perspective

Majorana returns
Frank Wilczek
In his short career, Ettore Majorana made several profound contributions. One of them, his concept
of Majorana fermions particles that are their own antiparticle is finding ever wider relevance in
modern physics.

E
nrico Fermi had to cajole his friend Indeed, when, in 1928, Paul Dirac number of electrons minus the number of
Ettore Majorana into publishing discovered1 the theoretical framework antielectrons, plus the number of electron
his big idea: a modification of the for describing spin- particles, it seemed neutrinos minus the number of antielectron
Dirac equation that would have profound that complex numbers were unavoidable neutrinos is a constant (call it Le). These
ramifications for particle physics. Shortly (Box 2). Diracs original equation contained laws lead to many successful selection
afterwards, in 1938, Majorana mysteriously both real and imaginary numbers, and rules. For example, the particles (muon
disappeared, and for 70 years his modified therefore it can only pertain to complex neutrinos, ) emitted in positive pion ()
equation remained a rather obscure fields. For Dirac, who was concerned decay, + + + , will induce neutron-
footnote in theoretical physics (Box 1). with describing electrons, this feature to-proton conversion + n + p,
Now suddenly, it seems, Majoranas posed no problem, and even came to but not proton-to-neutron conversion
concept is ubiquitous, and his equation seem an advantage because it explained + p + + n; the particles (muon
is central to recent work not only in why positrons, the antiparticles of antineutrinos, ) emitted in the negative
neutrino physics, supersymmetry and dark electrons, exist. pion decay + obey the opposite
matter, but also on some exotic states of Enter Ettore Majorana. In his 1937 pattern. Indeed, it was through studies of
ordinary matter. paper 2, Majorana posed, and answered, the this kind that the existence of different
question of whether equations for spin- flavours of neutrino, corresponding
Majorana fermions fields must necessarily, like Diracs original to the different types of charged lepton
An electrically charged particle is different equation, involve complex numbers. was discovered4.
from its antiparticle as it has the opposite Considerations of mathematical elegance Of course, if neutrinos really differ from
electric charge, and electric charge is a and symmetry both motivated and guided antineutrinos, then they are not Majorana
measurable, stable property. It is possible, his investigation. Majorana discovered fermions. In recent years, however, the
however, for an electrically neutral particle that, to the contrary, there is a simple, situation has come to seem less clear-cut,
to be its own antiparticle. Photons, which clever modification of Diracs equation for it has been discovered that neutrinos
have spin 1 in units of the rationalized that involves only real numbers. With oscillate in flavour 5. For example, an
Plancks constant , are a familiar case; this discovery, Majorana made the idea electron antineutrino emitted from the Sun
neutral pions (spin 0) are a further example, that spin- particles could be their own can arrive at Earth as a muon antineutrino
and gravitons (spin 2) another. Particles antiparticles theoretically respectable, that or a tau antineutrino. In some sense this
that are their own antiparticles must be is, consistent with the general principles is a small effect, but when neutrinos travel
created by fields that obey = * of relativity and quantum theory. In a long way they have time to do rare
that is, real fields, because the complex- his honour, we call such hypothetical things. These flavour oscillations show
conjugate fields * create their antiparticles. particles Majorana fermions. But are there that the separate laws of lepton-number
The equations for particles with spin 0, physical examples? conservation do not hold: at best, only the
spin 1 and spin 2 the KleinGordon, sum Le + L + L can be strictly conserved.
Maxwell (electromagnetism) and are neutrinos Majorana fermions? Thus awakened from our dogmatic
Einstein (general relativity) equations, Majorana speculated that his equation slumber, we re-open Majoranas question:
respectively readily accommodate real might apply to neutrinos. In 1937, could the distinction between neutrino
fields, as these equations are formulated neutrinos were themselves hypothetical, and antineutrino, which seems so plainly
using real numbers. and their properties unknown. The apparent, be superficial? (Consider the vast
On the other hand, the neutron (which experimental study of neutrinos perceptual disconnect between the morning
has spin ), despite being electrically commenced with their discovery 3 in 1956, star and the evening star yet theyre
neutral, is not its own antiparticle: several but their observed properties seemed to both Venus.)
neutrons can peacefully coexist within disfavour Majoranas idea. Specifically, there But how can = be reconciled with
an atomic nucleus, but an antineutron seemed to be a strict distinction between those many observations that seemed to
rapidly annihilates. Neither, of course, neutrinos and antineutrinos. indicate a distinction? The point is that
are the most famous spin- particles The distinction is connected with the the particles produced in, for example,
electrons and protons, which are electrically law of lepton-number conservation, which + + + are in a very different state of
charged their own antiparticles. So it applies for each of the leptons electron motion from the particles produced in
is not obvious that we need an equation (e), muon () and tau (). For example, + . The former are left handed,
to describe spin- particles that are their for electrons, lepton-number conservation spinning in the sense that the fingers of your
own antiparticles. means that, in any reaction, the total left hand point, if your thumb aligns with the

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 perspective

velocity, whereas the latter are right handed. equations if we dont add antineutrinos as have a heavier fermionic (half-integer spin)
So, logically, and and might be the same separate entities to our fundamental theory. partner; and vice versa for each known
particle, having different behaviours when it For if neutrinos in the right-handed state fermion. There is suggestive, although
is in different states of motion. of motion are not antineutrinos, they must circumstantial, evidence for the existence
If you could bring neutrinos and be something else; and that something of these superpartners. Specifically, if the
antineutrinos to rest, and do experiments else must (as its escaped detection so far) superpartners exist and are not too heavy,
with them, you could test whether they interact with the kinds of matter we know then in their evanescent form, as virtual
behave the same way. That is impractical, very feebly indeed. It is hard to fit such particles, they are computed to modify
unfortunately: theoretically, the cosmos is oddball entities within the most attractive (partially screen) the basic units of strong,
awash with slow neutrinos, but they are too unified theories, which require symmetry weak and electromagnetic charge so as
hard to detect. Although such a direct test among their building blocks. to quantitatively account for the different
of Majoranas hypothesis seems out of reach observed charge values in a unified field
for now, several ambitious experiments are Of supersymmetry and dark matter theory where, fundamentally, those values
underway to test one of its implications, Neutrinos were Majoranas own candidates are equal10. In brief, supersymmetry allows
namely, that even the last bastion of for Majorana fermions, and although the unification of the fundamental forces.
lepton-number conservation, Le + L + L, they look more promising than ever in If supersymmetry is valid, then the
can be toppled. Searches for neutrino-less that regard, no longer are they unique. photon has as its superpartner a spin-
double decay, such as Ge76 Se76 + 2e, Other problems at the frontier of particle, the photino. As the photino mirrors
are launching a promising fusillade6. In fundamental physics seem to call for more the properties of the photon, it must be
this decay, total lepton number changes by Majorana fermions. its own antiparticle. Thus the photino is a
two, so its occurrence would disprove the Supersymmetry is a leading proposal Majorana fermion. So, for similar reasons,
conservation law definitively. to improve the symmetry and coherence are various other superpartners (such as
Meanwhile, the leading ideas on of the equations of physics9. It involves neutral gauginos, as well as Higgsinos). In
neutrino masses, rooted in unified field the expansion of spacetime into a new, a word, supersymmetry comes chock-a-
theories, predict that neutrinos are quantum dimension. Particles that move block with Majorana fermions. If, as widely
Majorana fermions7,8. The detailed logic is in that direction change their mass and anticipated, superpartners are produced
complex, but the basic idea is simple: we spin. If supersymmetry is valid, then every as real, not just virtual, particles at the
get more economical, and much prettier, known bosonic (integer spin) particle will Large Hadron Collider, we might quickly

Box 1 | The romance of Ettore Majorana

There are many categories of scientists: masterpieces: the last, as mentioned, and
people of second and third rank, who do another on the quantum theory of spins in
their best, but do not go very far; there magnetic fields, which anticipates the later
are also people of first-class rank, who brilliant development of molecular-beam
make great discoveries, fundamental to and magnetic resonance techniques.
the development of science. But then there In recent years, a small industry
kind concession of e. Recami and e. majoRana.

are the geniuses, like Galileo and Newton. has developed, bringing Majoranas
Well Ettore Majorana was one of them. unpublished notebooks into print (see
Enrico Fermi, not known for flightiness for example ref. 31). They are impressive
or overstatement, is the source of these documents, full of original calculations
much-quoted lines. and expositions covering a wide range
The bare facts of Majoranas life are of physical problems. They leave an
briefly told. Born in Catania, Italy, on overwhelming impression of gathering
5 August 1906, into an accomplished family, strength; physics might have advanced
he rose rapidly through the academic ranks, more rapidly on several fronts had
became a friend and scientific collaborator Majorana pulled this material together and
of Fermi, Werner Heisenberg and other shared it with the world.
luminaries, and produced a stream of How did he vanish? There are two
high-quality papers. Then, beginning in leading theories. According to one, he
1933, things started to go terribly wrong. retired to a monastery, to escape a spiritual
He complained of gastritis, became which he took up in January 1938. Two crisis and accept the embrace of his deep
reclusive, with no official position, and months later, he embarked on a mysterious Catholic faith (not unlike another tortured
published nothing for several years. In trip to Palermo, arrived, then boarded a ship scientific genius, Blaise Pascal). According
1937, he allowed Fermi to write-up and straight back to Naples and disappeared to another, he jumped overboard, an act of
submit, under his (Majoranas) name, his without a trace. suicide recalling the alienated supermind
last and most profound paper the point Majorana published only nine papers of fiction, Odd John32. Fermis appreciation
of departure of this article containing in his lifetime, none very lengthy. They had a wistful conclusion, which is less well
results he had derived some years before. are collected, with commentaries, all in known: Majorana had greater gifts than
At Fermis urging, Majorana applied both Italian and English versions, in a slim anyone else in the world. Unfortunately
for professorships and was awarded the volume30. Each is a substantial contribution he lacked one quality which other men
Chair in Theoretical Physics at Naples, to quantum physics. At least two are generally have: plain common sense.

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perspective

Box 2 | The Majorana equation

In 1928, Dirac proposed his relativistic (in which I have adopted units such that 0 = 2 1
wave equation for electrons33. This = c = 1). Furthermore, we require that 0 be 1 = i1 1
was a watershed event in theoretical Hermitian, and the remaining marices anti- 2 = i3 1
physics, leading to a new understanding Hermitian. These conditions ensure that the 3 = i2 2
of spin, predicting the existence of equation properly describes the wavefunction
antimatter, and impelling for its of a spin- particle with mass m. or alternatively, as ordinary matrices:
adequate interpretation the creation of Dirac found a suitable set of 4 4
quantum field theory. It also inaugurated matrices, whose entries contain both real 0 0 0 i
a new method in theoretical physics, and imaginary numbers. For the equation to 0 0 i 0
0=
emphasizing mathematical aesthetics as make sense, must then be a complex field. 0 i 0 0
a source of inspiration. Majoranas most Dirac and most other physicists regarded
influential work is especially poetic, in this consequence as a good feature, because i 0 0 0
that it applies Diracs method to Diracs electrons are electrically charged, and the 0 0 i 0
equation itself, to distill from it an description of charged particles requires
0 0 0 i
equation both elegant and new. For many complex fields, even at the level of the 1=
years, Majoranas idea seemed to be an Schrdinger equation. This is also true in the i 0 0 0
ingenious but unfulfilled speculation. language of quantum field theory. In quantum 0 i 0 0
Recently, however, it has come into its field theory, if a given field creates the
own, and now occupies a central place particle A (and destroys its antiparticle ), the i 0 0 0
in several of the most vibrant frontiers of complex conjugate * will create and destroy 0 i 0 0
modern physics. A. Particles that are their own antiparticles 2=
0 0 i 0
Diracs equation connects the four must be associated with fields obeying = *,
components of a field . In modern that is, real fields. Because electrons and 0 0 0 i
(covariant) notation it reads positrons are distinct, the associated fields 0 0 0 i
and * and must therefore be different; this
(i m) = 0 feature appeared naturally in Diracs equation. 0 0 i 0
3=
Majorana inquired whether it might 0 i 0 0
The matrices are required to obey the be possible for a spin- particle to be its i 0 0 0
rules of Clifford algebra, that is own antiparticle, by attempting to find the
equation that such an object would satisfy. Majoranas equation, then, is simply
{} + = 2 To get an equation of Diracs type (that is,
suitable for spin-) but capable of governing (i m) = 0)
where is the metric tensor of flat space.

a real field, requires matrices that satisfy
Spelling it out, we have the Clifford algebra and are purely imaginary. Because the matrices are purely
Majorana found such matrices. Written as imaginary, the matrices i are real, and
(0)2 = (1)2 = (2)2 = (3)2 = 1 tensor products of the usual Pauli matrices , consequently this equation can govern a
jk = kj for i j they take the form: real field .

establish the existence of several Majorana solid-state physics. Recent investigations electrons; they act as if they were positively
fermions, even as the status of neutrinos suggest that exotic quasiparticle excitations charged electrons.
remains uncertain. in a variety of interesting condensed-matter The particleantiparticle correspondence,
A popular hypothesis11 for the systems are Majorana fermions. Many of as well as the manifestation of the electrons
astronomical dark matter is that it is a these ideas were born of high mathematical and holes characteristic fermion statistics, is
weakly interacting massive particle, or fantasy, but there is a very real chance that transparent in the mathematical formalism
WIMP. Indeed, it could be one of the they may soon mature into a surprisingly of second quantization. Here, particle
superpartners just mentioned. The overall tangible, and even useful, form. states are associated with creation operators
neutrality of Majorana fermions means The concept of excitations that are their cj , antiparticle (hole) states with their
that they can decay, or annihilate in pairs. own antiparticles is not unprecedented conjugate operators, cj. In essence, cj can
The debris from such events could produce in solid-state physics. An example is the create a hole, or destroy a particle, in state j,
energetic cosmic rays, which are the object exciton a quasiparticle formed by bound whereas cj can create a particle, or destroy a
of ongoing search experiments. It is entirely states of electrons and holes. The latter hole in state j. Three key relations embody
possible that WIMPs, dominating the mass are a familiar concept in modern solid- the characteristics of FermiDirac statistics
of the Universe and proclaiming their state physics12, and represent the absence and describe the relationship between
existence with cosmic fireworks, will be the of an electron in a mode that is normally particle and hole operators associated with
first established Majorana fermions. (in the overall ground state) occupied. In different states. First,
rough but more vivid language, holes are
Majorana modes in the solid state bubbles of emptiness in the Fermi sea of (cj )2 = c2j = 0
There is a completely different area of electrons (Fig. 1a). Holes look and behave
physics in which Majoranas idea is starting like the antiparticles or antimatter to which means that the attempt to cram two
to receive more attention theoretical their corresponding particles, the valence electrons, or two holes, into the same state

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 perspective

comes to naught a manifestation of Paulis Indeed, already in the earliest days special, symmetric solutions of differential
exclusion principle. Second, for two distinct following Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffers equations to the topology of the parameters
(orthogonal) states j and k, triumphant theory of superconductivity that appear in those equations16.
(BCS theory)14, it was realized that certain The zero modes are mixtures of particles
cj , ck = cj ck + ck cj = cj, ck = cj , ck = 0 fermionic modes in the superconducting and holes in equal measure, and thus
state are created by mixtures of what one can call the quasiparticles associated
which is a consequence of the antisymmetry were, in the normal state, electron and with these zero modes partiholes. Such
of FermiDirac statistics. Third, hole operators. In physical terms, a partiholes differ crucially from conventional
(normal state) electron mode can lower its excitons. They are created by operators of
cj , cj = ck , ck = 1 energy, in the superconducting state, by the form j = cj + cj. As j is left invariant by
mixing with a (normal state) hole mode the charge conjugation, c c, partihole
which is the completeness relation. attached to a Cooper pair. Mathematically, operators create localized spin- particles
In this formalism, particlehole this phenomenon is encoded in the that are their own antiparticles. In this sense,
interchange (charge conjugation) is BogoliubovValatin formalism13. Therein partiholes are a new instance of Majoranas
implemented by cj cj . Because electrons one finds that the creation operators for idea, which is why the corresponding zero
and holes have opposite charge, they are modes in the superconducting state are modes are called Majorana modes.
not their own antiparticles and therefore mixtures of electron and hole creation But where and how would one
not Majorana fermions. Excitons, on the operators, in the form cos cj + sin ck. observe such Majorana modes? In most
other hand, are bound states of electrons But electrons in such Bogoliubov superconductors, in which the Cooper pairs
and holes, and thus, in the language of Valatin modes are not exactly their own have orbital angular momentum 0 (s-wave)
second quantization, they are created by antiparticles (except accidentally, in the and the electrons obey a Schrdinger-like,
combinations of electron and hole operators, specific case j = k and = /4) and nonrelativistic equation, zero modes are
of the general form cj ck + ckcj . Under thus, such modes are not a realization of not predicted to occur. However, they are
charge conjugation, this exciton creation Majorana fermions. predicted17 to occur if the Cooper pairs have
operator goes over into itself, and therefore However, there are certain types of orbital angular momentum 1 (px + ipy-wave),
the excitations it creates are their own superconductor in which Majorana-type or for s-wave Cooper pairing if the electrons
antiparticles. But conventional excitons are excitations are predicted to emerge. For in the normal state obey a Dirac-like
always bosons, with integer spin, and thus instance, some superconductors can equation18. The former case could occur,
can make no call on Majoranas legerdemain. contain magnetic flux tubes, also known in effect, in certain quantum Hall states
In this sense they are analogous to the as Abrikosov vortices15, the presence of specifically, the so-called Pfaffian or Moore
photons of conventional particle physics. which alters the equations for the electrons. Read state at = 5/2 filling 19 and possibly
In particular, depending on the kind in some exotic superconductors including
superconductors to the rescue of superconductor and the electronic strontium ruthenate20. The case in which
So can there ever be a solid-state situation spectrum, the vortices may trap so-called the normal-state electrons obey Dirac-like
in which half-integer-spin particles are their zero modes, spin-1/2 excitons of very low beahviour is predicted to be induced at the
own antiparticles? At first sight it seems (formally, zero) energy. The zero modes surface of a new class of material called
hopeless to realize Majorana fermions from are discrete; there are a finite number topological insulators21 or in graphene22,
the raw material of electrons in solids, associated with each vortex. The existence of by exploiting the proximity effect to induce
simply because electrons are charged, and these modes is related to a profound result superconductivity in those materials. Thus,
therefore definitely different from their in mathematics, the AtiyahSinger index the race is on to find such exotic realizations
antimatter counterparts, the (oppositely theorem, which connects the existence of of Majoranas idea in a variety of systems.
charged) holes. But superconductivity
changes the picture13, because in a b
superconductors the absolute distinction
between electrons and holes is blurred
(Fig. 1b,c). In such materials, electrons 5 +
form so-called Cooper pairs, which, owing
to their boson-like nature, can form a
dense condensate, unimpeded by the Pauli
exclusion principle. Indeed, it is just this c
condensate that, theoretically, is responsible
for superconductivity 13.
As a consequence, electron number
isTockPHoTo

is in effect no longer conserved: two

electrons (in a Cooper pair) can be added
or subtracted from the condensate without
substantially changing its properties.
Crucially too, the superconductor screens
electric and confines magnetic fields so that Figure 1 | Antimatter matters in the solid state. a, A familiar concept in solid-state physics, holes are
charge is no longer observable (Fig. 1c). bubbles of missing electrons in the Fermi sea of the electronic spectrum, behaving like positively charged
Thus, in a superconductor the most electrons. b, In a superconductor, the properties of electrons (blue) and holes (grey) are drastically
daunting barrier to producing Majorana- modified by their interaction with the surrounding sea of Cooper pairs; a hole can attract or bind to a
like excitations the charge-conjugation Cooper pair, and acquire negative charge. c, More importantly, Cooper pairs cluster around holes and thin
hurdle seems vulnerable. out around electrons, in such a way that no rigorous distinction between them remains.

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perspective

tomorrows qubits? Majorana partihole operators (of quantity n) both disappointing and surprising if real
Majorana modes open a portal into some obey the algebra {j, k} = 2jk. Majorana fermions, now ardently sought,
extremely unusual and interesting aspects This is another Clifford algebra, similar do not soon materialize.
of quantum theory. For instance, Majorana to the one in the Dirac or Majorana
modes on Abrikosov vortices have the equations (Box 2). However, in contrast Frank Wilczek is at the Center for Theoretical
unique feature that the operators that create to the algebra associated with the Dirac Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
them square to the identity, not to zero and Majorana equations, the algebra 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge,
that is, j 2 = 1. Thus the object created by describing Majorana modes describes the Massachusetts 02139, USA.
j is not a conventional fermion. Nor is it geometry of n Euclidean dimensions in e-mail: wilczek@mit.edu
a conventional boson. Indeed, adding a an abstract mode space, rather than the
second partihole to a state already occupied paltry 3+1 dimensions of spacetime. In References
by one partihole neither annihilates the this mode space, the process of exchanging 1. Dirac, P. A. M. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 117, 610624 (1928).
2. Majorana, E. Nuovo Cimento 5, 171184 (1937).
state nor creates an essentially new, doubly neighbouring modes characterized by the 3. Cowan, C. Jr, Reines, F., Harrison, F., Kruse, H. & McGuire, A.
occupied state; rather, it recreates the state indices j and k induces the transformation Science 124, 103104 (1956).
of zero occupancy. 4. Danby, G. et al. Phys. Rev. Lett. 9, 3644 (1962).
5. Fukuda, Y. et al. Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 15621567 (1998).
To further explain the quantum statistics j k 6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_beta_decay
of Majorana modes, let us consider several k j 7. Gell-Mann, M., Ramond, P. & Slansky, R. in Supergravity
of them, and see what happens when (eds Freedman, D. & van Nieuwenhuizen, P.) 315
they are interchanged. At this point, it is in which the minus sign is all-important. (North Holland, 1979).
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to point defects rather than lines. In such realization of all these transformations is Supersymmetry (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999).
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fractional quantum Hall effect 25, and there above such as quantum Hall states, abs/0709.2626> (2007).
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is well beyond the scope of this article; but peripheral, has secured a place at the 33. Wilczek, F. in It Must Be Beautiful: The Great Equations of Modern
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