousquitelegitimatetoconcludethatsocialismdoesexistasaunifiedhistoricalphenomenon.Itsbasicprincipleshavebeenindicatedabove.Theyare:

l Abolitionofprivateproperty.
l Abolitionofthefamily.
l Abolitionofreligion.
l Equality,abolitionofhierarchiesinsociety.

Themanifoldembodimentsoftheseprinciplesarelinkedorganicallybyacommonspirit,byanidentityofspecificdetailsand,frequently,byaclearlydiscernibleoverall
thrust.

Ourperspectiveonsocialismtakesintoaccountonlyoneofthedimensionsinwhichthisphenomenonunfolds.Socialismisnotonlyanabstractideologicalsystembutalso
theembodimentofthatsystemintimeandspace.Therefore,havingsketchedinitsoutlinesasanideology,wenowoughttobeabletoexplaininwhatperiodsandwithin
whatcivilizationsocialismarises,whetherintheformofdoctrine,popularmovementorstatestructure.Butheretheanswerturnsouttobefarlessclear.Whilethe
ideologyofsocialismissharplydefined,theoccurrenceofsocialismcanhardlybelinkedtoanydefinitetimeorcivilization.Ifweconsidertheperiodinthehistoryof
mankindwhichfollowedtheriseofthestateasaninstitution,wefindthemanifestationsofsocialism,practicallyspeaking,inallepochsandinallcivilizations.Itispossible,
however,toidentifyepochswhensocialistideologymanifestsitselfwithparticularintensity.Thisisusuallyataturningpointinhistory,acrisissuchastheperiodofthe
Reformationorourownage.Wecouldsimplynotethatsocialiststatesariseonlyindefinitehistoricalsituations,orwecouldattempttoexplainwhyitwasthatthesocialist
ideologyappearedinvirtuallyfinishedandcompleteforminPlato'stime.Weshallreturntothesequestionslater.ButinEuropeanhistory,wecannotpointtoasingle
periodwhensocialistteachingswerenotextantinoneformoranother.Itseemsthatsocialismisaconstantfactorinhumanhistory,atleastintheperiodfollowingtherise
ofthestate.Withoutattemptingtoevaluateitforthetimebeing,wemustrecognizesocialismasoneofthemostpowerfulanduniversalforcesactiveinafieldwhere
historyisplayedout.
[200]

Inageneralsense,suchanapproachisnotnew.Booktitlesalonetestifytothat:TheSocialistEmpireoftheIncasTheHistoryofCommunismandSocialismin
AntiquityStateSocialismintheFifteenthCenturyB.C.,andsoon.Wittfogel(intheworkquotedabove,89)gathersvastamountsofmaterialaboutthestatesofthe
ancientOrient,preColumbianAmerica,EastAfricaandcertainareasofthePacific,forexampletheHawaiianIslands,characterizingthestateshedescribesas"hydraulic
societies"andtracingthemultitudeofparallelsbetweenthemandthecontemporarysocialiststates.Thehistoryofthesocialistdoctrinesisnolessthoroughlyresearched,
ascanbeseenfromthenumerous"HistoriesofSocialistIdeas,"whichusuallybeginwithPlato.Koigenhasevenremarkedironically:"Socialismisasoldashumansociety
itselfbutnotolder."(94)

Itwouldseemthatthisshouldbetakenasthestartingpointofanyattempttounderstandtheessenceofsocialism.Despitebeingquitegeneral,suchapointofviewstrictly
limitstherangeofthoseargumentsthatareapplicable:anyexplanationsbasedonthepeculiaritiesofagivenhistoricalperiod,raceorcivilizationmustbediscarded.Itis
necessarytorejecttheinterpretationofsocialismasadefinitephaseinthedevelopmentofhumansocietywhichissaidtoappearwhenconditionsareripe.Onthe
contrary,anyapproachtosocialismoughttobebasedonprinciplesbroadenoughtobeapplicabletotheIncaempire,toPlato'sphilosophyandtothesocialismofthe
twentiethcentury.
[201]

VII.
SurveyofSomeApproaches
toSocialism
VII.
SurveyofSomeApproaches
toSocialism
Beforeweapplytheconclusionsformulatedintheprecedingsectiontofurtheranalysisofsocialism,theycanbetestedinasimplerprocedureofapurelycriticalcharacter.
Weshallexaminethosepointsofviewwhicharerepresentativeofthemajorityofconceptionsofsocialismthathavebeenformulatedinthepast.

1.TheMarxiststandpoint

Socialismasastatesystemisaspecificphaseinthehistoricaldevelopmentofmankinditinevitablyreplacescapitalismwhenthelatterreachesadefinitelevel
ofdevelopment.Socialismasadoctrineconstitutestheworldviewoftheproletariat(itselfengenderedbycapitalism),andatthesametimeitistheresultof
scientificanalysis,ascientificproofofthehistoricalinevitabilityofthesocialiststatesystem.

Thisviewiscontradictedbytheknownfacts.Ifasocialiststatecomesintobeingonlyundertheconditionscreatedbythedevelopmentofcapitalism,if,asLeninwrote,
"socialismoriginatesincapitalism,developshistoricallyfromcapitalism,andresultsfromtheactionofasocialforcethatisengenderedbycapitalism,"thenwhencedidit
comeandasaresultofwhatsocialforcediditdevelopintheIncaempireorthestatesoftheancientOrient?Historyonlyreinforcesthedoubtsengenderedbythe
contemporarysituation:socialiststateshaveariseninChina,NorthKoreaandCubathatis,inthecountrieswheretheinfluenceofcapitalismcaninnowaybeconsidered
adeterminingfactor.

Itisjustasdifficulttoseeanyconnectionbetweentheideology
[202]

ofsocialistmovementsandtheproletariat:forexample,inthemovementofMazdakortheTaborites.Furthermore,thelinkbetweentheproletariatandsocialismwasnot
atallstronginthenineteenthcenturyeither.Bakunin,forexample,feltthatsocialismwasmostcongenialtothepeasantryheconsideredpeasantsandbrigands(atleastin
Russia)tobethemainrevolutionaryforce."ThebrigandisthetrueandonlyrevolutionaryinRussia."(95:p.353)"Andwhenthesetwokindsofrebellion,therebellionof
thebrigandsandofthepeasants,arejoinedtogether,apopularrevolutiontakesplace."(95:p.354)InreplyingtoBakunin,theprominentMarxisthistorianM.N.
Pokrovskyrefers,strangeasitmayseem,nottotheimmanentlawsofhistorywithwhichheisfamiliar,buttofarmoreconcretecircumstances:"Ofcourse,thiswas
outdatedforthesixties,theepochoftherailroads....Itwasextremelydifficulttocommitrobberiesontherailroads."(96:p.65)ButwheneventhefoundersofMarxism,
recognizingtheproletariatasthemainforceofthefuturesocialupheaval,stressedthattheproletariathad"nothingtolosebutitschains,"theirdifferenceswithBakunin
weremoretechnicalthantheoretical.Andinfact,sometimelatertheroleoftheproletariatwasreconsideredwithoutanychangeofbasichistoricalconcepts.Theneo
MarxistswhomakeuptheNewLeftbelievethattheworkingclasshasceasedtobearevolutionaryforce,thatithasbeen"integratedintothesystem"andthatthe"new
workingclass"isthe"favoritechildofthesystemandideologicallysubjugatedtoit."(4:p.57)

Hopeforthefuturehasbeentransferredtothepeoplesofthedevelopingcountries,todisaffectednationalminorities(forexample,theblacksintheU.S.A.)andto
students.Ontheotherhand(orperhapsitcomestothesamething),theproletariatisapparentlyassignedaverymodestroleinChairmanMao'sconceptofthe
confrontationofthe"worldcity"withthe"worldvillage."

ThethirdpropositionintheMarxistviewofsocialismisthatsocialism(intheformofMarxism)isascientifictheory.

2.Socialistteachingsasscientifictheory

Theevidentweaknessofsuchapointofviewisthatitisapplicableonlytoafewsocialistdoctrines.Mostofthemneverpretendedtobeapartofscienceandassumed
insteadtheformofphilosophicalsystems,divinerevelationortheoriesonthemostreasonablesocialstructure.Butthenineteenthcenturywassoimbuedwiththecult
[203]

ofsciencethatevenanadventurenovelcouldcountonsuccessonlyif,asintheSherlockHolmesstories,the"scientificmethod"wasused.Onlyinthesecircumstancesdid
"scientificsocialism"appear.

Henceweneedonlyconsidertowhatextentthesocialistdoctrinesofthenineteenthcenturywereaproductofscientificactivity.Theassertionsaboutthescientific
characterofitsconclusionsplayanespeciallylargeroleinMarxism,butothersocialistteachings,asthoseofFourier,forexample,hadsimilarpretensions.WhileMarx
andEngelsmockFourierasa"utopiansocialist"andapplytheterm"scientificsocialism"onlytotheirowndoctrine,Fouriermaintainedthathehadmadeananalysisof
socialphenomenathatwasaspreciseasNewton'sphysicsand,infact,constructedinitsimage.Hewrote:"Thetheoryofpassionateattractionandrepulsionissomething
stabletowhichgeometrictheoremsarewhollyapplicable....Andthus,oftheconnectionamongstthenewsciences:Isoonunderstoodthatthelawsofpassionate
attractioncorrespondatallpointstothelawsofmaterialgravitationdiscoveredbyNewtonandLeibnitz,andthatthereexistsaunityinthemovementofthematerial
andthespiritualworlds."(97:p.43)

JuxtapositionofthesetwoteachingsFourier'sandMarx'smayhelpustounderstandwhatrolethethemeofscienceplayedinboth.

Strictlyspeaking,thefoundersofMarxismdidnotalwaysdenythesignificanceofFourier'sscientificconstructions.Forexample,comparingthemwithSaintSimon's
doctrine,Engelswrote:

"Itistruethatthereisin[Fourier'stheories]noshortageofmysticismaswell....Still,ifwesetthataside,somethingremainswhichcannotbefoundamongthefollowersof
SaintSimonscientificinquiry,sober,boldandsystematicthinking,inaword:socialphilosophy."(3:II:p.395)

Itisverydifficulttodaytounderstandsuchapointofview.Fourier'ssystemisfarremovedfromanycontemporarynotionofwhatconstitutesascientifictheory.Heheld
thatplanetsandothercelestialbodiesarelivingbeings,thattheylive,dieandcopulate."Aplanetisabeing,havingtwosoulsandtwosexes.Intheactofconception,just
aswithanimalsandplants,twoproductivesubstancesarejoinedtogether....Aheavenlybodymaycopulate:(1)Withitself,thesouthpolewiththenorthpole,aswith
plants.(2)Withanotherheavenlybodythroughtheemissionoffluidsfromtheoppositepoles.(3)Withsomethingintermediate."(97:p.69)
[204]

Thelifeoftheplanetearth,alsoperceivedasasingleorganism,isinherentlylinkedwiththelifeofmankind.Thereisacorrespondencebetweenthevariousepochsoftheir
respectivedevelopments.Therehadbeensevenepochsuptothen,andFourierspeaksofaneighthepochwhichisonthevergeofbeingborn:"Meanwhile,theearth
thirstsforcreationthefrequentemissionofnorthernlightiswitnesstothis,anindicationthattheplanetisinheat,andasignofauselessemissionofitsfertilefluid.It
cannotcopulatewiththefluidofotherplanetsuntilthehumanraceaccomplishescertainpreliminarytasks.Thesetaskscanbeperformedonlybytheeighthsociety,which
 [204]

Thelifeoftheplanetearth,alsoperceivedasasingleorganism,isinherentlylinkedwiththelifeofmankind.Thereisacorrespondencebetweenthevariousepochsoftheir
respectivedevelopments.Therehadbeensevenepochsuptothen,andFourierspeaksofaneighthepochwhichisonthevergeofbeingborn:"Meanwhile,theearth
thirstsforcreationthefrequentemissionofnorthernlightiswitnesstothis,anindicationthattheplanetisinheat,andasignofauselessemissionofitsfertilefluid.It
cannotcopulatewiththefluidofotherplanetsuntilthehumanraceaccomplishescertainpreliminarytasks.Thesetaskscanbeperformedonlybytheeighthsociety,which
mustnowbeformed."(97:p.71)

Thiseighthsocietyof"combinedstructure"istobringsocialistideastolife.Inthedescriptionofthissociety,weencounterthefamous"phalansteries"andnumerousforms
offreelove,togetherwithFourier'scriticismbycontemporarycivilization.Onenteringthe"eighthsociety,"mankindwillaccomplishthetasksthatserveasthe
preconditionsforanewactbycopulationbytheearth.Thiswillbringaboutchangeswhich,intheirturn,willhaveafructifyinginfluenceonmankindandwilllightenthe
taskofdevelopingthe"combinedstructure."Theseasandoceanswillacquirethetasteoflemonadeinsteadofsharksandwhales,therewillappearantisharksandanti
whales,togetherwithamultitudeofamphibiathatwillpromotetransportationandfishing.Andinthedeserts,insteadoflionsandtigers,therewillbeantilionsandanti
tigers,whichwillcarryoutpeople'swishes.

Wehaveheretheancientandmythologicalnotionaccordingtowhichhumanactivityisnecessaryforthefunctioningoftheuniverse.Itispreciselythesamesortofnotion
thatunderliestheceremonyoftheAustralianaborigineswhichaimstoassurethefertilityofnature.Similarly,theAztecssacrificedthousandsofpeopleinordertopreserve
thelifegivingpowerofthesun.ItwouldseemthatthisancientnotionwastherealfoundationofFourier'steaching,andnot"theapplicationofgeometrictheorems,"which
arecompletelyabsentinhisspeculations.Histheoryseemstohavebeen"revealed"tohim,andinthisdirectperceptionthereisasinceritythatpartlyaccountsforhis
success.*Asfortheimitationofscientificphraseology,whichisquiteclumsyinFourier,thiswasonlyagestureinthedirectionofnineteenthcentury

*WhenFourierwritesof"araycontainingfiveother[colors]invisibleandunnoticedbyuspink,crimson,chestnut,greenwithashadeofdragoon,lilac(Iamperfectlysure
onlyofpinkandcrimson),"onecanreadilybelievethathesawthepinkandcrimsonwithhisowneyes.(See97:p.104)

[205]

tastes,anattempttomakehissystemmoreattractive.

Thisconclusion,soobviousinthecaseofFourier,forcesusnottoacceptonfaithMarxism'sclaimstobeingascientifictheory.Andtheveryfeaturewhichthecreatorsof
Marxismproclaimedtobefundamentalthe"criterionofpractice"seemstoprovidetheclearestresponsetoMarxism.Accordingtothiscriterion,ascientifictheory
oughttobetestedaccordingtoitsconcreteconclusions.Butwithalmostperverseconsistency,mostoftheprojectionsofMarxismhaveprovedtobeincorrect.Abetter
percentageofcorrectpredictionscouldprobablyhavebeenachievedbymakingrandomguesses.Exampleshavebeencitedrepeatedly,andforthisreasonwelimit
ourselvestothreeinordertounderscorethetypicalandinmostcasesfundamentalnatureoftheerrors:thetruthprovedtobenotmerelydifferentbutinfacttheopposite
tothatwhichhadbeenpredicted.

a.Thenationalquestion:"Nationaldifferencesandantagonisticinterestsamongvariouspeoplesarealreadyvanishingmoreandmorethankstothedevelopmentofthe
bourgeoisie,tofreedomofcommerce,totheworldmarket,touniformityinthemodeofproductionandinthecorrespondingconditionsoflife.Thesupremacyofthe
proletariatwillacceleratethedisappearanceofdifferences."(3:V:p.500)

b.Inparticular,theJewishquestion,whichwastodisappearassoonasfinancialoperationsandpettytradebecameimpossible."ThechimericalnationalityoftheJewis
thenationalityofamerchant,ingeneralofamanwhodealswithmoney."(3:I:p.382)"Anorganizationofsocietywhichcouldremovethepreconditionsofpettytrade,
andthereforethepossibilityofpettytrade,wouldmakeJewryimpossible."(3:I:p.379)

c.Theroleofthestate:"Thefirstactinwhichthestatetrulycomesforwardasarepresentativeofthewholeofsocietythetakingpossessionofthemeansofproduction
inthenameofsocietyis,atthesametime,itslastindependentactasastate.Interferenceofthestateinsocialrelationsbecomessuperfluousinonesphereafteranother,
andthenceasesofitself.Thegovernmentofpersonsisreplacedbytheadministrationofthingsandthedirectionoftheprocessofproduction.Thestateisnot'abolished'
itwithersaway."(98:p.285)

"Withthedisappearanceofclassesthestateinevitablydisappears.Asocietywhichorganizesitsproductioninanewfashionbasedon
[206]

thefreeandequalassociationofproducerswillsendthemachineofthestatetotheplacewhereitwillthenbelong:themuseumofantiquity,nexttothespinningwheeland
thebronzeax."(3:XVI:p.149)

TheunquestionablyimmensesuccessofMarxisminthenineteenthandthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturiesbynomeansprovesitscorrectnessasascientifictheory.
Othermovements,Islam,forinstance,haveenjoyednolesssuccesswithouteverhavinglaidclaimtobeing"scientific."

ThedirectimpressionleftbytheworksofthefoundersofMarxismleadstothesameconclusiontheylacktheclimatecharacteristicofscientificinquiry.Fortheauthors,
theworldofscienceisdividedintotwounequalparts.Onepartconsistsofanarrowcircleoffollowers,theotherofenemies,plottingagainstthemandreadyforanycrime
againstthetruthforthesakeofattainingtheirgoals.ThusGermaneconomistsaresaidtohavewillfullyignoredCapitalforyears,whilestealingfromitconstantly,and
EnglishspecialistsonprimitivesocietyaresaidtohavetreatedMorgan'sbookinthesameway.ButthefoundersofMarxismhardlystoodonceremonythemselvesand
againandagainattackedtheircolleaguesfor"liberalfalsifications,""banalityandcommonplacenessoftheworstkind,""virtuosityinpretentiousidiotism,"etc.

ThebasicworksofMarxismareutterlyalientothemostfundamentalcharacteristicofscientificactivitythedisinterestedstrivingfortruthforitsownsake.Andalthough
thescientist'sdutyissometimesproclaimed,thetruth,inpractice,alwaysremainsa"partytruth"i.e.,itissubordinatedtotheinterestsofthepoliticalstruggle.Thisattitude
towardscienceisexpressed,forinstance,intheconclusionoftheprefacetoMarx'sCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy:"Myviews,nomatterhowtheyarejudgedandhow
littletheyagreewiththeegotisticalprejudicesoftherulingclasses,aretheresultofmanyyearsofconscientiousresearch."(3:XII:p.9)Inthisway,Marximmediately
suggeststhatanyobjectionstohisviewsaretheproductof"egotisticalprejudices."

ThankstothisindifferencetowardtruthinMarxism,wesooftencomeacrosscontradictionsevenafewofwhichwouldruinanygenuinelyscientifictheory.Wehavecited,
forinstance,Wittfogel'sremarksontheappearanceandsuddendisappearanceofthe"Asiaticformation"intheworksofMarxandEngels.Numerousexamplesofthis
kindcouldbebroughtforward.IntheCommunistManifestoweread:
[207]

"Thelowermiddleclass,thesmallmanufacturer,theshopkeeper,theartisan,thepeasant...theyareallnotrevolutionarybutconservative.Nay,more,theyarereactionary,
fortheytrytorollbackthewheelofhistory."(3:V:p.493)LassalleincorporatedthesamethoughtinhisGothaprogram:"Inrelationtotheproletariat,allothergroups
ThankstothisindifferencetowardtruthinMarxism,wesooftencomeacrosscontradictionsevenafewofwhichwouldruinanygenuinelyscientifictheory.Wehavecited,
forinstance,Wittfogel'sremarksontheappearanceandsuddendisappearanceofthe"Asiaticformation"intheworksofMarxandEngels.Numerousexamplesofthis
kindcouldbebroughtforward.IntheCommunistManifestoweread:
[207]

"Thelowermiddleclass,thesmallmanufacturer,theshopkeeper,theartisan,thepeasant...theyareallnotrevolutionarybutconservative.Nay,more,theyarereactionary,
fortheytrytorollbackthewheelofhistory."(3:V:p.493)LassalleincorporatedthesamethoughtinhisGothaprogram:"Inrelationtotheproletariat,allothergroups
constituteasinglereactionarymass."

ButitwaspreciselyatthistimethatMarxwascompetingagainstLassalle(andnotverysuccessfully)forinfluenceontheGermansocialdemocraticmovement.

Andhewrites:"Lassalleknewthe'Manifesto'byheart,andifhedistorteditsogrossly,hedidsoonlytojustifyhisownbetrayaloftheworkingclass."*(3:XV:p.277)

Marx'sCapitalofcourseimitatesthestyleofascientifictreatisefarbetterthanFourier'sTheoryofFourMovements.Marxincludestablesandagreatnumberof
quotations(evenfromGreek,ashewasfondofnoting).Butinitsessence,Marx'sCapitalisequallyfarfrombeingascientificwork,forthebasicstatementsinitare
merelyassertedandnotdeduced.ItwasBulgakovwho(in100)drewattentiontoafootnoteinVolumeIofCapital:"Ofcourse,itismucheasiertofindtheearthly
essenceofreligiousnotionsbymeansofanalysisthantheotherwayround,i.e.,fromthegivenrealrelationstodeducetheirreligiousforms.Thelattermethodistheonly
materialisticoneand,therefore,theonlyscientificone."

ButMarxonlyremarkedonthismatterinanoteandnowhereattemptedtoapplyhis"onlyscientific"method.Inthesameway,neitherMarxnorEngelstriedtoshowin
whatmanner"thehandmillyieldsafeudalsocietywithasuzerainatitshead."Theysimplycouldnothavedoneso,ofcourse,sincethehandmillwasknowninancient
Sumerandinothersocietiesaswell.Examplessuchasthesecouldbecitedatlength.

TheattitudeoftheclassicsofMarxismtowardscienceisvividlyillustratedbywhatEngelswroteaboutmathematics.Indeed,itisinthisconnectionthathesays(inthe
prefacetoAntiDhring):

"AwarenessofthefactthatIhavenotsufficientlymasteredmathematicshasmademecareful:noonewillbeabletofindmetrespassingagainstthefacts."(98:p.7)

*Thisexampleandmostoftheothersinthissectionaretakenfromastudy(99)inwhichthequestionofthescientificcharacterofMarxismisanalyzedmoresystematically.

[208]

Nevertheless,inthatworkwefindthefollowingstatements:

"Wehavealreadymentionedthatoneofthemainprinciplesofhighermathematicsinvolvesacontradictionwhichconsistsofthefactthatundercertainconditionsastraight
lineandacurveareoneandthesamething.Andhighermathematicsprovidesanotherexampleofacontradiction:twolinesthatintersectbeforeoureyesmustnonetheless
beconsideredparallellinesfiveorsixcentimetersfromthepointofintersection,i.e.,linesthatcannotintersectevenifextendedtoinfinity."(98:p.120)

"Thevirginstateofabsolutesignification,theindisputableproofofeverythingmathematical,isgoneforeveraneraofdiscordantopinionisuponus,andwehavegottento
thepointthatthemajorityperformdifferentiationandintegrationnotbecausetheyunderstandwhattheyaredoing,butsimplybecausetheybelieveinsomethingthatuptill
nowhasalwaysobtainedcorrectresults."(98:p.85)(Wemustpointoutthatwhenthiswaswritten,halfacenturyhadalreadypassedsinceCauchyproposeda
rigorousfoundationfordifferentialandintegralcalculusandhisideashadlongbecometextbookknowledge.)

"Mathematicalaxiomsareanexpressionofanextremelylimitedintellectualcontent,whichmathematicsisobligedtoborrowfromlogic.Theymaybereducedtothe
followingtwo:

"1.Thewholeislargerthanthepart....

"2.Twoquantitiesseparatelyequaltoathirdareequaltooneanother."(98:p.34)

(Itwouldseemthatevenamediocresecondaryschoolstudentoughttohaverememberedatleasttheaxiomonparallels!)

Asforpoliticaleconomyorhistory,MarxandEngelsclearlydidnotbelievethattheyhad"notsufficientlymastered"thesesubjectsnothingpromptedthemtobe"careful"
aswithmathematics.Onemaywellimaginehowresolutelytheyoperatedintheseareas.

ThecorrespondencebetweenMarxandEngelsprovidesfurtherstrikingexamplesofviewsthatareextremelydifficulttoreconcilewiththeusualunderstandingofthe
scientificmethod.Forinstance,EngelspointsouttoMarxonepassageinCapitalthatwouldobviouslyprovokeobjectionsandsuggeststhisobjectionbetakeninto
account.Marxreplies:"HadIwishedtoforeseeallobjectionsofthatkindIshouldhavespoiledthedialecticalmethodofexposition.Onthecontrary.Thismethodhasthe
advantageofsettingtrapsforthesegentlemen
[209]

ateverystepandcompellingthemtorevealtheirimpenetrablestupidity."(3:XXIII:p.425)

OrinanotherlettertoEngels:"DearFred!InmyopinionyouareunjustlyafraidtotreattheEnglishphilistinereaderofthemagazinetosuchsimpleformulaeasM GM,
etc.Ifyouwerecompelledtoread,asIam,theeconomicarticlesofLalor,HerbertSpencer,MacleodandothersinTheWestminsterReview,youwouldseethatthey
allaboundineconomicbanalities(allthewhileknowingthattheirreaderisthoroughlyboredwithitall)andthattheytrytospiceuptheirarticleswithpseudophilosophic
orpseudoscientificjargon.Despitetheimaginedscientificcharacter,thecontent(equaltonothing,ofcourse)becomesinnosenseclearer.Onthecontrary,thetrickisto
mystifythereader."Thisparagraphcloseswiththeadvice:"Infact,youaretooshy.Thenewisrequiredthenewinformandincontent."(3:XXIV:pp.6061)

ItisinterestingtojuxtaposetheattitudeofMarxismtowardsciencewithacloselyrelatedquestionMarx'suseofHegel'sdialecticalmethod.Herewemayagainreferto
S.Bulgakov.Inaworkalreadycited(100),heshowsthatCapital,especiallythefirstchapterofVolumeI,iswritteninaHegelianfashionbutthat,atthesametime,it
demonstratesaverysuperficialgraspofHegel'sphilosophyandofGermanclassicalphilosophyingeneral,aquiteprimitivemanipulationofsubtleandprofoundcategories.
Infact,Marxattimesseemstoseedialecticsinaquiteunexpectedlight.

"Itooktheriskofprognosticatinginthisway,asIwascompelledtosubstituteforyouascorrespondentattheTribune.Notabeneonthesuppositionthatthedispatches
wehavegottenuptillnowarecorrect.ItispossiblethatImaybediscredited.Butinthatcaseitwillstillbepossibletopullthroughwiththehelpofabitofdialectics.It
goeswithoutsayingthatIphrasedmyforecastsinsuchawaythatIwouldprovetoberightalsointheoppositecase."(3:XXII:p.217)
ItisinterestingtojuxtaposetheattitudeofMarxismtowardsciencewithacloselyrelatedquestionMarx'suseofHegel'sdialecticalmethod.Herewemayagainreferto
S.Bulgakov.Inaworkalreadycited(100),heshowsthatCapital,especiallythefirstchapterofVolumeI,iswritteninaHegelianfashionbutthat,atthesametime,it
demonstratesaverysuperficialgraspofHegel'sphilosophyandofGermanclassicalphilosophyingeneral,aquiteprimitivemanipulationofsubtleandprofoundcategories.
Infact,Marxattimesseemstoseedialecticsinaquiteunexpectedlight.

"Itooktheriskofprognosticatinginthisway,asIwascompelledtosubstituteforyouascorrespondentattheTribune.Notabeneonthesuppositionthatthedispatches
wehavegottenuptillnowarecorrect.ItispossiblethatImaybediscredited.Butinthatcaseitwillstillbepossibletopullthroughwiththehelpofabitofdialectics.It
goeswithoutsayingthatIphrasedmyforecastsinsuchawaythatIwouldprovetoberightalsointheoppositecase."(3:XXII:p.217)

ReturningtothecomparisonofFourier's"scientificmethod"withMarx's,itmustbestatedthatinsomeinstancestheydifferverylittlee.g.,intheiruseofmathematics.
Take,forinstance,theargumentFouriergivesinsupportofhisideathatsocietyisruledonthe"basisofgeometricprinciples":

"Thepropertiesoffriendshipduplicatethepropertiesofthecircle.

"Thepropertiesoflove,thoseoftheellipse.

"Thepropertiesoffatherhood,oftheparabola.
[210]

"Thepropertiesofambition,ofthehyperbola.

"Thecollectivepropertiesofthesefourpassionsduplicatethepropertiesofthecycloid."

ThisisquitecomparablewiththepassageinCapitalinwhichMarxwrites(inconnectionwithoneofhisconclusions):"Thislawclearlyrunscountertoexperience."Buthe
extricateshimselffromthepredicamentasfollows:"Thesolutionofthisseemingcontradictionrequiresmanymoreintermediarylinks,asinelementaryalgebra,wheremany
intermediarylinksarerequiredtocomprehendthat0/0mayrepresentarealquantity."(3:XVII:p.337)*KarlJaspersisclosertothetruth,nodoubt,whenhesees
Marxismnotassciencebutas"mythmaking"basedoncertainnotionsborrowedfrommagic,asforinstancethebeliefthatthedestructionoftheexistingworldwillleadto
thebirthofnewman.(101)

Theconceptof"thescientificmethod"wasofextraordinaryimportanceforthedevelopmentofnineteenthcenturysocialism.Henceitwassteadilyandpersistently
elaborated,firstbyFourierandSaintSimon(inaverynaiveform),andlaterinamuchmoresophisticatedmannerbyMarxandEngels.Thescientificmethodprovidedthe
socialistdoctrineswitha"sanction"ofthefirstorder.Furthermore(andthisisespeciallyimportant),thethesesofsocialistdoctrinethereby

*Marxemploysthisunusualargumentationinapassagethatisbynomeanssecondaryinimportanceforhissystem.Histheoryofvalue,acornerstoneofhispoliticaleconomic
theory,provedtobeincompletecontradictiontowellknownfactsofeconomiclife!ConcerningMarx'spromisestopresentfurtherevidence(or"intermediarylinks")onthe
question,theItalianeconomistLoriawrote:"IhavejustlyassertedthatthissecondvolumewithwhichMarxconstantlythreatenshisopponents,andwhich,however,willnever
appear,wasmostprobablyemployedasacunningsubterfugeinthosecaseswhereMarxlackedscientificarguments."Inthesixteenyearsthatseparatethepublicationof
VolumeIofCapitalfromhisdeath,Marxdidnotofferacontinuationofhisstudy.In1885,EngelspublishedMarx'smanuscriptsasthesecondvolumeofCapital.Inthepreface,
hementionsthecontradictioncitedaboveandremarksthat"becauseofthiscontradictiontheRicardoschooland'vulgareconomy'collapsed."Marx,soEngelsclaimed,
resolvedthiscontradictioninVolumeIII,whichwastoappearinseveralmonths.VolumeIIIappearedin1894 i.e.,nineyearslater.Inhispreface,Engelsagainreturnstothe
"contradiction"andquotesLoriainthisconnection.HepointsoutthatintheprefacetoVolumeII,thisquestionwas"publiclyproposed"byhimandthat,therefore,Loriamight
havetakenthisintoaccount....ButEngelsdoesnotmentionhisownpromisethatthecontradictionwouldberesolvedinVolumeIII,nordoesheindicatetheplacewhereitis
resolved.InreferencetoLoria,however,hedoesusesuchexpressionsas:"falsification,""distortion,""mistakesunforgivableinaschoolboy,""careerist,""scientificcharlatan,"
"shamelessness,""literaryadventurerwhoinhisheartofheartsspitsonthewholeofpoliticaleconomy,""aconscioussophist,""abraggart,""anirresistiblerushtoappropriate
theworksofothers,""importunatecharlatanismofselfaggrandizement,""successachievedwiththehelpofclamorousfriends,"etc.

[211]

acquiredtheappearanceofobjectivityandacertaininevitability,beingpresentedasaconsequenceofimmanentlawsindependentofhumanwill.Incallingforthe
destructionofsociety,revolutionariesoftheBabeufandBakunintypehadtoarguethatitwasloathsomeandunjust.Butindoingso,theymadeeachpersonajudgeand
leftopentheopportunityforthecounterargumentthattheprocessofdestructionitselfwasevenmoreloathsomeandunjust.Butwhen,forexample,Bukharin(102)
proclaimedthatexecutionbyshootingconstitutedoneoftheformsforthe"elaborationofcommunisthumanity,"hewasinvulnerablefromtheMarxistpointofview.
Indeed,Engelscouldthinkofonlyonefunctioninhistoryfortheconceptofjusticeasaphraseusefulforagitation.(98:p.352)How,then,isonetoverifyanexpertin
MarxismlikeBukharin?Perhapshismethodofelaboratingcommunisthumanitydoesproceedfromthe"immanentlaws"orthe"dialecticsofproduction?"

Inthecontemporaryworld,hypnotizedasitisbythenotionthatsciencecansolveanyquestionandsanctionanyaction,willmanyfindthecourageinsuchasituationto
adheretotheunscientifictencommandmentsratherthantothescientificallyproved"immanentlaw"?

Itwasnaturalenough,therefore,thatsocialistMarxistsofthenineteenthcenturywerehighlyattractedtoscienceasthesupremesanctioningauthority.Inparticular,Marx
andEngels,withtheirprodigiousenergyandcapacityforwork,processedhugeamountsofdatafromthefieldsofpoliticaleconomyandhistory.Butwhattheywere
seekinginsciencewasnotthesourcebuttheconfirmationandsanctionoftheageoldthesesofsocialistideology.Thelogicoftheirendeavorisexplicitlystatedinthe
prefacetoAntiDhring:

"In1831,inLyons,thefirstuprisingofworkerstookplaceintheperiodbetween1833and1842,theEnglishChartistmovement,thefirstnationalworkingmovement,
reacheditsclimax....Itwasimpossiblenottotakeallthesefactsintoconsideration,aswellasFrenchandEnglishSocialism,whichconstitutedtheirtheoretical,albeit
extremelyimperfectexpression."(98:p.21)"Althoughitcriticizedthecapitalistmodeofproductionanditsconsequences,thesocialismofearlierperiodscouldnotcope
withit.Itcouldonlypronounceittobegoodfornothing.Butthetaskistwofold:ontheonehand,toexplaintheinevitabilityoftheappearanceofthecapitalistmodeof
productioninitshistoricalcontextandthustoshowwhyitsdeathisinevitable
[212]

ontheotherhand,toexplainthehithertounclearnatureofthatproduction.Previouscriticismhasbeendirectedmoretowardtheharmfulconsequencesthanagainst
capitalistproductionitself."(98:p.22)

Marxismhereemergesnotasaresultofobjectivescientificresearchbutasaresponsetoasettasktoprovetheinevitabilityofthecollapseofcapitalismandits
replacementbysocialism.ThistaskbecamerelevantforthecreatorsofMarxismastheresultofaseriesoflabordisturbancesinEurope.

3.Socialismisthetheoryofpreparingandimplementingrevolution:itisaseriesofruleswhichmustbefollowedinordertoseizepower.Atthesametime,itis
thetechnologyofpower,thephilosophyoftheabsolutestatetowhichalllifeissubjectedi.e.,statism.
Marxismhereemergesnotasaresultofobjectivescientificresearchbutasaresponsetoasettasktoprovetheinevitabilityofthecollapseofcapitalismandits
replacementbysocialism.ThistaskbecamerelevantforthecreatorsofMarxismastheresultofaseriesoflabordisturbancesinEurope.

3.Socialismisthetheoryofpreparingandimplementingrevolution:itisaseriesofruleswhichmustbefollowedinordertoseizepower.Atthesametime,itis
thetechnologyofpower,thephilosophyoftheabsolutestatetowhichalllifeissubjectedi.e.,statism.

Incontrasttotheviewsconsideredearlier,seriousargumentsmaybebroughtforwardinsupportofthispointofview.Itisdifficulttodenythatsocialistdoctrines
constituteapowerfuldrivingforcecapableofinspiringmassesofpeopleandservingasameansofseizingpower.Furthermore,manysocialistutopiasdescribeasocietyin
whichallaspectsofthecitizen'slifearecontrolledbythestate,whilesocialiststatescarryouttheseidealstoacertainextent.Insomecases(forexample,inShangYang's
teaching),itisimpossibletodrawalinebetweencertainaspectsofsocialismandstatismtakentoanextremeifalloflifeiscontrolledbythestate,thedegreetowhich
privatepropertyislegallypermittedceasestobesignificant.

Thefirstobjectionarousedbysuchadefinitionisnotbasedonspecificargumentsbutisprimarilyaesthetic.Thecharacterizationseemsfartooshallowincomparisonwith
thephenomenonitseekstoexplainitrecallstheviewofreligionasthe"contrivanceofpriests."Furthermore,manyactualfeaturesofsocialismcannotbeaccountedforby
thismeans.

Infact,viewingthesocialistdoctrinesasatechniqueforseizingpowerleavesthebasicprinciplesofsocialismunexplained.Howisonetointerprettheprincipleof
communalityofpropertyfromthispointofview?Inordertogaincontroloverapovertyriddentatteredmob,itisfarmorenaturaltopromisearedivisionofproperty
suchwasthecharacterofsocialupheavalsinantiquity.Thesloganofcommunalitycouldeventurnouttobeanobstacletotakingpower,aswasthecaseintherevolution
of1917,whentheBolshevikParty,whichuntilAprilofthatyearhadadvocatednationalizingland,temporarily
[213]

retreatedfromthispositionandacceptedtheS.R.principleof"equalizedlanduse"inordertoassurevictoryinOctober.

Thecallforcommunalwivesisequallyinexplicablefromthisperspective.IntheCommunistManifesto,MarxandEngelssaythattheentirebourgeoisieaccusedthe
Communistsofintendingtointroducecommunalityofwives.Whydidtheynotreplytothisaccusationlessambiguouslythantheydid?Theywrote:"Bourgeoismarriageis
inrealityasystemofwivesincommonandthusatthemost,whattheCommunistsmightpossiblybereproachedwithisthattheydesiretointroduce,insubstitutionfora
hypocriticallyconcealed,anopenlylegalizedcommunalityofwomen."

Thisobviouslyleavestheimpressionthatthereproachistrue.Indeed,thispassagecausedsomuchtroublelaterthatnumerous"elucidations"wererequired.(Thesortof
problemthataroseisillustratedbythefactthatinthesecondRussianeditionoftheworksofMarxandEngels,publishedin1955,thistextwasalteredtoread:"...what
theCommunistsmightpossiblybereproachedwithistheallegationthat...")Whyweretheseaccusationsnotsimplydeclaredbourgeoisslander?Andwhatismost
remarkableofall,suchanideadidinfactoccurtoEngels.Heraisespreciselythisquestionin"PrinciplesofCommunism,"hisfirstdraftoftheManifesto.Butlater,afterhe
metwithMarx,thetextwaschanged.

Therearemanyotherparticularfeaturesofsocialistdoctrinethatremaincompletelyincomprehensible,ifonelooksatsocialismsolelyasamethodofseizingpower.One
exampleisthenotionofthe"forerunnersofscientificsocialism,"whichplaysanimportantroleinMarxism.WhywasitnecessaryforMarx,Engels,Kautsky,Bernsteinand
otherstodeclarePlato,Dolcino,MntzerandMoretheirforerunners?Whatstrangelogic,forexample,madeKautsky,speakingofproletarianmovementsthatcameto
power"tooearly,"exclaim:"Theyarealldeartous,fromtheAnabaptiststotheParisCommunards."(103:p.166)Nothingcouldbemoreobviouslycontrarytotheir
viewofsocialismasaproductofthecontradictionbetweenproductionforcesandproductionrelationsundercapitalism.Itwouldseemthattheyshouldhavedeniedany
connectionanycommonfeaturescouldhavebeendeclaredtobeamatterofcoincidence.

Itisimpossibletosupposethatsuchobvioustheoreticaldifficultieswentunnoticedbythefoundersofsocialism.Evidently,theconceptofforerunnerscontainedsomething
essentialtotheideologysome
[214]

elementsthathadtobepreservedatanycost,evenattheriskofdoctrinalinconsistencies.Andthisindicatesthatcertainstrataofsocialistideologycannotbeunderstood
intermsofanycoldlycalculatedplanfortheseizureofpower.

Itispossibletocometopowerpreachingreligiousideas(astheexampleofMohammedshows)orbytakingadvantageofnationalfeelings,butwedonotthereforethink
ofeitheroftheseroutestopowerasmeremeans.

Furthermore,theviewofsocialismastheideologyofanabsolutestatemakesincomprehensibleoneofthemainpropertiesofsocialistdoctrinestheirinfectiousness,their
capacitytoinfluencethemasses.Itwouldbeabsurdtosupposethatpeoplefacetortureandthegallowsorgotothebarricadesforthesakeofbecomingasoullesscogin
theallpowerfulstatemachine.Moreover,thelargeproportionofsocialistdoctrinesbelongstotheanarchicalnihilistictendency,whichisquitehostiletotheideaof
statecontrol.Suchisthespiritthatinformsthemedievalheresies,themovementsoftheReformationperiod,Meslier,Deschamps,Fourier,Bakuninandnumerousmodern
socialistmovements.

4.Thelastobjectionsapplyfullytotheviewthatsocialiststatesareamanifestationofasocialstructurebasedoncompulsorylabor.Thisideaisexpressed,for
instance,byR.VipperinhisbookKommunizmikultura[CommunismandCulture],whichwaspublishedshortlyaftertheRevolution.(Thisbookispresently
inaccessibletomeandIamobligedtocitefrommemory.)Vippersuggeststhatsocialismshouldberegardednotasaprophecyaboutahappyfuturesocietybutasareal
socialstructurewhichhasappearedinthepastmorethanonce.Hisexamples:ancientEgypt,theIncastate,theJesuitstateinParaguay...Inhisopinion,compulsory
laboristhecornerstoneofallthesesocieties.

Itistruethatnoneconomiccompulsion,toagreaterorlesserdegree,playsasignificantroleinallsocialiststates.Butonewouldliketodiscovernotonlythesortoftrait
thatwouldserveasadistinguishingfeaturebutsomerelevantpropertythatwouldrendertheirotheressentialfeaturescomprehensible.Yetthepresenceofcompulsory
laborinnowayexplainseithertheattractionofsocialistideologyorsuchofitsprinciplesasthedestructionofthefamilyorofhierarchy.
[215]

5.Socialismassuchdoesnotexist.Thatwhichiscalledsocialismisoneofthelinesofdevelopmentofcapitalismstatecapitalism.

Theevidentdefectofthispointofviewisthatitappliesonlytothesocialiststatesofthetwentiethcentury,withoutanyefforttoascertaintheplaceofthesestateswithinthe
millennialongtraditionofsocialism.Butitwouldbeinterestingtodeterminetowhatdegreethisviewisapplicableeventothisadmittedlyshortperiodofhistory.

Wittfogelbelievesthattheconceptofstatecapitalismisnotpertinenttocontemporarysocialiststates.Fromthepointofviewofeconomics,heasserts,itisimpossibleto
considercapitalistasocietyinwhichthereareneitherprivatemeansofproductionnoranyopenmarketforgoodsandmanpower.
5.Socialismassuchdoesnotexist.Thatwhichiscalledsocialismisoneofthelinesofdevelopmentofcapitalismstatecapitalism.

Theevidentdefectofthispointofviewisthatitappliesonlytothesocialiststatesofthetwentiethcentury,withoutanyefforttoascertaintheplaceofthesestateswithinthe
millennialongtraditionofsocialism.Butitwouldbeinterestingtodeterminetowhatdegreethisviewisapplicableeventothisadmittedlyshortperiodofhistory.

Wittfogelbelievesthattheconceptofstatecapitalismisnotpertinenttocontemporarysocialiststates.Fromthepointofviewofeconomics,heasserts,itisimpossibleto
considercapitalistasocietyinwhichthereareneitherprivatemeansofproductionnoranyopenmarketforgoodsandmanpower.

Theinadequacyofthisapproachisevenmoreapparentwhenonetakesintoconsiderationthebasicpointthatsocialism,unlikecapitalism,isnotmerelyaneconomic
formationbutisalso,andperhapsfirstofall,anideology.Indeed,wehaveneverheardof"capitalistparties"or"capitalistdoctrines."Theideologicalcharacterofsocialism
isabasicfactorintheactivitiesofthesocialiststates.Theirpolicyisfarfrombeingdeterminedonlybyeconomicfactorsorbystateinterests.Historyprovidedaclear cut
experimentafewyearsago,whenthegovernmentsoftwocountriesinthesamesocialistcampsimultaneouslypermittedthemselvestodeviatefromgrouppolicy.The
deviationofoneofthesestateswaspurelyideological,whiletheotherstatepreservedacompleteideologicalconformitybutdemonstrativelyassertedtheindependenceof
itsforeignpolicy.Asaresult,drasticmeasuresweretakenagainstthefirststate,whiletheotheronlybenefitedfromitspolicy.Anotherexampleofpoliticalaction
motivatedbyideologicalprinciplesisthesupportgivenbythesocialiststatestorevolutionarysocialistmovementsandnewlyformedsocialiststates.Andthisinspiteof
considerableexperiencewhichshowsthatthisisthewaytocreatethemostdangerousrivals,aggressiveandarmedwithmoreradicalideology.

Weshallpointoutonlyonemorecrucialpeculiarityofsocialiststates,somethingthathasnoanalogyincapitalistsociety:allsocialiststatesarebasedona"newtype"of
parity.Wehavehereaphenomenonthatiscompletelydifferent,despiteitsname,fromthepoliticalpartiesofbourgeoissociety.Membersofliberalorradicalpartiesare
unitedbyadesiretorealizedefinitepoliticaloreconomicends,withoutcircumscribingtheirconductorviewsinotherareas.Inthissense,they
[216]

areguidedbythesamekindofprinciplesastradeunionsoranimalprotectionsocieties.The"newtype"ofparty,however,notonlydemandsthatitsmemberssubordinate
allaspectsoftheirlivestoit,butalsodevelopsinthemanoutlookaccordingtowhichlifeoutsidethepartyseemsingeneralunthinkable.Thespiritofthespecial
relationshipthatexistsbetweentheindividualandthepartymaybegleanedfromthefollowingthreeexamples.

AGermanessayist,W.Schlamm,relatesthatin1919,attheageoffifteen,hebecamea"fellowtraveler"oftheCommunistsbutnevermanagedtopenetrateintothe
narrowcircleofthepartyfunctionaries(104).Twentyyearslater,oneofthesefunctionaries,whohadbrokenwiththeparty,explainedtoSchlammthereasonwhy.When
Schlammwasinvitedtojointheparty,hehadsaid:"I'mreadytogivethepartyeverythingbutthetwoeveningsoftheweekwhenIlistentoMozart."Thisanswerproved
fatal!Amanwhohasinterestshedoesnotwishtosubordinatetothepartydoesnotfit.

AnotheraspectoftherelationshipbetweenpartyandindividualisrevealedbyTrotsky'slastspeechataPartyCongress.Hehadalreadybeendefeatedbyhisopponents.
Hesaid:"Iknowthatitisimpossibletoberightagainsttheparty.Itispossibletoberightonlywiththeparty,forhistoryhascreatednootherroadfortherealizationof
whatisright."(105:p.167)

Finally,hereishowPiatakov,alreadyexpelledfromthepartyandindisgrace,describedhisviewofthepartytohisformerpartycomradeValentinov.Piatakovreminded
himofLenin'sstatementthatthe"dictatorshipoftheproletariatisaregimeimplementedbytheparty,whichreliesonviolenceandisnotboundbyanylaw."(Fromthe
article"TheProletarianRevolutionandtheRenegadeKautsky.")Piatakovexplainedthatthecentralideaherewasnot"violence"butthefactofbeing"unboundbyany
law."Hesays:

Everythingthatbearstheimprintofhumanwillmustnotandcannotbeconsideredinviolableortiedtoanyinsuperablelaw.Alawisalimit,aban,adefinition
ofonephenomenonadmissibleandanotherinadmissible,oneactionpossibleandtheotherimpossible.Whenthoughtholdstoviolenceinprincipleandis
psychologicallyfree,unboundbyanylaws,limitsorobstacles,thenthefieldofpossibleactionexpandstogiganticproportionsandthefieldoftheimpossible
contractstothepointofzero....Bolshevismisapartywhoseideaistobringintolifethatwhichisconsideredimpossible,notrealizableandinadmissible.
...Forthehonorandhappinessofbeinginitsrankswemustsacrificeourprideandselfesteemandeverything

[217]

else.Returningtotheparty,weputoutofourheadsallconvictionscondemnedbyit,eventhoughwedefendedthemwhileinopposition....Iagreethatnon
Bolsheviksandthecategoryofordinarypeopleingeneralcannotmakeanyinstantaneouschange,anyreversaloramputationoftheirconvictions....Wearea
partyofmenwhomaketheimpossiblepossible.Steepedintheideaofviolence,wedirectitagainstourselves,andifthepartydemandsitandifitis
necessaryandimportantfortheparty,wecanbyanactofwillputoutofourheadsintwentyfourhoursideasthatwehavecherishedforyears.In
suppressingone'sconvictionsortossingthemaside,itisnecessarytoreorientoneselfintheshortestpossibletimeinsuchawayastoagree,inwardly,with
one'swholemind....Isiteasytoputoutofmindthingsthatonlyyesterdayyouconsideredtoberightandwhichtodayyoumustconsidertobefalseinorder
tobeinfullaccordwiththeparty?Ofcoursenot.Nevertheless,throughviolencedirectedagainstoneself,thenecessaryresultisachieved.Givinguplife,
shootingoneselfthroughthehead,aremeretriflescomparedwiththisothermanifestationofwill....Thissortofviolenceagainsttheselfisacutelypainful,but
suchviolencewiththeaimofbreakingoneselfsoastobeinfullaccordwiththepartyconstitutestheessenceofatrulyprincipledBolshevikCommunist.Iam
familiarwithobjectionsofthefollowingkind.Thepartymaybeabsolutelymistaken,itissaid,itmightcallblacksomethingthatisclearlyandindisputably
white.Toallthosewhotrytofoistthisexampleonme,Isay:Yes,IshallconsiderblacksomethingthatIfeltandconsideredtobewhite,sinceoutside
theparty,outsideaccordwithit,thereisnolifeforme.(106:p.148)

Someentomologists(see,forexample,107:pp.110115)believethatthefunctioningofabeehivecanonlybeunderstoodintermsofasuperorganismhavingitsown
metabolismandrespirationandcapableofreproductionandofthekindofactionquiteimpossibleforindividualbees(forinstance,holdingthetemperaturewithintothe
necessarynarrowrangearound34C.).Theexistenceofeachbeehasmeaningonlytotheextentthatitisinvolvedwiththelifeoftheentirehive.Wearenolessjustified
inconsideringthepartiesofthesocialiststatestobesimilarsuperorganismscapableofperformingactionsimpossibleandunthinkableforitsindividualhumancells.Their
lifehasmeaningonlywhentheyarecarryingouttheaimsofthesuperorganismwithoutwhichtheycannotexist.

Thisenablesustounderstandtheenigmaticpsychology,describedsopreciselybySolzhenitsyn,ofthe"orthodox"truebelieverwhoeveninaconcentrationcamp
continuestoglorifyStalinandtheparty.

Anysuchworldviewis,ofcourse,utterlyalientorationalcapitalism.ItisnotamongtheToriesandWhigsthattheforerunnersofthe"new
[218]

type"ofpartymustbesought,butintheSocietyofJesusoramongthemedievalsects,withwhomtheyalsohavesomecommonorganizationaltraits.

Thepresenceofsuchapartyseemstobeanecessaryconditionfortheexistenceofallsocialiststatesofthetwentiethcentury,whileincapitalistcountriesitservesasone
ofthemaininstrumentsofdestruction.Thispointstocardinaldifferencesbetweenthetwosocialstructures.
 [218]

type"ofpartymustbesought,butintheSocietyofJesusoramongthemedievalsects,withwhomtheyalsohavesomecommonorganizationaltraits.

Thepresenceofsuchapartyseemstobeanecessaryconditionfortheexistenceofallsocialiststatesofthetwentiethcentury,whileincapitalistcountriesitservesasone
ofthemaininstrumentsofdestruction.Thispointstocardinaldifferencesbetweenthetwosocialstructures.

6.Socialismistheexpressionofthequestforsocialjustice.

Itisanindisputablefactthatalmostallsocialistdoctrinesandmovementsassignanextremelyimportantroletoprotestagainsttheinjusticesofthecontemporarysocial
order.SympathyfortheoppressedandthecondemnationofoppressorsaremotifsthatmaybefoundintheworksofMntzer(especiallyinhis"DiscourseforDefense"),
More(inPartOneofUtopia),Winstanley,Meslier,Fourier,Bakunin,MarxandtheMarxists.

Manywhoarenotsupportersofsocialism(orwhoacceptitonlypartially)alsoseeitsmaindrivingforceinitsadvocacyofjustice.Forexample,theprimeministerof
India,respondingtoacorrespondentwhoinquiredwhattheword"socialism"meanttohim,answered:Justice.Yes,socialismmeansjustice,thedesiretoworkinamore
equalsociety."ToacertainextentthispointofviewissharedbyKarlJaspers:"Socialismtodayisseenasthatquest,tendencyorplanwhichhasasitsaimuniversal
cooperationandcoexistenceinthespiritofjusticeandintheabsenceofprivilege.Inthissense,today,everyoneisasocialistsocialismisthemaintendencyofour
time."(108)

ButJaspersdistinguishessocialisminthesenseofgradualprogressfromcommunism,whichpreachestotalplanningandtheachievingofhappinessforhumanityaccording
toascientificprognosis.

TheviewofsocialismasanattempttoachievesocialjusticewaswidespreadinRussianphilosophy.Forinstance,VladimirSolovievwrote:"Theattemptofsocialismto
achievetheequalityofrightsinmaterialwelfare,itseffortstotransferthismaterialwelfarefromthehandsoftheminorityintothehandsofthepopularmajority,is
absolutelynaturalandlegitimatefromthepointofviewoftheprinciplesproclaimedbytheFrenchrevolutionandwhichunderlieallmoderncivilization."(109:III:pp.7 8)
Whileherejectssocialism'sclaimtobeingasuprememoralforce,Solovievdoesacknowledgethatit"has
[219]

thecharacterofmoralityinitsdemandforsocialtruth....Inanycase,socialismisrighttoriseupagainstexistingsocialuntruth."(109:III:p.9)Itisherethatheevidently
seesthat"truthofsocialism"whichmustberecognizedinordertovanquishthe"lieofsocialism."

Bulgakov,aformerMarxisthimself,developedthisviewofsocialismindetail,especiallyinapamphlet(110)thatappearedin1917,whiletheRevolutionwasatitsheight.
Socialism,inhisopinion,isareactiontothemisery,hungerandsufferingofmankind.Itisthethoughtthat"firstofallonemustdefeathungerandbreakthechainsof
poverty."(110:p.5)Manistheprisonerofnaturalforcesandhisspiritlongsforliberationfromthatcaptivity.Socialismshowshimtheway.Itpromises"freedomfrom
economicfactors...througheconomicfactors,bymeansofthesocalleddevelopmentofproductiveforces."(110:p.9)Butthisisafalsepromise."Theeconomic
captivityofmanisnotarootcausebutaconsequenceitiscalledforthbytheshiftinman'srelationtonaturetheresultofthesinfulcorruptionofthehumanessence.
Deathcameintotheworldlifebecamemortal,whenceappearedman'sfatefuldependenceonfoodandthe'forcesofnature,controloverwhichwillnotsavehimfrom
death."(110:p.11)

TheideaofsocialismwasforeshadowedinChrist'sfirsttemptation.By"turningstonesintobread,"ChristwouldhavebecomeanearthlyMessiah,whoinsteadof
overcomingthesinfulconditionoftheworldwouldhavesubmittedtothatcondition.Thistemptation,towhichaconsiderablepartofmodernmankindhasyielded,
constitutesthespiritualessenceofsocialism.Buteverytemptationcontainswithinitselfsometruth.Inthiscase,itisaprotestagainsthumanbondagetomatterandthe
sufferingthatensuesfromit.Thepositivemeaningofsocialism,however,isextremelylimited.Bulgakovwrites:"Socialismcannotbeseenasaradicalreformoflifeitis
philanthropy,oroneformofit,evokedbymodernlifeandnothingmore.Thetriumphofsocialismwouldintroducenothingessentialtolife."(110:p.41)

Letusnowmovetoaconsiderationoftheseviews.Firstofall,itseemsthatsocialismcanbynomeansbeidentifiedsimplywithastrivingforjusticenorwithareactionto
thesufferingofmankind.Thisisalreadyclearfromthefactthatwewouldnotneedtoinventanewtermforsuchadesire:"compassion,""sympathy,""activelove,"areall
oldfashionedwordsquitesuitableforthedefinitionofthis
[220]

equallyoldaspiration.Butletusassumeforamomentthatsocialismisadefinitewaytoachievesocialjustice.Inthatcaseweshouldbeabletoseenumerous
confirmationsofthisfactintheknownsocialistdoctrinesaswellasintheexperienceofthesocialiststates.Sinceitisunquestionablytruethatappealstojusticeandthe
condemnationofthedefectsofcontemporarylifeoccupyacentralplaceinsocialistideology,thisquestionmustbeformulatedmoreprecisely:Istheaspirationforsocial
justicethegoalandthedrivingforceofsocialismoristheappealtothisaspirationonlyameanstoachievesomeothergoals?

Tosimplifyourargumentation,weexcludefromourdiscussionthepracticeofsocialiststates.Afterall,ifitcouldbeshownthatdreamsofsocialistjusticehavenotbeen
realizedinthesestates,thatwouldnotinitselfcontradictthepossibilitythatthesedreamsdidinspiretheparticipantsandtheleadersofsocialistmovements:Lifehasaway
ofdeceivingthebestlaidplans.Butinthesocialistdoctrinesthemselves,atleast,weshoulduncovercompassionforthesufferingsofthevictimsofinjusticeandthe
impulsetolightentheirburden.Yetthisispreciselywhatislacking!Thealleviationofsufferingissetasideuntilthevictoryofthesocialistideal,andallattemptstoimprove
lifeatthepresenttimearecondemnedaspossiblypostponingthecomingvictory.Particularlyinthemodernsocialistdoctrinesproclaimingatheism,thispointofviewisin
nowaycompatiblewithcompassionfortoday'svictimsofoppression,whowillhavenoshareinthefuturejustsociety.Itwillbeobjectedthatstrivingtoachievejusticein
lifeforfuturegenerationsistheverythingthatinspiresthefollowersofsocialism.Thispointofviewseemshardlyplausiblefromapsychologicalpointofview.Weare
askedtobelievethatamancanbeindifferenttothesufferingofthosearoundhimandatthesametimedevotehislifetothehappinessofafutureworldhewillneversee.

Welistbelowseveralexamplesillustratingtheapproachofsocialistdoctrinetowardtheinjusticeoftheirday.

TheCathars,whosedoctrinesincludedsomeelementsofsocialism,categoricallyforbadecharity,instarkcontrasttothetheoryandpracticeoftheCatholicChurch.Inthe
Catharsectsthe"faithful"wereobligedtomakenumerousdonationsbutonlytotheleadership,the"perfect."Thisdoctrinalfeatureisextremelyoldand,consequently,is
linkedtothesect'sfundamentalprecepts.WemeetthesameprincipleamongtheManicheans,inthesecondcenturyA.D.
[221]

ThesocietyoftheMoravianBrethrenisavividexampleofthestrictestcommunityofpropertyandofallaspectsoflife.Inthesect'svoluminouswritings,Christ'slawof
brotherlyloveisoftenmentioned,butitisneverusedtojustifycommunality.Onthecontrary,thedemandforcommunalityiscloselylinkedtothestrivingforsuffering.
Communalityisperceivednotasanexpressionofcompassion,butasa"yoke,"avoluntarycross.Communistlifeisanarrowpath,leadingthroughsufferingtosalvation.

Turningtothehumanistliterature,wemightpointtoThomasMore,whogaveadetailedcommentaryonthesufferingofthepoorhecondemnedunjustlifeasa
"conspiracyoftherich"andformulatedathesis,whichlaterbecamepopular,totheeffectthatcriminalityisinrealityacrimeoftheunjustsociety.Atthesametime,he
ThesocietyoftheMoravianBrethrenisavividexampleofthestrictestcommunityofpropertyandofallaspectsoflife.Inthesect'svoluminouswritings,Christ'slawof
brotherlyloveisoftenmentioned,butitisneverusedtojustifycommunality.Onthecontrary,thedemandforcommunalityiscloselylinkedtothestrivingforsuffering.
Communalityisperceivednotasanexpressionofcompassion,butasa"yoke,"avoluntarycross.Communistlifeisanarrowpath,leadingthroughsufferingtosalvation.

Turningtothehumanistliterature,wemightpointtoThomasMore,whogaveadetailedcommentaryonthesufferingofthepoorhecondemnedunjustlifeasa
"conspiracyoftherich"andformulatedathesis,whichlaterbecamepopular,totheeffectthatcriminalityisinrealityacrimeoftheunjustsociety.Atthesametime,he
suggestedwhathethoughtwasamorejustapproach:criminalsshouldbemadeintoslaves!JusthowfamiliarMorewaswiththelifeofthecommonfolkisindicatedbyhis
listofidleparasitesinsociety,inwhichwomenappearfirst.

ThehistoryofthesocialistmovementinRussiaservesasanotherstrikingexample.Theappearanceofrevolutionarynihilistcirclescoincidesexactlyintimewiththe
abolitionofserfdom.Thepeasantswereliberatedin1861.Chernyshevsky's"AppealtothePeasantsofLandowners"appearedinthesameyearandhis"ToYoung
Russia,"wherethestyleandspiritofthenewmovementwereformulated,appearedin1862.Chernyshevskyandothersopenlyexplainedtheirantipathytothereformof
1861byassertingthatacertainimprovementinthepeasants'lotmightturnthemfromtherevolutionarypath.SomewhatlaterwehaveNechayevproclaimingthefollowing:
"Thegovernmentitselfmightatanymomentcomeupontheideaofreducingtaxesorinstitutingsimilarbenefits.Thatwouldbearealmisfortune,becauseevenunderthe
presentterribleconditionsthefolkareslowtorise.Butgivethemalittlemorepocketchange,setthingsupevenonecowbetter,andeverythingwillbedelayedanother
tenyears.Andallourworkwillbelost.Onthecontrary,youshoulduseanyopportunitytooppressthepeople,thewaythecontractorsdo,forexample."(Ill:p.137)

AproposoftheattempttoeffectasocialistcoupinFrance,Bakuninwrote:"Frenchmenthemselves,eventheworkers,werenotinspiredbyitthedoctrineseemedtoo
frightening.Itwas,infact,tooweak.Theyshouldhavesufferedgreatermiseryanddisturbances.Circumstances
[222]

arecomingtogetherinsuchawaythattherewillbenoshortageofthat.PerhapsthentheDevilwillawaken."(LettertoOgarev,1871,95:p.246)

ThispronouncementcoincideswiththeviewscontainedinthewritingsoftheMoravianBrothers:thereshouldbenoattempttoseekreleasefromsufferingsincesufferingis
essentialinachievingthesupremegoal.ThereisofcourseanimportantdifferencetheMoravianBrethrensawthegoalinChrist,whileBakuninusesdifferentterminology.

FinallywecometoMarxism.Despitetherolethattheexposureoftheinjustice,crueltyandinhumanityofcapitalismplaysinit,wecanencounterquitesimilarviews.Thus,
inthearticle"ExposeoftheCologneTrialofCommunists,"Marxwrites:"Wesaytoworkers:youmustsurvivefifteen,twenty,fiftyyearsofcivilwarandinternational
strifenotonlytochangeexistingrelationsbuttochangeyourselvesandbecomecapableofpoliticalsupremacy."(3:VIII:p.506)Ifwerecallthecrueltyandhungerwhich
weretheconsequenceofthreeyearsofcivilwarinRussia,wemayimaginevaguelywhatthosefiftyyearsofcivilwarwouldmeantheyearsthattheworkersmust
survive,accordingtoMarx.Indescribingtheterriblelivingconditionsoftheworkersoftheday,MarxandEngelsshowednointerestinanyimprovement.Onthe
contrary,theyactuallytriedtoseefeaturesofthefuturesocietyintheseconditions.Itwasimpossiblefortheworkertohaveanuninterruptedfamilylife?Well,inthefuture
societythebourgeoisfamilywillwitheraway.Proletarianchildrenwerecompelledtowork?Inthefuturesocietychildrenwould"combineeducationwithproductive
labor."Atatimewhen"bourgeoisphilanthropists"suchasDickensandCarlylewerefightingagainstchildlabor,theGenevaCongressoftheFirstInternationaladopteda
resolutioncomposedbyMarx:"TheCongressregardsthetendencyofcontemporaryindustrytodrawonthelaborofchildrenandjuvenilesofbothsexesinthegreattask
ofsocialproductionasaprogressive,soundandlawfultendency,thoughundertheruleofcapitalismitturnsintoaterribleevil.Inarationallyorganizedsociety,eachchild
fromtheageofnineoughttobeaproductiveworker."(Citedin112)

InthecorrespondencebetweenMarxandEngelstherearenumerousutterancesinthefollowingvein:

"DearEngels!Ihavejustreceivedyourletterwhichbringsuptheverypleasantprospectofatradecrisis."(MarxtoEngels,3:XXI:p.228)
[223]

"Itwouldbeagoodthingtohaveabadharvestnextyearinaddition,andthentherealfunwillbegin."(EngelstoMarx,3:XII:p.249)"It'sthesamewithme.Sincethe
beginningofthecrashinNewYork,IcouldfindnorestinJerseyandfeelfineamidstthegeneralbreakdown.Thecrisiswillbeasusefulformyorganismasthesea
baths."(EngelstoMarx,3:XXII:p.255)"Thereisanimprovedmoodinthemarket.Maythisbedamned!"(EngelstoMarx,3:XXII:p.295)"Hereonlytwoorthree
verybadyearscouldhelp,butitseemsthattheywon'tbequicktocome."(EngelstoMarx,3:XXII:p.368)"Ourfatherlandpresentsanextremelypitifulsight.Without
beingbatteredfromoutside,nothingcanbedonewiththesedogs."(MarxtoEngels,3:XXIII:p.162)

DuringWorldWarI,Leninwroteasfollowsaboutwar:"IfthewarnowevokesamongreactionaryChristiansocialistsandthewhimperingpetitebourgeoisieonlyhorror
andfright,onlyanaversiontoanyuseofarms,toblood,deathandsoon,thenwemustanswerthatcapitalistsocietyhasalwaysbeenandremainsahorrorwithoutend.
Andifnowthemostreactionaryofallwarsispreparinganendwithhorrortothissociety,wehavenoreasontofallintodespair."(113:XXX:p.136)

Itisstrikinghowsocialistthinkers,inexposinginjusticeandexploitationofthepeople,refersooftentotheseverypeoplewithcontemptandevenmalice.Forinstance,
MeslierwroteonthecoverofhisTestament:"Icametoknowtheerrorsandthemisdeeds,thevanityandthestupidityofthepeople.Ihatedanddespisedthem."
Describingthepeasants'suffering,hewrote:"Itisjustlysaidofthemthatthereisnothingmorecorrupt,morecrudeandmoredeservingofcontempt."(114:p.56)Fourier
callsthesameFrenchpeasants"livingautomatons"andadds:"Intheirextremecrudity,theyarenearertoanimalsthantothehumanrace."(97:p.93)InalettertoMarx,
EngelscallsthepeasantsGermanicbumpkins.(3:XXI:p.39)AndtheFrenchpeasantsarereferredtoas"abarbaricrace,"thatis"bynomeansinterestedintheformof
government,etc.,strivingfirstofalltodestroythetaxcollector'shouse...torapehiswifeandtobeathimtodeathiftheyshouldmanagetocatchhim."(LettertoMarx,3:
XXI:p.312)Abouttheworkershewrites:"Themassesarefrightfullystupid."(LettertoMarx,3:XXIV:p.160)Speakingofcertainunjustcontracts,Marxforhispart
callsthem"contractstowhichonlythecompletelydegeneraterabblecouldagree."(LettertoEngels,3:XXIV:p.30)
[224]

Anothertimeheexclaims:"Tohellwiththesepopularmovements,especiallyiftheyarepacifistintothebargain.TheChartistmovementdroveO'Connormad(haveyou
readhislastspeechatthetrial?)madeGarnyweakintheheadandcausedJohnsontogobankrupt.VoilaIedernierbutdelaviedanstouslesmouvements
populaires."(LettertoEngels,3:XXI:p.328)

Itispossibletosuggestvariouslogicalexplanationsforsuchstatements,butitisabsolutelyimprobablepsychologicallytoconsiderthattheyareengenderedby
compassionforthepeopleorbysympathyforthevictimsofhungerandwar.AndwecanseethatthemainachievementsinsocialjusticeofthelastcenturyintheWest
thereductionoftheworkingday,socialinsurance,anextraordinaryriseinthelivingstandardoftheworkerswereaccomplishedwithverylittleparticipationonthepart
ofsocialistmovements.Themainfactorswerethestruggleofthetradeunions(condemnedbythesocialistsas"economism"),increasedproductivityoflabordueto
technologicalprogress,andthemoralinfluenceof"bourgeoisphilanthropy."

How,then,issocialistideologyconnectedwiththeideaofstruggleforsocialjustice?Itseemsthatwehaveheretwoquitedifferentapproachestowardlifewhich,
nevertheless,intersectinacertainarea.Theirpointofcontactisthecondemnationofsocialinjusticeandtheexposureofthesufferingitbrings.Fromthisstartingpoint,
theydevelopintwoentirelydifferentdirections,onebeingthepathofcorrectingsocialinjustice,thestruggleagainsttheconcreteevilsofthepresent.Theotherpath
regardssocialinjusticeasanabsoluteevil,anindicationthattheexistingworldisdoomedandmustbecompletelydestroyed.Sympathyforthevictimsofinjusticeismore
thereductionoftheworkingday,socialinsurance,anextraordinaryriseinthelivingstandardoftheworkerswereaccomplishedwithverylittleparticipationonthepart
ofsocialistmovements.Themainfactorswerethestruggleofthetradeunions(condemnedbythesocialistsas"economism"),increasedproductivityoflabordueto
technologicalprogress,andthemoralinfluenceof"bourgeoisphilanthropy."

How,then,issocialistideologyconnectedwiththeideaofstruggleforsocialjustice?Itseemsthatwehaveheretwoquitedifferentapproachestowardlifewhich,
nevertheless,intersectinacertainarea.Theirpointofcontactisthecondemnationofsocialinjusticeandtheexposureofthesufferingitbrings.Fromthisstartingpoint,
theydevelopintwoentirelydifferentdirections,onebeingthepathofcorrectingsocialinjustice,thestruggleagainsttheconcreteevilsofthepresent.Theotherpath
regardssocialinjusticeasanabsoluteevil,anindicationthattheexistingworldisdoomedandmustbecompletelydestroyed.Sympathyforthevictimsofinjusticeismore
andmoresqueezedoutofthepicturebyallconsuminghatredoftheexistingsocialstructure.

7.Socialismasaspecialreligion

Bulgakov,amongothers,formulatedthisthoughtinthefollowingway:"Forsocialismnowadaysemergesnotonlyasanaturalareaofsocialpolicybutusuallyalsoasa
religion,onebasedonatheismandthedeificationofmanandman'slaborandonrecognitionoftheelementalforcesofNatureandsociallifeandastheonlymeaningful
principleofhistory."(115:p.36)Morespecifically,Bulgakovbelieves,socialismcanbeseenasarebirthofJudaicMessianism."KarlMarx,alongwithLassalle,arethe
proclaimersoftheapocalypseinfashionable
[225]

dress,theannouncersoftheMessianicKingdom."(110:p.17Bulgakovtreatsthisideaingreaterdetailinhis"ApocalypticsandSocialism,"inthecollectionTwoCities,
VolumeII).SemyonFrankalsocallsrevolutionarysocialism"areligionofabsoluterealizationofthepeople'shappiness"andthe"religionofservicetomaterialinterests."
Frankpointsto"atrainofthoughtwhichunitesnihilisticmoralitywiththereligionofsocialism."(116:p.192)AnanalogouspointofviewisdevelopedbyBerdiaevinthe
article"MarxismandReligion."

Suchaviewwasexpressedoccasionallybytheadherentsofsocialismthemselves,forinstance,bythesocialdemocratparticipantsinthe"God
building"[bogostroitel'stvo]tendencyatthebeginningofthiscentury.Bazarov,GorkyandLunacharskytookpartinthisattempttolinkMarxismandreligion.Abookby
G.LeBon(117)isbasedonthesameview.Amongmorerecentworks,thisapproachistaken,forinstance,in118.

Aforcefulargumentcanbemadeforthisdefinition.Forexample,thereligiousaspectsofsocialismmayexplaintheextraordinaryattractionofsocialistdoctrinesandtheir
capacitytoinflameindividualsandtoinspirepopularmovements.Itispreciselytheseaspectsofsocialismwhichcannotbeexplainedwhensocialismisregardedasa
politicaloreconomiccategory.Socialism'spretensionstobeauniversalworldviewcomprisingandexplainingeverything(fromthetransformationofaliquidintosteamto
theappearanceofChristianity)alsomakeitakintoreligion.Acharacteristicofreligionissocialism'sviewofhistorynotasachaoticphenomenonbutasanentitythathasa
goal,ameaningandajustification.Inotherwords,bothsocialismandreligionviewhistoryteleologically.Bulgakovdrawsourattentiontonumerousandfarreaching
analogiesbetweensocialism(especiallyMarxism)andJudaicapocalypticsandeschatology.Finally,socialism'shostilitytowardtraditionalreligionhardlycontradictsthis
judgmentitmaysimplybeamatterofanimositybetweenrivalreligions.

However,alltheseargumentsindicateonlythatsocialismandreligionhavesomeimportantfeaturesincommon.Theydonotprovethatthebasictraitsofsocialismcanbe
reducedtoareligion.Andinpointoffact,thereareanumberofcardinaldistinctionsthatsetthemapart.

Inthefirstplace,religionproceedsfromconcreteexperience:thereligiousfeelingsofpeoplewhothendescribethesefeelingsasanencounterwithGod.Suchexperiences
onthepartofindividualsgifted
[226]

inthisrespectbecomefixedandarepassedontoothersintheformofacult,ofatraditionandoftheologicalliterature.Itwouldbeofgreatinterestifitcouldbe
establishedthatsimilarexperienceslieattherootofsocialistphilosophy,butwehearnothingofthekind.Andthisinitselfisaclearobjectivedifferencebetweenthe
socialistworldviewandreligion.Forevenifsuchexperiencesdooccurwithinsocialism,thosetowhomitisaccessiblecategoricallydenythefact.Themostprominent
representativesofsocialistideologyeitheradheretoarationaloutlook(inrecentcenturies)orprofesssomeother,nonsocialistreligion(earlier).

Anevenmoreradicalcontrastbetweensocialismandreligionemergesfromtheirviewsoftheessenceofmanandhisroleintheirrespective"anthropologies."Allreligions
proceedfromarecognitionofsomehighermeaninginlife,somegoalderivingfromahighersphere.PresupposingtheexistenceofGodandthepossibilityofman's
communicationwithHim,religiontherebyadmitsacertaincommensurabilitybetweenGodandman,whichisindispensableifonlytomakepossiblesomesortofcontact.
(Anant,forinstance,cannotenterintocontactwithman.)Socialism,ontheotherhand,proceedsinalmostallitsmanifestationsfromtheassumptionthatthebasic
principlesguidingthelifeofanindividualandofmankindingeneraldonotgobeyondthesatisfactionofmaterialneedsorprimitiveinstincts.Whatismore,thisview
becomesmoreexplicit,themoreclearlyformulatedthegivensocialistideology.Below,weshallciteseveralillustrationsofthistendency.

WithPlato,justicewasstillamongthebasicorganizingprinciplesintheidealstate.Theideologyofmedievalheresiesincludedspiritualgoals,althoughtheygenerallyset
Godandtheworldatsuchoddsthattheearthlyactivityofmancametobedevoidofanyhighermeaning.ButMorerecognized(ormoreprecisely,hewrotethatthe
Utopiansrecognized)satisfactionasthesupremegoalinlife.Still,Moredoesbelievethatareasonablemancanrefuselessersatisfactionsinordertoreceivegreaterones
fromGod.However,thislineofreasoningSoonbringsustoFourier'sdoctrine,accordingtowhichthesatisfactionofinstincts(orasheputsit,passions)istheonlygoal
andeventhebasicforceshapinghumansociety.

AccordingtoFourier,allinstinctsareequallyfruitfulandusefulforsocietyitisonlynecessarytocombinethemanddirectthemintheproperway:"Thereisnotasingle
uselessorbadpassionallpersonalities
[227]

aregoodastheyare."(97:p.292)"Passions,whatevertheymightbeeventhemostrepulsivebothinmanandinanimals,leadtotheirvariousconsequencesaccording
togeometricalprinciplesobservedbyGod."(97:p.60)Asaresult,citizenswhoaremostusefultothesocietalmechanismarethose"whoaremostinclinedtorefined
pleasuresandwhoboldlygivethemselvesuptothesatisfactionoftheirpassions."(97:p.292)Thefuture"combined"socialstructureisbuiltalongthesamelines:"Inthe
eighteencommunitiesofthecombinedstructure,thetraitthatisthemostusefulforthetriumphoftruthisloveofwealth."(97:p.95)"Thewholearrangementofthe
combinedstructurewillbethedirectoppositeofourhabitsandwillcompeltheencouragementofeverythingwecallvice,forinstance,thepassionforsweetsandthe
pleasuresoflove."(97:p.96)

Themoralprinciplesrestrictingfreedomofexpressionofinstinctsareharmful.Inparticular,thereisnothingsoharmfulasthesenseofdutyinventedbyphilosophers."All
thesephilosophicalwhimscalleddutyhavenothingtodowithtruthdutyproceedsfrompeople,whileattractionproceedsfromGod.IfyouwanttorecognizeGod's
intentions,studyattraction,onlynature,anddonotacceptduty."(97:p.98)Thefunctioningofsocietyistobeensuredbyplacingpeopleinsituationsinwhichwhatis
advantageousforthemwillbeforthebenefitofall.Atthispointeventhemostdishonestmanwillbecomeausefulmemberofsociety."Showhimthathecanearna
thousandcusbylyingandthreethousandbythetruth,andhewillpreferthetruthnomatterwhatacheatheis."(97:p.96)

Itisrevealing,however,thatFourierrefusestorecognizetheexistenceofclearlyinstinctiveattractionsiftheyengenderactswhichdonotfitanegoisticframework.For
Themoralprinciplesrestrictingfreedomofexpressionofinstinctsareharmful.Inparticular,thereisnothingsoharmfulasthesenseofdutyinventedbyphilosophers."All
thesephilosophicalwhimscalleddutyhavenothingtodowithtruthdutyproceedsfrompeople,whileattractionproceedsfromGod.IfyouwanttorecognizeGod's
intentions,studyattraction,onlynature,anddonotacceptduty."(97:p.98)Thefunctioningofsocietyistobeensuredbyplacingpeopleinsituationsinwhichwhatis
advantageousforthemwillbeforthebenefitofall.Atthispointeventhemostdishonestmanwillbecomeausefulmemberofsociety."Showhimthathecanearna
thousandcusbylyingandthreethousandbythetruth,andhewillpreferthetruthnomatterwhatacheatheis."(97:p.96)

Itisrevealing,however,thatFourierrefusestorecognizetheexistenceofclearlyinstinctiveattractionsiftheyengenderactswhichdonotfitanegoisticframework.For
instance,heneverspeaksaboutloveassuchbutonlyaboutthe"delightsoflove"orabout"amorousness."Heconsidersthefeelingsofparentforchildandchildforparent
tobemereinvention."Sincehedoesnotknowthe'act'thatisatthebasisofhispaternity,thechildcannotexperiencefilialfeelings."Parents,fortheirpart,loveonly"the
recollectionofpastdelightsconnectedwithconception."Achildcannotfeel"indebtedtoparentstowhomhehasgivensomuchdelightunsharedbyhim,delightofwhich
peoplewanttodeprivehimatthebesttimeofhislife."(97:p.100)

ItispossibletoconsiderFourierasanimmediatepredecessorofFreud:inhisstrivingtounderstandmanandhumansocietyinthe
[228]

lightofthemostprimitiveinstincts,inapathologicalunderdevelopmentoftheemotionalspherewhichpreventsanyappreciationforthehigheraspectsofthehuman
psyche,inthehypertrophiedroleheascribestorelationsbetweenthesexes.(AccordingtoFourier,eveneconomicsoughttobebasedonattractingyoungpeopleinto
laborarmiesbytheprospectofloveaffairsinthiswayhugeindustrialbuildingprojectscouldbecarriedout.)Ofcourse,Fourier'smythologicalconstructdescribingthe
cooperationofmanandthecosmosfindsnocontinuationinFreud'sworks.(Asweshallseebelow,Freudhadhisownmythology.)ButwhileFourier,withtheinfantilism
socharacteristicofhim,seesamid"thepassionswecallvices"nothingmoreterriblethan"passionforsweetsandthedelightsoflove,"Freudgoesmuchfurther.Among
theforcestowhichheattemptstoreducecultureandthespirituallifeofman,Freuddoesnotbypasseithermaliceorlustfordomination,destructionorthedeathwish.He
considersallculturetobebasedonthesuppressionoftheinstinctsthedeepestpartofthehumanpsyche,whichstrivestoactaccordingtothe"pleasureprinciple."
Unhappiness,inFreud'sview,isanecessarycostforcivilization.Happinessdoesnotfallwithintherangeofculturalvalues.Moralnorms,elaboratedbythatpartofthe
psychethatisoflater,cultural,origin,arefactorswhicharedestructiveandmortallydangeroustotheorganism.Freudcomparesmoralswithproductsofdecaywhichare
manufacturedbyacellandthenbecomethecauseofitsdeath.

ThenextepisodeinthehistoryofsocialistdoctrineafterFourierMarxismwasbasedonanalogousconceptsofhumanpersonality.Dividingallhumanactivityinto"base"
and"superstructure,"Marxismassignedtothe"base"thatmodeofproduction"fromwhich,byforceofinnerdialecticsandimmanentlaws,asocialandstatesystemis
derivedwithallitslegal,philosophicalandreligiousviews."Inanevenmorestrikingformulation,Marxismproclaimedthatthissuperstructureis"given"bythehandor
steammill.Themechanismbywhichthebasecreatesasuperstructureisheldtobethestruggleofmaterialandeconomicinterests(thatis,egotismintheformoftheclass
struggle).Initsmoregeneralviewsofman,Marxismdeniesthefreedomofwillandanyindependentspirituallifeorconsciousness,thelastbeingdeterminedbyone's
"socialexistence."IntheprefacetothefirstvolumeofCapital,Marxwrote:"Formetheidealprincipleisamaterialonethathaspassedthroughthebrain."
[229]

Still,thenegationofthehigheraspectsofhumanexistenceinMarxismisnotasradicalasitisinthemovementgivenshapebyFourierandlaterdevelopedbyFreud.
Marxismseesthebasicstimulusofhumanlifeandtheexplanationoftheriddleofhistoryinman'sbaseractions,butneverthelessinhumanactivityandeveninactivitythat
unitespeopleina"socialexistence."Freud,however,reducesmankindtoastilllower,purelybiologicallevel.WhileMarxismproclaimsthedivisionofhumansocietyinto
antagonisticclasses(atleastthroughoutrecordedhistory),Freudstrivestoaccomplishthesamestratificationinthehumanpersonality.Hesinglesoutthemostancient
andthemostextensiveareatheid,theunconsciouswhichfunctionsexclusivelyaccordingtothepleasureprinciple,outsideanynotionoftimeorcontradiction.Thereis
nodistinctionherebetweengoodandevil,nomoralityoranyotherkindofvalue,savepleasure.Undertheinfluenceoftheexternalworldaderivativeareatheegois
formed,andfromthis,inturn,thesuperegotakesshapeundertheinfluenceofsocialfactors.Herewecanobserve(underthenameofsuppressionorrepressive
organization)thesameexploitationandoppressioninwhichMarxismseesthebasicfactorofsociallife.Freudcomparestheroleoftheareasofthepsychecreatedunder
theinfluenceofcivilizationtothatpartofthepopulationwhich"seizedpowerandexploitstherestofthepopulationforitsownprofit.Thefearofanuprisingofthe
oppressedbecomesthesourceofmoreseveremeasures."(CivilizationandItsDiscontents)Inparticular,sexuality,whichhasfortheidthesoleaimofderivingpleasure
fromdifferentpartsofthebody,isforciblysubordinatedtothefunctionofchildbearingandistransferredexclusivelytothegenitalia.Subconsciouslytheorganismretainsa
recollectionoftheidealconditionofunlimitedruleofthepleasureprinciple(cf.preclasssociety)andattemptstobreakoutofbondage.Theegoandsuperegocreatein
responsetheconceptofmoralityandclassifysuchattemptsas"perversion"or"amoralactions."Thisresultsinacivilizationwherelaborbringsnosatisfactionandinstead
becomesasourceofunhappiness,acivilizationwhichinevitablybreedssuffering.Onemayaddtothispicturetheconceptionofhistoryasatraumaticreactiontoan
ancientcrimethemurderofthefather,theleaderofaprimitiveband.

ItmightseemthatFreudhasdistractedusfromthemaintaskofsketchingtheconceptofhumanpersonalityinsocialistideology.Infactitwouldhavebeenamiracleif
systemslikethoseofFreud,so
[230]

closetotheviewselaboratedbysocialistthinkers(FourierandMarx),hadnotbeenincorporatedintothesocialistworldview.Nomiracleoccurred:theattemptto
achieveasynthesisofFreudianismwithsocialistconcepts(called"neoMarxism"or"neoFreudianism")becamethebiggesteventinthedevelopmentofsocialistideology
inthepostWorldWarIIyearsithadaverystrongideologicalimpactonsocialisttrendsthattookshapeduringthistime.InthisregardMarcuse'sbook(119)standsout
asthemostconsistentandvividattempttoachievesuchasynthesis.

Freud'ssystemisskepticalandpessimisticheconsideredsufferingandmentaldiseasestobetheinevitablecostofcivilization,whichinitsturnismoreandmore
underminedbyelementsofthepsychethathavebrokenawayfromitscontrol.Marcuse,incontrast,undertakestoalterthisviewsothatitspessimisticevaluationis
directedonlyagainstmodernsociety.Furthermore,headdsthepredictionofafuture"liberation."Todothis,hedividesthesuppressiontowhichtheinstinctsare
subjectedintotwoparts:therepressionthatinevitablycomesfromtheobjectiveclaimsoftheexternalworldoneachorganismandanothertype,whichiscausedbythe
strivingofcertaingroupsofindividualstoattainprivilegedpositionsinsociety.Thesecondformofrepressionhecallssurplusrepression,andheconsiderstheexcessive
burdenthatthisfactorimposesonthehumanpsychetobeapeculiarityofmoderncivilization.IncludedinsurplusrepressionbyMarcusearethefollowing:thenecessityof
workthatdoesnotbringdirectsatisfactionandwhoserewardappearsintheformofevermoredelayedpleasuretherepressiveroleofgenitalsexualityandthe
suppressionofmoreprimitiveformsoflibido,whichpermitthewholebodytobetheinstrumentofpleasurethedominantroleofreason,whichsubjectsalllifetoitselfthe
transformationofscienceandreligionintoameansofthetotalmobilizationofmanthecontrolexercisedbysuchcategoriesas"conscience"and"morality"overman's
innerworld.Surplusrepressionisdirectlyconnectedtothefactthatthedemandsofsocietyarenotsatisfiedcollectivelyandinaccordancewithindividualneedsbutare
organizedbythedominantpartofsociety.

MarcuseisinagreementwithFreudthatrepressionisthenecessarypriceforsurvival,butheassertsthatsurplusrepressionwithallitsconsequencesmaybeovercome
withthehelpofthelatestachievementsintechnology.Withoutgoingintothedetailsofthisprocess
[231]

(asarule,onewordisused:"automation"),Marcusedrawsapictureofafutureunrepressedsociety.Itisbasedontheliberationoftheinstinctsfromthecontrolof
"repressivereason."Thiswillleadtoregression,incomparisontothelevelofcivilizationandreasonthathadbeenachieved:"Itwouldreactivateearlystagesofthelibido
MarcuseisinagreementwithFreudthatrepressionisthenecessarypriceforsurvival,butheassertsthatsurplusrepressionwithallitsconsequencesmaybeovercome
withthehelpofthelatestachievementsintechnology.Withoutgoingintothedetailsofthisprocess
[231]

(asarule,onewordisused:"automation"),Marcusedrawsapictureofafutureunrepressedsociety.Itisbasedontheliberationoftheinstinctsfromthecontrolof
"repressivereason."Thiswillleadtoregression,incomparisontothelevelofcivilizationandreasonthathadbeenachieved:"Itwouldreactivateearlystagesofthelibido
whichweresurpassedinthedevelopmentoftherealityego,anditwoulddissolvetheinstitutionsofsocietyinwhichtherealityegoexists."(119:p.198)"Theregression
involvedinthisspreadofthelibidowouldfirstmanifestitselfinareactivationofallerotogeniczonesand,consequently,inaresurgenceofpregenitalpolymorphous
sexualityandinadeclineofgenitalsupremacy."(119:p.201)Thebodyasawholewillbecomeaninstrumentofsatisfaction."Thischangeinthevalueandscopeof
libidinalrelationswouldleadtoadisintegrationoftheinstitutionsinwhichtheprivateinterpersonalrelationshavebeenorganized,particularlythemonogamicand
patriarchalfamily."(119:p.201)Reason,whichistheinstrumentoftheego,willtoalargeextentgivewaytofantasyconnectedwiththeid.Andthiswillopenupnew'
waystounderstandthefutureitwillrevealtherealityofthepossibilitiesformerlyperceivedonlyaselementsofautopia.Theliberationofsexualinstinctswillleadtothe
developmentof"libidinalrationality,"whichwillshowthewaytoahigherformoffreecivilization.

Thesatisfactionofneedsunderstoodinaneverwidersensewillbecomepossiblewithoutheavyi.e.,alienatingwork.Workingrelationswillbesimultaneouslylibidinal
relations."Forexample,ifworkwereaccompaniedbyareactivationofpregenitalpolymorphouseroticism,itwouldtendtobecomegratifyinginitselfwithoutlosingits
workcontent."(119:p.215)Ontheotherhand,workwillbecomeplay,"afreeplayofhumanfaculties."(119:p.214)Inalaterwork(4),Marcusespeaksabout"play
withautomation."HereheconsidersitessentialtocorrectMarx,whowasnotboldenough,andtoadheretoFourier.

Marcusespeakshereoftheendofcultureintheoldsenseoftheword:"Itwouldstillbeareversaloftheprocessofcivilization,asubversionofculturebutafterculture
haddoneitsworkandcreatedthemankindandtheworldthatcouldbefree."(119:p.198)TheessenceofthisupheavalMarcusedescribesinpoetictermsby
juxtaposingPrometheus,theheroofrepressiveculture,withtheheroesofhisownNewWorldOrpheusandNarcissus.Heendsasfollows:"Theclassicaltradition
associatesOrpheuswiththeintroductionofhomosexuality.
[232]

LikeNarcissus,herejectsthenormalEros,notforanasceticideal,butforafullerEros.LikeNarcissusheprotestsagainsttherepressiveorderofprocreativesexuality.
TheOrphicandNarcissisticErosistotheendthenegationofthisordertheGreatRefusal.IntheworldsymbolizedbythecultureheroPrometheus,itisthenegationof
allorderbutinthisnegationOrpheusandNarcissusrevealanewreality,withanorderofitsown,governedbydifferentprinciples."(119:p.171)

Themostactivesocialistcurrentofrecenttimes,theNewLeft,provedtobeextraordinarilyreceptivetoMarcuse'steachingandwastoaconsiderableextentinfluenced
byit.Marcuse'sbasicpropositionsarecloselyparalleledintheslogansofthismovementandserveastheirtheoreticalfoundation.Forinstance,theliberationofsexual
instinctsfindsexpressioninthe"sexualrevolution,"andthesuppressionofrepressivereasonisdemonstratedinthe"psychedelicrevolution,"thatis,inthemassuseof
hallucinogens.Evenostentatiousslovenlinesscanbetheoreticallyjustified,foraccordingtothetheory,egoandsuperegosuppresstheinstinctsconnectedwiththesenseof
smellandenforcetheperceptionofstrongsmellsas"disgusting."(Furthermore,thedominantclassesassociategarbagewiththelowerclasses,whichareperceived
negativelyas"thedregsofsociety.")Theseviewsalsoserveasatheoreticalbasisfor"leftart,"whichfosterstheideaof"anticultural"(or"cultural")revolution,ofthe
destructionof"repressive"or"stifling"culture,uptoandincludingaheightenedinterest(inbothliteratureand,art)ingarbageandexcrementasmeansof"exploding
bourgeoisculture."

Weprovidedseveralexamplestoillustratethe"anthropologyofsocialism."Hadweconsideredotherdevelopedsocialisttheoriesinthisconnection(forinstance,
Deschamps'ssystem),wewouldhavebeenobligedtocometothesameconclusion,namely,thatsocialistideologyseekstoreducehumanpersonalitytoitsmost
primitive,lowestlevelsand,ineachepoch,reliesuponthemostradical"criticismofman"available.Forthatreason,theconceptsofmaninsocialismandin
religionarediametricallyopposed.

Sothatifsocialismisareligion,itmustberecognizedasaquitespecialreligion,differentinprinciplefromallothersandantitheticaltotheminmanybasicquestions.(How
elsearewetounderstandBulgakov'sstatementthatsocialismis"areligionbasedonatheism"?)
[233]

Otherwiseitwouldbenecessarytoexpandthedefinitionofreligiontothepointwhereitwouldhavenomeaningatall.

8.Socialismistheconsequenceofatheism,theconclusiontowhichatheismleadsinthefieldofsocialrelations.

Dostoyevskyexpressedthisviewwithparticularclarity,andhiscommentsdeservespecialconsideration.Themajorityofthethinkersofthenineteenthcenturycompletely
overlookedthespiritualcrisisoftheirtime,whichpavedthewayforthetriumphofsocialisminourday.Dostoyevskywasoneofthefewwhosawclearlythatmankind
wouldnotfollowthepathofliberalism,humanismandprogress,andthatterriblecalamitiesawaiteditinthenottoodistantfuture.Heforesawthatsocialismwasdestined
toplaythecentralroleinthefuturetribulationsofmankind,andmostofhisworkstouchuponvariousaspectsoftheproblem.Weshallherelimitourselvestowhatcanbe
foundonthesubjectinhisessaysappearinginTheDiaryofaWriter.Herearesomeofhisviews:

"Frenchsocialism,thatis,theassuagingandthearrangementofhumansocietywithoutChristandoutsideChrist..."(1877,January,Chapter1)"Forsocialismsetsitself
thetaskofsolvingthefateofmankind,notaccordingtoChristbutoutsideGodandoutsideChrist,anditwasnaturalforittoariseinEurope,ontheruinsoftheChristian
principleinproportiontothedegreethatthishadbecomedegenerateandlostintheCatholicChurchitself."(1877,February,Chapter3)"WhenCatholichumanityturned
awayfromthemonstrousimageinwhichChristwaspresentedtothem,thenaftermanycenturiesofprotests...therefinallyappeared,atthebeginningofthiscentury,
attemptstoarrangethingsoutsideGodandoutsideChrist.Withouttheinstinctsofbeesorantsthatcreatetheirbeehivesandanthillsfaultlesslyandprecisely,people
undertooktocreatesomethinglikeafaultlesshumananthill.TheyrejectedtheformulaforsalvationwhichproceedsfromGodandwasrevealedas'Lovethyneighboras
thyself'andreplaceditbypracticalconclusionssuchas'chacunpoursoietDieupourtous'orbyscientificaxiomssuchas'thestruggleforexistence.'Lackingthe
instinctsofanimals...peopleplacedgreatconfidenceinscience,forgettingthatforatasklikethecreationofsociety,sciencewasstillinitsinfancy.Dreamsappeared.The
futuretowerofBabelbecametheidealand,ontheotherhand,thefearofallmankind.Butthevisionariesweresoonfollowedbyotherdoctrines,
[234]

simpleandtothepoint,suchas'robtherich,drowntheworldinbloodandtheneverythingwillsomehowarrangeitself.'"(1877,November,Chapter3)

Therearetwoessentialpointshere.First,socialismisseenasthenaturalconsequenceofthedeclineofreligion(DostoyevskyhasinmindsocialisminWesternEuropeand
thedeclineofCatholicism).SocialismisinthissensethatwhichremainsofthespiritualstructureofmankindifthelinkwithGodislost.

Second,socialismaimsatorganizinghumansocietyaccordingtonewprincipleswhicharecomparedtotheinstinctiveactionsofinsectsocieties.

Itappearstousthatthesecondideaisincompleteaccordancewithalltheknownfactsaboutsocialism,andlaterweshalltrytospecifytheattitudeofsocialismtoward
theforcesthatshapehumansociety.
Therearetwoessentialpointshere.First,socialismisseenasthenaturalconsequenceofthedeclineofreligion(DostoyevskyhasinmindsocialisminWesternEuropeand
thedeclineofCatholicism).SocialismisinthissensethatwhichremainsofthespiritualstructureofmankindifthelinkwithGodislost.

Second,socialismaimsatorganizinghumansocietyaccordingtonewprincipleswhicharecomparedtotheinstinctiveactionsofinsectsocieties.

Itappearstousthatthesecondideaisincompleteaccordancewithalltheknownfactsaboutsocialism,andlaterweshalltrytospecifytheattitudeofsocialismtoward
theforcesthatshapehumansociety.

Asfarasthefirstpointisconcerned,itiscertainlytruethatsocialismishostiletoreligion.Butisitpossibletounderstanditasaconsequenceofatheism?Hardly,atleastif
weunderstandatheismasitisusuallydefined:asthelossofreligiousfeeling.Itisnotclearjusthowsuchanegativeconceptcanbecomethestimulusforanactiveattitude
towardtheworld(itsdestructionoralteration)orhowitcanbethesourceoftheinfectiousnessofsocialistdoctrines.Furthermore,socialism'sattitudetowardreligion
doesnotatallresembletheindifferentandskepticalpositionofsomeonewhohaslostinterestinreligion.Theterm"atheism"isinappropriateforthedescriptionofpeople
inthegripofsocialistdoctrines.Itwouldbemorecorrecttospeakherenotof"atheists"butof"Godhaters,"notof"atheism"butof"theophobia."Such,certainly,isthe
passionatelyhostileattitudeofsocialismtowardreligion.Thus,whilesocialismiscertainlyconnectedwiththelossofreligiousfeeling,itcanhardlybereducedtoit.The
placeformerlyoccupiedbyreligiondoesnotremainvacantanewlodgerappeared.Thisistheonlytruesourceoftheactiveprincipleofsocialism,andtheaspectwhich
determinesthehistoricalroleofthisphenomenon.

Wemaydrawthefollowingconclusionfromourcriticalsurvey:Socialismcanapparentlynotbereducedtofamiliarsocialcategories.Theveryabundanceofsuch
attemptspointstothefutilityofsuchanexercise.
[235]

VIII.
TheEmbodimentof
theSocialistIdeal
Inthelightoftheprecedingsection,twopossibilitiesremain:eithersocialismisafundamentalhistoricalforceirreducibletootherfactors,oritisamanifestationofforces
whichuptillnowhavenotreceivedsufficientattention.Ourbasicgoalisadiscussionofthesealternatives.Topreparethegroundforit,weshalltrytolookattheentire
questionfromanewperspective.Ifearlierweattemptedtospecifywhatthevariousmanifestationsofsocialismhaveincommon,weshallnowtrytodissectthis
phenomenonintoitselementsinordertoobservetheirinterrelationsandtoevaluatetheroleofeachelementintheevolutionofsocialism.

Thestartingpointforsuchananalysisistheobservationwithwhichwebeganthepresentstudy:Socialismmanifestsitselfinlifeintwoformsasadoctrine(chiliastic
socialism)andasastatesystem(statesocialism).Theseformsdiffersosignificantlythataquestionarisesastowhethertheircontentisinfactthesame.Isitproperto
categorizethemasasinglehistoricalphenomenon?Forexample,thedemandfordestructionofthefamily,whichinchiliasticsocialismsooftentakesthemoreradicalform
ofcommunityofwives,hasbeenrealizedinpracticeonlyinnarrowcircles:thegnosticsectsdescribedbyEpiphanes,amongtheBrethrenoftheFreeSpiritorin
contemporaryBerlin's"CommuneNo.1."Butwearenotawareofanyinstanceofthisprinciple'simplementationonthelevelofstatepolicy.Thesameistrueofanother
aspectoftheabolitionofthefamilythebreakupoftiesbetweenchildrenandparents,withstateupbringingofallchildrenfromtheearliestage.
[236]

Weshallbeginwithadiscussionofthisquestion.Weshallarguethatchiliasticandstatesocialismaretwoembodimentsofoneandthesameideal.Later,theroleofthese
twoformsinthehistoricalevolutionofsocialismwillbeexamined.

Itwouldbenaturaltoascribethedifferencebetweenthedoctrinesofchiliasticsocialismandthepracticeofstatesocialismtothefactthattheformerhaveastheiraimthe
destructionofanexistingsocialorderandtheestablishmentofanewone,whilethelatteraimstopreserveanalreadyexistingsocialorder.Inthiscase,thespecific
featuresofchiliasticsocialismwhichcallforthedestructionofthefamilycouldbeconsideredtacticaldevicesdesignedtodisruptthehostilesystemortoarouse
fanaticism.Itfollowsthataftertheestablishmentofaneworder,thesedevicesarenolongerneededandcanbediscarded.Theymustthereforenotbetakeninto
considerationinadiscussionofsocialism'spracticalgoals.Anyargumentaboutthefundamentaldifferencebetweenchiliasticandstatesocialismwouldprobablyfollow
suchapattern.

Thispointofviewseemstoustobeunconvincingapriorianddevoidofinnerlogic.Sogiganticamovementassocialismcannotinprinciplebebasedonadeception.
Foralltheirsuperficialdemagoguery,thesemovementsarehonestatbottomtheyproclaimtheirfundamentalprinciplesclearlyforalltohear(exceptthosewho
consciouslytrynottohear).AndthosepropositionsofsocialistideologywhichweformulatedinchapterVIappearsoconsistentlyoversuchavastperiodoftimethat
theyobviouslyaretobetakenasfundamentalprinciples.Moreover,theyareoftenexpressedinwritingnotbytheleadersofpopularmovementsbutbyabstractthinkers
suchasPlatoandCampanella,whomitishardtosuspectofdemagogiceffectsandwhoevidentlyproducedtheentirecomplexofbasicsocialistnotionsinresponsetothe
innerlogicofthisworldview.

Below,weshallbringforwardanumberofspecificargumentstosupportourcontention.However,wemustnotforgetthatconsiderabledifferencesinthespiritofsocialist
doctrinesandthepracticeofsocialiststatesareinevitable.Wemayspeakonlyaboutthecoincidenceinprincipleoftheidealsproclaimedineachcase.Theleaderofa
popularsocialistmovementandtherepresentativeofasocialiststatehavetodealwithdifferentpracticaltasks.Themoreradicalandstrikingistheforminwhichthe
formerexpresseshisideal,themoreaccessibleandeffectivehisideaswillbe.Butthelattermustcontendwithmany
[237]

realandcomplexdifficulties,whichlimitthepossibilityofenactinghisideologyinaconsistentfashionandwhichmayeventhreatentheveryexistenceofhisstate.

Oneofthetypicallimitationsimposedbyrealityisthenecessityofcontactwithother,differentlyorganizedsocieties.Isolationispositedasabasicconditionforthe
existenceofasocialiststateinthemajorityofthesocialistutopianwritings.More,Campanella,Vairasseandmanyothersplacedtheirutopiasonremoteislands.Vairasse,
forexample,makesthespecialreservationthatonlythemostreliableSevaritesmaygoon"errands"totheouterworldandtheyarepermittedtodosoonlyonthe
conditionthattheirfamiliesremainbehindashostages.Theorganizersofthe"ConspiracyofEquals"suggestedthatFranceshouldbesurroundedby"spikedhedges"after
thevictory.ThestabilityoftheJesuitstate,toamarkeddegree,dependedonitsisolation.TheunexpectedlyhighlevelofthecraftsamongtheGuarani,inthecontextofa
generallyprimitiveleveloflife,apparentlywasaresultofanattempttomakethecountryindependentoftheoutsideworld.Ontheotherhand,thebreakdownofisolation
permittedahandfulofSpanishadventurerstodestroytheIncaempire.Isnotthisdifficultyreflectedinthevexedproblemof"buildingsocialisminonecountry"?Engels
once'answeredthisquestionmostcategorically:"Nineteenthquestion.Cantherevolutiontakeplaceinonecountry?Answer.No."(3:V:p.476)Thankstothisfactor
alone,asocialiststatethatisnotsufficientlyisolatedisforcedtoforgothemostradicalelementsoftheideal.Andthecontraryalsoholds:whenthesocialistmovementis
ontheascent,takingcontrolinmoreandmoreareasandholdingoutthepromiseofthedestructionoftheoldsystemintheentireworld,thesocialiststatesprovetobe
muchmoreradicalintheirpracticalactivity.Fromthispointofview,theepochof"WarCommunism"inpostrevolutionaryRussiaisextremelyinterestingforan
understandingofthepeculiaritiesofsocialistideologytheimpulsesarousedthen,inthehopeofworldrevolution(oratleastaEuropeanrevolution),continuedtobe
generallyprimitiveleveloflife,apparentlywasaresultofanattempttomakethecountryindependentoftheoutsideworld.Ontheotherhand,thebreakdownofisolation
permittedahandfulofSpanishadventurerstodestroytheIncaempire.Isnotthisdifficultyreflectedinthevexedproblemof"buildingsocialisminonecountry"?Engels
once'answeredthisquestionmostcategorically:"Nineteenthquestion.Cantherevolutiontakeplaceinonecountry?Answer.No."(3:V:p.476)Thankstothisfactor
alone,asocialiststatethatisnotsufficientlyisolatedisforcedtoforgothemostradicalelementsoftheideal.Andthecontraryalsoholds:whenthesocialistmovementis
ontheascent,takingcontrolinmoreandmoreareasandholdingoutthepromiseofthedestructionoftheoldsystemintheentireworld,thesocialiststatesprovetobe
muchmoreradicalintheirpracticalactivity.Fromthispointofview,theepochof"WarCommunism"inpostrevolutionaryRussiaisextremelyinterestingforan
understandingofthepeculiaritiesofsocialistideologytheimpulsesarousedthen,inthehopeofworldrevolution(oratleastaEuropeanrevolution),continuedtobe
prominentuntilthemiddleofthetwenties.Weshallciteanecessarilylimitednumberofexamplestoshowhowtherealizationofsocialistprincipleswasconceivedatthe
time.

Theterm"WarCommunism"itselfismisleadingitisnotatalladescriptionofthemeasuresdictatedbywartimeneeds(aswassuggested,forexample,inStalin's
QuestionsofLeninism).Infact,atthetimethispolicywasbeingimplemented(19181921),theterm"War
[238]

Communism"wasnotusedatall.Itcameintobeinglater,togetherwiththenotionthatthispolicywasconceivedastemporaryandwasforcedupontheSovietregimeby
events.Inaseriesofspeechesin19211922,Lenincharacterizedthepolicyoftheprecedingthreeyearsassomethingconsciouslyundertakenthathadperhapsgonetoo
far.Hecompareditwiththestormingofafortress:ifthistacticwouldnotbringvictory,itshouldbereplacedbyasystematicsiege.Forexample:"Regardingour
precedingeconomicpolicy,althoughitcannotbesaidtohavebeenplanned(insuchsituationsonecalculateslittle),itneverthelessassumedthattherewouldbean
immediatetransitionfromtheoldRussianeconomytostateproductionandtodistributionbasedonCommunistprinciples."InLenin'sopinion,itwasanecessary
experimentwhichforcedthetransitiontoanewpolicyof"statecapitalism,"which,albeitstillinvagueform,hadbeenconsideredasearlyas1918asapossiblelineof
retreat.(SeeLenin's"NEPandtheTasksofPoliticalEnlightenment,""TheReportonNEPattheVIIthMoscowRegionalPartyConference,"and"FiveYearsofthe
RussianRevolutionandtheProspectsforWorldRevolution.")

Thereweremanysimilarstatementsbynumerousleadersofthestate.Inaddition,thefactthatthemostradicalmeasuresinimplementingthepoliciesassociatedwithWar
Communismweretakeninthespringof1920andthewinterof19201921whentherewasnomilitaryactiongoingonleadstotheconclusionthatthepolicyoftheday
wasnotnecessitatedbytheCivilWarbuthadbeenmotivatedbygeneraltheoreticalconsiderations.

Letustakeupamoredetaileddiscussionofthepolicyinquestion.

1.Economy

Allindustrywasnationalized,includingthesmallestoperation.Everythingwas"supercentralized,"subordinatedtoCentralBoards(Glavki)inwhichseparateplantswere
deprivedofanyeconomicindependence.Inagriculture,theproclaimedgoalwasthemostradicallyconceivedformofcollectivization.ThedecreeoftheCentralExecutive
CommitteeissuedonMarch1,1919,readsasfollows:"Allaspectsofindividuallanduseshouldberegardedastransientanddyingforms."rOntheSocialistUseofLand
andonMeasuresfortheTransitionto,SocialistAgriculture")Thepreferredformoforganizationofpeasantlaborwasthecommune.Forexample,inanothersectionof
thesame
[239]

decree,statefarmsandcommunesarelistedfirstamongtheprioritiesintheregulationoflandallotments.Inaresolution"OntheCollectivizationofAgriculture"(adopted
bytheAllRussianCongressofLandSections[Zemotdely]),itisstatedthat"themaintaskislargescaleorganizationofagriculturalcommunes,ofSovietCommunist
farmsandofthepubliccultivationofland,allofwhichwillinevitablyleadtoaunifiedCommunistorganizationofagriculture."

Inthecommune,asarule,allmeansofproductionweresocializedbuildings,instruments,livestock,land,etc.,aswellasconsumptionandservices.Whatlifewas
supposedtobelikemaybegleanedfromstoriesaboutmodelcommunespublished,duringNEP,inIzvestia'sregularsectioncalled"CompetitionfortheBestCollective
Farm."Forexample:"Noonehashisownmoneyallmoneyiskeptinthegeneraltreasury."(September11,1923)Somemembersliveinseparatehousesandtaketheir
mealsseparately,butwhenanewbuildingisready"everythingindividualwillbedoneawaywith."(September5,1923)Inanothercommune,thereisadormitory,a
commondininghallandkitchen."Workandmealsareannouncedbybells."(September8,1923)Peopleeatinpubliccafeteriasandliveinadormitory,whereeachfamily
hasitsownroom."Childrenstilllivewiththeirparents,goingoutonlybydaytothekindergarten.Itisonlyduetotheabsenceofbeddingthatchildrencannotbeinterned
separately."(September11,1923)"Childrenunderschoolageliveandeatseparately."

Agriculturalproductsweredeliveredtothestateaccordingtothe"surplusappropriationsystem,"atpricesdozensoftimeslowerthanthosepaidontheblackmarket.In
otherwords,productsweretakenforpracticallynothing.TheSovietEncyclopediaputsitquitedelicately:"Theeconomicrelationsofthetownandthecountrywere
essentiallyonesidedincharacter."Inotherareas,too,requisitionsandconfiscationwereregulated.AdecreeoftheCouncilofPeople'sCommissars(SNK)fromApril
16,1920,allowsthePresidiumoftheVSNKh(SupremeCouncilofthePeople'sEconomy)andThePeople'sCommissariatofProducetocarryoutrequisitionand
confiscationdirectlyaswellasthroughlocalorganizations.AnotheroftheSNK'sdecrees(December4,1920)sanctionsfreedistributionoffoodstuffstothepopulation
(moreaccurately,tothosegroupsofthepopulationthatwerebeingsuppliedwithfoodstuffs).Frequently,thecompleteabolitionofmoneywasformulatedasanimmediate
aimofeconomicpolicy.Yu.Larin,
[240]

headofthedepartmentoffinancialpolicyoftheVSNKhwrote:"Andnow,afterafewyearsofeffortonthepartofthevictoriousproletariat,thethousandyearold
foundationsofthecommodityproductionsystemarecollapsinglikeahouseofcards.Whenourchildrengrowup,moneywillbenothingbutamemory,andour
grandchildrenwilllearnaboutitonlyfromthecoloredpicturesinhistorybooks."(Pravda,October17,1920,"TheTransformationofEverydayLife")InanarticlebyL.
ObolenskyinThePeople'sEconomy(publishedbyVSNKh),weread:"AtthepresenttimeinSovietRussia,asystemofmoneylessaccountsisthefirststeptowardthe
abolitionofmoneyrelationsingeneral."(No.12,1920)"Naturalizationoftheeconomy"becameacommonlyusedterm,derivedfromthephraseplatit'naturoi"to
payinkind."Pravdastates:"Thetendencytothegeneralnaturalizationofoureconomymustbeconsciouslyundertakenbyuswithallpossibleenergy."(February14,
1920)

2.TheOrganizationofLabor

LetusrecallthatMarxandEngelsthemselvesrecommendedthefollowingmeasure,amongotherstobecarriedoutimmediatelyafterthesocialistrevolution:"Identical
dutiesregardingwork.Establishmentofindustrialarmies,especiallyinagriculture."(3:V:p.502)

Inanotecalled"TenThesesonSovietPower"whichwaspresentedtotheSeventhPartyCongress,Leninformulatedthetaskthus:"Aquickbeginningofthecomplete
realizationofgenerallaborconscription,withacarefulandgradualextensionofittothesmallpeasantslivingontheirownwithouthiredlabor."(113:XXXVI:p.74)This
ideawasdevelopedingreatdetailsomewhatlater.

AttheNinthPartyCongress,Trotskyproposedasystemofmilitarizationunderwhichworkersandpeasantswouldbeinthepositionofmobilizedsoldiers.Theplanset
forthinTrotsky'sreportisworthconsideringinmoredetail.
Inanotecalled"TenThesesonSovietPower"whichwaspresentedtotheSeventhPartyCongress,Leninformulatedthetaskthus:"Aquickbeginningofthecomplete
realizationofgenerallaborconscription,withacarefulandgradualextensionofittothesmallpeasantslivingontheirownwithouthiredlabor."(113:XXXVI:p.74)This
ideawasdevelopedingreatdetailsomewhatlater.

AttheNinthPartyCongress,Trotskyproposedasystemofmilitarizationunderwhichworkersandpeasantswouldbeinthepositionofmobilizedsoldiers.Theplanset
forthinTrotsky'sreportisworthconsideringinmoredetail.

HebeginswithanattackonSmirnov,whosepositionheformulatesasfollows:

"Insofaraswehavebegunawidermobilizationofthepeasantmassesinthenameoftasksrequiringextensiveapplicationoflabor,militarizationisbecomingmandatory.
Wemobilizethepeasantryandfromthismobilizedworkforceweformlabordetachmentsthatresemblemilitaryunits.Wesupplycommandersandinstructionstaff.We
[241]

mustincludeCommunistcellssothattheseunitsarenotsoulless,butareinspiredbythewilltowork.Thisamountstoacloseapproximationofmilitarystructure.The
word'militarization'isappropriatehere,butComradeSmirnovsaysthatwhenweenterthefieldofindustry,thefieldofskilledlaborwherethereareprofessionaland
productionorganizationsoftheworkingclass,thereisnoneedtoapplythemilitaryapparatusfortheformationofunitsmilitarizationinthissenseisoutofthequestion.
Thetradeunionswillfulfillthetaskoforganizinglabor.Suchanapproachtothequestionrevealsacompletelackofunderstandingoftheessenceoftheeconomicchanges
thataretakingplaceatthepresent."(120:p.92)

Trotsky'spointofview,asexpressedinhisreport,comestothis:"Inthemilitarythereisanappropriatemechanismwhichissetinmotiontomakesoldiersfulfilltheirduty.
Thisoughttobeintroducedinoneformoranotherinthelaborarea.Itisclearthatifwewishtospeakseriouslyofaplannedeconomythatisdirectedfromthecenterbya
singledesign,wheretheworkforceisdistributedinaccordancewithaneconomicplanatagivenstageofdevelopment,thisworkforcecannotbenomadicRussia.Itmust
becapableofbeingmovedquickly,ofbeinggiventasksandcommandedjustassoldiersare."(120:p.93)"Thissortofmilitarizationisunthinkablewithoutthe
militarizationofthetradeunionsassuch,withouttheestablishmentofaregimeunderwhicheachworkerfeelsheisasoldieroflaborwhocannotfreelyarrangehislife.If
thereisanorderforhimtobetransferred,heoughttoobeyit,andifhedoesnot,hewillbeconsideredadeserterwhomustbepunished."(120:p.94)Trotskyevenputs
forwardatheoryinthisregard:"Thoseargumentswhichweredirectedagainsttheorganizationofalaborarmyarewhollydirectedagainstthesocialistorganizationofthe
economyinourtransitionalperiod.Ifwetakeatfacevaluetheoldbourgeoisprejudiceor,toputitmoreprecisely,anoldbourgeoisaxiomwhichhasbecomea
prejudice,aboutforcedlaborbeingunproductivethenwemustapplythisnotonlytoalaborarmybuttolaborconscriptionasawhole,tothefoundationofour
economicplanandthereforetosocialistorganizationingeneral."(120:p.97)"Iflaborisorganizedaccordingtoanincorrectprinciple,accordingtotheprincipleof
compulsion,ifcompulsionishostiletotheproductivityoflabor,thenwearedoomedtoeconomicdeclinenomatterhowmuchwedodgeandshift.Butthisisaprejudice,
comrades!Theassertionthatfreelabor,freelyhiredlaborismoreproductivethanforcedlaborwasundoubtedlycorrectwhenapplied
[242]

tothefeudalandbourgeoissystems....ButthedevelopmentoflaborproductivitypreparedfortheshiftfromacapitalisteconomytoanewCommunisteconomy,andto
applytothiscolossalhistoricchangethatwhichwascorrectlyappliedtotheoldsituationmeanstoremainwithintheframeworkofbourgeoisandphilistineprejudices.We
say:itisnottruethatcompulsorylaborisunproductiveunderanyandallcircumstancesandconditions."(120:p.98)

TrotskydevelopedthesamethoughtsingreaterdetailinhisbookdirectedagainstKautsky.(121)Onceagainweencountertheideaofmilitarization,laborarmiesandthe
theoryaccordingtowhichforcedlaborunderconditionscreatedbythedictatorshipoftheproletariatwillbemoreproductivethanfreelabor.Trotskysupportsthis
conceptionbymeansofthefollowingsignificantanalogy:"Evenserfdomwas,undercertaincircumstances,progressiveandledtoanincreaseintheproductivityof
labor."(121:p.119)

ThequestionwasposedonamoretheoreticalplanebyBukharin.(102)Noneconomiccompulsionispresentedherenotasameasurenecessitatedbythewarbutasan
organicfeatureofthetransitionfromcapitalismtosocialism.InChapter10,entitled"ExtraEconomicCompulsioninthePeriodofTransition,"weread:"Inregardtothe
nonkulakpeasantmass,compulsiononthepartoftheproletariatisaninstanceoftheclassstruggle,insofarasthepeasantisaproprietorandaspeculator."Asitturns
out,thequestionhasamoreelevatedaspect:"Fromabroaderpointofview,proletariancompulsioninallitsforms,fromexecutionbyshootingtolaborconscription,is
nomatterhowparadoxicalthissoundsamethodfortheelaborationofCommunisthumanityfromthehumanmaterialofthecapitalistepoch."(102:p.146)

Theseconstructswerefarfrombeingpuretheory.Generallaborconscriptionwasactuallyannounced.Insteadofpassports,whichhadbeenabolished,workingpapers
wereintroducedfortheentireworkforce.InMoscowandPetrograd,anyoneventuringoutonthestreetwasobligedtohavehisworkingpaperswithhim.Bythetimeof
theintroductionofNEP(1921),eightlaborarmieshadbeenorganized.

3.Family

PracticalactionsaswellastheoreticalconsiderationsinthisfieldwerebasedonMarxisttheory,assetforthinitsmostcompleteforminEngels'bookTheOriginofthe
Family,PrivatePropertyandtheState.
[243]

Engelshadthefollowingviewofthecontemporaryfamily:"Monogamyarosefromtheconcentrationofgreatrichesinasinglehandthatofthemanandfromtheneedto
bequeaththeserichestothechildrenofthatmanandnotofanyother."(3:XVI:p.56)Aboutthefutureofthefamilyhesays:"Withthetransferofthemeansofproduction
intocommonownership,theindividualfamilyceasestobeaneconomicunitofsociety.Privatehousekeepingistransformedintoasocialindustry.Thecareandeducation
ofchildrenbecomeapublicaffairsocietylooksafterallchildrenequally,whethertheyareborninoroutofwedlock."(3:XVI:p.57)

Itwouldseemthatsincethefamilyisdeprivedofallsocialfunctions,itmustinevitablydisappear,atleastfromthepointofviewofhistoricalmaterialism.TheCommunist
Manifestodoesinfactproclaimtheabolitionofthe"bourgeoisfamily."What,then,willreplaceit?TheanswerstothatquestionintheclassicwritingsofMarxismare
strikinglyambiguous.WehavealreadypointedoutthepassageintheManifestowheretheauthors,inspeakingabouttheaccusationthatCommunistswishtointroduce
communalityofwives,clearlyavoidrejectingthisexplicitly.InanotherdocumentusedbyMarxinwritingtheManifesto("ProceedingsoftheGermanWorkers'Self
EducationSociety")weread:"Question20:Willcommunalityofwivesbeproclaimedtogetherwiththeabolitionofprivateproperty?Answer:Absolutelynot.Weshall
interfereintheprivaterelationsbetweenmanandwomanonlytothedegreethattheserelationsdisruptthenewsocialorder.Weknowverywellthatfamilyrelationshave
beensubjectedtochangeinthecourseofhistory,dependingonthephaseofdevelopmentofproperty,andbecauseofthistheveryabolitionofprivatepropertywillhave
amostdecisiveinfluence."(Quotedin112)

Hereagain,itisimpossibletocomprehendwhatitisthattheauthorsodecisivelyrejectsthefactthatcommunalityofwiveswilloccurormerelythefactthatitwouldbe
"proclaimed"andintroducedthroughtheinterferenceofsociety.

InTheOriginoftheFamily,PrivatePropertyandtheState,aworkwrittenintheleastradicalperiodofhisactivities,Engelsassertsofthefuture:"Farfrom
beensubjectedtochangeinthecourseofhistory,dependingonthephaseofdevelopmentofproperty,andbecauseofthistheveryabolitionofprivatepropertywillhave
amostdecisiveinfluence."(Quotedin112)

Hereagain,itisimpossibletocomprehendwhatitisthattheauthorsodecisivelyrejectsthefactthatcommunalityofwiveswilloccurormerelythefactthatitwouldbe
"proclaimed"andintroducedthroughtheinterferenceofsociety.

InTheOriginoftheFamily,PrivatePropertyandtheState,aworkwrittenintheleastradicalperiodofhisactivities,Engelsassertsofthefuture:"Farfrom
disappearing,monogamywillthenonthecontrarybefullyrealizedforthefirsttime."(3:XVI:p.57)Butinwhatway,ifitseconomicpreconditionshavedisappeared?
Answer:"Hereanewfactorcomesintoplay...individualsexlove."(3:XVI:p.57)Butonewaitsinvainforamaterialisticanalysisofthis"factor"
[244]

fromthefounderofhistoricalmaterialism.Itisnotabiologicalcategorybecause:"BeforetheMiddleAgesindividualsexlovewasoutofthequestion."(?!)(3:XVI:p.58)
Thenperhapsweshouldexpectanexplanationinthespiritofthe"base"andthe"superstructure,"soastoshowhowthis"factor"is"given"bythehandmill!Butinstead,
theauthoronlypointsmysteriouslytoadulteryasasourceofsexuallovei.e.,toafactorwhichcouldbeascribedtoproductionrelationshipsonlywithgreatdifficulty.To
addtotheconfusion,Engelsspeaks,inanoteattheendofthebook,withsympathyofFourier's"brilliantcritiqueofcivilization":"IonlynotethatalreadyinFourier's
writings,monogamyandpropertyinlandaretreatedasthechiefcharacteristicsofcivilization."(3:XVI:p.153)

Itisnotsurprisingthatthesegeneralprincipleswereinterpretedinamultitudeofwaysintheearlypostrevolutionaryyears.Butthereisonethingthatunitesmostofthe
viewscurrentthentheattitudetowardthefamilyasaninstitutionopposedtotheparty,theclassorthestate,andthereforedangerous.Herearesomeexamples:

"Thefrequentconflictsbetweentheinterestsofthefamilyandthatoftheclass,asforexampleduringstrikes,andthemoralstandardthatisusedbytheproletariatinthese
casescharacterizethebasisofthenewproletarianideologywithsufficientclarity....Tothedetrimentofindividualhappiness,tothedetrimentofthefamily,themoralityof
theworkingclasswilldemandtheparticipationofwomeninthelifeunfoldingbeyondthethresholdofthehouse."(122:p.59)"Fromthemomentthefamilybeginsto
opposeitselftosociety,enclosingitselfinthenarrowcircleofpurelydomesticinterests,itbeginstoplayaconservativeroleinthewholesocialstructureoflife.Thissortof
familywearecertainlyobligedtodestroy."(123:p.156)"Thespiritofsolidarity,comradeship,readinesstogiveoneselfuptothecommoncauseiswelldeveloped
wherevertheexclusionaryfamilydoesnotexist.Thishasbeencarefullytakenintoaccountbytheleadersofalmostalllargesocialmovements....Underthesocialist
system,whentherewillnolongerbeadomestichouseholdandchildrenwillbebroughtupbysocietyfromthedayoftheirbirth,otherformsoftheunionofthesexes
ratherthanthefamilywillundoubtedlycomeintobeing."(124:p.12)"Infuturesocialistsociety,wheretheobligationfortheupbringing,educationandmaintenanceof
childrenwillbe,shiftedfromtheparentstosocietyasawhole,itisclearthatthefamilymustwitheraway."(125:p.121)"Itmakeslittlesenseforustostrive
[245]

foranespeciallystablefamilyandtoregardmarriagefromthatangle."(126:p.26)

Thepracticalconclusionsderivedfromthisgeneraltendencyvariedsharply.AleksandraKollontaicalledforthespreadoffreelovewithafrequentchangeofsexual
partners:"Fortheworkingclass,greater'fluidity,'lessrigidityintheunionofthesexescompletelycoincideswithandevenfollowsfromthebasictasksofthisclass."(122:
p.59)IntheplayLoveoftheWorkerBeesandthearticle"MakeWayforWingedEros!"shedevelopedthesepropositionsvividly.Leninobjected(seeKlaraTsetkin's
"OnLenin"),asdidSolts,whowrites:"Adisorderlysexlifeundoubtedlyweakensanyoneasafighter."rOnPartyEthics")Ontheotherhand,M.N.Liadov(pseudonym
ofMandelshtam,aBolshevikwhohadbeenoneoftheearliestmembersoftheSocialDemocraticParty)calledfortheabolitionoftheupbringingofchildrenwithinthe
family."Isitpossibletobringupcollectivemaninanindividualfamily?Tothiswemustgiveacategoricalresponse:No,acollectivelythinkingchildmaybebroughtup
onlyinasocialenvironment....Everyconscientiousfatherandmothermustsay:Ifwewantourchildtobeliberatedfromthatphilistinismwhichispresentineachofus,he
mustbeisolatedfromourselves....Thesoonerthechildistakenfromhismotherandgivenovertoapublicnursery,thegreateristheguaranteethathewillbe
healthy."(127:pp.2527)

Letusrecallherethereferencecitedaboveonthe"interningofchildren"incommunes.

Finally,extensivestateinterferenceinfamilyrelationswasproposedandjustifiedonhistoricgrounds:"Whereverthestateheldcontroloveralleconomicresources,asin
ancientPeru,itattemptedtocontrolthecontractingofmarriageaswellasthefamilylifeofmanandwife."(124:p.12)Radicaleugenicmeasuresalsowereproposed,for
example:"Wehaveeveryreasontoassumethatundersocialismchildbearingwillberemovedfromtherealmofnature."Thisdubiousconsolationisoffered:"Butthis,I
repeat,istheonlyaspectofmarriagethat,inouropinion,socialistsocietymaycontrol."(128:p.450)

Preobrazhensky,whowasextremelyinfluentialatthetime,wrote:"Fromthesocialistpointofview,itisquitesenselessforaseparatememberofsocietytolookonhis
bodyashisownprivateproperty,foranindividualisonlyanisolatedpointinthetransitionoftheracefrompasttofuture.Butitistentimesmoresenselesstoviewone's
[246]

'own'progenythatway."Theauthorrecognizes"afullandunconditionalrightofsocietytointroduceregulation,includinginterferenceinsexuallifefortheimprovementof
theracethroughnaturalselection."("AboutMoralandClassNorms,"citedin112)

Andoccasionallytheproblemwasphrasedevenmoreradicallythaninanyoftheexamplesabove.Forinstance,aunitoftheYoungCommunistLeagueattheLiudinov
factoryinBrianskadoptedthefollowingresolutionconcerningareport"OnSexualIntercourse":"Wemustnotavoidsexualintercourse.Ifthereisnosexualintercourse,
therewillbenohumansociety."(123:p.168)

Practice,ofcourse,laggedbehindideology.Butanumberofmeasuresweretaken,which,thoughlessfarreachingthantheoreticalpronouncements,neverthelesspointed
inthesamedirection.Thelegalformalitiesincontractingandbreakingamarriageweregreatlyliberalizedregistrationwasregardedmerelyasoneofthemeanstoconfirm
marriage."Registrationisasurvivalofoldbourgeoisrelations,anditwillultimatelyceasetoexist."(AspeechbyLarin,126:p.210)

Divorcewasgrantedupontherequestofeitherparty.Paternitywasascertainedonthebasisofthemother'sclaim:"Ourlegalpractice...placedresponsibilityonallthe
defendants[laughter],givingthewomantheopportunityofrecoveringsomethingfromeach....Thecourt,asageneralrule,willbeguidedbytheindicationsoftheplaintiff:
whoeverisindicatedbytheplaintiffwillberecognizedbythecourtasthefather[laughter]."(FromaspeechbyPeople'sCommissarofJusticeKursky,126:pp.232 233)

Newdwellingswerenotdividedintoseparateapartmentsbutwerebuiltasdormitories.

"Andoneshouldbynomeansblamethoseworkingmenandwomenwhodonotwanttomoveintocommonquarters.Itmustalwaysbekeptinmindthattheformerlife
oftheworkingclasswasdeeplyrootedinbourgeoissociety,builtasitwasontheisolationofseparatefamilies.Thisindividualfamilyofbourgeoisoriginiswhatstandsin
thewayofthecollectivizationofourexistence."(123:p.12)Dormitoryquartersdidnotasarulehavekitchens,sinceitwasassumedthateveryonewouldtakehismeals
atcommondiningroomsand"factorykitchen"facilities.Inhis"TenThesesonSovietPower,"Leninsuggeststhat"steadfastandsystematicmeasuresshouldbe
undertakenforreplacingtheindividualfoodpreparation...bythecommondiningoflargegroupsoffamilies."(113:XXXVI:p.75)Dormitories,common
[247]
"Andoneshouldbynomeansblamethoseworkingmenandwomenwhodonotwanttomoveintocommonquarters.Itmustalwaysbekeptinmindthattheformerlife
oftheworkingclasswasdeeplyrootedinbourgeoissociety,builtasitwasontheisolationofseparatefamilies.Thisindividualfamilyofbourgeoisoriginiswhatstandsin
thewayofthecollectivizationofourexistence."(123:p.12)Dormitoryquartersdidnotasarulehavekitchens,sinceitwasassumedthateveryonewouldtakehismeals
atcommondiningroomsand"factorykitchen"facilities.Inhis"TenThesesonSovietPower,"Leninsuggeststhat"steadfastandsystematicmeasuresshouldbe
undertakenforreplacingtheindividualfoodpreparation...bythecommondiningoflargegroupsoffamilies."(113:XXXVI:p.75)Dormitories,common
[247]

meals,theupbringingofchildrenapartfromparentsallthesemeasuresweretriedinvariouscommunes.Andtheydidinfactleadtoaweakeningofthefamily.In123,
whichhasalreadybeencited,thereisthefollowingletterfromacertain"highlyplacedmember"oftheKomsomol:"Today,marriagebetweenKomsomolmembershardly
evertakesplace."Theauthoroftheletterassertsthatsexualrelationsoutsidemarriageprevail,butheistakentotaskfornotunderstandingthatthisisindistinguishable
frommarriage.Afterall,"foraMarxistitwouldseemthattheveryfactofsexualintercourseshouldtestifytomatrimonialrelations."(123:p.164)Between1924and1925
intheEuropeanareaofRussia,thenumberofmarriagesper100,000ofpopulationdeclinedfrom1140to980,whilethenumberofdivorcesrosefrom130to150.In
1924,ofthoseobtainingdivorces,aconsiderablenumberhadbeenmarriedforlessthanayear.(InMinskthiswastrueof260per1,000divorcesinKharkov,197in
Leningrad,159.Comparethesamestatisticfor:Tokyo80NewYork14Berlin11.)(129:pp.412,416)

Thedeplorablesituationwithregardtohomelesschildrenatthetimeiswellknown.

"Thepresentnumberofhomelesschildrenmaybeattributedtoalargedegreetothedisintegrationofthefamily."(126:p.255)Thefollowingwordsseemtocomefrom
theheart:"Ifwecontinuealongthispath,IfearweshallturnRussiaintoacountrywhereeachwillbemarriedtoall."(126:p.270)

4.Culture

Inthepostrevolutionaryperiodthereappearednumeroustheoriesandplansforthedestructionofculture,scienceandart.Certainofthemoriginatedinanarchistcircles.
Forinstance,inaworkpublishedin1917(129),theanarchistA.Borovoiassertsthatonlybyovercomingculturecouldanarchistidealsberealized.TheprolificGordin
brothers(anarchistwriterswhointheirpoliticalactivitywereclosetoBolshevism)proclaimedtheslogan"Downwithscience!"Theymeantthisasanappealforfreedom
fromtheoppressionoflogic:"Downwithspiritualoppression,coercionthroughscience,deception,pseudoconvictions!"And:"Downwithsciencewiththespiritual
government,anditslogicalpowerandarmy,itslogicalcoercion."(130:p.144)Theanarchist"proclaimsterroragainstscience."(130:p.137)Their
[248]

entirebookisdevotedtothecomparisonandcondemnationoftwosuperstitionsreligionandscience.ThebrothersGordinconsiderthePartytobethechurchof
science,theuniversityitssynagogue,thephilosopheraholyfoolofintellect.(130:pp.142,194,202)"Thehistoryofcultureisthehistoryofoursuperstition....Thehistory
ofcultureoncefulfilleditshonorableroleasthegravediggerofreligion,servingasitstombatthesametime.Itmustfulfillthesameroleinrespecttoscience.Afterthe
collapseofscience,afterthedisenchantmentwithitasthesourceoftruth,afteritsextinctionas'civilization,'itmustbecome'culture'andretiretothemuseumofhuman
superstitions."(130:pp.226227)Hereistheideal:"Atpresentatrueanarchist,apanarchist,outgrowshispettynegativeanarchismand,rejectingscienceandsocial
science,therebyrejectshisownpettyidols,hisshallowandcheapasceticideals,replacingthemwithonegreatdestructivelynegativetruthwhichliesattheverybaseofhis
innaturism/aphysism,oftheantiscientificspirit."(130:p.137)

InhisTheTheoryoftheNewBiology,E.Enchmen,citingMarxashisauthority,comestoevenmoreextremeconclusions.Hiswork,whichisreminiscentofFourierin
spirit,containsahighlyambitiousplanforthebiologicalregenerationofmankindthroughachangeinthestructureofconsciousnesswhichwillbebroughtaboutbyaseries
ofsocalledorganiccataclysms."TheRevolutionaryScientificCounciloftheWorldCommunewillaccomplishorganiccataclysmsbothinthemassesofrebelsand,
systematicallyandbymeansofforce,intheconservativeorganismsoftherecentoppressorsandtheirminions."(131:p.43)Asaresultofthesecataclysms,almostall
receivedideasinthehumanconsciousnesswillbeerased."Alltheoriesoflogic,cognition,scientificmethodologywilldisappear,aswillallsocialandsociologicaltheories
whichstilllabelthemselves'humanitarian,'andalltheoldbiologicaltheories."Allaretobereplacedbyfifteenconceptswhichtheauthorcalls"analyzers."Heexplainsthat
"pastmankinddividedintothousandsofgroupsofdifferentlyreactingpeoplegroupsofmoreorless'educated'and'cultured,'andcompletely'uneducated'and
'uncultured.'AllwilluniteundertheCommunisteconomicsystemandbecomeabsolutelyequalthroughthepenetrationintoallhumanorganismsofanew,completely
identicalcombinationoffifteenanalyzers...thattheepochofCommunismwillberegardedbyCommunistmankindnotaccordingtothemodernartisticformula'fromeach
accordingtohisabilities,toeachaccordingtohisneeds'butasanepoch
[249]

ofthecompleteequalizationofallhumanorganismsstrenuouslyinvolvedin'continuousjoy'...thattheCommunisteconomywillbebasedonasystemof'physiological
passports'forallhumanorganisms...thatsucha'physiologicalpassport'willservefortheorganism,usingmodernlanguage,asa'rationcard'bothforworkand
consumptioninthebroadsenseofthesewords."(131:p.34)

Bukharindevotedanarticletothecriticismof"Enchmenism"inthecollectionAttack.AnotherauthordealswithEnchmeninthisway:"Ofcourse,itwouldnothavebeen
worthmentioninghadnotEnchmenismattractedanumberofstudents."(132:p.19)

Whereasinrespecttogeneralculturesuchstatementsweresporadicandunsystematic,intheareasofartandphilosophyacoherentsystemevolved.Someofthemost
influentialgroups(LEFthe"LeftFrontoftheArts")proclaimedthetransformationofartintoabranchofmaterialproduction.B.Arvatov,aprominenttheoreticianofthis
group,wrote:"ThegoalofLEFistotransformallartintoacontributiontothematerialcultureofsocietyinclosetouchwithengineering."(133:p.90)"Whenartisticwork
isstructuredinthisway,individualartistswillbecomethecollaboratorsofscientists,engineers,scholars,administratorsinorganizingthecommonproducttheywillbe
guidednotbypersonalmotivesbutbytheobjectiveneedsofsocialproduction,fulfillingthetaskssetbytheclassthroughorganizationalcenters."(133:p.104)Ultimately,
theresultwillbeasfollows:"Accordingtothepreceding,itispossibletomaintainthatinanorganized,integrated,socialistorder,figurativeartasaspecialprofessionwill
witheraway."(133:p.129)

Thissameattitudefoundexpressioninhostilitytowardthetreatmentofhumanpersonalityinliteraturethiswasbranded"psychologism,"andwasgenerallyconsidered
representativeof"bourgeois"values.OsipBrikexpressedviewstypicalofthisapproachinanarticleonFadeyev'snovelTheRout:"Onemustsetliteraturethetaskof
describingnotpeoplebuttheirdeeds,toevokeinterestnotinpeoplebutindeeds.Wevalueapersonnotforhisexperiences,butfortheroleheplaysinourcommon
cause.Therefore,interestinthedeedisbasicforus,whileinterestinthepersonisderivative."(134:p.79)B.Kushnir,inhisarticle"WhyWeAreFallingBehind,"writes:
"Inallitspermutations,theslogan'livingman'alwayspreserveditsinvariableclassessence....Accordingtothistheory,theauthorissupposednotonlytoworkoutthe
psychologyandtheinterrelationshipofhis
[250]

charactersbutalsoasitweretometamorphosehimselfintoeachofthem.Thisisclearlyadifficult,timeconsumingandharmfulthing.Transformationintoone'scharacters
canhardlysharpentheauthor'sclassvigilanceandclassperceptivity.Afterall,therearecharactersandcharacters.Amongthemtheremayevenbesomeunambiguous
classenemies."(134:p.85)I.Nusinovopines:"Thefurthertotherightawriteris,thestrongerhistendencytopsychologize."(134:p.88)I.Altman,inanarticleentitled
"FromtheBiographyofaLivingMan,"thinksitnecessaryto"exposeutterlytheopportunisticslogansofpsychologism'thelivingman'whichinterferewiththedecisive
andtriumphantadvanceofproletarianliterature!"(134:p.91)
 [250]

charactersbutalsoasitweretometamorphosehimselfintoeachofthem.Thisisclearlyadifficult,timeconsumingandharmfulthing.Transformationintoone'scharacters
canhardlysharpentheauthor'sclassvigilanceandclassperceptivity.Afterall,therearecharactersandcharacters.Amongthemtheremayevenbesomeunambiguous
classenemies."(134:p.85)I.Nusinovopines:"Thefurthertotherightawriteris,thestrongerhistendencytopsychologize."(134:p.88)I.Altman,inanarticleentitled
"FromtheBiographyofaLivingMan,"thinksitnecessaryto"exposeutterlytheopportunisticslogansofpsychologism'thelivingman'whichinterferewiththedecisive
andtriumphantadvanceofproletarianliterature!"(134:p.91)

AnegativeattitudetowardphilosophywasalsosupportedbyreferencestotheclassicwritingsofMarxism.Kautskyhadwritten:"Marxdidnotproclaimanyphilosophy
buttheendofallphilosophy."(135:p.452)

InRussia,theviewofphilosophyasa"productofthebourgeoisie,"a"semireligion,""intellectualatavism,"wasdevelopedbyS.Minin,particularlyinthearticle
"PhilosophyOverboard"(136),andbyP.P.Blonsky.(137)

5.Religion

ThefateofreligioninthisperiodisrepletewithfeaturesthathavenoparallelineitherRussianhistoryorthehistoryoftheworld.Astudyofthisphenomenonwould
undoubtedlyshedlightonanumberofaspectsofWarCommunismthatremainunclear.Agreatdealofsystematicresearchisrequired.

ThiswasthetimewhenthemostdecisiveattemptwasundertakentodestroytheRussianOrthodoxChurch(inconnectionwiththesocalledcampaignfortheremovalof
churchvaluables).ItwasatimewhentribunalswereconvenedtotryGodandHewassentencedtodeathbyunanimousvote.AtEaster,thereweredemonstrationswith
blasphemouspicturesandslogans....

ThisextremelyfragmentarysurveyofWarCommunismwillnevertheless,wehope,conveyacertainimpressionofthatfascinatingperiod.Weseethereasystemofviews
andmeasuresthatismuchmoreradicalthanwhatistobefoundinanyothersocialiststateknowntous.IfWarCommunismisthemoststrikingexampleofthe
appearanceof
[251]

radicaltendenciesinasocialiststate,itisneverthelessnotunique.

Onlycontinuingfamineanddevastationcoupledwith"capitalistencirclement"forcedaretreatfromthissystem.TheNewEconomicPolicywassucharetreatandwemust
believethesincerityofthedeclarationsofthedaythatitwouldbeonlyatemporarywithdrawal.NEPwasindeedtemporary.Stalinpromulgatedalawwhichforesaw
imprisonmentforlaborersandofficepersonnelwhowereabsentfromworkormerelylate:theywere"militarized."Inthelastyearsofhislife,Stalin"reassigned"moreand
morescientistsandtechnicianstoprisonresearchinstitutes(sharashki).Theinternalsecurityagencyraninnumerablefactoriesandscientificinstitutions.

ButStalinhadvisionsofevenmoreradicalchangesahead.Inaworkwritteninthelastyearofhislife,TheEconomicProblemsofSocialism,heexpressesthethought
thatmoneyandcommodityproductioncontradictthenatureofasocialiststate.Healsofeltthatthepeasantsinthecollectivefarmswerenotsufficientlydependentonthe
state.Stalinseesthis,forinstance,inthefactthatthecollectivefarmspossesstheirownseedgrainandselltheirproductstothestate(albeitaccordingtoquotasandata
ratefixedbythestate).

"Butitwouldbeunpardonableblindnessnottoseethatthesephenomenaarealreadybeginningtoimpedethepowerfuldevelopmentofourproductiveforces,sincethey
createanobstacletothecompletecontroloftheentirenationaleconomyand,especially,ofagriculturebystateplanning."(138:p.68)Stalinproposesanewsystemfor
theorganizationoftheeconomy,underwhichtradewouldbereplacedbya"systemofproductexchange"andalleconomiclifewouldcomeunderevengreatercontrolby
thestate."Butthisshouldbeintroducedsteadfastly,withouthesitation,stepbystepreducingthesphereofcommoditycirculationandextendingthesphereofproduct
exchange."(138:p.94)

Thisprogramcouldnotbeundertaken,forpurelypracticalreasonsinparticular,itwouldhaveinvolvedtheriskoffallingeconomicallytoofarbehindtheU.S.A.

China's"GreatLeapForward"providesuswithonemoreexample.Attheendofthefifties,atransitiontocommunisminthreetofiveyearswasproclaimed:"Threeyears
ofintenseworkandtenthousandyearsofhappiness!"Inseveralmonthstimein1958,"people'scommunes"sprangupalloverthecountrysidecommuneswere
introducedincitiesaswell.Accordingtotheplan,theyweretobecomethebasic
[252]

formoftheorganizationofagriculture,industry,administration,schools,thearmy.Militarizedlaborarmieswerecreated.Peoplemarchedtoworkinformation.Everyday
lifewasbeingsocialized,andallequipmentandhouseholdgoodsinthecommunewerebeingconsolidated.Unpaiddeliveryofproductswasinitiated.

Weseethesamepictureintheattitudetowardreligion.Allsocialiststatesarefundamentallyhostiletowardreligion,buttheopportunitiesforexpressingthisattitudevary.
ItalianfascismatfirstcameintosharpconflictwiththeCatholicChurch,butwascompelledtocometotermswithitandrefrainfromseriousoppressionofreligion.In
otherrespects,too,itwastheweakestsocialiststateofourcenturyandhadtheleastpossibilityforrealizingitssocialisttendencies.China,ontheotherhand,couldpermit
itselftooutlawtheChristianreligioncompletely.Betweentheseextremes,thereisawholespectrumofpossibleapproachestowardreligionallofthembasicallyhostile
butonlyasharshasgivenconditionspermit.

Neithertheabolitionofthefamilynorcommunalityofwiveswasfullyrealizedinanyknownsocialiststate,buttherudimentsofsuchaneffortcanbeeasilyobserved.For
instance,inNaziGermanytherewasanattempttoproduceraciallypurechildrenoutofwedlock.Theorganizationlebensborn,foundedbyHimmler,selectedAryansires
forunmarriedwomen.Therewereofficiallyinspiredsuggestionsaboutthedesirabilityofextrawivesformenofaraciallysuitabletype.Bormann'swifepropagandized
theseideasandherselfsanctionedanotherwifeforherhusband.

Inalltheexamplescited,theseundertakingswerenotcarriedtocompletionduetoveryspecificexternalcircumstances,butnotbecauseofideologicalinconsistency.It
seemsthatcarryingthroughsuchtransformationsofliferequiresadefinitelevelofagitationandthemobilizationofacertainkindofspiritualenergy.Andthis,initsturn,is
dependentonthedepthofthecrisisthatthesocietyisundergoingatthegivenmoment.Inparticular,thedestructionofthetraditionalfamilyandstatecontroloverfamily
relations,whichweintroducedatthebeginningofthissectionasanexampleofsomethingpeculiartothedoctrinesofchiliasticsocialism,mayprovetobealltoofeasible
underconditionsoftheapproachingcrisisofoverpopulation.(Toynbeesuggeststhisin139.)

Itthereforeseemsimpossibletodrawanyfirmtheoreticaldistinction
[253]

betweenthedoctrinesofchiliasticsocialismandthepracticesofthesocialiststates.Theonlydifferencestemsfromthefactthatinthefirstcasewehaveaclearly
formulatedideal,whereasthesecondpresentsaseriesofvariants,stretchingdownthroughhistory,wherenomorethananattemptcanbemadetodistinguishacertain
underconditionsoftheapproachingcrisisofoverpopulation.(Toynbeesuggeststhisin139.)

Itthereforeseemsimpossibletodrawanyfirmtheoreticaldistinction
[253]

betweenthedoctrinesofchiliasticsocialismandthepracticesofthesocialiststates.Theonlydifferencestemsfromthefactthatinthefirstcasewehaveaclearly
formulatedideal,whereasthesecondpresentsaseriesofvariants,stretchingdownthroughhistory,wherenomorethananattemptcanbemadetodistinguishacertain
trend.Butthistrend,ifextrapolatedtoitslogicalconclusion,pointstowardthesameidealthatisproclaimedbythesocialistdoctrines.

Itisfareasiertodiscernthedistinctionsbetweenchiliasticandstatesocialismastheyarerevealedinhistory.Tobeginwith,weencounterstatesofthesocialisttype
thousandsofyearsbeforetheexistenceofanydevelopedsocialistdoctrine.Second,socialiststatesappearinhistoryintwoquitedifferentsituations:inprimitivecultural
conditionsattheverybeginningofthestateperiodofhistory(intheMediterraneanbasinthisoccurredbetweenthethirdandthesecondmillenniaB.C.)andinthe
industrialsocietiesofthetwentiethcentury.Thedevelopmentofsocialistdoctrinesoccursduringtheintervalbetweenthesetwoperiods.Withinchiliasticsocialismitisalso
possibletodistinguishtwotendenciesonegivesrisetoabstractacademicsystems,elaborateplansforafuturesocietytheothercallsforthedestructionoftheexisting
world,for"liberation,"revenge,andthereignofanelect.Thesetwotendenciesalsoundoubtedlymanifestthemselvesduringdifferentepochs.Plato'sRepublicismost
certainlythesourceofthefirstcurrent:More,Campanella,DeschampsareunderhisobviousinfluenceevenMarcuseincitingthemythsofNarcissusandOrpheusto
illustratehisconceptsisclearlyattemptingtoimitatePlato.ThesecondcurrenttakesshapeintheMiddleAgesamongthehereticalsects.Butifthehistoryofthesesectsis
traced,itisfoundthatallofthem(CatharsandtheBrethrenoftheFreeSpirit)originateinthegnosticsectsoftheearlycenturiesA.D.Inanadmittedlyundevelopedform,
theseearliersectsshowsomeofthebasicfeaturesthatwillappearlaterinthesocialistdoctrines.

Letusnote,firstofall,thatsocialistdoctrinesarosethousandsofyearslaterthansocialiststates.Thiscompelsustoreversetheusualaxiomofsocialistideology:the
doctrinesofchiliasticsocialismcannotberegardedasaprediction(scientific,mysticalorrational)ofafuturesocialsystem.Theyarefarmoreakintoreactioni.e.,tothe
desiretoreturnmankindtoamoreprimitivearchaiccondition.

However,thisreactionisnotsimplyaimedatrestoringthatwhichwaschiliastictheorygoesfarbeyondthepracticeofearlysocialist
[254]

states.Thenatureofthisprocesswillbecomeclearerifweexamineitinthelightofahistoricalobservationmadebyvariousauthors,KarlJaspersamongthem.Itwas
Jasperswhosuggestedcallingthephenomenoninquestionhistory's"axialtime."(140)Jaspershasinmindthoseprofoundshiftswhichoccurredintheperiodcomprising
approximatelythefirstmillenniumB.C.Duringthetwoprecedingmillennia,themainforceinfluencingthedevelopmentofhistorywerethepowerfulstatesorganizedinthe
mannerofOrientaldespotism,withentirepopulationsunderbureaucraticcontrol,permittingthemtoundertakegiganticconstructionprojectsandtofieldhugearmies.
Afteralonginterval,inthefirstmillenniumB.C.,other,spiritualforcesagainbegantohaveadecisiveinfluenceonthecourseofhistory.FromGreecetoChina,there
aroseteachingsthatweredirectedtothesoulofindividualmen,assertingindividualman'sresponsibilitybeforereason,beforeconscienceorelsebeforehigherpowers.
Thesewere:Greekphilosophy,thepreachingoftheIsraeliteprophets,Buddhism,Confucianism.Itisnottheomnipotentstatemachinethatispronouncedtobetheforce
capableofdeterminingthefateofmankind,butthehumanpersonality.Agodlikedespotbeforewhomonecouldonlybowdownandobeyloseshispositionasthe
creatorofhistory.Nolessaroleisnowplayedbytheteacherwhocallsonthepeopletobelieveinhismessageandtofollowhisexample.Whateverapproachonetakes
withregardtotheoriginofChristianitywhether"theWordbecameflesh"orwhethermankinditselfcametoanewunderstandingofitsfatetheprocesswehave
sketchedfindshereitshighestexpression.Jaspersbelievesthatitispreciselyin"axialtime"thattheconceptionofhistoryappears.Inhisopinion,weconsiderhistorical
thosepeopleswhohaveeitherdirectlyparticipatedinthisprocessorwhosubsequentlycametosharethevaluessocreated(theGermanicpeoples,forexample,orthe
Slavs).

Thereisnoneedforustodiscussherethisvastandcomplexhistoricalphenomenon.Weshallonlyjuxtaposeitwiththestagesinthedevelopmentofchiliasticsocialism
thatwehavenotedearlier.WithinthelimitsoftheMediterraneanculturalcircles,"axialtime"wasexpressedintwobasicphenomenainthe"Greekmiracle,"mostvividly
embodiedinthepersonalityofSocrates,andintheriseofChristianity.Thesetwophenomenaareverycloseintimetowhatwehaveindicatedasthestartingpointsofthe
twotendenciesofchiliasticsocialism.Plato'ssocialistutopiawaspromulgatedseveraldecadesafterSocrates'death,
[255]

whiletheoriginalgnosticsectsappearedasearlyasthefirstcenturyA.D.Itisreasonabletosuggestthatwehaveherenotonlyatemporalbutalsoacausalrelationship
i.e.,the"utopian"chiliasticsocialismofPlato,More,Campanella,Fourier,mayperhapsbeseenasareactiontothevisionoftheworldelaboratedinGreekculture,while
the"revolutionary"and"eschatological"socialismofthegnosticandmedievalheresies,ofMntzerandofMarx,maybeareactiontotheappearanceofChristianity.Such
aviewisinfundamentalagreementwiththeconclusionswecametoconcerningthegeneralcharacterofsocialism.Ifsocialismisamanifestationofacertainbasicand
constantlyactiveforce,itisnaturalthatanyobstacletoitsactionwouldcallforthchangesintheformofitsmanifestation.Aprofoundlyspiritualunderstandingofhuman
personality,anassertionofthecentralrolethatitplaysinGreekcultureand,inparticular,inChristianitythesewerethefactorsthatshookthemonolithicstabilityofthe
statesbasedonsocialistprinciplesandshowedmankindthepossibilityofanotherpath.

ThequestionoftheaffinitiesbetweenprimitiveEasternstatesofthesocialisttypeandsocialiststatesofthetwentiethcenturyisexaminedinthelastchapterofWittfogel's
book.(89)Theauthorbelievesthatthesearetwovariantsofoneandthesamesocialstructure.Primitiveagrariandespotism"existedformillennia,untilthetimethatitfelt
theimpactofthegrowthoftheindustrialandcommercialWest."(89:p.360)Inthelastsectionsofhisbook("WhitherAsia?""WhitherWesternSocietyWhither
Mankind?")WittfogelviewstheappearanceofsocialiststatesinthetwentiethcenturyasareturnofAsiaticcountriestotheprimitivestructuresthathadexistedfor
millennia.Yetheacknowledgesthatmodernsocialiststatesdifferfromtheirancientpredecessorsbythefactthattheyundertaketocontroltheircitizensnotonlyin
economicbutinsocialandintellectualterms.Forthatreasonmodernsocialismismuchmorethanan"Asiaticrestoration."Thelackofconsistencymaybeexplained,soit
seemstous,bythefactthattheauthorviewssocialismasanexclusivelyeconomiccategoryandadefiniteformofstateorganization.Thusthedevelopmentofchiliastic
socialism(whichrequiredtwoandahalfmillennia)remainsbeyondhisfieldofvision.Yetthisispreciselythelinkjoiningthetwotypesofsocialistsociety.The
distinguishingfeatureoftwentiethcenturysocialiststatesistheirdependenceonanideologythathasbeenelaboratedandforgedoverthecourseofthousandsofyears
(andthebetterelaborateditis,themorestabletheyare).Thisisexactly
[256]

whattheOrientaldespotslackedandwhatpreventedthemfromretainingpowerovertheworldinthespiritualatmospherecreatedby"axialtime."Thisideologywas
createdalmostexclusivelyintheWest,andthisfactalonemakesitimpossibletoregardsocialismofthetwentiethcenturyasan"Asiaticrestoration."

Thecontemporarysocialiststatescouldnothavecomeintoexistencewithouttheideologycreatedbychiliasticsocialism.Wehavealreadydescribeditsbasicfeatures:the
abolitionofprivateproperty,hostilitytowardreligion,destructionofthefamily,communality.Thisideologyislinkedtothemythicconcepts(expressedthoughtheyarein
modernquasiscientificterms)ofthe"goldenage,""captivity,""liberation"and"thechosenpeople"destinedtobetheinstrumentofliberation,forwhichpurposethe
annihilationofanevilworldwillberequired.Finally,thereisthepromiseofanewworldthatwillariseasaresultofthecatastropheandwheretheidealsofchiliastic
socialismwillberealized.

Itisevidentlythissystemofviewswhichmustbeexaminedinordertoclarifythehistoricroleofsocialism.
Thecontemporarysocialiststatescouldnothavecomeintoexistencewithouttheideologycreatedbychiliasticsocialism.Wehavealreadydescribeditsbasicfeatures:the
abolitionofprivateproperty,hostilitytowardreligion,destructionofthefamily,communality.Thisideologyislinkedtothemythicconcepts(expressedthoughtheyarein
modernquasiscientificterms)ofthe"goldenage,""captivity,""liberation"and"thechosenpeople"destinedtobetheinstrumentofliberation,forwhichpurposethe
annihilationofanevilworldwillberequired.Finally,thereisthepromiseofanewworldthatwillariseasaresultofthecatastropheandwheretheidealsofchiliastic
socialismwillberealized.

Itisevidentlythissystemofviewswhichmustbeexaminedinordertoclarifythehistoricroleofsocialism.
[257]

IX.
Socialismand
Individuality
Itisnaturalenoughtobegintheanalysisofthissocialidealbyelucidatingtheinterrelationshipofitsvariouselements.Itisimmediatelycleartheydonotplayanequalrole.
Forexample,Platoarguesforthenecessityofcommunalpropertyandwives,sinceonlyundertheseconditionswillthecitizenstakejoyinandgrieveoverthesamethings.
Inotherwords,heconsidersthecommunalityofpropertyandtheabolitionofthefamilyasmeansforachievingequality.Heregardsequality,however,notintheusual
senseofequalityofrightsoropportunities,butasidentityofbehavior,astheequalizationofpersonalities.Boththesetraitstheabolitionofprivatepropertyandofthe
familyasameanstoachieveequality,andthisspecialunderstandingofequalityrunthroughthemajorityofsocialistteachings.

Theviewthatequalityisthebasicprinciplefromwhichothersocialistdoctrinesproceedplayedanespeciallylargeroleinthegnosticsects."God'sjusticeconsistsof
communityandequality"suchapropositionwasusedtojustifyboththeabolitionofprivatepropertyandthedemandforcommunalwives.Thisthemecanbetracedin
themedievalheresiesandthedoctrinesoftheReformation.NiklausStorchpreached:"Everythingshouldbecommon,forGodsentallintotheworldequallynaked."
Mntzertaught:"Nooneshouldriseaboveotherseverymanmustbefree,andthereshouldbecommunityofproperty."CitingPlato,Moreassertedthatthoselawsare
bestthatprovidefor"distributingallthegoodthingsoflifeamongallequally,"anddeducedtheneedforcommunalityofproperty.Meslierwritesthat"allpeopleareequal
bynature"andalsodeducesthenecessity
[258]

ofabolishingprivateproperty.RepresentativesoftheEnlightenmentsupplementedthisargumentwiththenotionofa"naturalstate"inwhichallpeoplewereequalandthe
disappearanceofwhichgaverisetoprivatepropertyandallthevicesofcontemporarylife.Theonlysignificantexceptionis"scientificsocialism,"whichdeducestheneed
toabolishprivatepropertyfromobjectivecauses,suchasthetypeofproduction.Insodoing,Marxdeducestheverynotionofequalityfromtheeconomicconditionsof
bourgeoissociety.(See3:XVII:p.68)Buthow,then,arewetodealwiththejustcitedradicalconceptsofequalitythatwereproclaimedintheearlycenturiesA.D.?We
havealreadyshownwhywecannotrecognize"scientificsocialism"asagenuinelyscientifictheoryandwhywemustseeitmerelyasaformorguiseinwhichthesocialist
idealappearsGustasitcanappearinmysticgarb,forexample).Forthesamereason,wecannottakeonfaiththeassertionthatthedemandforabolishingprivate
propertyisalsoaresultofscientificanalysisoftheobjectivephenomenaofsociallife.Weshallsoonreturntotheevaluationoftherolewhichcommunalityofproperty
playsin"scientificsocialism"anditsconnectionwiththeconceptofequality.

Oneofthemoststrikingfeaturesofsocialistideologyisthatquitespecialsensewhichitattributestotheconceptofequality.Wehavealreadypointedthisoutin
connectionwiththerationaleforcommunalityofproperty,ofwivesandchildrenproposedbyPlato.Andlater,inthemajorityofsocialistdoctrines,weencountera
conceptionofequalitywhichapproachesthatofidentity.Dwellinglovinglyonthedetails,authorshavedescribedthecharacteristicmonotonyandunificationoflifeinthe
stateofthefuture.WhereMorespeaksaboutidenticalclothing,exceptforadifferencebetweenmaleandfemaleattire,Campanellaindicatesthatthedressofmenand
womenisalmostthesame.InUtopia,everyonewearscloaksofthesamecolorintheCityoftheSunawomanwhoattemptstoalterhermodeofdresswillbepunished
bydeath.Solariansneverhaveanyprivacytheyworkandrelaxindetachmentsandsharecommonsleepinganddiningfacilities.AllthecitiesofUtopiaarebuiltaccording
tooneplan:"Hewhorecognizesonewillrecognizeall."ThesameidealoflifeinabsolutelyidenticalcitiesconsistingofidenticalhousesisrepeatedbyMorelly.Hispeople
alsowearclothesmadeofthesamematerial,andallchildren'sclothingisabsolutelyidentical.Theyalleatthesamefood'andreceivethesameeducation.Babeufand
Buonarotti'scircle,whose
[259]

verytitleincludedtheword"equality,"understoodthistoincludecommonobligatorymeals,entertainment,etc....

Intheexamplesabove,weseeanexternalequalizationoflivingconditionswhichsymbolizes,asitwere,thecorrespondinglevelingoftheinnerworld.Deschampsgivesa
moredetaileddescriptionofthechangesinhumanpersonality.Ofthepeopleofthefuture,hewrites:"Theywould(muchmorethanwe)adheretothesametypeofaction
andwouldnotdeducefromthis,asweusuallydowithregardtoanimals,thattoactthusistorevealalackofreasonorunderstanding.Whydopeoplewhofind
perfectioninnature'severidenticaltypeofactionconsiderthistobeadefectinanimals?Onlybecausepeoplearetoofarremovedfromthiskindofaction,andtheir
haughtinessmakestheminterpretthisveryremotenesstotheiradvantage."(53:p.219)

Morespecifically,heforeseesthatpeoplewillbegintolookalike:"Identicalmorals(andtruemoralscanonlybeidentical)wouldmake,sotosay,onemanofallmenand
onewomanofallwomen.Imeanbythisthatultimatelytheywouldresembleeachothermorethananimalsofthesamespecies."(53:p.176)

Deschampsproposeschangesinlanguagesoas"tobanishalltermspresentlyusedtoexpressourgoodandbadqualities,evenalltermsunnecessarilydistinguishingus
fromotherthings."(53:p.503)

Finally,"scientificsocialism"proclaimsthatthehistoricalprocessiscontrolledbyimmanentlawswhichareindependentofhumanwill.Anunderstandingoftheselaws
makeshistorypredictable.Thisconceptionwasformedundertheobviousinfluenceoftheadvancesofnaturalscienceintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,above
all,thesuccessofastronomyinpredictingthediscoveryofplanets,thereturnofcomets,etc.Fourierassertsthatmankindisruledbythelawsof"attractionofthe
passions,"whichareinhisviewpreciselyanalogoustoNewton'slawofgravitation,whereby"theunityofthephysicalandthespiritualworldsismanifest."Intermsofthis
analogy,individualscorrespondtotheelementalparticlesofmatter,whichmustbeidentical(atleast,fromthestandpointofpropertiesessentialtothephenomenonunder
considerationthatis,history).AsforMarxism,onethinksofananalogywithanotherphysicaltheory.Thisisthekinetictheoryofgases,accordingtowhichagasisthe
aggregateofmoleculesthatcomeintocollision,withtheresultofeachcollisiondeterminedbythelawsofmechanics.Averygreatnumberofmolecules
[260]

transformthestatisticallawsoftheircollisionintothegenerallawsofthephysicsofgases.Theonlyformofsocialcontactoftheproducersofgoodsincapitalistsocietyis
exchange(justasforgasmoleculestheonlyformofinteractioniscollision).Theinteractionofagreatnumberofproducersengendersthat"socialproduction"which,inits
turn,determinestheirpolitical,legalandreligiousnotions,andthe"social,politicalandspiritualprocessesoflifeingeneral."Itisevidentthatsuchaconceptionmakes
senseonlyontheassumptionthatseparate"molecules"(producers)areidentical.Otherwise,insteadofanexplanation(oran"understanding,"asMarxputsit),there
wouldbeonlytheindividualpropertiesofahugenumberofpeople,andoneenigmawouldbereplacedbyamassofenigmas.
 [260]

transformthestatisticallawsoftheircollisionintothegenerallawsofthephysicsofgases.Theonlyformofsocialcontactoftheproducersofgoodsincapitalistsocietyis
exchange(justasforgasmoleculestheonlyformofinteractioniscollision).Theinteractionofagreatnumberofproducersengendersthat"socialproduction"which,inits
turn,determinestheirpolitical,legalandreligiousnotions,andthe"social,politicalandspiritualprocessesoflifeingeneral."Itisevidentthatsuchaconceptionmakes
senseonlyontheassumptionthatseparate"molecules"(producers)areidentical.Otherwise,insteadofanexplanation(oran"understanding,"asMarxputsit),there
wouldbeonlytheindividualpropertiesofahugenumberofpeople,andoneenigmawouldbereplacedbyamassofenigmas.

Proceedingfromtheseexamples,itispossibletoattempttoformulatethespecificconceptofequalityinherentinsocialistideology.Theusualunderstandingof"equality,"
whenappliedtopeople,entailsequalityofrightsandsometimesequalityofopportunity(socialwelfare,pensions,grants,etc.).Butwhatismeantinallthesecasesisthe
equalizationofexternalconditionswhichdonottouchtheindividualityofman.Insocialistideology,however,theunderstandingofequalityisakintothatusedin
mathematics(whenonespeaksofequalnumbersorequaltriangles),i.e.,thisisinfactidentity,theabolitionofdifferencesinbehavioraswellasintheinnerworldofthe
individualsconstitutingsociety.Fromthispointofview,apuzzlingandatfirstsightcontradictorypropertyofsocialistdoctrinesbecomesapparent.Theyproclaimthe
greatestpossibleequality,thedestructionofhierarchyinsocietyandatthesametime(inmostcases)astrictregimentationofalloflife,whichwouldbeimpossiblewithout
absolutecontrolandanallpowerfulbureaucracywhichwouldengenderanincomparablygreaterinequality.Thecontradictiondisappears,however,ifwenotethatthe
terms"equality"and"inequality"areunderstoodintwodifferentways.Theequalityproclaimedinsocialistideologymeansidentityofindividualities.Thehierarchyagainst
whichthedoctrinefightsisahierarchybasedonindividualqualitiesorigin,wealth,education,talentandauthority.Butthisdoesnotcontradicttheestablishmentofa
hierarchyofinternallyidenticalindividualswhoonlyoccupydifferentpositionsinthesocialmachine,justasidenticalpartscanhavedifferentfunctionsinamechanism.The
analogybetweenthesocialistidealofsocietyandthemachineiscertainlynotnew.Forexample,speakingabouttheancientstatesofMesopotamiaandEgypt(which,as
wehaveseen,
[261]

weretoaconsiderableextentbasedonsocialistprinciples),LewisMumfordexpressestheviewthattheirsocialstructurewasthefirsttobebasedontheideaofa
machine.Hesupportsthisideabyreferringtothedrawingsofthetimethatshowwarriorsandworkersascompletelyidentical,likethestereotypeddetailsofamachine.
(141:p.150)Evenmoreconvincingistheevidenceofamanwhowasclearlycompetentinthisarea:I.V.Stalin.Heonceexpressedhissocialidealbycallingthe
inhabitantsofthestateruledbyhim"nutsandbolts."Heproposedatoasttothem.AndincontemporaryChinathepapersglorifytheheroLeiFen,whowroteinhisdiary
abouthisdesiretobeChairmanMao's"stainlesssteelcog."

Theprecedingconsiderationsleadustotheconclusionthatatleastthreecomponentsofthesocialistidealtheabolitionofprivateproperty,theabolitionofthefamilyand
socialistequalitymaybededucedfromasingleprinciple:thesuppressionofindividuality.Thereisalsoalargebodyofdirectevidencethatdemonstratesthehostilityof
socialistideologytoindividuality.Someexamples:

Mazdaktaughtthattheconfusionoflightanddark,aswellasevilingeneral,derivedfromindividualityandthattheidealconditioncannotbeachieveduntilpeoplerid
themselvesoftheirindividualqualities.Fourierbelievedthatthe"fundamentalcoreofthepassions"onwhichthefuturesocietywillbefoundedisapassioncalled
"unitheism."Thisforceisnotactivatedinconditionsofcivilization.Thepassiondirectlyopposedtoitisegoismorone'sown"I.""Thisdisgustinginclinationhasvarious
namesintheworldoflearning:moralistscallitegoismideologues,the'I,'anewtermwhich,however,doesnotintroduceanythingnewbutisauselessparaphraseof
egoism."(97:p.105)ItshouldbenotedherethategoismintheusualsenseisnotatallexcludedfromFourier'ssystem.Heheldthatthemostusefulpeopleinthefuture
societywouldbethosewhoareinclinedtoenjoymentandwhodeclaredutytobetheinventionofphilosophers.Fourieroffersalistofthemostimportantpassionsforthe
neworder:loveoffinefood,sensuality,apassionfordiversity,competition,selflove.Evidently,"egoism"inthequotationaboveshouldbeunderstoodinabroadersense
andthe"I"inadirectsense.

InMarxismtheideaisoccasionallyexpressedthatmanhasnoexistenceasanindividualitybutonlyasamemberofadefiniteclassindividualmanistheinventionof
philosophers.Wecomeacrossattacksonthe"corrupt"viewsthathold"insteadoftheinterestsoftheproletariat,
[262]

theinterestsofman,whodoesnotbelongtoanyclassand,ingeneral,existsnotinrealitybutinthecloudsofphilosophicfantasy."(3:V:pp.506507)Marxsays:"The
essenceofmanisnotanabstractqualityinherentinaseparateindividual.Inrealityitistheaggregateofallsocialrelations."(3:IV:p.590)Marxwasconcernedwiththe
questionofwhy,underconditionsofcompletepoliticalemancipation,religiondoesnotdisappear.Fromhispointofview,thistestifiestothefactthatacertainflawremains
insociety,butthereasonforthisflawshouldbesoughtintheveryessenceofthestate.Religionisnolongerpresentedasacausebutasamanifestationofgeneral
narrowmindedness.Theessenceofthisnarrowmindednessandlimitationheseesinthefollowing:"PoliticaldemocracyisChristianinnaturebecausemaninitnotmanin
generalbuteachmanseparatelyisconsideredasovereignandsupremebeingandthisissaidofmaninhisuncultivated,nonsocialaspect,ofmaninahaphazardformof
existence,manasheisinlife,manasheiscorruptedbythewholeorganizationofoursociety,lostandalienatedfromhimselfinaword,manwhoisnotyetagenuine
creature."(3:I:p.368)

Inthecontemporaryleftistmovement,thethemeofthestruggleagainstindividualityisparticularlystrong.Theideologistsofthismovementdistinguishseveralaspectsof
revolution(orofaseriesof"revolutions,"astheyputit):social,racial,sexual,artistic,psychedelic.Amongthese,twoespeciallyareperceivedasmeansfortheannihilation
of"bourgeoisindividuality"thepsychedelicrevolution(collectiveuseofhallucinogensanddeafeningrockmusic)andaparticularaspectofthesexualrevolution("group
sex,"whichgoesmuchfurtherthanthegroupmarriageofprimitivetribes,sincenotonlythepersonalitybutalsothesexofthepartnersplaysnorole).

Thistendencyleadstoattemptstoovercomesexdistinction.Thuswereadinacontemporaryleftistmagazine:"Capitalismdevelopedtheevermoreinhumanpolarization
ofthesexes.Thecultofmakingdistinctions,whichservesonlyforoppression,isnowbeingsweptawaybyawarenessofresemblanceand'identity.'"Theauthorquotes
anotherrepresentativeofthesamecurrent:"BothsexesaremovingtowardgeneralHumanity."(142:p.25)

Marcuseforeseesasocietyinwhichfantasy,nowsuppressedbyreason,willopenupanewapproachtoreality.Inhisunderstanding,ofthenatureoffantasyMarcuse
herefollowsFreud,citing,inparticular,thelatter'sideathatfantasy"preservesthestructureandtendencies
[263]

ofthepsychepriortoitsorganizationbythereality,priortoitsbecomingan'individual'setoffagainstotherindividuals.Andbythesametoken,liketheid,towhichit
remainscommitted,fantasypreservesa'memory'ofthesubhistoricalpast,whenthelifeoftheindividualwasthelifeofthegenus,theimageoftheimmediateunitybetween
theparticularandtheuniversalundertheruleofthepleasureprinciple."(119:p.142)Itispreciselyintheprocessofdisintegrationofthisunitythatthereappearsthe
"principiumindividuationis"hostiletofantasy.MarcusebelievesthatoneofFreud'smostimportantserviceswasthedestructionof"oneofthestrongestideological
fortificationsofmodernculturenamely,thenotionoftheautonomousindividual."(119:p.57)

Sartre'sviewsinthisconnectionarealsoofinterest.Hesays,forexample:"Ibelievethatthethinkingofthegroupiswherethetruthis....Ihavethoughtthiswaysince
childhood.Ialwaysconsideredgroupthinkingtobebetterthanthinkingalone....Idon'tbelieveaseparateindividualtobecapableofdoinganything."(143:pp.170 171)
Hefeelsparticularantipathyforsuchindividualactionassacrifice."Thesacrificialtypeisnarrowmindedbynature....Thisisamonstroustype.AllmylifeIhavefought
againstthespiritofsacrifice."(143:p.183)
"principiumindividuationis"hostiletofantasy.MarcusebelievesthatoneofFreud'smostimportantserviceswasthedestructionof"oneofthestrongestideological
fortificationsofmodernculturenamely,thenotionoftheautonomousindividual."(119:p.57)

Sartre'sviewsinthisconnectionarealsoofinterest.Hesays,forexample:"Ibelievethatthethinkingofthegroupiswherethetruthis....Ihavethoughtthiswaysince
childhood.Ialwaysconsideredgroupthinkingtobebetterthanthinkingalone....Idon'tbelieveaseparateindividualtobecapableofdoinganything."(143:pp.170 171)
Hefeelsparticularantipathyforsuchindividualactionassacrifice."Thesacrificialtypeisnarrowmindedbynature....Thisisamonstroustype.AllmylifeIhavefought
againstthespiritofsacrifice."(143:p.183)

Wemeetwiththeverysamefeaturesinthehistoricalmodelsofsocialism.DiscussingtheinfluenceoftheIncasystemontheIndians'psyche,Baudinwrites:"Lifeitselfwas
tornoutofthatgeometricalandsadempire,whereeverythingoccurredwiththeinevitabilityoff atum....TheIndianlosthispersonality."(56:pp.135136)

Thedepthoftheconflictbetweenindividualityasacategoryandsocialistideologyisindicatedbythefactthatthisconflicttouchesontheinnermostcoreofindividuality.
Assomuchelseinman,hisindividualityhastwostrataone,themoreancient,isofprehumanoriginandmansharesitwithmanyanimals,whilethenewerstratumis
specificallyhuman.

Ethologists(scientistsinvestigatingthebehaviorofanimals)seethemomentwhenindividualbondingappearsasthefirstmanifestationofindividualityintheanimalworld
(i.e.,whentherearerelationsinwhichoneanimalcannotbereplacedbyanyother).Thisphenomenonmaybeobservedexperimentallybytryingtosubstituteoneanimal
foranother.Certaintypesoffish,birdsandmammalsexhibitthistypeofbondingaclassicexampleofthephenomenonthathasbeenthoroughly
[264]

investigatedisthebondingofthegraylaggoose.Inthisspecies,bondingisaccomplishedinacomplicatedritualperformedbyparentsandnestlingsorbyapairorbytwo
ganders.Whenoneindividualdies,theothercallshimandlooksforhimeverywhere,stopsavoidingpredators,becomestimid.Lorenzevenassuresusthatintheeyesof
suchacreaturethereappearsthesameexpressionasintheeyesofanunhappyhuman.(144:Chap.11)

Thepresenceofindividualbondshasgreatimportanceforthestructureofanimalsocieties,whicharedividedintoanonymoussocieties,inwhichanimalsdonot
distinguisheachotherasindividuals(forexample,groupsofherringorofrats),andindividualizedsocieties,inwhichanimalsarelinkedbyindividualrelations(e.g.,
geese).Astonishingly,amongtheforcessupportingtheexistenceofindividualizedanimalsocieties,accordingtotheethologists,arepreciselythosefactors(seeninhuman
society)withwhichsocialismisinconflict:theupbringingofoffspringbyafamily,individuallybondedchildrenandparentsand,ingeneral,individualbondsbetween
membersofsociety.(Deschampsforesees"lifewithoutseparatebonds"inthefuturesociety.)Otherindividualizedanimalbehaviorincludesanimalhierarchiesinwhich
individualshavedifferentimportance,andwhere,forinstance,oldermemberscanusetheirexperienceforthebenefitofthewholegroup,whilestrongerindividualsdefend
theweak.Finally,thereisaphenomenonwhichmayberegardedasaprehumananalogyofproperty:thenotionofterritoryinanimalsociety.

Socialismisequallyhostiletothosespecificallyhumanfactorswhichaccountfortheindividualityofman,tothoseaspectsoflifeinwhichmancanparticipateonlyasan
individualityandcannotbereplacedbyanyoneelse.Culturalcreativity,particularlyartisticcreativity,isanexample.Wehaveseenhowthemostoutstandingthinkersof
thesocialisttrend(Plato,Deschamps)elaboratemeasuresthatprovideforthecompletedisappearanceofculture.Andinperiodswhensocialistmovementsareonthe
increase,thecallforthedestructionofcultureisheardevermoredistinctly.ItissufficienttorecalltheregulardestructionofbooksinmonasterylibrariesbytheTaborites
andthedestructionofworksofartbytheAnabaptistsinMnster.IntheyearsofWarCommunism,ananticulturetrendwasquiteevident,aswehavealreadyindicated.
Thecontemporaryleftradicalsocialistmovements,manifestthesameattitudetowardculture.Cultureisunderstoodbythemtobe"bourgeois"and"repressive"thegoalof
artisunderstood
[265]

asan"explosion"orthedestructionofculture.ThetheoreticalframeworkisderivedfromFreud,AdornoandMarcuse,withtheirnotionoftheuncompromisingconflict
betweentheinstinctsandoppressiveculture.TheprominentleftistH.M.Enzensberger,forinstance,criticizesliteracyandliteratureastypicallybourgeoiselementsof
culture.Heconsidersliteracytopossess"classcharacter"andtobesubordinatedtonumeroussocial"taboos."Therulesoforthographyareimposedbysocietyasnorms
andtheirviolationispunishedorcondemned."Intimidationbymeansofawrittentexthasremainedawidespreadphenomenonofclasscharacterevenindeveloped
industrialsocieties.Itisimpossibletoremovetheseelementsofalienationfromwrittenliterature."(145:p.181)Althoughtheauthordoesnotforeseeacomplete
destructionofliteracy,literatureandbooks,heassumesthattheywillbesupplantedbysuchmeansofcommunicationasradioandtelevision(perfectedtothepointwhere
eachreceiverwillfunctionsimultaneouslyasatransmitter).Inthenewinformationsystem,thewrittenwordwillbepreservedonlyasan"extremecase."

Oneofthemostsignificantfeaturesofspirituallifedirectlylinkedtotheexistenceofindividualityisasenseofindividual(andnotcollective)responsibilityforthefateof
one'ssocialgroup,city,nation,orofallmankind.WithPlatobeingperhapstheonlyexception,allsocialistideologistsarehostiletosuchanattitude.Themedievalheretics,
aswehaveseen,calledeitherforaradicalbreakwiththeworldandlifeorfortheirdestruction.Thispointofviewwaspreservedinothersocialistmovementsfromthe
Reformationuntilourday.Inrecentcenturiesithasfoundsupportinthenotionthathistoryisgovernedbyironlawsaspreciseasthelawsofphysicsandthatitsbasic
directioncouldnotbeaffectedbyhumanwill.Fourier'spositionistypical.(Fourierisaforthrightandhonestwriterwhosephilosophicalviewswerenotdistortedbythe
exigenciesofpracticalactivity,byconsiderationsofpartypoliticsorrevolutionarystruggle.)Inanswertothequestionwhatoneshoulddowhileawaitingtheonsetofthe
futureorder,hesays:"Donotsacrificethegoodofthepresenttothegoodofthefutureenjoythemomentavoidanymatrimonialorotherunionwhichdoesnotsatisfy
yourpassionsnow.Whyworkforthesakeofthefuturegood?Forthisgoodwillexceedyourmosttreasureddesiresinanycase,andinthecombinedsocialstructure
youwillbethreatenedbyonlyonetroubletheimpossibilityofmakingyourlifetwiceas
[266]

longsoastoexhaustthehugecircleofpleasuresawaitingyou."(97:p.293)

Finally,humanindividualityfindsitsgreatestsupportanditshighestappreciationinreligion.OnlyasapersonalitycanmanturntoGodandonlythroughthisdialoguedoes
herealizehimselfasapersoncommensuratewiththepersonofGod.Itisforthisveryreasonthatsocialistideologyandreligionaremutuallyexclusive.(Ofcourse,ifeither
oftheseworldviewsisunderdeveloped,theycancoexistforacertaintime.)Itisnaturaltoseeherethecauseofthathatredforreligionwhichistypicalofthe
overwhelmingmajorityofsocialistdoctrinesandstates.

Thesameapproachmakesmorecomprehensiblethecurioustraitsweobservedinthe"ConspiracyofEquals"(seePartOne,ChapterIII,Section4,above):thenaIve
adventurism,thearrogantboastfulness,thedispositiontopettydishonestyanddisruptivebehavior,acertaininanitythatgavethewholemovementasomewhatcomicand
Gogolianflavor.Thesefeaturesareinherentinamajorityofsocialistmovementsintheinitialperiodoftheirdevelopment.Amonganarchisticandnihilisticcurrentsin
Russia,theyfoundultimateexpressionin"Nechayevism,"sobrilliantlydescribedbyDostoyevskyinThePossessed.EarlyMarxismexhibitssimilartraitsquitevividly.For
example,thereistheincrediblehistoryofthewritingofthefirstcriticalreviewsonVolumeIofCapitalallcomposedanonymouslybyEngels.HeofferedMarxtowrite
two,thenfourorfivereviewarticles"fromdifferentpointsofview"or"fromabourgeoispointofview."MeanwhileMarxprovidedhimwithdetailedinstructionsonwhat
topraiseandwhattodisagreewithforthesakeofauthenticity.Marxwrites:"Inthisway,Ishouldthink,itmightbepossibletohoodwinkthatSwabianMaier[theeditor
ofanewspaper].Nomatterhowinsignificanthispaperis,itisstillapopularoracleforallthefederalistsinGermanyandisreadabroadaswell.""It'shilarioushowboth
magazineshavetakenthebait,"EngelsinformsMarx.InthefirstyearaftertheappearanceofthebooksevenreviewsappearedfiveofthembyEngels,oneeachbyhis
friendsKugelmanandSiebel,whofollowedEngels'lead.Asaresult,Marxcouldsay:"Theconspiracyofsilenceinthebourgeoisandreactionarypresshasbeen
broken!"(LettertoKugelman,February11,1869)HewritestoEngels:"Jenny,aspecialistinthesematters,assertsthatyouhavedevelopedagreatdramaticandevena
example,thereistheincrediblehistoryofthewritingofthefirstcriticalreviewsonVolumeIofCapitalallcomposedanonymouslybyEngels.HeofferedMarxtowrite
two,thenfourorfivereviewarticles"fromdifferentpointsofview"or"fromabourgeoispointofview."MeanwhileMarxprovidedhimwithdetailedinstructionsonwhat
topraiseandwhattodisagreewithforthesakeofauthenticity.Marxwrites:"Inthisway,Ishouldthink,itmightbepossibletohoodwinkthatSwabianMaier[theeditor
ofanewspaper].Nomatterhowinsignificanthispaperis,itisstillapopularoracleforallthefederalistsinGermanyandisreadabroadaswell.""It'shilarioushowboth
magazineshavetakenthebait,"EngelsinformsMarx.InthefirstyearaftertheappearanceofthebooksevenreviewsappearedfiveofthembyEngels,oneeachbyhis
friendsKugelmanandSiebel,whofollowedEngels'lead.Asaresult,Marxcouldsay:"Theconspiracyofsilenceinthebourgeoisandreactionarypresshasbeen
broken!"(LettertoKugelman,February11,1869)HewritestoEngels:"Jenny,aspecialistinthesematters,assertsthatyouhavedevelopedagreatdramaticandevena
comic
[267]

talentinthismatterof'differentpointsofview'andvariousdisguises."(See3:XXIII:pp.406,445,453,458,465,473,483,484XXIV:pp.3,5,26,59,65,80,and
thegeneralsurveyin146)*

Equallybizarreistheepisodeofthe"portraits"ofprominentrevolutionaryfiguresinemigrationthatwereputtogetherfortwentyfivepoundssterlingforacertainBann,
wholaterprovedtobeanagentoftheAustrianandPrussianpolice.InresponsetoMarx'sproposal,however,Engelsimmediatelywarnshimthatitwouldberegardedas
"assistingreaction,"butconcludes:"25valentbienunpeudescandale."(3:XXI:p.359)Or,finally,takethethreatstoblackmailtheircomradesinarms:"Doesn'tthis
bruteunderstandthatifonlyIsodesire,hewouldbeuptohisearsinastinkingswamp?Ihavemorethanahundredofhislettersinmypossession.Hasheforgotten
that?"(MarxwritingaboutFreiligrath,3:XXII:p.493)

Thecorrespondenceofthefoundersofthematerialistapproachtohistoryaboundsinsuchpassages.Thesametraitsareevidentintoday'smoreextremeleftmovements
inAmericaandWesternEurope,andoftengivethesemovementsaratherfrivolouscharacter.(Cf.147)

Togetabetterfeelingforthecharacteristicsofthesephenomena,itisworthwhilejuxtaposingthemwithsimilarepisodesfromthesphereofreligion,orwithnationalistic
movementswherecompletelyunknownindividualsorsmallgroupsfirstlaunchtheirideas.Take,forexample,CaptainIlyin,thefounderofthesectof"ForestBrethren"or
"Jehovists"attheendofthenineteenthcenturyinRussiahewaspersecutedallhislifeandspentfourteenyearsinharshconfinementintheSolovetskyMonastery.One
canrejecthisreligiousideas,butitisimpossiblenottobestruckbyhisprofounddignityandmoralstrength,whichneverlefthiminthecourseofhismanyordeals.There
arethousandsofsuchexamples.Itwouldseemthatmanypeopleleadersofthemovementsinparticulardonotderivefromsocialistideologythesamesortofstrength
andselfconfidence.Thiscomesonlyattheheightofsuccesswhenthemovementattractsthebroadmasses.Here,aselsewhere,Marx'swordsturnouttobetothepoint,
ifweunderstandthemasreferringtohimself:"Theseideasdonotgivestrengthofthemselvesbutbecomeaforcewhentheyholdswayoverthemasses."Thereasonsare
clearinthelightoftheabovediscussion:

*Inthisconnection,Engels'reproachtoLoriaappearsinadifferentlight:"Theimportunatecharlatanismofselfaggrandizement,""successachievedwiththehelpofclamorous
friends."Seep.211n.,above.

[268]

anideologythatishostiletohumanpersonalitycannotserveasapointofsupportforit.

Wecanseethatallelementsofthesocialistidealtheabolitionofprivateproperty,family,hierarchiesthehostilitytowardreligioncouldberegardedasamanifestation
ofonebasicprinciple:thesuppressionofindividuality.Itispossibletodemonstratethisgraphicallybylistingthemoretypicalfeaturesthatkeepappearinginsocialist
theoryandpracticeovertwoandahalfthousandyears,fromPlatotoBerlin's"CommuneNo.1,"andthenconstructingamodelofan"ideal"(albeitnonexistent)socialist
society.Peoplewouldwearthesameclothingandevenhavesimilarfacestheywouldliveinbarracks.Therewouldbecompulsorylaborfollowedbymealsandleisure
activitiesinthecompanyofthesamelaborbattalion.Passeswouldberequiredforgoingoutside.Doctorsandofficialswouldsupervisesexualrelations,whichwouldbe
subordinatedtoonlytwogoals:thesatisfactionofphysiologicalneedsandtheproductionofhealthyoffspring.Childrenwouldbebroughtupfrominfancyinstatenurseries
andschools.Philosophyandartwouldbecompletelypoliticizedandsubordinatedtotheeducationalgoalsofthestate.Allthisisinspiredbyoneprinciplethedestruction
ofindividualityor,atleast,itssuppressiontothepointwhereitwouldceasetobeasocialforce.Dostoyevsky'scomparisonstotheanthillandthebeehiveturnouttobe
particularlyaptinthelightofethologicalclassificationsofsociety:wehaveconstructedamodeloftheanonymoussociety.
[269]

X.
TheGoal
ofSocialism
Difficultiesinunderstandingsocialistideologyarisewhenwetrytocorrelateitsdoctrinalprescriptionsfortheorganizationofsocietywiththeactualformsofthese
principlesastheyarerealizedinhistory.Forexample,thepictureofasociety"inwhichthefreedevelopmentofeachwillbethepreconditionofthefreedevelopmentof
all"containsnocontradiction.Butwhenthe"leadingtheoretician"assertsthatthecreationofthisharmoniousmanisachievedbyshooting,wearefacetofacewitha
paradox.Theviewofsocialismtowhichwehavecomeencountersthesamekindofdifficultiesandmustbetestedbythismeansforinconsistency.Itisnotenoughtosay
thatallthebasicprinciplesofsocialistideologyderivefromtheurgetosuppressindividuality.Itisnecessaryalsotounderstandwhatthistendencyportendsformankind
andhowitarises.Weshallbeginwiththeformerquestion.

Attheendoftheprecedingchapterwesketchedthe"ideal"socialistsocietyasitappearsintheclassicalwritingsofsocialism.Ofthefeaturesenumerated,weshall
consideronlyone:stateupbringingofchildrenfrominfancysothattheydonotknowtheirparents.Itisnaturaltobeginwiththisaspectofthesocialistideal,ifonly
becauseitwouldbethefirstthingthatanindividualbornintothissocietywouldface.ThismeasureissuggestedwithstrikingconsistencyfromPlatotoLiadov,aleading
Soviettheoreticianofthe1920s.Inthe1970s,theJapanesepolicearrestedmembersofthe"RedArmy,"aTrotskyiteorganization,whichwasresponsibleforanumberof
murders.Althoughthisgroupnumberedonlyafewdozenpeople,ithadalltheattributesofarealsocialistpartytheoreticians,asplitonthe
[270]

questionofwhetherrevolutionshouldoccurinonecountryorintheentireworldatonce,terroragainstdissidents.Thegroupestablisheditselfinalonelymountainregion.
Andthesametraitsurfacedhere:theytooknewbornchildrenawayfromtheirmothers,entrustedthemtootherwomenforupbringingandfedthemonpowderedmilk,
despitedifficultiesinobtainingit.

LetusquotefromabookbythemodernethologistEiblEibesfeldt,whichwillhelpusevaluatethebiologicalsignificanceofthismeasure:

Itisespeciallyinthesecondhalfofthefirstyearoflifethatachildestablishespersonaltieswithitsmotherorapersonsubstitutingforher(anurse,amatron).
questionofwhetherrevolutionshouldoccurinonecountryorintheentireworldatonce,terroragainstdissidents.Thegroupestablisheditselfinalonelymountainregion.
Andthesametraitsurfacedhere:theytooknewbornchildrenawayfromtheirmothers,entrustedthemtootherwomenforupbringingandfedthemonpowderedmilk,
despitedifficultiesinobtainingit.

LetusquotefromabookbythemodernethologistEiblEibesfeldt,whichwillhelpusevaluatethebiologicalsignificanceofthismeasure:

Itisespeciallyinthesecondhalfofthefirstyearoflifethatachildestablishespersonaltieswithitsmotherorapersonsubstitutingforher(anurse,amatron).
Thiscontactisthepreconditionforthedevelopmentof"primarytrust"(E.H.Erikson),thebasisfortheattitudetowardoneselfandtheworld.Thechild
learnstotrusthispartner,andthispositivebasicorientationisthefoundationofahealthypersonality.Ifthesecontactsarebroken,"primarydistrust"
develops.Aprolongedstayinthehospitalduringthechild'ssecondyearmay,forexample,leadtosuchresults.Thoughthechildwilltryeventhereto
establishclosecontactwithamothersubstitute,nonursewillbeabletodevoteherselfintensivelyenoughtoaninfantforaclosepersonaltietobe
established.Nursesconstantlychange,andsothecontactsthatariseareconstantlybroken.Thechild,deceivedinhisexpectationsofcontact,fallsintoa
stateofapathyafterabriefoutburstofprotest.Duringthefirstmonthofhisstayinthehospitalhewhinesandclingstoanyoneavailable.Duringthesecond
monthheusuallycriesandlosesweight.Duringthethirdmonthsuchchildrenonlyweepquietlyandfinallybecomethoroughlyapathetic.Ifafterthreetofour
months'separationtheyaretakenhome,theyreturntonormal.Butiftheystayinthehospitallonger,thetraumabecomesirreversible....Inoneorphanage
whereR.Spitzstudiedninetyonechildrenwhohadbeenseparatedfromtheirmothersinthethirdmonthoftheirlives,thirtyfourdiedbeforetheyreached
theageoftwo.Thelevelofdevelopmentofthesurvivorswasonly45percentofnormalandthechildrenwerealmostlikeidiots.Manyofthemcouldneither
walknorstandnorspeakatagefour.(148:p.234)

Thismaybeappliedtothewholeofasocietybuiltontheconsistentimplementationofsocialistideals.Notonlypeoplebutevenanimalscannotexistifreducedtothelevel
ofthecogsofamechanism.Evensuchaseeminglyelementaryactaseatingisnotreducibletothemeresatiationoftheorganism.Forananimaltoeat,itisnotenoughthat
itbehungryandthatfoodbeavailablethefoodmustbeenticing,"appetizing,"aswell.Andinmorecomplexactionsinvolvingseveral,individuals,suchasraisingof
young,thecommondefenseofterritoryorhunting,animalsestablishrelationsthatusuallyareritualisticin
[271]

natureandthatelicitgreatexcitementandundoubtedlyprovidedeepsatisfaction.Foranimals,thesetiesconstitute"themeaningoflife"iftheyarebroken,theanimal
becomesapathetic,doesnottakefood,andbecomesaneasyvictimforapredator.Toafargreaterextent,thisappliestoman.Butforhim,alltheaspectsoflifethat
makeitattractiveandgiveitmeaningareconnectedwithmanifestationsofindividuality.Therefore,aconsistentimplementationoftheprinciplesofsocialismdeprives
humanlifeofindividualityandsimultaneouslydepriveslifeofitsmeaningandattraction.Assuggestedbytheexampleoftheorphanedchildren,itwouldleadtothephysical
extinctionofthegroupinwhichtheseprinciplesareinforce,andiftheyshouldtriumphthroughtheworldtotheextinctionofmankind.

Buttheconclusionthatwehavereachedhasyettobetestedbyhistorybecausethesocialistidealshavenowhereachievedcompleteimplementation.Theprimitivestates
oftheancientOrientandpreColumbianAmericahadaveryweaklydevelopedsocialistideology.InkeepingwithShangYang'sprinciple("Whenthepeopleareweak
thestateisstrongwhenthestateisweakthepeoplearestrong"),particularlystrong,conservativeandlonglivedstatestructureswerecreated.Inthesestates,however,
theprincipleofthe"weakpeople"wasunderstoodonlyinthesenseofexternal,physicallimitationschoiceofwork,placeofresidence,severelimitationsonprivate
property,thelargenumberofofficialduties.Thesedutiesdidnottouchthelifewithinthefamilyorcutdeeplyintoman'ssoul.Theywerenotideologicallyinspired,andit
wasapparentlythesamepatriarchalqualitythatpreservedthesestatesfromdyingoutbut,ontheotherhand,leftthemdefenselessinthefaceofnewspiritualforcescalled
forthbytheabruptshiftsofthefirstmillenniumB.C.

Thesocialiststatesofthetwentiethcenturyarealsofarfrombeingamodelofthecompleterealizationofsocialistideals.Butonemustnotethatwhensurvivalisatstake,
itwasachievedinthesestatespreciselybygivingupsomefundamentalsocialistprinciple.ThisoccurredwiththeintroductionoftheNewEconomicPolicyinSovietRussia
andwiththehaltorderedbyStalininthepersecutionofreligionduringWorldWarII.

However,itispossibletopointoutanumberofsimilarsituationswhichmayserve,thoughindirectly,tosupportourpointofview.

Ithappensnotinfrequentlythatanationorasocialgroupdiesoutnotbecauseofeconomicreasonsorduetodestructionbyenemies
[272]

butbecausethespiritualconditionsofitsexistencearedestroyed.Forexample,H.G.WellswrotethefollowingaftervisitingPetrogradin1920:"Themortalityrate
amongtheintellectuallydistinguishedmeninRussiahasbeenterriblyhigh.Much,nodoubt,hasbeenduetogeneralhardshipoflife,butinmanycasesIbelievethatthe
sheermortificationofgreatgiftsbecomefutilehasbeenthedeterminingcause.TheycouldnomoreliveintheRussiaof1919thantheycouldhavelivedinaKaffir
kraal."(1:p.57)

Anotherexampleoffargreaterscopeinvolvestheconfrontationofprimitivepeopleswithmoderncivilization.Themajorityofethnographersnowagreethatthemaincause
ofthedyingoutofthesepeopleswasnotphysicaldestructionorexploitationbyEuropeansorcontagiousdiseaseoralcoholbutthedestructionoftheirspiritualworld,
theirreligionandtheirrituals.Forexample,theprominentspecialistinthecultureoftheAustralianaborigines,A.Elkin,paintsthefollowingpicture:

Whatthenisthissecretlifeoftheaborigines?Itisthelifeapartalifeofritualandmythology,ofsacredritesandobjects.Itisthelifeinwhichmanreally
findshisplaceinsocietyandinnature,andinwhichheisbroughtintouchwiththeinvisiblethingsoftheworldofthepast,presentandfuture.Everynowand
thenwefindthetribe,orgroupsfrommorethanonetribe,goingapartfromtheworkadayworld.Aspecialcampisarrangedwherethewomenremain
unlesssomeofthemarecalledupontoplayasubsidiarypartinaceremony.Thenthemengoonamileorsotoasecretsiteortositeswheretheyspend
hours,ormaybedaysandweeksandevenmonths,singingandperformingrites,andinsomecaseseveneatingorsleepingthere.Whentheyreturnlaterto
theworldofsecularaffairstheyarerefreshedinmindandspirit.Theynowfacethevicissitudesofeverydaylifewithanewcourageandastrengthgained
fromthecommonparticipationintherites,withafreshappreciationoftheirsocialandmoralidealsandpatternsoflife,andanassurancethathaving
performedtheriteswellandtruly,allwillbewellwiththemselvesandwiththatpartofnaturewithwhichtheirlivesaresointimatelylinked.(149:pp.162
163)

...Themissionaryorcivilizingagentmaybesuccessfulinputtinganendtoinitiationandothersecretrites,oringettingsuchagripovertherisinggeneration
thattheoldmenmaketheinitiationamereformandnotanentryintothefullsecretlifeofthetribe.Butthisimpliesabreakdownoftribalauthorityandaloss
oftheknowledgeof,letalonetherespectfor,thoseideals,sentimentsandsanctionswhichareessential,totribalcohesionandinAustralia,suchacondition
istheaccompaniment,andacauseoftribalextinction.(149:p.161)

[273]

AndG.Childewrites:"Anideology,howeverremotefromobviousbiologicalneeds,isfoundinpracticetobebiologicallyuseful,thatis,favorabletothespecies'survival.
Withoutsuchspiritualequipment,notonlydosocietiestendtodisintegrate,buttheindividualscomposingthemmayjuststopbotheringtokeepalive.The'destructionof
 [273]

AndG.Childewrites:"Anideology,howeverremotefromobviousbiologicalneeds,isfoundinpracticetobebiologicallyuseful,thatis,favorabletothespecies'survival.
Withoutsuchspiritualequipment,notonlydosocietiestendtodisintegrate,buttheindividualscomposingthemmayjuststopbotheringtokeepalive.The'destructionof
religion'amongprimitivepeoplesisalwayscitedbyexpertsasamajorcauseintheirextinctionincontactwithwhitecivilization....Evidentlysocietiesofmencannotliveby
breadalone."(150:p.8)

Anexamplewhichpartlyreferstothesamesortofphenomenonand,atthesametime,bringsusbacktothemainthemeofourinvestigationisthefallinthebirthrate
amongtheGuaraniIndiansintheJesuitstate.TheJesuitswerecompelledtoresorttovariousmeansofpressureontheIndiansinthehopeofincreasingthepopulation.
OnecanassumethattheDraconianlawsagainstabortionintheIncastatewerealsoconnectedwithafallingbirthrate.Finally,shouldwenotviewinthesamewaythefact
thattheRussians,whowerethemostrapidlygrowingnationinEuropeatthebeginningofthecentury,nowbarelymaintaintheirnumber?

Webeganwithanexampleinwhichonecandemonstrateexperimentallytheconsequencesofimplementingonlyoneprincipleinthesocialistideal,namely,theabolitionof
thefamily.Otherexamplesillustratetheimpactonsocietyofthepartialdemolitionofitsspiritualstructure(culture,religion,mythology).What,then,canbesaidofthe
possiblesituationwherethesocialistidealwouldbeembodiedworldwide(sinceitevidentlycanreachitsfullpotentialonlywhenithasoverruntheentireworld)?Itis
hardlypossibletodoubtthatthesametendencieswouldthenfindtheircompleteexpressionintheextinctionofallofmankind.

Thisconclusionmaybemademorespecificintwocomplementaryways.Ontheonehand,wemayviewourhypotheticalcaseasalimitsituationinthemathematical
sense,assomethingthatmightneveroccurinreality.Justasinmathematicstheconceptofinfinityclarifiesthepropertiesofconstantlyincreasingsequencesofnumbers,so,
too,thisultimatelimitofhistoricaldevelopmentrevealsthebasictendencyofsocialism:itishostiletowardhumanpersonalitynotonlyasacategory,butultimatelytoits
veryexistence.

Orelsewecanassumethatthecompletevictoryofsocialismisattainable.Thereiscertainlynothingthatsuggeststheexistenceofanykindoflimitbeyondwhichsocialist
principlescannotbeapplied.Itwouldseemthateverythingdependsonlyuponthedepthofthe
[274]

crisiswithwhichmankindmaybefaced.Inthiscase,onecouldregardthedeathofmankindasthefinalresulttowhichthedevelopmentofsocialismleads.

Herewetouchonthemostprofoundofallthemanyquestionssocialismevokes:Howcouldadoctrineleadingtosuchanendcomeintobeingandswaysuchtremendous
massesofpeopleoverthousandsofyears?Theanswertothisquestion,toalargeextent,dependsontheviewonetakesoftheinterrelationofsocialistideologyandthe
endpointthatwehavepostulatedabove.Aretheyquiteindependentofeachotherinthewaythattheimprovementoflivingconditionsandtheresultingpopulationcrisis
are,forinstance?(Howevercruelanddisastroustheeffectsofademographicexplosionmightbe,thefactorsthatallowittohappenaretheconsequenceofother,directly
oppositemotives.)Orperhapsthereareessentialfeaturesinsocialistideologythatlinkitdirectlywithwhatwehavededucedtobethepracticalresultofitsrigorous
implementationthedeathofmankind?Severalargumentsinclineustowardthesecondpointofview.

Tobeginwith,mostsocialistdoctrinesandmovementsareliterallysaturatedwiththemoodofdeath,catastropheanddestruction.Forthemajorityofthem,itisthisvery
moodthathasconstitutedtheirbasicinnermotivation.TheteachingoftheTaboritesistypicalhere:Inthenewagethatwasbeginning,theyasserted,Christ'slawofcharity
wouldbeabolishedandeachofthefaithfulmustwashhishandsinthebloodofthegodless.ThisisclearlyexpressedinadocumentthatoriginatedinCzechPicardcircles
butwasknownasfarawayasnorthernFrance.Thetextendswiththefollowingexhortation:

Leteachgirdhimselfwiththeswordandletbrothernotsparebrotherfather,sonson,fatherneighbor,neighbor.KillalloneaftertheothersothatGerman
hereticsshouldfleeinmobs,andwedestroyinthisworldthegainandthegreedinessoftheclergy.SowefulfillGod'sseventhCommandment,foraccording
totheApostlePaul,greedisidolatry,andidolsandidolatorsshouldbekilled,sowecanwashourhandsintheiraccursedblood,asMosestaughtthrough
exampleandinhiswriting,forwhatiswrittenthereiswrittenforouredification.(16:p.140)

ThesamemotifsaredominantintheAnabaptistrevolutioninMntzer'steachingandinMnster.Inlateryears,theyaccompanythenewupsurgeintheactivityofsocialist
movementsandaremanifestwithequalclarityinthesocialistnihilistmovementinthetwentiethcentury.ThusBakuninwrites,inaproclamationentitled"ThePrinciplesof
Revolution":
[275]

Therefore,inaccordancewithstrictnecessityandjusticewemustdevoteourselveswhollyandcompletelytounrestrainedandrelentlessdestruction,which
mustgrowinacrescendountilthereisnothingleftoftheexistingsocialforms....Wesay:themostcompletedestructionisincompatiblewithcreation,
thereforedestructionmustbeabsoluteandexclusive.Thepresentgenerationmustbeginwithrealrevolutions.Itmustbeginwithacompletechangeofall
sociallivingconditionsthismeansthatthepresentgenerationmustblindlyrazeeverythingtothegroundwithonlyonethought:Asfastandasmuchas
possible....(95:p.361)

Thoughwedonotrecognizeanyotheractivitybesidesthetaskofdestruction,weholdtotheopinionthattheforminwhichthisactivitymanifestsitselfmay
bequitevaried:poison,dagger,noose,andsoforth.Therevolutionblesseseverythinginequalmeasureinthisstruggle.(95:363)

Itisstrikingthatthemystiqueofdestructionisheretheonlymotivationraptureinitisofferedastheonlyreward,butonewhichmustoutweigheverysacrifice.Andthisis
entirelyconsistentwithadefinitionBakuninandNechayevconstantlyrepeated:"Arevolutionaryisadoomedman."(151:p.468)Deathamonguniversaldestruction this
wassubjectivelytheultimategoalwithwhichtheyluredtheiradherents.Higherfeelingscouldnothavefosteredthisactivity,fortheywereutterlydenied.

"Alltenderandgentlefeelingsofkinship,friendship,love,gratitudeandevenhonoritselfshouldbechokedoffintherevolutionary'sbreastbythesinglecoldpassionofhis
revolutionarytask.Heisnotarevolutionaryifhehaspityforanythingintheworld.Heknowsonlyonesciencethescienceofdestruction.Helivesintheworldwitha
singleaimitstotalandswiftdestruction."(151:pp.468470)

Evendreamsofthebrightfutureforthesakeofwhichallthedestructionwastooccurcouldnotserveasastimulusandwereforbiddenoutright.

"Sinceourgenerationhasitselfbeenundertheinfluenceoftheabominableconditionswhichitisnowdestroying,creationmustnotbeitstaskbutthetaskofthosepure
forcesthatwillcomeintobeinginthedaysofrenewal.Theloathsomenessofmoderncivilization,inwhichwehavegrownup,hasdeprivedusofthecapabilityofbuilding
theparadiselikestructuresofthefuturelife,ofwhichwecanhavebutthevaguestidea,andourthoughtsaretakenwithdiametricallyopposite,unpleasantmatters.For
peoplewhoarereadytostartthepracticaltaskofrevolution,weconsideritcriminaltohavethesethoughtsofthedimfuture,astheyhinderthecauseofdestruction
[276]
"Sinceourgenerationhasitselfbeenundertheinfluenceoftheabominableconditionswhichitisnowdestroying,creationmustnotbeitstaskbutthetaskofthosepure
forcesthatwillcomeintobeinginthedaysofrenewal.Theloathsomenessofmoderncivilization,inwhichwehavegrownup,hasdeprivedusofthecapabilityofbuilding
theparadiselikestructuresofthefuturelife,ofwhichwecanhavebutthevaguestidea,andourthoughtsaretakenwithdiametricallyopposite,unpleasantmatters.For
peoplewhoarereadytostartthepracticaltaskofrevolution,weconsideritcriminaltohavethesethoughtsofthedimfuture,astheyhinderthecauseofdestruction
[276]

anddelaythebeginningofrevolution....Forthepracticaltaskathand,itisapointlessspiritualcorruption."(95:p.361)

Itisoftensaidthatcertainfeaturessovividlyexpressedinnihilismthegoalofcompletedestruction,neglectofallmoralprinciples,conspiracy,terrorarepeculiartothis
movementspecifically,andthatitispreciselythesefeaturesthatdistinguishnihilismfromitsantipode,Marxistsocialism.Sometimesthisviewissupplementedbythe
opinionthatBolshevismisatypicallyRussianphenomenon,theheritageofNechayevandBakuninandaperversionofMarxism.Thisviewwasexpressed,forexample,
byKautskyinhisbooks(103and135)publishedin1919and1921.(KautskynotesthatsimilarideashadbeenexpressedbyRosaLuxemburgasfarbackas1904.)But
whattodoaboutthestrikingcoincidenceofBolshevikideologyandpracticewithnumerousstatementsbyMarxandEngels?Anattemptisusuallymadetoexplainthese
coincidencesawaybyassertingthattheparticularstatementsofMarxandEngelsarenotcharacteristicandareatoddswiththeiressentialmessage.(Opinions,however,
divergeaboutwhichpartoftheirwritingshouldbeconsideredcentral.Kautskybelievesthatthelatercorpusoftheirwritings,theworksthatappearedaftertherevolution
of1848,constitutethecentralcoreofMarxism,whichwasdistortedbyBolshevism,whilemodernsocialistsFromm,Sartreseetheearlierworksthisway.Indeed,
SartreevenspeaksaboutthoseworksbyMarxthatprecededhis"illfatedmeetingwithEngels.")

Thefactshardlysupportsuchaview.NihilismoftheBakunintypeandMarxismdevelopedfromthesamesource.Thedifferencesbetweenthem(whichexplain,
incidentally,whyBakuninhasfarlessinfluencethanMarxandEngelsonhistory)lienotinthefactthatMarxismrenouncedelementsofnihilismbutthatitaddedtothem
somenewandverysignificantelements.Marxismisbasedonthesamepsychologicalfoundationasnihilismaburninghatredforsurroundinglifethatcanbeventedonly
throughcompleteannihilationofthatlife.ButMarxismfindsameansoftransferringthispurelysubjectiveperceptionoftheworldontoanother,moreobjectiveplane.As
withart,wherepassioniskeptincheckandtransformedintocreativeworks,Marxismaccomplishedatransformationoftheelemental,destructiveemotionsthatruled
BakuninandNechayevintoastructurethatseemedincomparablymoreobjectiveandhenceconvincingtheconceptofman'ssubordinationto"immanentlaws"or"the
dialecticsofproduction."
[277]

ButtheperceptionoftheworldonwhichtheMarxiststructureisfoundedisidenticaltothatinNechayevandBakunin.ThisisparticularlyclearintheworksofMarxand
Engelswrittenforanarrowcircleofcollaboratorsand,inparticular,intheircorrespondence.(3:XXIXXIV.Itwouldseemthatthefulltextsoftheselettershavebeen
publishedonlyinRussiantranslation.)Weencounterherethesamefeelingofdisgustandseethinghatredfortheworld,beginningwiththewriters'parents:"MyoIdmanwill
havetopayplentyforthis,andincash."(EngelstoMarx,February26,1851)"Youroldmanisapig."(MarxtoEngels,November1848)"Nothingtobedonewith
myoIdwomanuntilImyselfsitonherneck."(MarxtoEngels,September13,1854)Thesamefeelingsareventedonclosefriends:"Thedoghasamonstrousmemoryfor
allsuchmuck."(AboutHeine,MarxtoEngels,January17,1853.)Thesameholdsforpartycomrades:Liebknechtisusuallycalledanass,abrute,abeast,andsoon,
even"it."(E.g.,inaletterfromMarxtoEngels,August10,1869.)Theirownpartygetsthesametreatment:"Whatsignificancedoesa'party'have,i.e.,agangofasses,
blindlybelievinginusbecausetheyconsiderusequaltothemselves....Intruthwewouldlosenothingifweweretobeconsiderednolonger'arealandadequate'
expressionofthesemediocredogswithwhomwehavespentthelastyears."(EngelstoMarx,February13,1851)Theproletariatisnotexcluded:"...stupidnonsense
regardinghisbeingcompelledtodefendmefromthatgreathatredtheworkers(i.e.,fools)feelforme."(MarxtoEngels,May18,1859)Neitherisdemocracy:"...apack
ofnewdemocraticbastards."(MarxtoEngels,February10,1851)"...democraticdogsandliberalscoundrels."(MarxtoEngels,February25,1859)Thepeopleare
sneeredat:"Well,asforlovingus,thedemocratic,thered,eventheCommunistmobneverwill."(EngelstoMarx,May9,1851)Andeventhehumanraceevokes
disgust:"Notasinglelivingsoulvisitsme,andIamgladofthat,forhumanityherecango...Thepigs!Withregards.Yours,K.M."(ToEngels,June18,1862)

ThetacticaldevicesthatderivedfromthisperceptionoflifeareverysimilartothoseusedbyNechayevofBakunin.Kautsky,whoaccusesBakuninofleadingapartyto
whichhehadappointedhimselfhead,mighthaverecalledMarx'slettertoEngels(May18,1859):"Ideclaredtothempointblank:wehavereceivedourmandateasthe
representativesoftheproletarianpartyfromnoonebutourselves.Anditisconfirmedasoursbytheexceptionalanduniversalhatredwhichallsegmentsoftheoldworld
andallthepartiesharborfor
[278]

us.Youcanimaginehowthesefoolsweretakenaback."IncriticizingBakunin'spenchantforconspiracy,KautskyshouldhavekeptinmindaletterfromEngelstoMarx
(September16,1868):"Themethodofengagingintriflesatpublicmeetingsanddoingrealbusinessonthequietjustifieditselfbrilliantly."Andinclaimingthattheideaof
terrorandviolencewasanerroroftheyoungMarxandEngels,itwouldhavebeenwelltoexplainwhyEngelswritesinAntiDhring:"Itisonlywithsighsandgroans
thathe[Dhring]admitsthepossibilitythatforcewillperhapsbenecessaryfortheoverthrowoftheeconomicsystemofexploitationunfortunately,don'tyousee,
becauseanyuseofforcedemoralizesthepersonwhousesit.Andthisinspiteoftheimmensemoralandspiritualimpetuswhichhasresultedfromeveryvictorious
revolution!"(98:p.185)AndhowisitthatintheprefacetoHistoryofthePeasantWarinGermany,EngelsadvisescontemporaryGermanstofollowtheexampleof
the"healthyvandalism"ofthePeasantWar?HowcanweexplainhiswordsinalettertoBebel:"If,thankstowar,weshouldcometopowerprematurely,thetechnicians
willbecomeourspecialenemies,andwilldeceiveandbetrayuswherevertheycan.Wewillhavetoresorttoterror...."(3:XXVIII:p.365)

AndatthesametimeitisimpossibletodenythattheseideascameintobeingattheverybeginningoftheactivityofMarxandEngels."Thisisatleastthebestthingthat
remainsforustodo,whilewearecompelledtousethepenandcannotbringourideasintolifewiththehelpofourhandsor,ifnecessary,withourfists."(EngelstoMarx,
November19,1844)Kautskyundoubtedlyknewallthesepassagesandotherslikethem,sincehetookpartintheeditingoftheGermaneditionoftheMarxEngels
correspondence,fromwhichmostexpressionsofthistypewereeliminatedbytheeditors.ItisclearfromhisbookswhatitwasthatevokedsuchdislikeforBolshevism
andthedesiretoprove,atanycost,thatitdistortsMarxism:theastonishingcontagiousnessofBolshevikideasandtheirrapiddiffusionintheWesternsocialistparties
raisedtheoldfearsof"Russiandominance"intheInternational.(ThismisgivingwasfirstvoicedbyEngelsaboutBakunin.)

Theotherlinkconnectingsocialistideologywiththeideaofhumanity'sdemiseisthenotionofmankind'sinevitabledeaththatispresentinmanysocialistdoctrines.We
haveseen,forinstance,thattheCathars,whoseteachingcontainedideasofasocialistcharacter,believedthatafterthefallenangelsarefreedfrommaterialcaptivity,the
remaining
[279]

peoplewilldie,andtheentirematerialworldwillbeplungedintoprimevalchaos.

Asasecondexample,wetaketheviewsofthefutureofmankindheldbythreeprominentideologuesofsocialism:SaintSimon,FourierandEngels.InSaintSimon'sOn
UniversalGravitationthereisasectionon"TheFutureoftheHumanRace."Here,indetailandwithgreatfeeling,hedescribesthedeathofmankindpresentedin
reversechronologicalorderforeffect,somethinglikeafilmshownbackward.

Ourplanethasatendencytodesiccation....Onthebasisoftheseobservations,geologistsarriveattheinevitableconclusionthatatimewillcomewhenour
planetwillhavedriedupcompletely.Itisclearthatitwillthenbecomeuninhabitableand,consequently,fromacertainpointonwardthehumanracewill
graduallybegintodwindle....SectionTwo:Atthebeginningofthissectionweshalldescribethesensationsofthelastman,ashediesafterhavingdrunkthe
Asasecondexample,wetaketheviewsofthefutureofmankindheldbythreeprominentideologuesofsocialism:SaintSimon,FourierandEngels.InSaintSimon'sOn
UniversalGravitationthereisasectionon"TheFutureoftheHumanRace."Here,indetailandwithgreatfeeling,hedescribesthedeathofmankindpresentedin
reversechronologicalorderforeffect,somethinglikeafilmshownbackward.

Ourplanethasatendencytodesiccation....Onthebasisoftheseobservations,geologistsarriveattheinevitableconclusionthatatimewillcomewhenour
planetwillhavedriedupcompletely.Itisclearthatitwillthenbecomeuninhabitableand,consequently,fromacertainpointonwardthehumanracewill
graduallybegintodwindle....SectionTwo:Atthebeginningofthissectionweshalldescribethesensationsofthelastman,ashediesafterhavingdrunkthe
lastdropofwateronearth.Weshallshowthatthesensationofdeathwillbefarmoreburdensomeforhimthanforusbecausehisowndeathwillcoincide
withthedeathoftheentirehumanrace.Then,fromthedescriptionofthemoralstateofthelastman,weshallproceedbackwardtotheinvestigationofthe
moralstateoftheremnantsofmankind,untilthatpointwhenitshallseethebeginningofitsdestructionandbecomeconvincedthatitisinevitable,a
convictionthatwillparalyzeallmoralenergy...thedesiresofthesepeoplewillbethesameasthoseofanimals.(153:pp.275276)

ItiscuriousthatSaintSimonbeginshisworkwiththisdepiction,apparentlysupposingtherebytocreateabackgroundagainstwhichthemeaningandspiritofhissystem
willbeclearer.

Engelsnotonlydepictsthedeathofeverylivingthing,butregardsdeathastheothersideoflife,oritsgoal."Itisalreadyacceptedthatthekindofphysiologywhichdoes
notconsiderdeathanessentialmomentoflifecannotberegardedasasciencethisisthekindofphysiologythatdoesnotunderstandthatthedenialoflifeisinnatetolife
itself,sothatlifeisalwaysseeninrelationtotheinevitableresultthatisinevitablypartofitfromthebeginningdeath.Thisistheessenceofthedialecticalperceptionof
life."(3:XIV:p.399)Andmoresuccinctly:"Tolivemeanstodie."

Engels'pictureoftheendisoneofthemostvividpagesofhiswriting:

Everythingthatarisesisworthyofdeath.Millionsofyearswillpass,hundredsofthousandsofgenerationswillbebornandgodownintothegrave,but
inexorablythetimewillcomewhentheweakeningwarmth

[280]

ofthesunwillnotbeabletomelttheiceadvancingfromthepoleswhenmankind,crowdedtogetherattheequator,willceasetofindthenecessarywarmth
eventhereandtheearthafrozendeadspherelikethemoonwillcircleinprofounddarknessaroundasunwhichisalsodeadandintowhichitwillfinally
fall.Theotherplanetswillexperiencethesamefate,somesooner,theotherslaterthantheearth,andinsteadofanorderly,brightandwarmsolarsystem
therewillremainacolddeadballcontinuingonitslonelywayintheuniverse.Andthefatethatwillhavebefallenoursolarsystemwillsoonerorlaterbefallall
othersystems,eventhosewhoselightwillneverreachtheearthwhilethereisonitahumaneyecapableofperceivingit."(3:XIV:pp.488489)

Fourier,whoinothercasesseemedtoshowsuchasincereattachmenttolifeanditspleasures,alsogavethisideaitsdue.His"TableofSocialMotion,"encompassingthe
entirepastandfutureoftheearth,concludesthus:"Theendoftheanimalandvegetablekingdom,afterapproximately80,000years.(Thespiritualdeathofthe
earth,thestoppingofrotationonitsaxis,theviolenttranslocationofthepolestotheequators,fixationonthesun,naturaldeath,fallanddisintegrationintheMilkyWay.)"

AlthoughEngelsforesawtheendoflifeonearthfrommaterialcausesthatdiffergreatlyfromthosesuggestedbyFourier,thebasicideaevokedhisobviousapproval:
"Fourier,aswesee,isjustasmasterfulatdialecticsashiscontemporaryHegel.Inthesamedialecticalfashionheasserts,incontrasttostatementsaboutman'scapacity
forunlimitedperfection,thateachhistoricalphasehasnotonlyitsascendinglinebutalsoitsdescendingone,andheappliesthismethodofperceptiontothefutureof
mankindasawhole.JustasKantintroducedintonaturalsciencetheideaofthefuturedeathoftheearth,Fourierintroducedintotheperceptionofhistorytheconceptof
thefuturedeathofmankind."(98:p.264)

Wenotehowdifferentthisnotionofthedeathofmankindisfromtheconceptionofthe"endoftheworld"inanumberofreligions,includingChristianity.Thereligiousidea
oftheendoftheworldpresupposes,inessence,itstranslation,afterhumanhistoryhasachieveditsgoal,intosomeotherstate.Socialistideologyputsforwardtheideaof
thecompletedestructionofmankind,proceedingfromanexternalcauseanddeprivinghistoryofanymeaning.

AnewsynthesisofsocialistideologywiththeideasofdeathanddestructionappearsinMarcuse'sworks,whichhavegreatlyinfluencedthecontemporaryleftist
movements.Here,too,MarcusefollowsFreud.
[281]

IntheFreudianview(firstexpressedinthearticle"BeyondthePleasurePrinciple"),thehumanpsychecanbereducedtoamanifestationoftwomaininstincts:thelife
instinctorErosandthedeathinstinctorThanatos(ortheNirvanaprinciple).Botharegeneralbiologicalcategories,fundamentalpropertiesoflivingthingsingeneral.The
deathinstinctisamanifestationofgeneral"inertia"oratendencyoforganiclifetoreturntoamoreelementarystatefromwhichithadbeenarousedbyanexternal
disturbingforce.Theroleofthelifeinstinctisessentiallytopreventalivingorganismfromreturningtotheinorganicstatebyanypathotherthanthatwhichisimmanentinit.

Marcuseintroducesagreatersocialfactorintothisscheme,assertingthatthedeathinstinctexpressesitselfinthedesiretobeliberatedfromtension,asanattempttorid
oneselfofthesufferinganddiscontentwhicharespecificallyengenderedbysocialfactors.IntheUtopiaproposedbyhim,thesegoalscanberealized,Marcusebelieves.
Hedescribesthisnewstateinanextremelygeneralway,makinguseofmythologicalanalogies.AgainstPrometheus,theheroofrepressiveculture,hesetsNarcissusand
OrpheusbearersoftheprinciplesuponwhichhisUtopiaisbuilt.Theysymbolize"theredemptionofpleasure,thehaltoftime,theabsorptionofdeathsilence,sleep,
night,paradisetheNirvanaprinciplenotasdeathbutaslife."(119:p.164)"TheOrphicNarcissisticimagesdoexplodeit[reality]theydonotconveya'modeofliving'
theyarecommittedtotheunderworldandtodeath."(119:p.165)AboutNarcissushesays:"Ifhiseroticattitudeisakintodeathandbringsdeath,thenrestandsleepand
deatharenotpainfullyseparatedanddistinguished:theNirvanaprinciplerulesthroughoutallthesestages."(119:p.167)

Thelessthedifferencebetweenlifeanddeathis,theweakerwillbethedestructivemanifestationsofthedeathprinciple:"ThedeathinstinctoperatesundertheNirvana
principle:ittendstowardthatstateof'constantgratification'wherenotensionisfeltastatewithoutwant.Thistrendoftheinstinctimpliesthatitsdestructive
manifestationswouldbeminimizedasitapproachedsuchastate."(119:p.234)"Intermsofthe[death]instinct,theconflictbetweenlifeanddeathisthemorereduced,
thecloserlifeapproximatesthestateofgratification."(119:p.235)

Thisviewhasamoreconcreteinterpretation:"PhilosophythatdoesnotworkasthehandmaidenofrepressionrespondstothefactofdeathwiththeGreatRefusalthe
refusalofOrpheustheliberator.
[282]

Deathcanbecomeatokenoffreedom.Thenecessityofdeathdoesnotrefutethepossibilityoffinalliberation.Liketheothernecessities,itcanbemaderationalpainless.
Mencandiewithoutanxietyiftheyknowthatwhattheyloveisprotectedfrommiseryandoblivion.Afterafulfilledlife,theymaytakeituponthemselvestodieata
momentoftheirownchoosing."(119:pp.236237)
refusalofOrpheustheliberator.
[282]

Deathcanbecomeatokenoffreedom.Thenecessityofdeathdoesnotrefutethepossibilityoffinalliberation.Liketheothernecessities,itcanbemaderationalpainless.
Mencandiewithoutanxietyiftheyknowthatwhattheyloveisprotectedfrommiseryandoblivion.Afterafulfilledlife,theymaytakeituponthemselvestodieata
momentoftheirownchoosing."(119:pp.236237)

Thereis,finally,thecasewherethenotionofthedeathofmankindcombineswithsocialistideologyinsuchawayastoaffectdirectlythefateoftheindividualmembersof
socialistmovements.IntheCatharistmovement,forexample,obvioussocialisttendencieswerejoinedtothepracticeofritualsuicide.Runciman(11)believesthattheir
idealwasthesuicideofallmankindeitherdirectlyorbynonreproduction.WemayplaceAbbeMeslier'ssuicideinthesamecategory:sointimatelywassuicidelinkedto
hisgeneralviewoftheworldthatheconcludeshisbook(Testament)onthisnote:"Thedead,withwhomIintendtotravelthesameroad,aretroubledbynothingthey
carefornothing.AndwiththisnothingIshallfinishhere.I,myself,amnownomorethannothing,andsoonshallbeinthefullsenseofthewordnothing."

ThisframeofmindwasparticularlyapparentintheRussianrevolutionarymovement.Inthearticle"OnIntellectualYouth"includedinthecollectionLandmarks[Vekhi,
1909],A.S.Izgoevwrote:"NomatterwhattheconvictionsheldbythedifferentgroupsofRussianintellectualyouthwere,inthefinalanalysis,ifwegodeeperintotheir
psychology,weseethattheyareinspiredbyoneandthesameideal....Thisisanidealofdeeplypersonal,intimatecharacter,anditfindsexpressioninthestrivingfor
death,inthedesiretoprovetooneselfandtoothersthelackoffearofdeathandareadinesstoacceptitatanymoment.Thisis,inessence,theonlylogicalandmoral
substantiationofone'sconvictionsthatisacceptedbythepurestrepresentativesofourrevolutionaryyouth."(154:p.116)Izgoevpointsoutthatthedegreeof"leftness"
amongpoliticalgroupsMensheviks,Bolsheviks,SocialRevolutionaries,AnarchistsandMaximalistsasthiswasevaluatedbytheintelligentsia,wasnotbasedonthe
politicalprogramofthegivenparty."Itisclearthatthecriterionof'leftness'lieselsewhere.'Furtherleft'ishewhoisclosertodeath,whoseworkismore'dangerous' not
forthesocialsystemagainstwhichheisstruggling,butfortheactivisthimself,theindividualinquestion."(154:p.117),

HequotesaMaximalistpamphlet:"'Werepeattothepeasantandtotheworker:whenyougotofightandtodieinthestruggle,go
[283]

andfightanddie,butforyourownrights,yourownneeds.'Inthis'goanddie'isthecenterofgravityofeverything....Butthisisnothingbutsuicide,anditisundeniable
thatformanyyearstheRussianintelligentsiawasanexampleofapeculiarmonasticorderofpeoplewhohaddoomedthemselvestodeath,andthesoonerthe
better."(154:pp.117118)

Indeed,therecollectionsoftheterroristsofthedayconveyastrangesenseofecstasypersistentlyinterfusedwiththoughtsofdeath.Hereare,forexample,someexcerpts
fromtherecollectionsofBorisSavinkov(155),speakingabouthiscollaboratorsintheattemptonPlehve'slife:"Kaliaevlovedtherevolutionasdeeplyandtenderlyas
onlythosewhogiveuptheirlivesforitcanlove....Hecametoterrorbyhisownpeculiarandoriginalrouteandsawinitnotonlythebestformofpoliticalstrugglebutalso
amoraland,perhaps,areligioussacrifice."Kaliaevusedtosaythat"aSocialRevolutionarywithoutabombisnotaSocialRevolutionary."Anotherparticipant,Sazonov,
felt"strengthbeneathKaliaev'sexpansiveness,burningfaithbeneathhisinspiredwords,andbeneathhisloveoflife,areadinesstosacrificethislifeand,evenmore,a
passionatelongingforsuchasacrifice."AndforSazonov,too,"terroristactivitymeantaboveallapersonalsacrifice."

Aftertheassassination,Sazonovwrotetohiscomradesfromprison:"Yougavemeanopportunitytoexperiencemoralsatisfactionincomparabletoanythingintheworld.
...IhadhardlycometoaftertheoperationwhenIsighedwithrelief.Finally,it'sover.Iwasreadytosingandshoutwithdelight."AthirdparticipantwasDoraBrilliant.For
her,justasfortheothers,"terror...wascolored,firstofall,withthesacrificethattheterroristmakes....Politicalquestionsdidnotinteresther.Perhapsshehadleftall
politicalactivitywithacertaindegreeofdisenchantmentherdayspassedinsilence,insilentandconcentratedcontemplationoftheinnersufferingwithwhichshewas
filled.Sheseldomlaughed,andeventhen,hereyesremainedcoldandsad.Forher,terrorpersonifiedtherevolutionherwholeworldwasenclosedwithinthemilitant
organization."Savinkovrecallsaconversationontheeveoftheassassinationattempt:

DoraBrilliantarrived.Shewassilentforalongwhile,staringinfrontofherwithherblack,sadeyes.

"Veniamin!"[BorisSavinkov'spseudonym]

"What?"

"Iwantedtosay..."Shestopped,asifhesitatingtofinishthesentence.

[284]

"Iwanted...IwantedtoaskagainthatIbegiventhebomb."

"You?Thebomb?"

"Iwanttotakepartintheattempt,too."

"Listen,Dora..."

"No,don'tsayanything...Ialsowantto...Imustdie...."*

Amultitudeofsimilarexamplesleadsustosupposethatthedyingand,ultimately,thecompleteextinctionofmankindisnotachanceexternalconsequenceofthe
embodimentofthesocialistidealbutthatthisimpulseisafundamentalandorganicpartofsocialistideology.Toagreaterorlesserdegreeitisconsciouslyperceivedas
suchbyitspartisansandevenservesthemasinspiration.

Thedeathofmankindisnotonlyaconceivableresultofthetriumphofsocialismitconstitutesthegoalofsocialism.

Onereaderofmyearlieressayonsocialism(156)drewmyattentiontothefactthatthisthoughthadalreadybeenexpressedinDostoyevsky's"LegendoftheGrand
Inquisitor."ItistruethatDostoyevsky'sargumentwasdirectedatCatholicism,butheconsideredsocialismtobeadevelopmentoftheCatholicismthathaddistorted
Christ'steachings.(ThisviewiselaboratedinhisarticlesthatappearedinTheDiaryofaWriter.)Indeed,thepictureoflifepresentedasanidealbytheGrandInquisitor
closelyresemblesPlatoorCampanella."Oh,weshallpersuadethemthattheywillonlybecomefreewhentheyrenouncetheirfreedomtous,andsubmittous....Yes,we
shallsetthemtowork,butintheirleisurehoursweshallmaketheirlifelikeachild'sgame,withchildren'ssongsandinnocentdance....Andtheywillhavenosecretsfrom
us.Weshallalloworforbidthemtolivewiththeirwivesandmistresses,tohaveornottohavechildren,accordingtowhethertheyhavebeenobedientordisobedient,and
theywillsubmittousgladlyandcheerfully."AndtheGrandInquisitorunderstandstheultimategoalforwhosesakethislifewillbebuilt:
Onereaderofmyearlieressayonsocialism(156)drewmyattentiontothefactthatthisthoughthadalreadybeenexpressedinDostoyevsky's"LegendoftheGrand
Inquisitor."ItistruethatDostoyevsky'sargumentwasdirectedatCatholicism,butheconsideredsocialismtobeadevelopmentoftheCatholicismthathaddistorted
Christ'steachings.(ThisviewiselaboratedinhisarticlesthatappearedinTheDiaryofaWriter.)Indeed,thepictureoflifepresentedasanidealbytheGrandInquisitor
closelyresemblesPlatoorCampanella."Oh,weshallpersuadethemthattheywillonlybecomefreewhentheyrenouncetheirfreedomtous,andsubmittous....Yes,we
shallsetthemtowork,butintheirleisurehoursweshallmaketheirlifelikeachild'sgame,withchildren'ssongsandinnocentdance....Andtheywillhavenosecretsfrom
us.Weshallalloworforbidthemtolivewiththeirwivesandmistresses,tohaveornottohavechildren,accordingtowhethertheyhavebeenobedientordisobedient,and
theywillsubmittousgladlyandcheerfully."AndtheGrandInquisitorunderstandstheultimategoalforwhosesakethislifewillbebuilt:

"Heseesthathemustfollowthecounselofthewisespirit,thedreadspiritofdeathanddestruction,andthereforeacceptlyinganddeception,andleadmenconsciouslyto
deathanddestruction,andyetdeceivethemallthewaysothattheymaynotnoticewheretheyarebeingled."(157:pp.325327)**

*"Iknowthathewasobsessedwiththeideaofdeath,"saysSartreaboutthewellknownleftistNizan."HehadbeenintheU.S.S.R.andhadspokenaboutitwithhisSoviet
comrades,andhetoldmeaboutthisonhisreturn.'Arevolutionthatdoesnotmakeusobsessedwithdeathisnorevolution.'Aninterestingthought."(143:p.81)

**Inhisletters,Dostoyevskysaysthatin"TheLegendoftheGrandInquisitor"hewantedtoshowa"synthesis"ofthefundamentalideasofcontemporarysocialism.

[285]

XI.
Conclusion
Thisparadoxicalphenomenonmaybeunderstoodonlyifweallowthattheideaofthedeathofhumanitycanbeattractivetomanandthattheimpulsetoselfdestruction
(evenifitisonlyoneofmanytendencies)playsaroleinhumanhistory.Andthereisinfactmuchevidencetosupportthishypothesis,particularlyamongphenomenathat
playanessentialroleinthespirituallifeofmankind.Quiteindependentlyofsocialism,eachoftheseleadstothesameconclusion.Wecanciteseveralexamples.

Wehaveinmindphenomenathatrelatetoavastandancientreligiousandphilosophicalcurrent:pessimismornihilism.Inthemanyvariantsofthesedoctrines,eitherthe
deathofmankindanduniversaldestructionareregardedasthedesirablegoalofthehistoricalprocess,orelseNothingnessispronouncedtheessenceoftheworldthe
goalisthentounderstandthatallrealityisbutareflectionofthisessence.VladimirSoloviev,whodevotedanarticletothenotionofpessimism,singlesoutwhathecalls
absolutepessimism,whichcorrespondstothetendencythatinterestsus.(109:X:pp.254258)ItsfirstcompleteexpressioniscontainedinBuddhism.Soloviev
characterizesBuddhismasadoctrineof"thefournobletruths:(1)Existenceissuffering(2)thecauseofsufferingissenselessdesirewhichhasneitherbasisnoraims(3)
deliverancefromthissufferingispossiblethroughdestructionofalldesire,and(4)thepathtodeliveranceleadsthroughtheunderstandingofthetiesbetweenphenomena
andobservationoftheperfectmoralcommandmentsgivenbytheBuddhathegoalofthispathisNirvana,thecomplete'extinction'ofexistence."(109:X:p.254)
[286]

IsNirvana(literally,"extinction"asintheblowingoutofaflame)actuallyawayto"Nothingness"?Buddha'sviewsonthisquestionhavebeeninterpreteddifferently.Max
Mller,forexample,thoughtthatforBuddhahimselfNirvanawasthefulfillmentandnottheeliminationofexistence,assumingthatareligionthatofferedNothingnessas
anultimategoalcouldneverhaveexisted.H.Oldenbergdevotesasectioninhisbook(158)tothisquestion.HecitesanumberofepisodeswhichcharacterizeBuddha's
attitudetothequestionwhetherthe'T'existsandwhatthenatureofNirvanais.Theimportoftheseepisodesisthesame:Buddharefusestoanswersuchquestionsandby
hisauthorityforbidshisdisciplestoconsiderthem.Butwhatisthemeaningconcealedhere?Theauthorbelievesthat"iftheBuddhaavoidsdenyingtheexistenceofthe'I,'
hedoessoonlyinordernottoperplexthelistenerswholackinsight.Inthisdenialofthequestionconcerningtheexistenceornonexistenceofthe'I,'anansweremergesin
anycase,somethingtowhichallthepremisesoftheBuddha'steachinginevitablylead:the'I'doesnotintruthexist.Or,whatisoneandthesamething:Nirvanaissimply
annihilation....ButitisclearthatthethinkerswhograspedandmasteredthisviewdidnotwanttopromoteittothestatusofanofficialdoctrineoftheBuddhistcommunity.
...Theofficialdoctrinestoppedshortofquestionsonwhetherthe'I'exists,whethertheperfectsaintlivesonordoesnotliveonafterdeath.TheGreatBuddhaissaidto
havegivennoprecept."(158:p.227)

ThefactthattheBuddhaleftunansweredthequestionsoftheexistenceofthe'I'andthenatureofNirvananaturallyledtodifferentinterpretationsoftheseproblemswithin
Buddhism.ThetwomainBuddhistsectsHnaynaandMahayanaBuddhismgiveoppositeanswerstothequestionofNirvana.InHnaynaBuddhism,Nirvanais
consideredtobethecessationoftheactivityofconsciousness.AcontemporaryIndianauthorcharacterizestheHnaynateachingasfollows:"IntheHnayna,Nirvana
becameinterpretednegativelyastheextinctionofallbeing....Thisviewisanexpressionofwearinessanddisgustwiththeendlessstrifeofbecoming,andoftherelieffound
inmereceasingofeffort.Itisnotahealthymindeddoctrine.Asortofworldhatredisitsinspiringmotive."(159:pp.590,589)InMahynaBuddhism,Nirvanais
understoodasamergingwiththeinfinite,withtheGreatSouloftheuniverse,butitisnotidentifiedwiththeannihilationofexistence.
[287]

However,itwastotheMahynatrendthatNgrjunabelonged(helivedatatimearoundthebeginningoftheChristianera).Hisfollowers,theMdhyamikas,are
sometimescallednihilists.

Ngrjunaproceedsontheassumptionthatthatwhichisnotunderstandableisnotreal.Hethenprovesthatthefollowingareneitherunderstandablenorexplicable:motion
andrest,time,causality,thenotionofthepartandthewhole,thesoul,the"I,"Buddha,Godandtheuniverse."ThereisnoGodapartfromtheuniverse,andthereisno
universeapartfromGod,andtheybothareequallyappearances."(159:p.655)"Thereisnodeath,nobirth,nodistinction,nopersistence,nooneness,nomanyness,no
comingin,nogoingforth."(159:p.655)"Allthingshavethecharacterofemptiness,theyhavenobeginning,noend,theyarefaultlessandnotfaultless,theyarenot
imperfectandnotperfect,therefore,OSariputta,hereinthisemptinessthereisnoform,noperception,noname,noconcept,noknowledge."(159:p.656)

InChina,thephilosophyofLaotse(sixthcenturyB.C.)maybeseenasapartofthenihilistcurrent.ThisistheteachingoftheTao,or"TheWay."Wefindhereacallfor
renunciationandquiescencethatvergesonthecessationofallactivity:*

Onewhoisawaredoesnottalk.
Onewhotalksisnotaware.
Ceasingverbalexpressions,
Stoppingtheentryofsensations,
Dullingitssharpness,
Releasingitsentanglements,
Temperingitsbrightness,
Andunifyingwiththeearth:
ThisiscalledtheidentityofTao.
 Ceasingverbalexpressions,
Stoppingtheentryofsensations,
Dullingitssharpness,
Releasingitsentanglements,
Temperingitsbrightness,
Andunifyingwiththeearth:
ThisiscalledtheidentityofTao.
Hence,nonearnesscanreachhimnor
distanceaffecthim.
Nogaincantouchhimnorlossdisturbhim.
Noesteemcanmovehimnorshamedistresshim.
Thus,heisthemostvaluablemanintheworld....

Muchlearningmeanslittlewisdom.

...oncetheWayislost,
TherecomesthenVirtue
Virtuelost,comesthencompassion
Afterthatmorality

*ThetextsaregiveninthetranslationofChangChungyuan(Tao:ANewWayofThinking,N.Y.,1977)andRaymondB.Blakney(LaoTzu,TheWayofLife,N.Y.,
1955).

[288]

Andwhenthat'slost,there'setiquette,
Thehuskofallgoodfaith,
Therisingpointofanarchy....

Letthepeoplebefreefromdiscernmentand
relinquishintellection,
Thentheywillbemanytimesbetteroff.
Stoptheteachingofbenevolenceandgetridofthe
claimofjustice,
Thenthepeoplewillloveeachotheroncemore.
Ceasetheteachingofclevernessandgiveupprofit,
Thentherewillbenomorestealingandfraud....

TheWiseMan'spolicy,accordingly,
Willbetoemptypeople'sheartsandminds,
Tofilltheirbellies,weakentheirambition,
Givethemsturdyframesandalwaysso,
Tokeepthemuninformed,withoutdesire,
Andknowingonesnotventuringtoact....

Tenthousandthingsintheuniversearecreatedfrom
being.
Beingiscreatedfromnonbeing....

InTaotheonlymotionisreturning
Theonlyusefulquality,weakness....

TheWayisavoid.

"Absolutepessimism"isexpressedinadifferentwayinancientScandinavianmythologyinthecollectionofsongsknownastheElderEdda.(160)Inthistradition(and
especiallyinthe"ProphecyoftheVala,"thesocalled"Voluspo"),weseeapictureofaworldruledbygodspersonifyingtheforcesoforderandlifeandelemental
destructiveforces,embodiedinthewolfFenrir,sonofLoki,heldincheckbyamagicnet.Butattheappointedhour,theWolfbreakslooseanddevoursthesunthe
worldSerpentrisesfromthebottomoftheoceanandgainsvictoryoverThor.Ashipbuiltfromthefingernailsofthedeadsailsthesea,bringinggiantswhocometofight
thegods.Allpeopleperish,heaveniscleft,theearthsinksintothesea,andthestarsfall.(Theconcludingstanzasofthe"Voluspo"describethebirthofanewworld,but
differsosharplyfromtherestofthetextthatonetendstoagreewiththescholarswhoseethisasalaterinterpolation,possiblyreflectingtheinfluenceofChristianity.)

ReturningtoSoloviev'sarticleonpessimism,wefindSchopenhauerandHartmannpresentedasthemajorEuropeanrepresentativesof
[289]

thistendency.SchopenhauerconsiderstheWorldWilltobethatessencewhichcannotbereducedtoanythingelse.But,atthesametime,allwillisdesireunsatisfied
desire,sinceithasstimulatedthemanifestationofwillhencewillissuffering."Thewillnowturnsawayfromlife....Manattainstothestateofvoluntaryrenunciation,
resignation,truecomposureandcompletewilllessness....Hiswillturnsaboutitnolongeraffirmsitsowninnernature,mirroredinthephenomenon,butdeniesit."(The
WorldasWillandRepresentation,I:section68)

TheaimofthisprocessisNothingness,achievedthroughthevoluntaryrenunciationofwill.

"Nowill:norepresentation,noworld.

"Beforeusthereiscertainlyleftonlynothingbutthatwhichstrugglesagainstthisflowingawayintonothing,namelyournature,isindeedjustthewilltolivewhichwe
ourselvesare,justasitisourworld.Thatweabhornothingnesssomuchissimplyanotherwayofsayingthatwewilllifesomuch,andthatwearenothingbutthiswilland
knownothingbutitalone....Thatwhichremainsafterthecompleteabolitionofthewillis,forallwhoarestillfullofthewill,assuredlynothing.Butalsoconversely,tothose
inwhomthewillhasturnedanddenieditself,thisveryrealworldofourswithallitssunsandgalaxies,isnothing."(op.cit.,section71)
"Nowill:norepresentation,noworld.

"Beforeusthereiscertainlyleftonlynothingbutthatwhichstrugglesagainstthisflowingawayintonothing,namelyournature,isindeedjustthewilltolivewhichwe
ourselvesare,justasitisourworld.Thatweabhornothingnesssomuchissimplyanotherwayofsayingthatwewilllifesomuch,andthatwearenothingbutthiswilland
knownothingbutitalone....Thatwhichremainsafterthecompleteabolitionofthewillis,forallwhoarestillfullofthewill,assuredlynothing.Butalsoconversely,tothose
inwhomthewillhasturnedanddenieditself,thisveryrealworldofourswithallitssunsandgalaxies,isnothing."(op.cit.,section71)

TothissystemHartmannaddstheideathattheworldprocessbeganthroughaninitialirrationalactofwillandconsistsofthegradualpreparationfortheeliminationofreal
existence.Theaimistoreturntononexistence,implementedbythecollectivesuicideofmankindandthedestructionoftheworld,bothofwhicharemadepossiblebythe
developmentoftechnology.

ThenotionofNothingness,whichenteredphilosophyfromtheologythroughHegel'ssystem,playsanincreasinglyimportantroleinthenineteenthcentury,untilinthe
twentiethitbecomesoneofthedominantconceptions.Forexample,MaxStirnerendshisfamousbookTheEgoandHisOwnwiththewords:"Iamtheownerofmy
mightandIamsowhenIknowmyselfasunique.Intheuniqueonetheownerhimselfreturnsintohiscreativenothing,ofwhichheisborn.Everyhigheressenceabove
me,beitGod,beitman,weakensthefeelingofmyuniqueness,andpalesonlybeforethesunofthisconsciousness.IfIfoundmyaffaironmyself,theuniqueone,thenmy
concernrestsonitstransitory,mortalcreator,whoconsumeshimself,andImaysay:
[290]

Ihavefoundedmyaffaironnothing."(161:p.246)

Butitwaswithintheframeworkofmodernexistentialism,especiallyintheworksofHeideggerandSartre,thatNothingnessfounditsmostimportantexpression.
Heideggerbelievesthatman'sindividualityperishesinthelevelingandtheimpulsetowardmediocritythatisproducedinsociety(somethingthatisconveyedbythe
untranslatableGermanlocution"man").Theonlytrueindividualityisdeath,whichisalwaysthedeathofaparticularmanandinwhichnothinglinkshimtoothers.
Therefore,amancangaingenuineexistenceonlyonthevergeofdeath,onlyinwhathecalls"beinguntodeath."(162:p.144f.)Thebeingofeveryindividualityis,from
thispointofview,merelyNochnicht[notyet],asortofperiodwhendeathhasnotyetripened.(162:p.244)Thisconcernsexistenceingeneralalso:existenceis
NothingnessandNothingnessisexistenceitself.(163:p.104)Nothingnessisthelimitofexistencedeterminingitsmeaning.ForHeideggerNothingnessisevidentlyan
activeforce,foritfunctionsDasNichtnochtet.Itdetermineshistory'smeaning,whichisrevealedintheattemptstoovercomethesenselessnessofexistenceandto
breakthroughintoNothingness.

NothingnessisalsothecentralcategoryinSartre'sprincipalphilosophicwork,BeingandNothingness.

Itisnothingnessthatconnectsconsciousnessandbeing.Itisafundamentalpropertyofconsciousness"Nothingnessisputtingintoquestionofbeingbybeingthatis,
preciselyconsciousness."(164:p.121)Consciousnesspenetratesintothecoreofbeingasawormintoanappleandhollowsitout.Asitisonlymanwhoconsciously
strivesfordestruction,heisthebearerofNothingness."ManisthebeingthroughwhomNothingnesscomestotheworld."(164:p.60)Nothingnessissocloselylinkedto
manthat,accordingtoSartre,humanbeinginitselfisalsooneofthemanifestationsofNothingness."ThebeingbywhichNothingnesscomestotheworldmustbeitsown
Nothingness."(164:p.59)

Itisinterestingtonotethatofthesetwobestknownrepresentativesofcontemporarynihilism,SartreadherestoMarxism,andHeidegger(untiltheendofWorldWarII)
inclinedtowardNationalSocialism.Heidegger,moreover,alsoviewsCommunism(i.e.,socialismoftheMarxistbrand)asasortofincompletenihilism.(165:pp.145
395)

ItseemstobenoaccidentthatthegrowthofinfluenceofnihilisticphilosophycoincidedinEuropeandintheU.S.A.withanextraordinaryinterestinBuddhism,particularly
ZenBuddhism,whichisaproduct
[291]

oftheinteractionbetweentheconceptionsofBuddhismandTaoism.Zentypicallystressestheillusorynatureoflife'sproblems,andtheirabsurdity.Forexample,Gustav
Mahler's"Kindertotenlieder"presentsanimageofasenselessallconsumingdeath,ablackholeintowhichlifecollapses.Consciousofhisapproachingdeath,Mahler
composedhis"DasLiedvonderErde."ThisworkbeginswithapoemofLiPo(aChinesepoetclosetoZen)settomusic,whichisconstantlyinterruptedbyarefrain:
"Lifeisdarknessanddeathisdarkness."ButthespectacularspreadofZenoccurredafterWorldWarII,especiallyintheU.S.A.Itwaspropagatedbysuchwellknown
modernwritersasJ.D.Salinger.TheheroofaseriesofhisstoriesdispensesZenwisdomtothosearoundhimandcommitssuicide,notasanactofdespair,butforthe
sakeoftheovercomingoftheseemingdifferencebetweenlifeanddeath.ZenwasalsothefavoritephilosophyoftheAmericanbeatniks,whofrequentlycompared
themselvestowanderingmonks.

Freud'sworldviewisalsopessimistic.Hediscernsaviciouscircleinwhichsocietyandhumanculturearelocked:culturalactivityispossibleonlyattheexpenseofthe
suppressionofsexuality,butthisincreasestheroleofaggressiveanddestructiveforcesinthepsyche,andtokeepthemincheck,stillgreaterpressuresonthepartof
socialforcesisneeded.Inthisway,cultureandsocietyarenotonlyorganicallytiedtomisfortunetheyarealsodoomedtodestruction.ThisisinconformitywithFreud's
viewontheroleofthe"deathinstinct,"aviewthatleavestolifeonlythechoiceofthe"rightpathtowarddeath."Freud'smethod,especiallyinestablishinghisbasic
concepts,isfarfromscientific.Ingeneral,Freudcannotbeverifiedwithconcretefacts,sohemustbeacceptedorrejectedonthebasisofone'sinnerfeeling.Inourday,
whenscienceislosingitsroleasanabsoluteauthority,thischaracteristicofFreud'stheoriesmaynotberegardedasadefect.InconnectionwithFreud'santhropological
andhistoricalideas,Marcusewrites:"Thedifficultiesinscientificverificationandeveninlogicalconsistencyareobviousandperhapsinsurmountable."(119:p.59)"We
useFreud'santhropologicalspeculationonlyinthissense:foritssymbolicvalue."(119:p.60)

Injustthisway,wemayregardFreud'sconceptionsnotasindisputablescientifictruthbutasevidenceofacertainperceptionoftheworld(thescopeofwhoseinfluence
maybejudgedbythesuccessFreudianismhasenjoyed).
[292]

Finally,thesametendencymaybeseenintheoriesaccordingtowhichman(oranimal)isregardedasamachine.Alltheaspectsoflifeinman(orinanimals)canbe
reducedinthiswaytotheactionofseveralsimpleforces.ThusDescartesexpressedtheopinionthatananimalisanautomatonincapableofthinking.Thesameideawas
developedbyLaMettrieinhisbookL'hommemachine.Heassertsthat"thehumanbodyisaselfstartingmachine"andthenextendsthisprincipletothehumanpsyche.
Descartes'sideawaslaterrealizedinLoeb'stheoryoftropisms,accordingtowhichtheactionsoforganismsaredeterminedbycertainsimple,physicalfactors(for
example,thebendingofaplantinthedirectionofthesunisexplainedbythefactthatsunlightretardsthegrowthonthesideofthestemthatitstrikes).Accordingto
Dembowski,thistheoryregardstheorganismas"apuppet,whoseeverymotiondependsuponsomeoutwardfactorpullingacorrespondingstring."(166:p.55)Similar
viewsbecamepopularagaininthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury,inthewakeoftheinventionofcomputers.Theoriesthatholdthatman(oranimal)isamachine
differcompletelyintheiropinionastowhatsortofmachineisinvolvedmechanical,electricorelectronic.Andasalltheseexplanationscannotbecorrectsimultaneously,
itisevidentthatthepointofdepartureineachcaseisasimilaraprioriassumption,animpulsethatderivesfromelsewhere,toprovethatmanisamachine.

Theconclusionswehavedrawnasaresultofouranalysisofsocialismarealsoconfirmed,aswesee,byaseriesofindependentarguments.Wemayformulatethese
example,thebendingofaplantinthedirectionofthesunisexplainedbythefactthatsunlightretardsthegrowthonthesideofthestemthatitstrikes).Accordingto
Dembowski,thistheoryregardstheorganismas"apuppet,whoseeverymotiondependsuponsomeoutwardfactorpullingacorrespondingstring."(166:p.55)Similar
viewsbecamepopularagaininthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury,inthewakeoftheinventionofcomputers.Theoriesthatholdthatman(oranimal)isamachine
differcompletelyintheiropinionastowhatsortofmachineisinvolvedmechanical,electricorelectronic.Andasalltheseexplanationscannotbecorrectsimultaneously,
itisevidentthatthepointofdepartureineachcaseisasimilaraprioriassumption,animpulsethatderivesfromelsewhere,toprovethatmanisamachine.

Theconclusionswehavedrawnasaresultofouranalysisofsocialismarealsoconfirmed,aswesee,byaseriesofindependentarguments.Wemayformulatethese
conclusionsasfollows:

a.Theideaofthedeathofmankindnotthedeathofspecificpeoplebutliterallytheendofthehumanraceevokesaresponseinthehumanpsyche.Itarouses
andattractspeople,albeitwithdifferingintensityindifferentepochsandindifferentindividuals.Thescopeofinfluenceofthisideacausesustosupposethat
everyindividualisaffectedbyittoagreaterorlesserdegreeandthatitisauniversaltraitofthehumanpsyche.

b.Thisideaisnotonlymanifestedintheindividualexperienceofagreatnumberofspecificpersons,butisalsocapableofunitingpeople(incontrastto
delirium,forexample)i.e.,itisasocialforce.Theimpulsetowardselfdestructionmayberegardedasanelementinthepsycheofmankindasawhole.

c.Socialismisoneoftheaspectsofthisimpulseofmankindtoward
[293]

selfdestructionandNothingness,specificallyitsmanifestationinthesphereoforganizingsociety.ThelastwordsofMeslier'sTestament("...withthisnothingI
shallendhere")expressthe"finalmystery"ofsocialism,touseFeuerbach'sfavoriteexpression.

Wehavearrivedatthisviewofsocialisminattemptingtoaccountforthecontradictionsevidentinthephenomenonatfirstglance.Andnow,lookingback,wefeel
confidentthatourapproachindeedaccountsformanyofsocialism'speculiarities.Understandingsocialismasoneofthemanifestationsoftheallureofdeathexplainsits
hostilitytowardindividuality,itsdesiretodestroythoseforceswhichsupportandstrengthenhumanpersonality:religion,culture,family,individualproperty.Itisconsistent
withthetendencytoreducemantothelevelofacoginthestatemechanism,aswellaswiththeattempttoprovethatmanexistsonlyasamanifestationofnonindividual
features,suchasproductionorclassinterest.Theviewofmanasaninstrumentofotherforces,inturn,makesitpossibletounderstandtheastonishingpsychologyofthe
leadersofthesocialistmovements:ontheonehand,thereadinessandeventhestrivingtoeraseone'sownpersonality,tosubmititcompletelytotheaimsofthemovement
(soobviousinthestatementsofPiatakovandTrotskycitedearlier)and,ontheotherhand,thecompletecollapseofwill,therenunciationofone'sconvictionsincaseof
defeat(MntzerandJohannofLeyden,Bakunininhis"Confession,"thebehaviorofZinoviev,Bukharinandothersatthetrials,etc.).Infact,iftheinstrumentisnolonger
needed,allmeaningforitsexistenceislost,andinman'ssoulthesourceofcourageandspiritualstrengthrunsdry.(Bakunin,forexample,bothbeforeandafterhis
imprisonmentisquiteadifferentpersonfromtheutterlybrokenandselfabasingauthorofthe"Confession."AndBukharin,inhisemotional"Testament,"saysthathehas
nodifferenceswithStalinandthathehashadnoneforalongtime.Hetherebydismisseshisentireactivityandevendepriveshimselfoftherighttoprotestagainsthisown
execution,sincethatwouldinvolveadisagreement.)Thispointofviewisconsistentwiththecallstouniversaldestruction,withtheattractivenessofdestructiveforceslike
warsandcrises,withtheallureofdeathandtheideaofNothingness.

Thesamesetoffactsthathasledustothepointofviewexpressedaboveallowsustodiscernthemechanismoftheforceofwhichsocialismistheincarnationandtolearn
throughwhatchannelsitactsontheindividual.

Itwouldseem,firstofall,thatthisisanexampleofactivitythat
[294]

isnotguidedbyconsciousintent.Thepropositionthatastrivingforselfdestructionisthemainimpulseinsocialismhasbeenextractedfromamultistageanalysisof
socialistideology,andisnottakendirectlyfromthewritingsofsocialistthinkersortheslogansofsocialistmovements.Itseemsthatthoseinthegripofsocialistideology
areaslittlegovernedbyanyconsciousunderstandingofthisgoalasasingingnightingaleisconcernedwiththefutureofitsspecies.Theideology'simpactisthroughthe
emotions,whichrendertheideologyattractivetomanandinducehimtobereadyforsacrificeonitsbehalf.Spiritualelationandinspirationarethekindsofemotions
experiencedbytheparticipantsinsocialistmovements.Thisaccounts,too,forthebehavioroftheleadersofsocialistmovementsinthethickofthefight,downthroughthe
agestheirseeminglyinexhaustiblereservesofenergyaspamphleteers,agitators,andorganizers.

Fortheveryreasonthatthebasicdrivingforceofsocialistideologyissubconsciousandemotional,reasonandrationaldiscussionoffactshavealwaysplayedonlya
subordinateroleinit.Thesocialistdoctrinesarereconciledwithcontradictionswithaneasereminiscentof"prelogical,"primitivethinking,whichfunctionsoutsideany
frameworkofconsistency,asdescribedbyLvyBruhl.Theyareequallyunconcernedwiththefactthatsocialistconclusionsareradicallyatoddswithexperience.Most
astonishingofallisthatthesecontradictionsdonotdiminishtheimpactofthedoctrineintheleast.

Marxismreflectsallthesetraitstoaremarkabledegree.Wellknownthinkershavepointedoutnumerousfundamentalcontradictions,eachofwhichwouldhavebeen
sufficienttodemonstratethegroundlessnessofatheorythatlaysclaimtobeingscientific.Forexample,Berdiaevdemonstratedthattheconceptofdialecticalmaterialism
iscontradictory,sinceitattributestomatteralogicalcategorydialectics.Stammler(167)showedthattheideaofhistoricaldeterminismpostulatedbyMarxism
contradictsitsownappealtoinfluencehistory,sinceitisequivalenttotakingaconsciousdecisiontoturnwiththeeartharoundthesun.(SergiusBulgakovparaphrasedthis
thoughtasfollows:"Marxismpredictstheonsetofsocialismjustasastronomypredictsthebeginningofalunareclipse,andtobringabouttheeclipseitorganizesaparty.")
TheveryheartofMarxistdoctrinethelabortheoryofvaluewasdemolishedbytheworkoftheAustrianschool(inparticularbyBhmBawerk)andhasbeen
abandonedbypoliticaleconomy.Yetevenwithoutthisheart,Marxismprovedtobecapableofsurvival.
[295]

JustasextraordinaryisthereactionofMarxistthinkerstotheexperimentalevidenceofhistoryoverthelastcentury.Take,forexample,thearticlebyProfessorRappoport
oftheUniversityofMichigan.(168:pp.3059)HecitesanumberofMarxistpredictionswhichhistoryhasdisprovedandaskswhetheritispossible"todeclarethetheory
refuted."Suchaconclusion,hedeclares,appealstopeoplewhoviewwithsuspicionanytheorybasedongeneralphilosophicalconcepts(peoplelikeBerdiaev,Bulgakov,
MaxWeberorKarlJaspers).Asfortheconcreteprojections,Rappoportacknowledgesthattheprognosisofatotalimpoverishmentofcapitalistcountriesdidnotcome
true.Butifoneconsiderspovertyonaworldwidescale,thenoneseesthatthegapbetweentherichandthepoorcountrieshasincreased.Itistruethat"theconfirmation
oftheMarxistconceptionofhistorydoesnotnecessarilyfollowfromthis.ButtherearisesacertainpossibilityofanewunderstandingofthevitalconceptsofMarxist
theoryappropriatetoourtime."Afterthesearguments,whicharebeyondlogic,itremainsunclearwhetherornotMarxisttheoryiscorrectinthelightofhistorical
verification.Theauthorevadesthisquestionand,withoutbenefitofproof,acceptsthatinsomewaysitis"viable,"asifitwerepossibletoretainpartofastructuredworld
viewandthrowawaytherest.

OrconsiderSartre,whodeclared,intheheydayoftheStalinepoch,thatallinformationcomingtotheWestaboutconcentrationcampsintheSovietUnionshouldbe
ignored,eveniftrue,asitmightcausedespairintheFrenchproletariat(citedinTheGreatTerrorbyR.Conquest).SartrenowconsidersSovietMarxismtobe
"repressive"and"bureaucratic,"andoftheFrenchworkingclasshesays:"Whatisaproletariatifitisnotrevolutionary?Anditis,indeed,notrevolutionary."(143:p.166)
Inwhatwaywerehisjudgmentsinthefiftiesincorrect?Hedoesnotinformus.Nofundamentallynewfactsseemtohavecometolightintheinterim.Thereforethechange
inhispointofviewcannotbeattributedtoarationalunderstandingofthesituation,andhisnewinfatuationwiththe"directdemocracy"inChinadoesnotproducethat
viewandthrowawaytherest.

OrconsiderSartre,whodeclared,intheheydayoftheStalinepoch,thatallinformationcomingtotheWestaboutconcentrationcampsintheSovietUnionshouldbe
ignored,eveniftrue,asitmightcausedespairintheFrenchproletariat(citedinTheGreatTerrorbyR.Conquest).SartrenowconsidersSovietMarxismtobe
"repressive"and"bureaucratic,"andoftheFrenchworkingclasshesays:"Whatisaproletariatifitisnotrevolutionary?Anditis,indeed,notrevolutionary."(143:p.166)
Inwhatwaywerehisjudgmentsinthefiftiesincorrect?Hedoesnotinformus.Nofundamentallynewfactsseemtohavecometolightintheinterim.Thereforethechange
inhispointofviewcannotbeattributedtoarationalunderstandingofthesituation,andhisnewinfatuationwiththe"directdemocracy"inChinadoesnotproducethat
impressioneither,foritleavesunansweredsuchelementaryquestionsaswhythedetailsofthis"directdemocracy"shouldbesocarefullyconcealedfromforeigners?Why
areforeignreportersforbiddeneventoreadthewallposters?

Allthesecharacteristicspromptustojuxtaposetheforcedisplayedinsocialismwithinstinct.Instinctiveactionsalsohaveanemotional
[296]

coloring,theirfulfillmentevokesafeelingofsatisfaction,andtheimpossibilityoffulfillingthem(theabsenceofsignals"switchingon"anaction)causesanxiety,theso called
appetitivebehavior.Ethologistsspeakofthe"stateofenthusiasm"todescribeacommoninstinctiveactioninmanwhichisconnectedwiththedefenseofwhatone
considersmostprecious.

Furthermore,instinctscombinebadlywithunderstandingandareevenincompatiblewithit:ifananimalcanachieveagoalbyvirtueofitsunderstanding,itwillnever
attempttoachievethesamegoalbyinstinct.Instinctiveactionsarenotalteredbytheachievementofagoal,sincetheyarenotaresultoftraining.Inman,theinfluenceof
instinctisusuallytolowercriticalabilities(forexample,inthebehavioroflovers),andargumentsagainstthegoalsoughtbyinstinctarenotonlydisregardedbutperceived
assomehowbase.Forallthesereasons,thetermproposedbyFreudthe"deathinstinct"reflectsmanyfeaturesofman'simpulsetowardselfdestruction,which,aswe
haveargued,isthedrivingforceofsocialism.(WeuseFreud'stermbutdonotacceptthemeaningFreudascribedtoitseetheearlierdiscussionandtheconsiderations
offeredbelow.)Thetermisappliedwiththereservationthatitonlypartiallydescribesthephenomenonthisissofortworeasons.First,theinstinctinquestionisnotthatof
separatepeoplebutofallmankind,whichinthiscaseistreatedasakindofindividuality.Itisevidentthatsuchanapproachrequiresasoundsubstantiation.Second,
instinctpresupposestheachievementofacertainaimusefulfortheindividualoratleastforthespecies.Thisisextremelydifficulttoreconcilewiththe"deathinstinct,"and
untilitcanbeshownthatthestrivingforselfdestructionplayssomeusefulroleformankind,theanalogywithinstinctshouldberegardedaspartial,illustratingonlysome
aspectofthisphenomenon.

Categoriessuchasthestrivingforselfdestructionorthe"deathinstinct"arepopularlyassociatedwithdualism,theconceptionoftwoequallypowerfulforces,the"life
instinct"andthe"deathinstinct,"whichdeterminetheflowofhistory.Itwouldbeunfortunateiftheviewsexpressedherewereinterpretedassimplyavarietyofdualism,
fordualismtendstobeanunstableandfragmentedworldview.Inthepresentstudyweexaminedtwodualisticphilosophies.Oneisthe'religionoftheManicheansandthe
Cathars,whichundertakestoexplainthephenomenonofevilbytheexistenceofgoodandevilgods.
[297]

Butbyforceofthisreligion'slogic,thegoodGodwasexpelledfromtheworld,andhencethegroundfortheexistenceofgoodintheworldalsodisappeared.S.
Runciman,astudentofthisreligion,believesthattheCathars,proceedingfromtheinexplicabilityofevil,arrivedattheinexplicabilityofgood.(11:p.175)

Anotherdualistictheory,Freudianism,underwentastrikinglysimilarprocessofevolution.Freudbeganwithanassertionoftheuniversalroleofsexuality,regardedasan
elementarylifeforce.Thedevelopmentofthisviewledhimtoadualisticconceptionofthe"lifeinstinct"orEros(coincidingwithbroadlyunderstoodsexuality)andthe
"deathinstinct"orThanatos.Butgraduallytheroleofthe"deathinstinct"(or"Nirvanaprinciple")grewuntil,in"TheEgoandtheId,"Freudcallsit"thedominanttendency
ofallmentallifeand,possibly,ofallneuralactivityingeneral."MarcusepointsoutapassageinFreud'sessay"BeyondthePleasurePrinciple"wherethepleasureprinciple
isdescribedasthe"expressionofthe"Nirvanaprinciple."Freudalsowritesthat"lifeisbutalongdetourtodeath."Marcuse'sestimationofFreud'sconceptionalmost
completelycoincideswithRunciman'sviewsofthedualismoftheCathars."TheinabilitytouncoverintheprimarystructureoftheinstinctsanythingthatisnotEros,the
monismofsexualityaninabilitywhich,asweshallsee,isthesuresignoftruthnowseemstoturnintoitsopposite:intoamonismofdeath."(119:p.28)

Evidentlydualismisingeneralatransitionalformfromonemonismtoanother,aswehaveseeninbothexampleshere.Butthesameexamplesshowthatpuremonism the
recognitionofasingleforcewhichpromotesimprovementanddevelopmentalsocontainsacontradiction.Itleadseventuallytothesuppositionoftheexistenceofanother
equallypowerfulandactiveforcemovingintheoppositedirectioni.e.,towarddualism,thentowardthemonismofthesecondforce.Butitisalsotruethattheideaof
twoforcesactingintheoppositedirectionsdoesnotnecessarilyrequiretherecognitionoftheirequalitywhichwouldbefundamentalfordualism.Toshowhowthe
viciouscircleofdualismmaybeavoided,weshouldliketopointtoPlato'ssplendidTimaeus.Platoheredevelopsthenotionoftwosoulsgoodandevilinnateinevery
livingbeing.Thewholecosmosisalsoalivingbeingandalsopossessestwosouls.Theirinfluencealternates,andthisisreflectedinanalternationofcosmiccatastrophes.
Butoutsidethecosmosandaboveitthereisdivinitytheincarnationofabsolutegood.
[298]

Returningtoourspecifictheme,weseethatthestrivingforselfdestructionexpressedinsocialismnotonlyisnotanalogousor"equivalent"tootherforcesactinginhistory,
butisfundamentallydistinctfromthemincharacter.Forexample,incontrasttoareligiousoranationalideology,whichopenlyproclaimsitsgoals,the"deathinstinct"that
isembodiedinsocialismappearsintheguiseofreligion,reason,socialjustice,nationalendeavorsorscience,andnevershowsitstrueface.Apparentlyitsactionisthe
strongerthemoredirectlyitisperceivedbythesubconsciouspartofthepsyche,butonlyonconditionthatconsciousnessremainsunaware.

Wewouldliketopropose,inapurelyhypotheticalmannerandwithoutinsistingonthispartoftheargument,thatthestrivingforselfdestructionmayperformauseful
functioninrelationtoother,creative,forcesinhistory,andthathumanityneedsitinsomewaytoachieveitsgoals.Theonlyrationalargumentinfavorofthissuppositionis
thealmostinexorableway,reminiscentofnaturalandscientificlaws,withwhichdifferentnationsoftheworld,especiallyinourcentury,havebeenfallingunderthe
influenceofsocialistideology.Thiscouldbeanindicationthatitisanexperiencethroughwhichmankindmustnecessarilypass.Theonlyquestionwouldthenbethelevel
onwhichthisexperiencewillrunitscourse.Willitbeonthespiritualplane?Asthephysicalexperienceofcertainpeoples?Orofhumanityasawhole?Soloviev,inhis
earlyworks,developedanoptimistictheoryaccordingtowhichmankind,inordertobuildlifeonreligiousprinciples,wouldfirsthavetopassthroughanextremephaseof
concernforindividuality,tothepointofhostilitytoGod,finallycomingtoGodbythisroutethroughaconsciousactofthisindividuality.Thisisthereasonforhisinterestin
thepessimisticphilosophiesofSchopenhauerandHartmann,whichSolovievregardedasasignofthecomingendoftheindividualisticepoch,astestimonyofthespiritual
deathtowardwhichthepathofareligiousdevelopmentleads.However,thispurelyspiritualexperienceprovedtobeinsufficient.Solovievhimselfcametothisrealization,
asisclearfromhislastandperhapsmostprofoundworks.

Thelasthundredyears,particularlythetwentiethcentury,havebroughtsocialismunheardofsuccess.ThishasbeenprimarilyasuccessofsocialisminitsMarxistform,
mostlybecauseMarxismhasbeenable,toanswertwoquestionsthatalwaysstandbeforesocialistmovements:wheretoseekthe"chosenpeople"i.e.,whoistodestroy
theoldworldandwhatisthesupremeauthoritysanctioningthemovement?
[299]

Theanswertothefirstquestionwastheproletariattothesecond,science.Atpresentbothanswershavebecomeineffective,atleastfortheWest."Theproletariathas
becomeasupportforthesystem,"Marcusecomplains."Whatisaproletariatifitisnotrevolutionary?Anditis,indeed,notrevolutionary,"Sartreconfirms.Andscience
Thelasthundredyears,particularlythetwentiethcentury,havebroughtsocialismunheardofsuccess.ThishasbeenprimarilyasuccessofsocialisminitsMarxistform,
mostlybecauseMarxismhasbeenable,toanswertwoquestionsthatalwaysstandbeforesocialistmovements:wheretoseekthe"chosenpeople"i.e.,whoistodestroy
theoldworldandwhatisthesupremeauthoritysanctioningthemovement?
[299]

Theanswertothefirstquestionwastheproletariattothesecond,science.Atpresentbothanswershavebecomeineffective,atleastfortheWest."Theproletariathas
becomeasupportforthesystem,"Marcusecomplains."Whatisaproletariatifitisnotrevolutionary?Anditis,indeed,notrevolutionary,"Sartreconfirms.Andscience
haslostitsprestigeanditsroleasunquestionableauthorityithasbecometoopopularandwidespread,andceasedbeingthesecretknowledgeofaselectfew.Moreover,
manyofitsgiftshaverecentlyprovedtobefarfrombeneficial.Forthisreason,Marcusecallsforreplacingsciencewithautopia,forgrantingtheroleheldbyreasonto
fantasy.Untilthesefundamentalquestionsfindanswersadequatetothenewepoch,itwillscarcelybepossibletoexpectsuccessforsocialismcommensuratewiththatof
Marxism.Meanwhiletherehavebeenandcontinuetobeattemptsinthisdirection.Forexample,thesearchforthe"chosenpeople"seemstobetherealmeaningbehind
the"problemofminorities"whichsoengagestheWesternleftistmovements:studentsorhomosexualsorAmericanblacksorlocalnationalitiesinFrance....Thereisno
doubtthatotheranswerswillbefoundthetendencytowardsocialismthatgripstheWestspeaksforthis.

Butifwesupposethatthesignificanceofsocialismformankindconsistsintheacquisitionofspecificexperience,thenmuchhasbeenacquiredonthispathinthelast
hundredyears.Thereis,firstofall,theprofoundexperienceofRussia,thesignificanceofwhichweareonlynowbeginningtounderstand.Thequestionthereforearises:
willthisexperiencebesufficient?IsitsufficientfortheentireworldandespeciallyfortheWest?Indeed,isitsufficientforRussia?Shallwebeabletocomprehendits
meaning?Orismankinddestinedtopassthroughthisexperienceonanimmeasurablylargerscale?

ThereisnodoubtthatiftheidealsofUtopiaarerealizeduniversally,mankind,eveninthebarracksoftheuniversalCityoftheSun,shallfindthestrengthtoregainits
freedomandtopreserveGod'simageandlikenesshumanindividualityonceithasglancedintotheyawningabyss.Butwilleventhatexperiencebesufficient?Forit
seemsjustascertainthatthefreedomofwillgrantedtomanandtomankindisabsolute,thatitincludesthefreedomtomaketheultimatechoicebetweenlifeanddeath.
[300]

Bibliography
RussianlanguageentriesaretranscribedaccordingtotheLibraryofCongresssystem.

1.H.G.Wells.RussiaintheShadows.NewYork,1921.

2.Aristophanes.TheCongresswomen(Ecclesiazusae).Trans.DouglassParker.AnnArbor,1967.

3.K.MarxandF.Engels.Sochineniia(Works,inRussian),vols.115,1719,2129.MoscowLeningrad,192848.

4.H.Marcuse.PsychoanalyseundPolitik.Vienna,1968.

5.Plato.Republic.Trans.PaulShorey.Cambridge,Mass.,1930.

6.R.Pohlmann.GeschichtedesantikenKommunismusundSozialismus.(QuotationsrefertoRussiantranslation,lstoriiaantichnogokommunizmaisotsialisma,St.
Petersburg,1910.)

7.W.Schultz.DocumentederGnosis.Jena,1910.

8.A.Christensen.LeRgneduroiKawadhIetcommunismemazdakite.In:Det.Kgl.DanskeVidenskabernesSelskab:Historiskfilologiskemiddelelser
(Copenhagen),vol.IX,no.6(1925).

9.Ch.Hahn.GeschichtederKetzerimMittelalter,besondersim11,12und13Jahrhundert,nachQuellenbearbeitet,2vols.Stuttgart,184547.

10.J.Dollinger.BeitragezurSektengeschichtedesMittelalters.ErsterTheil.GeschichtedergnostischmanichischenSekten.Munich,1890.

11.S.Runciman.TheMedievalManichee.Cambridge,Mass.,1955.

12.J.J.Herzog.AbrissdergesamtenKirchengeschichte.Bd.I,Abt.2.DiermischkatholischeKirchedesMittelalters.Erlangen,1890.

13.M.Beer.AllgemeineGeschichtedesSozialismusunddersozialenKmpfe.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Vseobshchaiaistoriiasotsializmai
sotsial'noibor'by,MoscowLeningrad,1927.),

14.H.Grundmann.KetzergeschichtedesMittelalters.Gottingen,1963.

15.M.ErbstsserandE.E.Werner.ldeologischeProblemedesmittelalterlichenPlebejertums.Berlin,1960.
[301]

16.T.ButtnerandE.Werner.CircumcellionenundAdamiten.Berlin,1959.

17.M.Erbstsser.SozialreligiseStrmungenimsptenMittelalter.Berlin,1970.

18.HerbertGrundmann.ReligiseBewegungenimMittelalter.Berlin,1935.

19.J.Macek.Taborvgusitskomrevoliutsionnomdvizhenii(TaborintheHussiteRevolutionaryMovement,inRussianoriginalinCzech),vol.2.Moscow,1959.

20.M.M.Smirin.NarodnaiareformatsiiaTomasaMiuntseraivelikaiakrest'ianskaiavoina(ThePopularReformationofThomasMntzerandtheGreat
PeasantWar,inRussian).Moscow,1955.

21.J.Macek.Gusitskoerevoliutsionnoedvizhenie(TheHussiteRevolutionaryMovement,inRussianoriginalinCzech).Moscow,1954.

22.L.Ranke.DeutscheGeschichteimZeitalterderReformation.Bd.II,Berlin,1842.

23.F.Bezold.GeschichtederdeutschenReformation.Berlin,1886.
20.M.M.Smirin.NarodnaiareformatsiiaTomasaMiuntseraivelikaiakrest'ianskaiavoina(ThePopularReformationofThomasMntzerandtheGreat
PeasantWar,inRussian).Moscow,1955.

21.J.Macek.Gusitskoerevoliutsionnoedvizhenie(TheHussiteRevolutionaryMovement,inRussianoriginalinCzech).Moscow,1954.

22.L.Ranke.DeutscheGeschichteimZeitalterderReformation.Bd.II,Berlin,1842.

23.F.Bezold.GeschichtederdeutschenReformation.Berlin,1886.

24.L.Keller.DieReformationunddielterenReformparteien.Leipzig,1885.

25.L.Keller.JohannvonStaupitzunddieAnfngederReformation.Leipzig,1888.

26.L.Keller.DieAnfngederReformationunddieKetzerschulen.Berlin,1897.

27.L.Mller.DerKommunismusdermhrischenWiedertufer.Leipzig,1927.

28.TMntzer.SeinLebenundseineSchriften.Ed.OttoH.Brandt.Jena,1933.

29.L.Keller.GeschichtederWiedertuferundihresReichszuMnster.Mnster,1888.

30.R.Barclay.TheInnerLifeoftheReligiousSocietiesoftheCommonwealth.London,1879.

31.W.D.Morris.TheChristianOriginsofSocialRevolt.London,1949.

32.A.L.Morton.TheWorldoftheRanters.London,1970.

33.E.Bernstein.SozialismusundDemokratieindergrossenenglischenRevolution.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Sotsializmidemokratiiavvelikoi
angliiskoirevoliutsii,Leningrad,1924.)

34.G.Weingarten.RevolutionskirchenEnglands.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,NarodnaiareformatsiiavAngliiXVIIv.,Moscow,1901.)

35.G.Winstanley.TheLawofFreedomandOtherWritings.Harmondsworth,England:Penguin,1973.

36.H.Hollorenshaw.TheLevellersandtheEnglishRevolution.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Levelleryiangliiskaiarevoliutsiia,Moscow,1947.)

37.J.Krone.FraDolcinounddiePatarenen.Leipzig,1844.

38.A.Hausrat.DieWeltverbessererimMittelalter.Bd.III.DieArnoldisten.Leipzig,1885.
[302]

39.K.Kautsky.VorlauferdesneuerenSozialismus,2vols.Bd.II.DerKommunismusinderdeutschenReformation.Stuttgart,1913.

40.G.Adler.GeschichtedesSozialismusundKommunismusvonPlatobiszurGegenwart.Bd.I.Leipzig,1920.

41.J.Dollinger.KircheundKirchen:PapstumundKirchenstaat.Munich,1861.

42.T.More.Utopia.(PagereferencesaretotheRussiantranslation,Zolotaiakniga,stol'zhepoleznaia,kakzabavnaia,onailuchshemustroistvegosudarstvaio
novomostroveUtopii.In:UtopicheskiiromanXVIXVIIvekov,Moscow,1971.)

43.T.Campanella.CivitasSolis.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,GorodSolntsa.In:UtopicheskiiromanXVIXVIIvekov,Moscow,1971.)

44.D.Vairasse.L'HistoiredesSevarambes.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Istoriiaseverambov.In:UtopicheskiiromanXVIXVIIvekov,Moscow,
1971.)

45.LesAventuresdeJacquesSadeur.In:Bibliothquedesvoyagesimaginaires,vol.XXIV.Paris,178789.

46.Fenelon.LesAventuresdeTelemaque.In:Oeuvrescompletes,v.VI.Paris,1851.

47.LaRpubliquedesPhilosophesoul'histoiredesAjaoiens.OuvrageposthumedeM.deFontenelle.Geneva,1768.

48.RestifdelaBretonne.LaDecouverteaustraleparunhommevolantouleDedalefranais:nouvelletresphilosophique.(QuotationsrefertotheRussian
translation,Iuzhnoeotkrytie,sdelannoeletaiushchimchelovekom,iliFrantsuzskiiDedal:chresvychainofilosofskaiapovest',MoscowLeningrad,1936.)

49.JeanMeslier.Testament.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Zaveshchanie,3vols.Moscow,1954.)

50.Morelly.LeCodedelanatureouleVritableEspritdesesloisdetouttempsngligoumconnu.(QuotationsrefertoRussiantranslation,Kodeksprirodyili
dukheezakonov,Moscow,1947.)

51.V.P.Volgin.RazvitieobshchestvennoimyslivoFrantsiivXVIIIveke(TheDevelopmentofSocialThoughtinFranceintheXVIIICentury,inRussian).
Moscow,1958.

52.D.Diderot.Sobraniesochinenii(Works,inRussian),10vols.MoscowLeningrad,193547,vol.II.

53.DomLgerMarieDeschamps.LaVritouleVritableSystme.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Istinailiistinnaiasistema,Moscow,1973.)

54.S.Vasil'ev.vvedenie"("Introduction,"inRussian)toanearlierRussianeditionofDeschamps'book.Baku,1930.

55.P.Buonarroti.Conspirationpourl'egalite.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Zagovorvoimiaravenstva,2vols.,Moscow,1963.)
53.DomLgerMarieDeschamps.LaVritouleVritableSystme.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Istinailiistinnaiasistema,Moscow,1973.)

54.S.Vasil'ev.vvedenie"("Introduction,"inRussian)toanearlierRussianeditionofDeschamps'book.Baku,1930.

55.P.Buonarroti.Conspirationpourl'egalite.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Zagovorvoimiaravenstva,2vols.,Moscow,1963.)

56.L.Baudin.LesIncasduPerou.Paris,1947.

57.R.Karsten.DasAltperuanischeInkareich.Leipzig,1949.

58.GarcilasodelaVega.ComentariosrealesdelosIncas.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Istoriiagosudarstvainkov,Leningrad,1974.)
[303]

59.H.Cunow.GeschichteundKulturdesInkareiches.Amsterdam,1937.

60.C.Lugon.LaRpubliquecommunistechrtiennedesGuaranis.Paris,1949.

61.G.Otruba.DerJesuitenstaatimParaguay.IdeeundWirklichkeit.Vienna,1962.

62.P.Lafargue.DerJesuitenstaatimParaguay.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Iezuitskierespubliki,St.Petersburg,1904.)

63.V.V.Sviatlovskii.KommunisticheskoegosudarstvoiezuitovvParagvaevXVIIiXVIIIst.(TheCommunistStateoftheJesuitsinParaguayintheXVII
XVIIICenturies,inRussian).Petrograd,1924.

64.A.Kirchenheim.GeschichtederDichtungvombestenStaate.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Vechnaiautopiia,St.Petersburg,1902.)

65.A.I.Tiumenev.GosudarstvennoekhoziastvodrevnegoShumera(TheEconomyofAncientSumer,inRussian).MoscowLeningrad,1956.

66.I.M.D'iakonov.ObshchestvennyiigosudarstvennyistroidrevnegoDvurech'ia.Shumer(TheSocialandStateSystemofAncientMesopotamia.Sumer,in
Russian).Moscow,1959.

67.A.Deimel.SumerischeTempelwirtschaftzurZeitUrukaginasundseinerVorlufer.Rome,1931.(AnalectaOrientalia,no.2.)

68.R.McAdams.TheEvolutionofUrbanSociety.EarlyMesopotamiaandPrehistoricMexico.Chicago,1966.

69.I.J.Gelb."FromFreedomtoSlavery.GesellschaftsklassenimaltenZweistromlandundindenangrenzendenGebieten."In:XVIIIRecontreassyrologique
internationale.Mnchen,29Juni3Juli1970.BayerischeAkademiederWisenschaften.PhilosophischHistorischKlasse.Abhandlungen(NeueFolge),Heft75,
pp.8192.

70.I.J.Gelb."PrisonersofWarinEarlyMesopotamia."JournalofNearEasternStudies,vol.32,nos.12(JanuaryApril,1973).

71.J.Pirenne.Histoiredesinstitutionsetdudroitprivedel'ancienneEgypte,vols.IIII.Brussels,193235.

72.Ed.Meyer.GeschichtedesAltertums.Bd.I,Abt.II.StuttgartBerlin,1926.

73.H.Kees.gypten.Munich,1933.

74.S.Dairaines.Unsocialismed'EtatquinzesiclesavantJsusChrist.Paris,1934.

75.A.M.Hocart.Kingship.London,1927.

76.J.Engnell.StudiesinDivineKingshipintheAncientNearEast.Uppsala,1943.

77.H.Maspero.LaChineAntique.Paris,1927.

78.KuoMojo(GuoMoruo).Bronzovyivek(TheBronzeAge,inRussianoriginalinChinese).Moscow,1959.

79.KuoMojo(GuoMoruo).Epokharabovladel'cheskogostroia(ThePeriodoftheSlaveOwningSocialStructure,inRussianoriginalinChinese).Moscow,
1956.

80.M.KokinandG.Papaian."Tsin'Tian'."AgranyistroidrevnegoKitaia("ChnT'ien."TheAgrarianStructureofAncientChina,inRussian).Leningrad,
1930.
[304]

81.L.I.Duman.OcherkidrevneiistoriiKitaia(EssaysonAncientChineseHistory,inRussian).Leningrad,1938.

82.L.S.Perelomov.ImperiiaTsin'(TheCh'inEmpire,inRussian).Moscow,1962.

83.H.Frankfort.TheBirthofCivilizationintheNearEast.NewYork,1956.

84.ShangYang.KnigapraviteliaoblastiShan(BookoftheRulerofShang,inRussianoriginalinChinese).Moscow,1968.

85.QcherkipoistoriiKitaia(EssaysonChineseHistory,inRussian).Ed.byShangYerh.Moscow,1959.

86.K.Marx."Formy,predshestvuiushchiekapitalisticheskomuproizvodstvu"("FormsPrecedingCapitalistProduction,"inRussian).In:Proletarskaiarevoliutsiia,
1939,no.3.

87.Vestnikdrevneiistorii,1940,no.1.
84.ShangYang.KnigapraviteliaoblastiShan(BookoftheRulerofShang,inRussianoriginalinChinese).Moscow,1968.

85.QcherkipoistoriiKitaia(EssaysonChineseHistory,inRussian).Ed.byShangYerh.Moscow,1959.

86.K.Marx."Formy,predshestvuiushchiekapitalisticheskomuproizvodstvu"("FormsPrecedingCapitalistProduction,"inRussian).In:Proletarskaiarevoliutsiia,
1939,no.3.

87.Vestnikdrevneiistorii,1940,no.1.

88.ProblemydokapitalisticheskikhobshchestvvstranakhVostoka(ProblemsofpreCapitalistSocietiesintheCountriesoftheOrient,inRussian).Moscow,
1971.

89.K.Wittfogel.OrientalDespotism:AComparativeStudyofTotalPower.NewHaven,Conn.,1957.

90.F.Heichelheim.AnAncientEconomicHistory,v.I.Leiden,1958.

91.Ed.Meyer.KleineSchriften.Bd.I.Halle,1924.

92.F.Dostoevskii.Polnoesobraniesochinenii(CollectedWorks,inRussian).30vols.Leningrad,1972.

93.M.V.Shchekin.Kakzhit'ponovomu(HowtoLiveintheNewWay,inRussian).Kostroma,1925.

94.D.Koigen.ZurVorgeschichtedesmodernenphilosophischenSozialismusinDeutschland.Bern,1901.

95.MichailBakuninssozialpolitischerBriefwechselmitAlexanderIvanovitschHerzen.Stuttgart,1895.

96.M.Pokrovskii.OcherkipoistoriirevoliutsionnogodvizheniiavRossiiXIXiXXv.v.(EssaysontheHistoryoftheRevolutionaryMovementinRussiainthe
NineteenthandTwentiethCenturies,inRussian).Moscow,1924.

97.CharlesFourier.LaTheoridesquatremouvementsetdesdestinesgnrales.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Teoriiachetyrekhdvizheniii
vseobshchikhsudeb.In:Izbrannyesochineniia,vol.I,Moscow,1938.)

98.F.Engels.AntiDhring.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,AntiDiuring,Moscow,1965.)

99.Osnovymarksizma(TheFoundationsofMarxism,inRussian).Samizdat,1971.

100.S.Bulgakov.KarlMarkskakreligioznyitip(KarlMarxasaReligiousType,inRussian).Moscow,1911.

101.K.Jaspers.MglichkeiteneinesneuenHumanismus.RechenschaftundAusblick.Munich,1951.
[305]

102.N.Bukharin.Ekonomikaperekhodnogoperioda(TheEconomicStructureoftheTransitionalPeriod,inRussian).Moscow,1920.

103.K.Kautsky.VonderDemokratiezuderStaatsSklaverei.EineAuseinandersetzungmitTrotzki.(QuotationsrefertoRussiantranslation,Otdemokratiik
gosudarstvennomurabstvu.[OtvetTrotskomu].)Berlin,1921.

104.W.S.Schlamm.DiejungenHerrenderaltenErde(VomneuenStilderMacht).Stuttgart,1962.

105.XIIIs"ezdRKP(b)(TheThirteenthCongressoftheRussianCommunistParty).Moscow,1924.

106.N.Valentinov."Piatakovibol'shevizm"("PiatakovandBolshevism,"inRussian).In:Novyizhurnal(NewYork),no.52,1958.

107.R.Chauvin.Del'abeilleaugorille.(QuotationsrefertoRussiantranslation,Otpchelydogorilly,Moscow,1965.)

108.K.Jaspers.VomUrsprungundZielderGeschichte.Zurich,1949.

109.V.S.Solov'ev(Soloviev).Sobraniesochineniivdesiatitomakh(CollectedWorks,inRussian).10vols.St.Petersburg,1911.

110.S.Bulgakov.Khristianstvoisotsializm(ChristianityandSocialism,inRussian).Moscow,1917.

111.B.P.Koz'min.Nechaevinechaevtsy(NechaevandtheNechaevists,inRussian).MoscowLeningrad,1931.

112.D.Riazanov."MarksiEngelsobrakeisem'e"("MarxandEngelsonMarriageandtheFamily,"inRussian).In:Letopisimarksizma,v.III,1927.

113.V.I.Lenin.Polnoesobraniesochinenii(CollectedWorks,inRussian),fifthedition.55vols.Moscow,195865.

114.C.Hugo.DerSozialismusinFrankreichimXVIIundXVIIIJahrhundert.(QuotationsrefertoRussiantranslation,SotsializmvoFrantsiivXVIIiXVIII
stoletiiakh,IvanovoVoznesensk,1924.)

115.S.Bulgakov.Pervokhristianstvoinoveishiisotsializm(EarlyChristianityandModernSocialism,inRussian).Moscow,1911.

116.S.Frank."Etikanigilizma"("TheEthicsofNihilism,"inRussian).In:Vekhi(Landmarks),Moscow,1909.

117.G.LeBon.Psychologiedusocialisme.(QuotationsrefertoRussiantranslation,Psikhologiiasotsializma,St.Petersburg,1908.)

118.W.Gurian.DerBolschewismus.Freiburg,1931.

119.H.Marcuse.ErosandCivilization.APhilosophicalInquiryintoFreud.Boston,1955.

120.IXs"ezdRKP(b)(NinthCongressoftheRussianCommunistParty).Moscow,1920.
117.G.LeBon.Psychologiedusocialisme.(QuotationsrefertoRussiantranslation,Psikhologiiasotsializma,St.Petersburg,1908.)

118.W.Gurian.DerBolschewismus.Freiburg,1931.

119.H.Marcuse.ErosandCivilization.APhilosophicalInquiryintoFreud.Boston,1955.

120.IXs"ezdRKP(b)(NinthCongressoftheRussianCommunistParty).Moscow,1920.

121.L.Trotskii.Terrorizmikommunizm.AntiKautskii(TerrorismandCommunism.AntiKautsky,inRussian).1920.(Quotationstakenfrom103,whichisa
responseto121.)

122.A.M.Kollontai.Novaiamoral'irabochiiklass(TheNewMoralsandtheWorkingClass,inRussian).Moscow,1919.

123.G.GrigorovandS.Shkotov.Staryiinovyibyt(TheOldandtheNewWayofLife,inRussian).MoscowLeningrad,1927.
[306]

124.I.Il'inskii.Pravoibyt(TheWayofLifeandtheLaw,inRussian).Leningrad,1925.

125.Sem'iaibyt(TheFamilyandtheWayofLife,inRussian).CollectionofessayscompiledbyA.Adol'f,B.Boichevskii,V.Stroev,andM.Shishkevich.Moscow,
1927.

126.VserossiiskiiTsentral'nyiIspolnitel'nyiKomitetXIIsozyva.Vtoraiasessia(stenograficheskiiotchet)(AllRussianCentralExecutiveCommittee.Second
SessionoftheXIICongress.[Stenographicrecord]).Moscow,1925.

127.M.N.Liadov.Voprosybyta(AbouttheWayofLife,inRussian).Moscow,1925.

128.S.Ia.Vol'fson.Sotsiologiiabrakaisem'i(SociologyofMarriageandtheFamily,inRussian).Minsk,1929.

129.A.Borovoi.Obshchestvennyeidealysovremennogochelovechestva(SocialIdealsofContemporaryMankind,inRussian).Moscow,1927.

130.BrothersGordin.Sotsiologiiaisotsiotekhnika(SociologyandSociotechnology,inRussian).Petrograd,1918.

131.E.Enchmen.Vosemnadtsat'tezisovoteoriinovoibiologii(EighteenThesesontheTheoryoftheNewBiology,inRussian).Piatigorsk,1920.

132.A.Stoliarov.Dialekticheskiimaterializmimekhanisty(DialecticalMaterialismandtheMechanists,inRussian).Leningrad,1929.

133.B.Arvatov.Iskusstvoiproizvodstvo(ArtandProduction,inRussian).Moscow,1926.

134.Rogovin."Problematvorcheskogometodavideinokhudozhestvennoibor'be20khg.g."("TheIssueofCreativeMethodintheIdeologicalandArtisticDebatesof
the1920s,"inRussian.)In:Voprosyestetiki,Moscow,1971,no.9.

135.K.Kautsky.EinBriefberMarxundMach.DerKampfVienna,1909.Bd.2.

136.S.Minin."Filosofiiuzabort"("ThrowingPhilosophyOverboard,"inRussian).In:Podznamenemmarksizma,1922,nos.56.

137.P.Blonskii.Sovremennaiafilosofiia(ContemporaryPhilosophy).Moscow,1918.

138.I.V.Stalin.Ekonomicheskieproblemysotsializma(EconomicProblemsofSocialism,inRussian).Moscow,1952.

139.A.Toynbee.AnHistorian'sApproachtoReligion.London,1956.

140.K.Jaspers.VomUrsprungundZielderGeschichte.Zurich,1949.

141:L.Mumford.TheMythoftheMachine.NewYork,1962.

142.M.Walser."berdieneustenStimmungenimWesten."In:Kursbuch,Bd.20,1970,S.1941.

143.Ph.Gavi,J.P.Sartre,P.Victor.Onaraisondeserevolter.Paris,1974.

144.K.Lorenz.DassogenannteBose.Vienna,1963.

145.H.M.Enzensberger."BaukastenzueinerTheoriederMedien."In:Kursbuch,Bd.20,1970,S.159186.

146.Letopisimarksizma(AnnalsofMarxism,inRussian),v.III,1927.'

147.JerryRubin.DoIt!(ScenariooftheRevolution).NewYork,1970.

148.J.EiblEibesfeldt.GrundrissdervergleichendenVerhaltensforschung.Munich,1967.
[307]

149.A.P.Elkin.TheAustralianAborigines.SydneyLondon,1938.(Russiantranslation,Moscow,1952.)

150.G.Childe.WhatHappenedinHistory.London,1942.

151.Iu.Steklov.MikhailBakunin(inRussian),v.III.MoscowLeningrad,1927.

152.K.Kautsky.TerrorismusundKommunismus.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Terrorizmikommunizm,Berlin,1919.)

153.S.H.SaintSimon.Izbrannyesochineniia(SelectedWorks,inRussian),vol.I.MoscowLeningrad,1948.
150.G.Childe.WhatHappenedinHistory.London,1942.

151.Iu.Steklov.MikhailBakunin(inRussian),v.III.MoscowLeningrad,1927.

152.K.Kautsky.TerrorismusundKommunismus.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Terrorizmikommunizm,Berlin,1919.)

153.S.H.SaintSimon.Izbrannyesochineniia(SelectedWorks,inRussian),vol.I.MoscowLeningrad,1948.

154.A.S.Izgoev."Obintelligentnoimolodezhi"("OntheYouthfulIntelligentsia,"inRussian).In:Vekhi(Landmarks),Moscow,1909.

155.Byloe,no.I,July,1917.(InRussian.)

156.I.R.Shafarevich."SocialisminOurPastandFuture."In:FromUndertheRubble.Ed.AleksandrSolzhenitsyn.Boston:Little,Brown,1975.(Russianedition
publishedinParis,1974.)

157.F.M.Dostoevskii.Sobraniesochinenii(Works,inRussian),10vols.Moscow,195658,vol.IX.

158.H.Oldenberg.Buddha,seinLeben,seineLehre,seineGemeinde.(QuotationsrefertotheRussiantranslation,Budda,egozhizn',uchenieiobshchina,Moscow,
1884.)

159.S.Radhakrishnan.IndianPhilosophy,vol.I.NewYorkandLondon,1923.

160.TheElderEdda.(Russiantranslation,MoscowLeningrad,1963.)

161.M.Stirner.DerEinzigeundseinEigenthum.(Russiantranslation,St.Petersburg,1909.)

162.M.Heidegger.SeinundZeit.HalleanderSaale,1929.

163.M.Heidegger.Holzwege.FrankfurtamMain,1950.

164.J.P.Sartre.L'treetleNant.Paris,1943.

165.M.Heidegger.Nietzsche.Bd.II.Berlin,1961.

166.J.Dembowski.Psikhologiiazhivotnykh(PsychologyofAnimals,inRussianoriginalinPolish).Moscow,1959.

167.R.Stammler.WirtschaftundRechtnachdermaterialistischenGeschichtsauffassung,2nded.BerlinLeipzig,1906.

168.AggressionundAnpassunginderIndustriegesellschaft.FrankfurtamMain,1969.
[308]

Index
A

Absolutepessimismconcept,286,289

Adamitesect,3133,6768,75

AdventuresofTelemachus,The(Fnelon),104

Agriculture:inCh'inempire,181CodeofNature,111postrevolutionaryRussiaand,239241,252Shangteaching,176178insocialistnovels,104105
inSumer,154155,157,159inUtopia,83Yinera,China,168171

Agrodespoticstate,192n.

Ajaoiens,104105

Albigensiansect,19,67,69,73,77

Altman,I.,251

Amalriciansect,67,78

AmalricofBena,2526

Americansects,80,197,268

Anabaptistsect,3440destructiveelements,275asforerunnerofsocialism,78,197,214inMnster,5966nameandorigin,67,6971violenceand
fanaticism,3740,6066,73,265

Anarchism,215,248249,267

AncientKingdom.SeeEgypt

AncientOrientsocialiststates,152185,196,202andideology,272summary,189192,255.Seealso"AsiaticSocialFormation"

Animalsocieties,264265,269,271272andinstinct,297
Anarchism,215,248249,267

AncientKingdom.SeeEgypt

AncientOrientsocialiststates,152185,196,202andideology,272summary,189192,255.Seealso"AsiaticSocialFormation"

Animalsocieties,264265,269,271272andinstinct,297

Anonymoussociety,265,269

Anthropologyofsocialism,227234

Antichrist,25,27,29,46,48

AntiDhring(Engels),208209,212213

Anticulturaltheme,178,184185,196197,233,265266postrevolutionaryRussia,248251

Antiquity:laborpopulation,190andsocialism,318,78.SeealsoChina,ancientEgyptMesopotamia

ApostolicBrethren,29,4650,67,71

Aristophanes,34,6,1415

Arts,218thcenturynovels,105106Enlightenmentliterature,111,119,121inidealsocialiststate,269ofNewLeft,233inPlato'sRepublic,910,265in
postrevolutionaryRussia,248,250251Utopiansand,85.SeealsoAnticulturaltheme

Arvatov,B.,250

"AsiaticSocialFormation,"xi,185189,207,256257basicfeatures,187188

Atheism:Deschampsand,115117Levellers,4546as"religion"ofsocialism,130,196,225,233234socialismasresultof,234235

Australianaborigines,205,273

"Axialtime,"255257

Ayala,GuamnPomade,136,139140

Aztecs,205

Babeuf,FranoisEmile,121,124,212

Bakunin,M.,186n.,203,215,219,223confessionof,294destructionandterrortheme,212,275279

Baptism,6870,75

Baptists,70,80

Barilotto,27,42

Batenburg,40

Bautemple,153155,155n.

Baudin,L.,141142,264

Bazarov,V.A.,226

Beehiveanalogy,218,269

[309]

BeghardsandBeguines,2829,67,71

Beingconcept,291

Berdiaev,Nikolai,226,295296

BernarddeClairvaux,Saint,23,70

Berlin'sCommuneNo.1,236,269

Birthrates,274

Blackmasses,68
BernarddeClairvaux,Saint,23,70

Berlin'sCommuneNo.1,236,269

Birthrates,274

Blackmasses,68

Blacks,inAmerica,203,300

Blonsky,P.P.,251

Bogomilheresy,19,6869

Bohemia,2934,37,71

Bokelson,Jan(JohannofLeyden),4041,197,294lifeof,5966

Bolsheviks,213,217218,277279

Bondingtheory,264265

Bookburninganddestruction,31,119,184185

Bourgeoissociety.SeeMarxismBrethrenoftheFreeSpirit,24,47doctrines,2629,41,69,7677origins,69,254sexualpractices,2728,42andsocialist
aspects,28,3233,35,78,236

Brik,Osip,250

Bruys,Pierrede(Peter),21,6970

Buddha,286288

Buddhism,255,286288

Bukharin,Nikolai,212,243,250,294

Bulgakov,Sergius,78,208,210,220onMarxism,295296onsocialismasreligion,225226,233

Buonarroti,Philippe,121,124,128129

Bureaucracy:ancientEgyptian,162164Ch'inempire,180in"Equals"state,122Incaempire,138139

Burialcustoms,120,139140,198

Campanella,Tommaso,8788,100,112,124,197CityoftheSun,xiii,8795,238,254,256,259,300criticismofchurch,9495,129andsocialistideals,
237,285

Capital(Marx),207211,229,266268

Capitalism,bourgeoissociety,5,242243,250comparedwithsocialism,216219Marxismand,202,212213polarizationofsexes,263andsocialjustice,
225

Carpocratiansect,15

Cathars,1925,28,73,75,7778andcharity,221deathnotion,279280,283dualism,297298origins,6971,254

CatholicChurch:Campanellaand,94andcharity,221Dostoyevskyon,234235,285andItalianfascism,253medievalheresiesand,18,2138,7275,
196Moreand,87.SeealsoInquisitionReformationperiod

Censorship,910,123

Charlevoix,P.F.X.de,145146,148,150

Chernyshevsky,N.G.,222

Childbearing,12,20,22,9192,246

Children:communalupbringing,80,87destructionofparentalties,4,12,1517,118119,179,195,236,270271inEnlightenmentliterature,111,113,118in
"Equals,"123Fourieron,228hereticaldoctrineson,37,6869Incaempire,137138,141142inJesuitstate,150inpostrevolutionaryRussia,240
241,244248insocialistnovel,103105Solariansand,91stateregulationandupbringing,5,8992269271andUr,159

Chiliasm,3

Chiliasticsocialism,3130ancientGreece,715contradictions,295definitionanddoctrines,36earlyChristianity,1517EnglishRevolutionera,4146
Enlightenmentliterature,106120"Equals"inFrance,121129hereticalmovementslinkto,6779Hussitemovement,2934MiddleAges,1829new
featuresof,129130Reformationperiod,344117thand18thcenturynovels,101106Statesocialism,differenceswith,236,253257Utopians,82
101violence,lossof,80,81n.visionoffuturesociety,254,257
Chiliasm,3

Chiliasticsocialism,3130ancientGreece,715contradictions,295definitionanddoctrines,36earlyChristianity,1517EnglishRevolutionera,4146
Enlightenmentliterature,106120"Equals"inFrance,121129hereticalmovementslinkto,6779Hussitemovement,2934MiddleAges,1829new
featuresof,129130Reformationperiod,344117thand18thcenturynovels,101106Statesocialism,differenceswith,236,253257Utopians,82
101violence,lossof,80,81n.visionoffuturesociety,254,257

China,ancient:Ch'inempire,180185laborpopulation,190Shangteachings,173180YinandearlyChouera,168172

China,contemporary,252253,262,296

Ch'inempire,179185

Christ,223Christianbeliefs,7476Dostoyevskyonsocietywithout,234235,285"Equals"disagreementon,124medievalheresiesand,19,21,2544,75
Meslierhatredfor,107,130temptationof,220

Christianity:Campanellaon,9495decline,234235earlysects,1517endofworldconcept,281fundamentalprincipleof,74,76individualityconcept,
255256medievalheresiesand,1734,196Meslieron,107,130Reformationand,3441socialismasreactionto,256socialistideologyand,79in
Utopia,87Winstanleyon,45

CityoftheSun(Campanella),8795andidentity,259isolationofsociety,238sexualregulation,91

Classstruggle,229230,262263

[310]

Clothing,identical,4,269Anabaptists,3637characteristicofsocialistsociety,259,267,269Incas,136,141JesuitstateIndians,149inMorelly'sCodeof
Nature,111Sevarites,103Solarians,9091Utopians,84,259

CodeofNature,The(Morelly),111112,114andidenticalness,259

Collectivizationofagriculture,239240,247,252

Communalityidea:andabolitionofprivateproperty,195anticulturalbias,196197Aristophaneson,4inBuonarroti'ssociety,122ofchildreninCityofthe
Sun,91Christians,early,1516Englishsects,4144hereticalsectsand,3539,4748,57,6063,67,7879inJesuitstate,145146andMarxism,5of
menandwomen,118inRepublicandDiodorus,11,1417thand18thcenturyliterature,102105,108,118asslogan,213associalistprinciple,196,
200,257.SeealsoPrivatepropertyWivesWomen

Communes,43,103,123124,181,199China,252253postrevolutionaryRussia,239240,247248

Communism,87,195,213214

CommunistManifesto,xiii,46,195,244

Compulsorylabor:Anabaptists,37inancientChina,170,177,179,182183,189190ancientEgypt,162,189ancientGreeks,4,1314andconscription,
189,241243"Equals"on,122Incas,135Jesuitstate,146,150andmeaningofsocialism,215Mesopotamia,153155,158161,189190Morelly
on,111postrevolutionaryRussia,240243socialistnovelon,103,105Utopians,83,85,90Winstanleyon,9697,99.SeealsoCommunesWorkand
workers

Concubines,137138,141

Confucianism,172,185,255ConspiracyofEquals(Buonarroti),xiii,121129

Consolamentum(consolation),22

CounterReformation,75

Craftworkandartisanship:ancientChina,170,177178,182,190ancientEgypt,165,190Mesopotamia,154,157158,163,165,190Morellyon,111Plato
on,8,1314socialistnovels,104105SouthAmericansocieties,135,147,190

Credenti,2122

CrimeandPunishment(Dostoyevsky),199

Crimesandpunishment:ancientChina,172,174175,179,183,191"Equals"on,123Incas,139140Jesuits,145146Utopians,83,90,9293,97,99.See
alsoLaws

CritiqueofPoliticalEconomy(Marx),207

Cromwell,Oliver,4243,45,96Culture.

SeeAnticulturaltheme

Death:Cathardoctrine,2223Deschampson,114,120Diodorus'communes,15Incas,139140Platoon,910,13andsocialistideology,275276.See
alsoExtinctionofmankindthemeSelfdestructiveimpulseSuicide
SeeAnticulturaltheme

Death:Cathardoctrine,2223Deschampson,114,120Diodorus'communes,15Incas,139140Platoon,910,13andsocialistideology,275276.See
alsoExtinctionofmankindthemeSelfdestructiveimpulseSuicide

Deathinstinct,282285,292,297

Denck,Hans,36,39

Descartes,Rene,293

Deschamps,DomL.G.,114120,198,215onGod,114116,130onlevelingofman,260andPlato,254threestagesofman,117120

Destructionofexistingsocietytheme,xii,3,78,130,217225,237238injusticeandsuffering,221225andrevolutionarymovements,275277tendencyof
chiliasticsocialism,254,257

Dialectics,210,277,280281,295

DiaryofaWriter,The(Dostoyevsky),234,285

Diderot,Denis,112114,142

Diggers,4346,95

Diodorus,15

Divorce,247248.SeealsoMarriagecustoms

Dolcino,Fra,29,4750,73,197,214

Dostoyevsky,F.M.,129,198199,267,269CrimeandPunishment,199DiaryofaWriter,The,234,285onfailureofCatholicismandsocialism,234
235,285"GrandInquisitor,"285Possessed,The,129,198,267

Dualism,297298

East,ancient.SeeAncientOrientsocialiststates

EastAfrica,191,201

Ecclesiazusae(Aristophanes),34,6comparedwithRepublic,1415,198

Economicsystems:ancientChina,168185ancientEgypt,162165,173ancientSumer,152161,173AsiaticModeofProduction,185189contemporary
China,252253Incas,133142Jesuitstate,142151Kingascenterof,189192SovietRussia,239241,252statecapitalismconcept,216,239

[311]

Education:inCh'inempire,184185Deschampson,119"Equals"on,122123Incachildren,139Marxismon,5Platoon,9,1112socialistnovels,103
106Winstanleyon,101

EgoandHisOwn,The(Stirner),290291

Egypt,142,161,173,192AncientKingdom,162164,190191compulsorylabor,21518thDynasty,164165machineanalogy,261262religion,166
167

EiblEibesfeldt,J.,271

ElderEdda,289

"Elect"(Incacivilization),137138

Enchmen,E.,249250

Encyclopdie,112,142,197

Endura,22

Engels,Friedrich,5,33,195onAsiaticModeofProduction,186onfamily,243245onFourierandSaintSimon,204onjustice,212onMarxist
contradictions,211n.,onmobilizationofworkers,241reviewsofCapital,267268onrevolution,238andscientificmethod,208210.SeealsoMarx
Engelscorrespondence

EnglishRevolutionof1648,4146,73,95

Enlightenmentliterature,81n.,106120onequalityandnature,259onJesuitstate,151
 contradictions,211n.,onmobilizationofworkers,241reviewsofCapital,267268onrevolution,238andscientificmethod,208210.SeealsoMarx
Engelscorrespondence

EnglishRevolutionof1648,4146,73,95

Enlightenmentliterature,81n.,106120onequalityandnature,259onJesuitstate,151

Enzensberger,H.M.,266

Epiphanes,1516,236

Equalityconcept:Christiandoctrineandsocialism,79Deschampson,118earlyChristiansects,1617"Equals"socialaim,121asidenticalbehavior,258
261insocialistnovels,104106socialistprinciple,196,200,219andsuppressionofindividuality,262inUtopia,8586

Equals,Societyof,121129,238disputeoverreligion,124andidenticallives,259260naiveteandinanity,129,267transitionalperiod,124127

Escadn,Juande,145146,150

Ethology,264265,297

Europe:andnihilism,291293andsocialism,200,234235.SeealsoWesternEurope

Existentialism,114115,291

Extinctionofmankindtheme,274285selfdestructiveimpulse,286300

Fadeyev,A.,250

Familistsect,41

Family:abolitionof:Americansects,80actualrealizationof,236237,253ancientOrient,179,183Aristophaneson,4,6andidenticalbehavior,258261
Incas,136137andindividuality,262Marxisttheoryon,56,243245medievalheresies,23,28,67,7677andoverpopulation,253Platoon,12
postrevolutionaryRussia,245248socialistprinciple,195,200,257Utopiansand,87,98.SeealsoMarriagecustoms

Fnelon,104

Feuerbach,Ludwig,114,294

Foigny,Gabrielde,103

Fontenelle,104105

Food,1112,15,147,240

"Forerunners"notion,197,214

ForestBrethren,268

Fourier,Charles,215,219,224,245,249comparedtoMarxism,204,210,211andFreud,228229,230231inevitabledeaththeme,280281oninstinct
andpassions,227228onirresponsibility,266267Marcuseon,6planettheoryandsocialistteachings,204206,256sincerityof,205,205n.
"Unitheism,"262

France,24,296,300Dostoyevskyon,234in"Equals,"124,238

Frank,Semyon,226

Freedomofwill,20,115,229,300

FreeSpirits.SeeBrethrenoftheFreeSpirit

Freudiantheory,298deathinstinct,292,297humanpersonalityconcept,228231influenceonMarcuse,263264,281282

Fromm,Erich,277

Germany,69,129andmedievalheresies,27,34,3740,5166,74Nazilebensborn,253

Gnosticheresies,68,75,77,236andequality,258socialistaspects,254,256.SeealsoManicheansects

God:inBuddhism,288Catharbeliefs,1921,7576Deschampson,115117,130Fourieron,228Incasand,135,137138andindividualman,267king
worship,166168manicheismand,68,76medievalheresiesand,2527,30,37,41Meslieron,107108Ranters,141142andSocialism,234235
Winstanley'sideaof,101

"Godbuilding"tendency,226

Gorky,M.,226

"GrandInquisitor"(Dostoyevsky),285,285n.
 worship,166168manicheismand,68,76medievalheresiesand,2527,30,37,41Meslieron,107108Ranters,141142andSocialism,234235
Winstanley'sideaof,101

"Godbuilding"tendency,226

Gorky,M.,226

"GrandInquisitor"(Dostoyevsky),285,285n.

[312]

GreatWallofChina,182

Greece,315,78,190humanpersonalityconcept,255

GuaraniIndians,143151,274

Guilds,81n.,190

Hartlib,Samuel,46

Hartmann,Eduardvon,290,299

Hartmann,Johann,2627

HawaiianIslands,191192,201

Hegel,G.W.,114,210

Heichelheim,F.,xi,189192

Heidegger,M.,291

Heinrichians,69

Hereticalsects.SeeGnosticheresiesManicheansectsMedievalheresies

Hetzer,36

Hide,Edward,42

Hierarchies:animalsocieties,265bureaucraticinsocialiststate,261Incas,138139medievalheresies,22,28,77Meslieron,107socialismandabolitionof,
196,200

Historicalmaterialism,185189

History,conceptsof:ancientChinese,180"axialtime,"255Deschamps'sthreestagesof,117118anddualism,297298evolutionaryprogressidea,130
Freudianview,230Heichelheimthesis,xiironlawsof,266JoachimofFloreview,25Morelly'sbasicforceof,112socialistviewof,226

HistoryoftheSevarites(Vairasse),102103,238

"HominesIntelligentia,"28,33

Homosexuality,117,232

Housingarrangements:Anabaptists,37Aristophanes,on,4,198freeentry,198199Incas,133,141,199Jesuitreductions,148149Marxism,5Platoon,
11,198199forthepoorin"Equals,"126127,127n.postrevolutionaryRussiandormitory,199,247248privacyvs.equality,199,259Utopians,85,
198,259Winstanley'ssociety,100

Humanism,2728,81n.

Humanpersonality,conceptsof,227233and"axialtime,"255256deathofmankindidea,293294levelingdownof,xiii,233,260Marcuseon,231233
Marxon,xivinreligion,233,255postrevolutionaryRussianliterature,250251insocialistideology,227231.SeealsoIndividuality

Humansacrifice,134,138

Hussitemovement,29,71,73wars,3334

Hut,Hans,36,39

Hydraulicsocieties,191192,201

Iconoclasm,7576,95.SeealsoMedievalheresies

Identicality,xiii,119120,198,258262
Hydraulicsocieties,191192,201

Iconoclasm,7576,95.SeealsoMedievalheresies

Identicality,xiii,119120,198,258262

Ideologyofsocialism:coincidencesandconservatism,197201andcontradictions,xiiixvdefinitionandbasicprinciples,194197,200,236237delusive
quality,295296,299dependenceonChristianity,79differentconceptionsof,202235inEnlightenmentandUtopianwritings,129130goalof,285,
285n.andhumanextinctionidea,274285identicalityvs.equality,258261andimplementationof,272275andinstinct,296297modelofideal
society,269partycharacterand,216217reconciliationofdoctrineandpractice,236257selfdestructiveimpulseandsocialistorganization,286300
andsocialjustice,221225suppressionofindividuality,262terrorandviolentaspectsof,275279.SeealsoStatesocialism

Ilyin,Captain,268

Incaempire,113n.,133142,144,192,197,201andbirthrate,274classstructureandpeasantlife,134137,215,246collapseof,141142crimeand
punishment,139140isolation,238More'sUtopiaand,142,198standardization,141,264

Individualbonding,264

Individuality,255256,300Heideggeron,anddeath,291andidenticality,258263Marxon,xivxvsocialisthostilityto,262265Solovievon,299
suppressionof,262,269,272285,294

Informers,xiii,175,179

Inquisition,4748,70,75

Instinct,227228,231232,296298.SeealsoDeathinstinct

Irrigationsystems,154155,171172,191192

Isolation,103,124,199,238

Italy,4650,253

Izgoev,A.S.,283284

Jaspers,Karl,211,219,255,296

JesuitstateinParaguay,142151,215,238,274

Jewishnationalityquestion,206

JoachimofFlore,2526,46,78,130

[313]

JohannofLeyden.SeeBokelson,Jan

JudaicMessianism,225226

Justice:inCityofSun,9293Epiphaneson,16inPlato'sRepublic,8Shangon,174.SeealsoSocialjusticeconceptofsocialism

Kanler,Konrad,27

Kautsky,Karl,214,243,251,277279

Keller,Ludwig,69,81n.

Kinetictheoryofgases,260261

Kings:centralizedeconomicsystemand,189191deified,166168,166n.,191,196

Kollontai,Aleksandra,246

Komensky,Jan(Comenius),46

KungsunYang.SeeShangYang

Kushnir,B.,250

L
KungsunYang.SeeShangYang

Kushnir,B.,250

Labor.SeeCompulsorylaborWorkandworkers

LaBretonne,Restifde,105106

LaMettrie,Juliende,293

Land:Aristophaneson,4ancientChina,169171,177,179,181,186189ancientSumer,153154,157,161,190Bolsheviksoncommunality,213214
Diggersand,43Egypt,162,165Incas,135Jesuitstate,145146postrevolutionaryRussia,239240Winstanley'sscheme,96

Language,119,144,172,260

Laotse,288

Lassalle,F.,208,225

LawofFreedom,The(Winstanley),xiii,95101

Laws(Plato),7,15

Laws:ofhistory,266ofIncaempire,113,136,140ofMorelly'ssystem,111112Shangreforms,174,179180andsocialistparty,217.SeealsoCrimes
andpunishmentJusticeScientificsocialismconcept

Lebensborn,253

LeBon,G.,226

LeftFrontoftheArts(LEF),250

Leftness,degreeof,283

"Legislator,The"(Diderot),112113,142

Lenin,V.I.,224,239,241

L'toile,Eonde,21

Levellers,4446

Liadov,M.N.(Mandelshtam),246

Liberationconcept,130,254,257Marcuseoninstincts,231232

Libidinalrationality,232

Lilburne,41

Literature:17thand18thcenturynovels,101106Enlightenmentwriters,106120inpostrevolutionaryRussia,250251socialism'shostilityto,265266
Utopiansocialists,80100

Leob'stheoryoftropisms,293

Lollardsect,41

Lorenz,Konrad,265

Loria,A.,211n.

Lucifer,1920,2728

Lunacharsky,A.,226

Luther,Martin,69,7173andMntzer,5153,55,57,59

Lutherans,40,5960,69

Luxemburg,Rosa,277

LyonsPaupers,71

Machinesymbol:andnatureofman,293andsocialistideal,261262
LyonsPaupers,71

Machinesymbol:andnatureofman,293andsocialistideal,261262

Mahler,Gustav,292

Manicheansects,16,18,23,67doctrines,68,75,221dualism,297

MaoTsetung,xiv,185,203,262

Marcionites,68

Marcuse,Herbert:deathanddestructionthemes,281283onFreudiandualism,292,298andindividuality,264andPlato,254onworkandplay,6,14,231
232synthesisofFreudandsocialistideology,231233,263264,281283

Marriagecustoms:Americancommunalsettlements,80Anabaptists,35,3740ancientChina,Yinera,171172bourgeoissociety,5Cathars,2124,77
18thcenturysocialistnovels,105Incas,137138,141Jesuitstate,149Marxisttheory,5medievalsectsandsex,28,3233Meslierondivorce,109
Morellyon,111Platoon,12Ranters,41postrevolutionaryRussia,243248Solarians,89Tahitians,113Utopians,85.SeealsoWives,ascommon
property

Marx,Karl,xiiixv,251andAsiaticModeofProduction,186189onmobilizationofworkers,241onprivateproperty,195andscientificmethod,204,
208209theoryofvalue,211213,211n.

MarxEngelscorrespondence:Capitalreviews,andfrivolousness,267268contemptandhatredofothers,224225,278279onscientificcharacterof
Marxism,209210sufferingwelcomed,223224

Marxism:allegedRussiandistortionof,277278andchildlabor,223comparedwithFourier,204,210comparedwith

[314]

Marxism(cont'd)
Freudianthesis,229231contradictions,211n.,295296andfamily,46,244245andforerunner"notion,214onindividualman,262andnihilism,
277279andoppressionofworkers,219,223224predictionsanderrors,206,295296andproblemof"Asiaticsocialformation,"185189asreaction
toChristianity,256andreligion,226asscientifictheory,203213,295socialismconcept,202203twoineffectiveanswers,299300Wellson,23

Masonicmovement,81n.

Maspero,H.,168,171172

Massmovements.SeePopularsocialistmovementsRevolutionarymovements

Materialism,6,96,114,219,226227

Matthijs,Jan,59,6164

Mazdak,1617,203,262

Meals,common,269inCityoftheSun,89"Equals"on,123124Incas,136postrevolutionaryRussia,240,247248inUtopia,84

Medievalheresies,1941characteristics,7274andcommunism,87concentricstructure,7879destructionofsocietyidea,130,254,266and
Enlightenmentsocialistwriting,81n.equalityandcommunity,258hatredofchurch,7374,196,227ideologyandorigins,6772kinshipwithsocialist
doctrines,76,78,197linktosocialistparty,219namingof,69oppositiontocontrol,76,215asreactiontoChristianity,75,256secularityandlossof
violence,8081andUtopiansocialism,87,9495worldviewof,7377.Seealsonamesofhereticalsects

Melanchthon,56,59

Mennonites,70,80

Meslier,Jean,130,215,219onequality,258259onpeasantsuffering,224Testament,106111,283,294

Mesopotamia,142,152161,173,190machineanalogy,261262andreligion,167168

Messaliansect,68

Methodists,43

MiddleAges:Christianvaluesandgoals,7475hereticalmovements,1834,6779andsexualfreedom,27

Militarizationofworkers,241243,252

MilitaryorganizationandarmiesancientChina,171172,180184,189,255ancientEgypt,165ancientSumer,153,,155Incasandpeasants,134135
JesuitstateIndians,143,151Plato'sguardians,813Shangon,176177,179Solariansandcrimes,9293Winstanley'sstate,99

Mineandthineconcept,104,113,118,142

Minin,S.,251
Militarizationofworkers,241243,252

MilitaryorganizationandarmiesancientChina,171172,180184,189,255ancientEgypt,165ancientSumer,153,,155Incasandpeasants,134135
JesuitstateIndians,143,151Plato'sguardians,813Shangon,176177,179Solariansandcrimes,9293Winstanley'sstate,99

Mineandthineconcept,104,113,118,142

Minin,S.,251

Minorities,203,300

Money:ancientstates,190Aristophaneson,4"Equals"and,122Incaempire,absenceof,141LevellersandDiggers,4344postrevolutionaryRussia,240
241,252inUtopia,82Winstanleyon,96

Monism,298

Monogamy,44,85,244

Montagnards,128

Montesquieu,C.L.,Baronde,151

Moralvalues:Fourieron,227228Freudon,229230andidenticality,260Marcuseon,231medievalheresiesand,2627,4142,68,76Shangand,176
177socialistnovel,106socialjusticeandsocialism,219220Tahitians,113

MoravianBrethren,67,77,197,222223

More,Thomas,8182,87,100,102,112,124,129oncrime,222asforerunnerofsocialism,197,214andIncasocialsystem,142,198andisolation,238
onmaterialsatisfaction,227Platoand,254256,258Utopia,82

Morelly,111112,114,124,197andidenticality,259

Mller,Max,287

Mumford,Lewis,262

Mummification,198

Mntzer,Thomas,3841,77,129,256,258,294asforerunner,197,214lifeof,5059andLuther,5153,55secretunion,53,59

Music.SeeArts

Mysticism,25,130,204205

Mythology:NarcissusandOrpheus,232233,254,282Plato'sRepublic,1011,14Scandinavian,289

NarcissusandOrpheus,232233,254,282283

Nature,stateof,111112,114,130

Naylor,James,4243

NaziGermany,253

Nechayev,S.,198,267,276278

NeoMarxism,6,203,231233

NewChristianity,197

NewEconomicPolicy(NEP),252,272

NewLeft,6,203,233andculture,265266andindividuality,263

Nicetas,Pope,24

[315]

Nicolaitessect,15

NicolasofBasel,69

Nihilism,198199,215,222destructionandterrorthemes,275279andreligionofsocialism,226selfdestructiveimpulseandexamples,286293

Nirvanaprinciple,282,287,298

Nizan,Paul,285n.
NicolasofBasel,69

Nihilism,198199,215,222destructionandterrorthemes,275279andreligionofsocialism,226selfdestructiveimpulseandexamples,286293

Nirvanaprinciple,282,287,298

Nizan,Paul,285n.

Nothingness,286294Deschampsand,115116

Novels,socialist,101106

Nusinov,I.,251

Oldenberg,H.,287

OldTestament,19,27,6263,68

"Orgiasticmass,"27

OriginoftheFamily,PrivatePropertyandtheState,The(Engels),243244

Orpheusmyth.SeeNarcissusandOrpheus

Ortliebarians,67,69

Orwell,George,89

Overpopulation,253

Pantheisticheresies,6768,100

Paraguay,142143,151

ParisCommunards,214

Partystructure,216219

Paternity,12,247248.SeealsoChildren,destructionofparentalties

Paulicians,68,76

Peasantry:ancientChinese,169172,181183ancientEgyptians,162andappealofsocialism,203Engelson,279inIncaempire,134135post
revolutionaryRussiaandmobilizationof,241243,252socialistleadersviewof,224

PeasantWarof1525,3839,5659,129

Perfecti,2123

Pessimism,286,289

Peru,113,113n.,142,144

Petrobrusians,67,69

Pfeiffer,Heinrich,5456

"Phalansteries,"205

Pharaohs,164167,191

Phillips,Ubbo,40

Philosophers,inRepublic,812

Philosophes,115117,151.SeealsoEnlightenmentliterature

Philosophy,inpostrevolutionaryRussia,251

Piatakov,G.L.,217218,294

Planettheory(Fourier),204206

Plato,142,197,200201,214andculture,910,196implementationofidealstate,179,237,254256,285andjustice,227andopenhouses,198and
religion,14,196Republic,715,198,254Timaeus,298
Piatakov,G.L.,217218,294

Planettheory(Fourier),204206

Plato,142,197,200201,214andculture,910,196implementationofidealstate,179,237,254256,285andjustice,227andopenhouses,198and
religion,14,196Republic,715,198,254Timaeus,298

Pleasureprinciple:Fourieron,227228FreudandMarcuse,229233,298Megapatagonians,106

Poetry,10,106

Pokrovsky,M.N.,203

Polygamy,40,6365,137

Popesandmedievalheresies,21,2425,2829,3334,4750,196Moreon,87

Popularsocialistmovements,xv,2,78,200comicandnaivetraits,267268contradictionsandseizureofpower,213215differenceswithstatesocialism,
237238"Equals,"121129andreligiousaspects,226

Population:birthrates,274familyandoverpopulation,253IndiansinJesuitstate,143144,274massresettlements,8384,134135,137,181182,191

Possessed,The(Dostoyevsky),129,198,267

Power,seizureof,3,213215

PreColumbianAmericas,189,191,201,272

Preobrazhensky,G.N.,246247

Priestsandmonks:inCityoftheSun,94persecutionof,31,47,4956,60Winstanleyon,1Ol.SeealsoCatholicChurch

Primitivepeoples,118,205,273274

PrinciplesofCommunism(Engels),5,214

Principlesofsocialism,195197,200,236237deathofmankindand,275285equalityvs.identicality,258261idealsocietymodel,269implementationand
consequences,272275andindividualizedanimalsocieties,265vs.reality,238239,253257

Privateproperty:abolitionof,inEnlightenmentliterature,108,111112,115,118abolitionof,in"Equals,"122,126abolitionof,andfamily,244abolitionof,
andidenticality,258261abolitionof,associalistprinciple,195,200,257Aristophaneson,4andAsiaticmodeofproduction,187earlyChristians,16
Incas,140141Marxismon,4,6medievalheresiesand,2223,2829,3537,76inRepublic,12statecontrol,213suppressionofindividuality,262
andterritoryidea,265inUr,159Utopians,8283,85,95WinstanleyandDiggerson,4345.SeealsoLand

Production,modeof:Asiatic,185189Marxisttheory,206207,229postrevolutionaryRussia,240241,244

[316]

Proletariat:MarxandEngelscontemptfor,278279Marxisttheory,202203,206revolutionaryaspectof,296,300.SeealsoWarCommunism

Prometheanmyth,232233,282

Protestantism,67

Psychedelicrevolution,233,263

Quakers,4142,80

Quipusystem,134,138139

Ranterssect,4143

Rappoport,296

Reason,130lackof,insocialistdoctrine,295297Marcusethesis,232233,263,300

"RedArmy"inJapan,270271

Reductions,143150

Reformationperiod:Anabaptists,3441,75EnglishRevolution,4145andmedievalhereticalmovements,18,25,7173,129,258andstatecontrol,215

Regressionconcept(Marcuse),231232
Reductions,143150

Reformationperiod:Anabaptists,3441,75EnglishRevolution,4145andmedievalhereticalmovements,18,25,7173,129,258andstatecontrol,215

Regressionconcept(Marcuse),231232

Religion:abolitionof,asbasicsocialistprinciple,195196declineof,234235endofworldconcept,281Enlightenmentliteratureon,106109,115117,
130historicalchange,197198kingworship,166168,166n.Levellersandatheism,4546Marxon,263andnatureofman,227233post
revolutionaryRussia,251inRepublic,14,19617thand18thcenturysocialistnovels,102,105106socialismasa,xii,225227,233234socialist
hostilityto,235,251,253,257,267sunworship,9495,102Utopianliterature,8687,9395,100101,129.SeealsoAtheismChristianityMedieval
heresies

Renaissance,81n.

Repressionconcept(Marcuse),231,282

Republic,The(Plato),714,198,254

RepublicofPhilosophersortheHistoryoftheAjaoiens,The(Fontenelle),104105

Revolution:Deschampsprediction,116117in"Equals,"125scientificinevitabilityof,211212socialismandimplementationof,213215

Revolutionarymovements,203Anabaptists,3740,6066,73,265inantiquity,78deathanddestructionmystique,275285,285n.andfreelove,33
Levellers,45andmedievalheresies,77,256NewLeft,263

Ricardo,David,211n.

Rights,political,9,9899,122,181,261

Roadbuilding,134,141,182

Russia:birthrate,274andculture,248251,273economy,239241,252,272familyandchildren,243248meaningofsocialistexperience,300privacy
andhousing,199,247248andreligion,251,272revolutionaryyouthanddeath,283285sexualfreedom,246248andsocialjustice,219War
Communismperiod,238252

RussiaintheShadows(Wells),2

RussianOrthodoxChurch,251

Sacconi,Rainier,21,2324

SaintSimon,C.H.,Comtede,204,211,280

Salinger,J.D.,292

Sargon,KingofAkkadia,155156,161

Sartre,J.P.,xv,264,277,285n.,299onbeingandnothingness,291onSovietstate,296

Savinkov,Boris,284285

Sazonov,N.I.,284285

Scandinavianmythology,289

Schlamm,W.,217

Schopenhauer,A.,289290,299

Science:lossofauthority,292,300Enlightenmentliterature,111112,119loyaltyproofdemandedin"Equals,"122postrevolutionaryRussiaand,248249,
252Utopianwriters,85,90

Scientificsocialismconcept,204207,259260criticismofMarxistclaimto,206213,260261

Scriptures,19,34,46

SecretDirectoryofPublicSalvation,121128

Segarelli,Gerard,4647

Selfdestructiveimpulse,286293andsocialism,285,293295,299

Sex:Cathardoctrines,20,23ineconomicsystemofFourier,229Engelson,244245Freudianthesis,230inMarcusethesis,231233inmodelofideal
socialiststate,269NewLeftand,263Platoon,12statecontrol,CityoftheSun,91statecontrol,Russia,246248

Sexes:commonownershipof,118polarizationofundercapitalism,263
Selfdestructiveimpulse,286293andsocialism,285,293295,299

Sex:Cathardoctrines,20,23ineconomicsystemofFourier,229Engelson,244245Freudianthesis,230inMarcusethesis,231233inmodelofideal
socialiststate,269NewLeftand,263Platoon,12statecontrol,CityoftheSun,91statecontrol,Russia,246248

Sexes:commonownershipof,118polarizationofundercapitalism,263

Sexualfreedom:contemporaryrevolution,233,263medievalheresiesand,2728,3233,3840,42postrevolutionaryRussia,246248andRanters,42
Winstanley'sattackon,100.SeealsoWomen,communalityof

ShangYang,173180,272

[317]

Simonians,68

Sin,20,23,2627,41,74

Slavery:ancientChina,169,179,182183,190ancientEgypt,165ancientSumer,153,155,158161Aristophanesand,4Asiaticuniversalityof,188
Incas,134135Jesuitstate,14314417thcenturysocialistnovelsand,103104inUtopianliterature,83,8586,90,97

"SleepingSouls"sect,45

Smirnov,241242

Socialism.SeeChiliasticsocialismIdeologyofsocialismPrinciplesofsocialismStatesocialism

Socialistpoliticalparties,216219

Socialjusticeconceptofsocialism,219225

SocietyofJesus,143,151,219.SeealsoJesuitstate

Socrates,255.SeealsoRepublic,The

Soloviev,Vladimir,219,286,289,299

Solts,246

Solzhenitsyn,A.,218

SouthAmericanstatesocialism,133151,189

SouthernDiscovery...(laBretonne),105106

SouthernLand,The(deFoigny),103

SovietRussia.SeeRussia

Spain,andJesuitstateinParaguay,142143,151

Spaniards,andIncaempire,133137,141142

Stalin,Iosif,186,252,262,272,294

Statecapitalism,216

Stateownershipofpropertyandland,103,105,111,190AsiaticSocialFormation,185189positiveabolitionofprivateproperty,195

Statesocialism,132192ancientChina,168185,189192,255ancientEgypt,162168"anonymous"societymodel,269comparedwithchiliasticsocialism,
236,253257deathofmantheme,272274ideologyandrealityof,197201,216,236257Incas,133142Jesuitstate,142151Mesopotamia,152,
162,167168andpartycharacter,216217andreligion,253postrevolutionaryRussia,238252andsocialjustice,221225worldwide,274275

Statism,absolute,189192ancientChina,168185ancientEgypt,162165"Equals"conceptof,122123familyasunitof,195riseof,inMesopotamia,
161162socialismasmeansto,213,215

Staupitz,Johann,71

Sterility,inwomen,9192,103

Stirner,Max,290

Storch,Niklaus,3738,50,258

Sufferingandoppression,eradicationof,219225

Suicide:Cathars,20,22,283collective,290deathinstinct,282285

Sumer,152155,192.SeealsoMesopotamia
Storch,Niklaus,3738,50,258

Sufferingandoppression,eradicationof,219225

Suicide:Cathars,20,22,283collective,290deathinstinct,282285

Sumer,152155,192.SeealsoMesopotamia

Surplusrepressionconcept,231,233

Switzerland,3637,74

Taborites,2934,265destructionof,275doctrines,3032,7778andMarxistanalysisofsocialism,203

Tahitians,113114

Taoism,288289

Technology,133,231232

TempleestatesofMesopotamia,xii,153156,161,163,173

Torres,FatherDiegode,144

Totalityaspect(Deschamps),115,117

Trade:ancientChina,173,177178,190ancientEgypt,163,165Diggerson,4344"Equals"and,122Incas,141Jesuitstateand,144,148,151
Morelly'sbanon,111andsocialistisolation,238statemonopoly,Ur,158Winstanleyon,96

Tradeunions,42,225,242

Travelrestrictions,85,103,137,144,269

Tropismtheory,293

Trotsky,Leon,199,217,241243,294

TruthoftheTrueSystem(Deschamps),114120,198

Twentiethcenturysocialism,256257,299300.SeealsoRussia

UnitedStates:blacks,203,300communalsects,80,197,268andZenBuddhism,291292.SeealsoNewLeft

Urdynasty,156160

Urukagina,KingofLagash,153154,155n.

Utopiansocialism,xiii,80120,300comparedwithIncas,142,198Hellenistic,15andisolation,238asreaction,256

Vairasse,Denis,102103,238

Valdes,6970

Valentinov,N.,217

Violenceandterror:Anabaptists,3941,6066lesseningof,inAmerica,80Levellers,45,45n.aspartofsocialistideology,275279Russianrevolutionary

[318]

Violenceandterror(cont'd)
youthand,283285socialistpartyconceptof,217218.SeealsoMedievalheresiesShangYang

Vipper,R.,215

VoiceofReason,The(Deschamps),116117

Voltaire,106,110,151

Waldensians,29,36beliefs,73,7677origins,67,6971
Voltaire,106,110,151

Waldensians,29,36beliefs,73,7677origins,67,6971

Walwyn,William,44

WarCommunism,238252,265

Weber,Max,296

Weitling,Wilhelm,45n.,121

Wells,H.G.,23,273

WesternEurope:contemporaryleftistmovements,268meaningofRussiansocialism,300

Winstanley,Gerrard,4346,95conceptofnewsociety,96101,219

"Witheringawayofthestate"concept,175,206207

Wittfogel,K.,191192,192n.,201,207ancientEasternSocialism,186187,186n.onstatecapitalism,216

Wives,ascommonproperty:Americansects,80Anabaptists,36,3840ApostolicBrethren,29,4748Cathars,2324inMnster,6366Platoon,
12,258259asrevolutionaryslogan,214andsocialism,195,236

Women:communalityof,4,12,1517,9192,95DiggersandWinstanleyagainstcommunality,44,100Incaoppressionandstateregulation,134,136138,
141142andmeninDeschamps'paradise,118120Meslier'scompletefreedomto,109inMesopotamia,153,155,158159Plato'sequalrightsto,9
inpostrevolutionaryRussia,245Solarianregulations,9192.SeealsoFamily,MarriagecustomsWives,ascommonproperty

Workandworkers:liberationfrom,Marcusethesis,6,231232andrevolution,203socialistgoalofsocialjusticeand,223224.SeealsoCompulsorylabor

Worldempireconcept,161162

Worldview:ofDeschamps,120dualism,297298of"Equals,"130ofFreud,292,297inevitabledeaththeme,280285Marxismandnihilism,278279of
religion,267ofsocialism,xv,226227,231,237

Writingandrecordingsystems:ancientChina,168,172ancientMesopotamia,153157,161Deschampsprohibition,119Egyptianscribes,162165Incas,
134,134n.,138139Jesuitstate,144

ZenBuddhism,291292

Zinoviev,G.E.,294

Zulus,141

ZwickauProphets,37

Zwingli,Ulrich,34,37,71,73

[319]