MODULAR SYSTEM Limits of Functions Mohamnmer Taskiran ZambakCopyright © Strat Bosim Reklamalik ve Efiim Araglan Son Ti. AS All rights reserved. No part ofthis book may be reproduced, stored ina rerival system o ransited in any form without the prior writen permission of the publisher. Digital Assembly Lambak Typesetting & Design Page Design SamilKeskinogl Proofreader Zoe Burnett Publisher Zambok Bosim Yayin Etim ve Turizm isetmeleri Sonay Tiaret AS, Printed by (olen AS. Sam Yolu Ure No.7 Gaston / tn, Mach 2008 Tk $90-0-29225222 85 +90-0.282 ISBN: 978-975-266412-1 Printed in Turkey DISTRIBUTION ZANBAK YAYINLARI Bulguriu Moh, Hominne Gegmes Sok No, 20 34696 Uskidor / Istanbul Tel: +90-216 522 0900 (pbx) Fox: +90-216 43 98 39 hip: //book zombak comA ee ee a To the Teacher This is an introductory book on mathematical analysis which covers functions, Limits and the continuity and discontinuity of functions. All of these topics are necessary prerequisites for the study of tutegral and differential calculus. The book is divided into three chapters, structured as follows: uapteRl Chapter 1 focuses on functions. It begins with an overall review © of functions which cavers the concepts of domain and range of POSEN) a ancon compote fncion woes fnchon and ven ad JN) oda functions. tu the second part of the chapter, students study Be Fee ele ace area eel er eae dene \ ‘value function, the sign function and the floor function Cer Tints te He mind fhe protien F chapter and introduces limits. Taking the graphical UITUS A Hnstraion ofa tina asa starting pont, the chapter BAM EUG) leads the student to an understanding of the concept of limit, including left-hand and right-hand limits nd limits of the spectal functions studied in Chapter 1 Finally, students study the indeterminate forms of timus. two important theorems: the Extreme Value Theorem and the Intermediate Value Theorem. Both theorems will be useful when students begin their study of differential calculus. Chapter 3 covers continuity and discontinuity and introduces 4 { The book tries to explain the topic as a teacher would explain it in the classroom, giving examples and exercises that prompt students fo think for themselves Functions and their limits comprise a vast topic, and it is obviously impossible to cover every type of question in the text, However, we believe that we have provided a sufficient range of explanations and examples in the text to enable students 10 approach most limit problems with confidenceOS! Oe lS t—‘istsé™d” This book has been designed to be an effective teaching aid, and metudes all of the ‘features of the Zambak Modular System high school math teaching series cn D1 tre cea tncson fo) nnn opeaie ay THE book follows a linear teaching approach, with r ect material in the latter sections building on concepts atm neo and math covered previously in the text. For this = : —— reason, several self-test ‘Check Yourself sections check students’ understanding of the material at key points ‘Check Yourself’ sections include a rapid answer key that allows students to measure their own performance and understanding. Successful completion of each selftest section allows students to advance to the next topic 8 yA) a ss) RR Section Bxercises A number of exercises follow each section. Many of the problems reflect skills or problem-solving techniques , encountered in the section. All of these problems can be solted using skills the student should alveady have b mastered oe) Instone 1-7, the its, Review Acchapter summary at the end of each chapter provides a concise review of the main content of the chapter Included im the summary are a set of concept check questions which ask students to explain key concepts and ideas in their own words. ; ee Following the chapter summary and concept check, > Wet s=dossinel OT? 1 review tests cover material from the chapter and help 10 sm) nog : prepare students for exams ‘i tei Acknowledgements y Many friends and colleagues were of great help in writing this book. I would like to thank everybody who helped me at Zambak Publications, especially Mustafa > Kirikgt. Special thanks also go to Sami Keskinoflu for his patient typesetting and design } Finally, T would like 10 thank my wife for her support and patience during my work , on 1s book > Mutammer Taskaran ee ee ee |2. INDETERMINATE FORMS & 2 asaumT 75 CHAPTER 1: FUNCTIONS. TYPES QF FUNCTION ,. A. DOMAIN AND RANGE OF RFUNCTION 000. cscecsee ics ee eee B BL COMPOSITE FUNCTION ....00..000005.19 C. INVERSE OF & FUNCTION 20 {oe rari Bon Tiles vac, BS As ALiMIT at 0-2 AS AUMIT. D. CONSTANT, INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS 23 D. 0 AS AUMIT E EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS 27 EPASAUMIT... REREAD a EXERCISES 2.2 .. 2, SPECIAL FUNCTIONS. .4..¢e.esseeeeo0 <2 A, PIECEWISE FUNCTION ... mee BL ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION 34 C. SIGN FUNCTION 36 D. FLOOR FUNCTION 38 EXERCISES 1.2.0... ee CHAPTER SUMMARY CONCEPT CHECK CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 20, CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 28 ‘CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2¢ ... CHAPTER SUMMARY . CONCEPT CHECK (CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1A, ‘CHAPTER REVIEW TES! CHAPTER $ CONTINUITY 1. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS A. CONTINUITY AT A POINT .. B. CONTINUITY ON AN INTERVAL 106 ©. TYPES OF DISCONTINUITY 2 1. Removable Bscontinuity 2. ump Discontneity 23. inte Discontinuity D. PROPERTIES OF A CONTINUOUS FUNCTION ON A CLOSED INTERVAL...117 EXERCISES 3.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY ... CONCEPT CHECK CHAPTER 2 LIMIT OF A FUNCTION DEFINITION . A. LIMIT OF & POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION 50 BL LIMITS ON A GRAPH oo... ST ©. DEFINITION OF LIMIT... c0..0000. 00 54 1. Neighborhood of a Number scsssssesssee esd 2.€- Melghbothood of « Number 3. Limit of @ Function « D. ONE-SIDED UMITS o.oo. ccc cece 58 E. LIMITS OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS 6 F LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 65 EXERCISES) cpresetcrapteetersreiets ADINTRODUCTION ‘The limit of funetion isthe most fimdamental concept ofesieulus, Coleuhus begins with limits ‘We can define the major ideas of calculus such as continuity the derivative and integral ofa fumetion and the convergence and vergence of eequences and series in terms of mits. This concept of limit makes caloulus different from other ‘ranches of mathematics such as algebra, geometry, number theory and logic ‘The concept of limit evolved from the method of exhaustion, which is technique used in mathematics to ‘row the creme regarding the areas and volumes of geometric figuies. The method of exhaustion was invented by the Greek mathematician Budoxus (400 BC) Although st was an ancestor of integral calculus, the method of exhaustion did not use limits and arguments about very tiny quantities. k was instead a completely logical procedure, based on the axiom that a gwen quanbity can be made smaller than another given quanti: by successively halving ita finite number of times This method was also used by Euclid inthe fourto century BC and by Archimedes in the third century BC. In their calculation of certain areas, Fermat and Descartes also improved the mettod, Newton and Leitniz did attempt to explain the concept of limit, but their explanations were not satisfacton: Although Leibniz developed the notanon for differential and integral calculus, he never thought of the derivative a5 a limit Tn the ninth century the mathematician Sabit Bin Kuna made a significant contribution to mathematics with his study of mathematical analvsis, His studies are atcepiable as 2 foundation cf limits Several centuries Inter, the mathemadeian d'Alembert made important contnbutions to our understanding of limits D’Alembert was one of the first people to understand the importance of functions, and he defined the derivative ofa function as the limat of a quotient of growths in 1754, fie ideas on Lite led him to the test for convergence In the latter part of his hie, GAlembert turned more towards literature snd philosophy He set out this skepticism concerning metaphysical problems but He accepted the argrment mn favor ofthe existence of Cod ‘based on the belief thar itefigence cannot be a product of matter alone Concer about the lack of rigorous foundations for calculus giew during the Tate years of the 18th contury At the beginning of the 18th century ideas about limits were certainly confusing. The definition of limit that we use today less than two hundred years old. Rofow this me, the notions of mit were not elear and only rawly used conects: In-much of his work on calculus, Isaac Newton also failed to acknowledge the fundamental role of limits Louis Cauchy was the first mathematician to use what is similar o the epeilon-delta definition ofa Timi which ‘we use today In 1891 be gave a calculus coure which began with 2 modem definition of the limit, In bis ‘mitings, Cauchy used limits as the basis for accurste definitions of continuity, convergence, the denvative and the ‘integral. Cauchy defined the integral of any continuous funetion on an interval [a,b] tobe the hmit ofthe sums cfareas of thin wctangles. He attempted to prove that this imit existed for all fametions which wore continuous om the anterval (a, 6] Finally here is the definition of limit given by Cauchy fe want all the f(x) values to stay in some small neighborhood around fe), we simply need to choose a small enouga nelghbornood for the x-values around ¢, ond row that we can do this no matter how small the ftx)-netghboshood is Th addition, sfc) 1s defined then fx) 1s continuous at ¢1 CHAPTER TUN CTO NS)TYPES OF FUNCTION ‘A function froma set D toa set Risa tule that maps. cach element of D (oa single element of R. FDIK 4 4 oman cn For each x in D there exists a single element yin o 4 R such that f(x) = y. x 1s called the vanable of f feymb and y = f(2) 1s called the image of x. The set of images of all the elements of Dis called the mage set of f Consider the function f: A > B, f(x) = x°, We can wnte this function in different ways Joe) = 2°, y = x" or fi x x°, All of these mean the same function, 41s the domam and Bs the range of f. Dis the wiage ofa A. DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A FUNCTION Unless stated otherwise, the domam of a function f(x) is the largest set of real ‘x-values for which f(x) is defmed. The range of the fumenom isa set which meludes at least all the images ofthe elements im its domam, The domam and range of many functions are subsets of the set of real numbers, The largest possible range of a funetion is R. Let us look at the domain and range of some common types of function, In these examples we will use the letter D to mean the domain of the function. The notation D(f) means the domain of the function J. (Bre otfneton Form Domain Txanples polynomial || f(x) = a,x"ta, a" +..ta, gp RD a2 DR function neZu{0y fa) = 23x41 DG): B As stated im the table, the domam of any polynomial function f is R. The range of the polynomial function depends on the function itself. For example, let us draw the graph of the function y = f(x) = x" and find its domain and range when n 1s odd or even. ¥ . ¥ pase when when even odd - . lo o PR RN (0) FROR es ge ddorain eange domain rangeiat Type of function Form Domain Examples 2 fo) = De: R-E1) S #1 acta W0= ie Rex | h(a) =0} ass YS eeoeass 80S) ‘The value of the denominator in a rational expression cannot be zero, so any numbers which make the denominator zero must be excluded from the domain of a rational function, 1 ‘Asan example, let us look at the graph of the funewon y= x" when when R10) 9B FR-O) 98-0 We can see that the domain of a rational funchon changes according to the function. (Type of function][ Foon Domain] Example ] radical fO) = YR) oe aaa funetion misan odd integer = No a tae DU ‘When the index of a radical expression 1s odd, the radicand can be negauve, positive or zero. ‘Therefore there 18 no restriction on the value of x and so the domain is R. ‘The figure at the night shows the graph of y =e when nis odd and n > 1. We can see that the range of the function is the set of real numbers. sis “VE(Boe offimeton (Form (Domain YL Examples radical |!) = ¥9) Ifay= JF DY): R- 5, function | @isaneven ||R- x | g(x) <0) integer YOR FS DY): R~ (1,2) ‘When the uidex of a radical expression is even, the radicand cannot be negative, so we must exclude any numbers which make the radicand negative from the domain, ‘As we can see in the graph opposite, since the radicand is non-negative both the domam and yes £21042) +10, + range of y= J are the set R* U (0} [Bpe oF function Form Domain Examples exponential | f(4) = a* fla) = 3° Dip): funetion || (ae x*- (1}) a fx) = ge Df): B logarithmic ||f(x) = log, g(x) fix) =loge?-4) DY): R- [2,2] function |/ (a € R>—{1)) | 1 9) $ OH) 74) — Inga? 24-3) DY): R-H1, 3} ‘An exponential function 1s defined for all real numbers but the logarithmic function 1s defined only for positive real numbers. Therefore we must exclude any numbers which make ‘the function negative or zero from the domain ofa logarithmic funetion. Look at the following graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions: y= Rey = logs‘Lhe following table shows some more examples of the domam and range of different functions. Wntte the missing values in the table { Finetion Domain Range J [no=e 42041 R (0, +=) fz) = 2-20 -3 R 1 | £0) = 2,0) U0, +2) 1 | 0) = R-(2,3) [no fie (0,11 | fix) = loge? + 5x) C=.) UO. +) ‘The solution is left as an exercise for you Find the domain and range of the function f(x) = Yi" #5046 We know that the radicand of a square root fumetion cannot be negative. Let us look at the sign of the radicand x" + Sx + 6: The radicand is non-negative in the mtervals (-°, -3| and |-2, +2). ‘Therefore the domain of the function is (-=, ~3] U [-2, +=) As x increases, the value of y also mcreases without Innit So the range 1s J0, +), In conclusion, the domam of fis (-2, -3] U 2, +0) and the range is |0, +2) Note Ifa fumenon f is a sum or difference of different fumetions then the domain of f 1s the intersection of the domains of each function, oyB rind the domain of the tmeton cx) = Solu Ine) = log(x® + 2x — 8) defined when 0 2 The domam of fs the intersection of the domains of g and h, so D(f) = (2, +). Find the domain of f(x) = era +—° 7 tle. ax-9). Let us consider the domain of each separate function, x+320 nee By solving the inequalities }x°-4#0, we get /**?2n¢® 4x-3>0 rod. 4 So the domam of fx the intersection of these three mtervals: EYES 5 Find che image set of each funenon over the qven mterval afl) = BY +6, E10, +) b. fo) = x'-26 efx) = x8 Ae 5,0 |, JQ) = Qe -34 We can find each range by drawing the graph of the function a. As we can see in the graph, f(x) 1s an anereasing function. The solid le shows the CECE) crapn on tne imerva x € 10, +99. On uns The mage sec 1 of 2) interval the minimum value off (0) = Socucn! A= 8 6] ang the maamum value goes to mnfnity share otes So the image set of f on this interval is 16, +0) 42 on=(3, te} 2 +8x EEL a € (0, 3} over the given interval. fw) ~3x46b. The figure shows the graph of the fmenon y = 0) = x°-2x + 8. The sold Lme shows ‘the graph on the interval x © |-1, 2}. Since the extremum (vertex) of a function Jo) = ax? + bx te CL ped, ae Ie the mmimum value of the fimewon on this by 2 mntervalas f(- 37) = f(-F)= JQ) =7. Its maximum value on this anerval 1s J) = 11. So the image set of f on this mterval 15 W711 ©. The figure shows the graph of y =f) = x°— 4x5. The solid line shows the graph on the anteryal.x © [-1, ©n this amterval, sam f(x) = f(1) = -8 and max fo) So the image set of fon this interval is 8, 01 4. The solid lme m the figure shows the graph of y = f(x) = 2x — x" on the mterval x 10,31 (On this snterval, mim f(x) = f(3) = -3 and max f(x) = f() = 1. So the amage set of the function on this anterval 1s |-3, If a+ ain yale ay valueG Find ne range of each fumetion for ts largest domain a fe) =2siny 3b. SO)=VP EHTS 0 a= VHT Solu’ 8a. The trigonometsie function f(x) = sinx is defined from E to |-1, 1). PorallxeR, -1ssnx <1 -2 <20nx<2 -2-3 <2smx-352-3 -0 <2anx-3 <-1 Hence the range of f(x) = 2sinx ~ 31s |-9, ~I] b. Let us define g(x) = -x* + 4x + 5 and plot ats graph (shown opposite). ‘AS we can see, the function 1s positive over the imterval x © +1, 5] So f(x)= a" +4x+5 is defined on the amterval x © [-1, 8], Also, on this mterval the ‘minmum value of f(x) 1s 0 and the maxmum value of f(x) 1s 19, so we can write Os Se Farts = 0 Os Se rarts <3 0 < fox) <3. So the range of f1s 10, 3] ©. Since the exponential function 9(x) always positive, the domain of £(x) = 4547 is R. As we can see in the gaph opposite, the value of 5" hes between O and ©, o—1_>0,1¢ 2>—2 _>0. rea aa So the range of f1s (0, 2)(REZNOOTS rina the domatn of x) = tog, dog.) Solution The logarithmic function 1s defined for all positive real numbers, 60 the fumetion g(x) = logs defined from R* to R Now we must speci on which interval g(x) 1s non-positive (i.e. negative or ze) AAS we can see mn the graph, g(4) = logy 1s non-positive for 0 < x < 1, so (0, 1| must be excluded from the domain of f. Therefore, the domam of fis R*= (0, 1] & Find the domain of F(2) = (FT =TFET ‘The radicand |x — 1] ~ |x + 2| must be non-negative, 1e. I-A] - Ie + 2] 20. ‘This qwes |x—1| = |x +2]. Taking the square of both sides gives usx’-2xtlex'+ ae t4 Solu ~6r 23 1 4, xs 1, So the domain of the fumeuon 18 (2, — 2 emg (EEQOE 9 ins tne coma of f02)= fo Solution We have the radicands 12 ~ x and 3~ ¥12—x*, and both of them must be non-negative. w2-x820 and 3-3 20 9212-2" x'-320, Let us solve each quadratic inequality by constructing its sign table: is the intersection of these ‘The domain of the combined function f(x) = antervals: D(f) = |-2V3, 8) U V3, 243] (is_}eT TO Find the domam ot 4) = for = Pexanrce BO 3 Solution To find the domain we have to solve three inequalities: Solution r4220, a axa >0 2) a2 7 ox-l and tog "150 eA ts0. () geste +2 40,16.¥ 4-2 tex <-2ore>2, 5 S82 51 This gwves 3 x42 5 Find the domai of f(x) = arccos (3x + 1). ‘The trigonometric function cos. is defined from to the closed interval |-1, 1]. Therefore ats mverse arceosx will be defined from |-1, 1] (o R. In other words, cosx: REA, 1h arecos: [-1, 1] +R. ‘This means that the value of 3x + 1 must he between -1 and 1 -Isaxtdsi “23x50 -2sxs0. So the domain ofthe uncton (a) = arceos (x + 1)as|-. 0. oyTQ Find the domam and the range of £2)= arosn YF. Solu Fist Jet us find the domain of the function 9(x) = Wo" ‘The radicand must be non-negative, so x20, axe 20, ‘This is true for 0 < x <1, so the domain of g(x) 3 [0 1 Now let us find the range of (x)= oa" +x Let x, and x, be the roots of the equation -x* + x = 0,16. x, = Oand x, = 1 ate 2 =@-1) For x € [0, 1] the expression -x° + x reachests maximum value at when @, 4, toectert minimum ae at 4 fat. fT fs 80 a>) D> ty a9 f a* the maximum value of (x), ‘Similarly, g(0) = g(1) = 03s the mmmum: value of g(x) Hence the range of 10) = FFX 1, | Suce the function ares is defined on the nterval [0, 3, the domain of J§(x)=aresin JX Fx 4s also the interval |0, 1). ‘Now we can find the range of f(x) = arcsin yx" + x = arcsin( g(x)). We have found that 0 VIFF = 3. So the range ofthe function s the set of anges whose sine value is between O and +, As we ean see in the figure: foro” 6530, 0 9(Fe)) The function g(/(x)) 1s called the composite of g wath J ‘The composite function g(f(x)) 5 also sometimes written as (@ of )(x). The composition of functions is associative but not commutative, 1.¢. Fo WoM)(x) = (Fog) oh) but Fog)(x) + (@ of i). Given f(x) = x", g() = smx and hex) = 2x + 5, nd a. f(x). b. ay. © fluca(e)). a. f(g) = fismx) = sin'x b g(fe)) = gee’) = sinx® ©. ft(oO))) = f(sina)) = fsx + 9) = Qsnx + 5% White each function as a composite function a. fr) = Gr-9)" ba) = 27 © fx) "dog,"(x* - 1) 8, Let us choose g(x) = 31-5 and h(x) = x* then f(x) = @x-8)? = h(x) 2-7 = 1h@@e)) x7 and w(x) = sin*x so b. Let us choose g(x)= x*, h(x) = Sx°~7 and tx) = 2%, then fx) = 1, G) = Jogsx, Fx) = sin“dog,'@* - 1) = wee). Notice that these are not the only possible solutions to the question. We could have chosen different elementary funetions and still achieved the same fumetion. For example, for the function fix) = (Bx ~ 9), we could have chosen o(x) = 3x, (x) = x — Sand {(x) = 2° to get Jo) =@x - 9)? = Kho) ©. Let us choose g (x Check Yourself 2 ‘Write each function as a composite function 1 ro=(* A) 2 fa) =r 3. f@y=snC. INVERSE OF A FUNCTION ‘Recall the definition of mverse function: ifthe function f: D -» Ris both a one-to-one funetion and an onto fmetion then the fumction J: R -> Ds called the inverse off. eceece $9) =7 e FW ‘As fmeton f A> # Je a} To nd the inverse ofa given function y = f(a) cre-toone function |i is enough to find x in terms of the vansable foreach, +4.04, J) #09. For example, let us find the inverse of the polynomial fimetion f: RB, f(2)= 2x — 1 Wate y = f(x): y = 2-1 Hl [Afinctim fA 2 isan 2 7 te fncton i to any cts meson ff 2 pinally express the inverse function in terms such ark) = en es This isthe mwerse of fx) = 2x = 1. Express xan terms of y: x of the variable xv: (x) = Recall that the graph of a function and the graph of its mverse are symmetric with respect to the kine y Let us recall the inverse of some common types of function: Function Form Inverse inner ments | peat ae ery) rated faactie Joy = Be Pee ‘Remember that the exponential function and the logarithmic function aze inverse of each other: Function Porn Inverse exponential function fe) =a @eER*- (1) PQ) = loge logarithmic function |) £8) = loge @ER*-())) pty = ge oy EG‘As we can see in the figure belovy the graphs of the exponential and logarithmic functions are symmetric with respect to the line y = x. Look at some more examples of inverse functions: ( Function Inverse [enon fo) = Bt (F2Seco = (Eee eae [poe fx =3 SUR AR, $"@) = log | FR- (1) 9R-(2}, Ky =) SUR-2)oR-0}, Pay Et [5 Find the nverse of the fumetion [, #) 0, 00), f(8) = x° K, fix) = -1 + Slogar + 4) Jor) = -1 + Blon@ + 4) =y loge + 4) = VFL 2 3 xt4a=2" x a2? -4=F4 So the inverse is: R> (4, #), fa) = 27-4, ‘The function f: R— R, f(x) = satisfies the equation f(a) = f(a. To solve the problem we have to find the antersection of the graphs of fand J. However, vwe know that the graph of function and the graph of sts mverse are symmetric with respect to the line y =x, In other words, the intersection of the two graphs will be on this line. At the amtersection point, therefore, y= f(%) 80 f(a) = a = J (a), as shown at the right. If f(a) =a then a? @ “and 3a" + 4a-1=a 3a" + 3a-1=0 @-1y=0 a = 3x" + 4x — 1 is given. Find the real number @ which oyCheck Yourself 3 1 Find the inverse of each function, a. FRR, fa)=3- bx-2 pr-on-[2} J@)= ERR So) = 5 df RY RB, fx) = log, @x + 5) f: ROR fo) =x - 3x" + Ge f fRC,@), fo) =34 +1 JER (1, ), $0) = 1 + log" + 1) bh. fR- {1}, @)- CM), f@y= For each funcuon, find the real number a which satisfies the equation f(a) = Ja), af) = 3x +1 b go) =8x°— 12x" + Te-1 Answers 1 a6 2x »2 2. log. vee 5 aX=8 6 YT floge-y +1 x8 eto?) h, 241 22-2 vt Real 25 on 10 D. CONSTANT, INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS Let f: D> R be a fimetion and let © D and x,, x, © and such that x, < x, a ffl) = flv.) for all x,, xv, € I then 1s called y a constant function on the interval 1 geet ae ‘We waite a constant function as f(x) ER). fis a constant funcuon, ay < mB fle) = fed =e2 If sor,) < flr.) for all x,, x, ET then fs called an increasing function on the interval I eeeee Ita, < and {nad sfx then fis called anon-dbereasing ‘iniction Iff is an mereasing fneuion, %< mfr) < fay. Note ‘The mereasing function f: RR, f(v) = x is called the identity function 3. Hef(e,) > fee, forall x,, x, ET then fis called | a decreasing fimction on the interval . Iffisa decreasing function, 2, < my ofl) > fer). cee ee Its, < xand [fad = Re.) then Fis called a non-fnereasing func. [Ry decreases ca = [AB 19 Given har so) = @-a)x + G+ 29¢- 98a constant Rnetion, finda and b Solution Smncefis a constant function, the coefficients of x* and x must be zero: 9-a=Oandb +2=0,S0a=dandb =-2 20 stow nx a. f/0, #) > R, f@) = Ye + x75 an increasing function, bf R-(0}-+R, sea) = 1 iva decreasing function a, Let x, x, (0, ) such that x, fx). Now let x,, 2, € (0, 0) such that x, < x, Forall x, and sox) > fary. In both cases fis decreasing. so fis a decreasing function on RB ~ (0). {2a}SZUTIESI 2 1 vevermne whether each fumeton mereases or decreases onthe given intra a 4 ny Oi ey Inv x. ER GxEl Solution 9. y = sinx isa periodic ction. tts graph is shown in the figure opposite. COCO Cy we can see that onthe antral Goenit (fiz + 0 = fix) sly = simx increases. theyitetbas 72 sae Ses, 1 bo (3) +3) Recall that the exponential function J(s) = a moreases when a > 1 and decreases when 0 1. a? 1s also an increasing function in R, soy = Inx + x* js increasing funcuon [EZOEE 22 Fine tne nerve) on which each function decreases and/or mereases 2x by axt-ae ey=t dy =cosx ¥ aya ‘We can draw a graph of each funcuon to determine the intervals. a, We ean see from the graph that f(x decreases on (-, ©) iatb faeces on th mena #3 ye fie) = 38 he anterval I>. +=), F mereases on the mnterval > © J mereases on the interval (-#, 0) J decreases on the interval (0, +). 4. {@) = cosx 18 a periodic function, so let us 7 consider its value m the interval J, a y 1 Fincreases on the interval |-r, 0} i iz fo in fl J decreases on the interval 10, 7 3 rocinerauce +65 4)= 2D cont cn Smee fis constant, we can wnte f(x) = 4-2" +44 _p eR), Bet2 This gives (a ~ 2)x" + bx +4 = Skx + 2k By the equality of polynomals, we can write @-2)=0 b=3k 4 = 2k, which gives 2,b=6.S0a+b=8.EDU 24. tre tancon s(9)= CDE HO+ ay ent tactn. Fad @ and x Solution Since fis an idenuty function, f(x) = x. So (a-Dx" +645) =x ie Ox l (a— Dx" + (b+ yx 2x? +x By the equality of polynomials, a ~ 1 = 2and b +9 = 1, Soa =3and b= Check Yourself 4 Smx +145 4 constant function. Find m. 6xt5 1 fQ@y= 2 fx) = (m—2)x + w+ Disan Menuity function. Find m + n 5. Decide whether each function mereases or decreases on the given interval af) = + 1xER bJ@)=1-x.xER © J) =x" Br te C4, @) dfx) = 48 -2x- 1 CC®, ef@)=v+1,2ER Answers ee) 5 —. EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS sae fin Let f: D > R be a function 1. If fx) = J) for allx € D then fis called an even funcuon, 2. IF foxy = x) for alle D then fis called am odd function For example, the cosine function is an even function because eos(-x) = osx. ‘Sumulanhy, the sine, tangent and cotangent functions are odd functions because sin (x) tan Gx) = -tan.x and cor x) = -cotx,©E-E-G- Gy Te eravh of an even Aumeton 4s srmmetne with respect o the y-axis NNotall functions axe even ¥ 4 tebchalow or odd Re exmpk WG) sek 261 iBall baal jeren nor ocd. ol feo = 10) pony este) ‘Even fanedons ‘The graph of an odd Ametion 3s symmeme with respect to the ong. a ‘The folowing rubs help tur to caloulate the pani (even or edd) of the sum land. product of even| functions (E) and odal functions (0) ELE -E (020-0 E40 — neither £ noe O E-ESE tan x) = tan (2) E:0 Boek (0d functions GS sneccias wnenizecch nice oven, ctdcoxsannet ores vad. Boe eet © fayave—6xe04 Ve r6xtO ffl) = |x-3] + [x +4] C f(x) = 3x + 2Ja]-5 Let us find f(-x) and compare 1 with f(x) mn each ease: x" — 3x + 2, so fis neither even nor odd. = -(tan x + x7) = -f(x), so fis odd. a. fe) = 43x42 bf) = Trax +x © foxy df@) =3 43" (2), $0 fs even @. flex) = 3" + 3" = 3 43° = sex), sos even. VEFORTO + PEF = f(x) so fis even. £ fix) = |x 3] + [oe + 4], s0 fs neither even nor oad « Sw ax? + 2]x] — 9 = f(a), 50-18 even.2G FRB sor) san odd function such that f(-2) = k + Sand fQ) = 2h +3. Find Solution Since fis an odd function, f(-x) = —f(x) and f(-2) = -f(2). 50 7 HEDUIER 27 comrere tne graph of tne tnenan if nore, 0 oad ae Solution ©. The graph of an even function is ‘b. The graph ef an odd function is symmetric symmetic with respect co the axis th respect tothe engin Jie) isan even Tanetton is) isan odd function Check Yourself 5 1, Determme whether each funcuon 1s even, odd, or neither even nor odd. a f(x) = |x| + 605% b. foxy =? + sx © foxyaxt ent £ s@)=2 * 4. f(s) = cosx*—x" sn Sand g(-1) + JQ) = 6 are gven. Rind f(-2) and gC). Answers Laveven b odd ceven d.even c.odd feven 2.f-2) 7A, Domain and Range of a Function 1, State the domain and range of each function. a y b y y= fe) h vrew 2, Find the domain of each function, fas Jay= Fo b. fla) = log," + ax + 6) &. suy=3F f(xy = 9-18 4] x4 =I 3 or £ fO)= pr ties © JQ) =In@*~ 7x + 10) + FT h. f@)= PAS x0 2nl 30 © f@)= = arecos=—* a f@)= ar J. fx) = aresin k fay= fos. = 1, fx) = log, .(x" = 3x ~ 10) im, f(x) = logdog"x - Slogx - 10) 1. f(x) = eos x—c0se, ¥ €, 20) 3, Find the range of each function over the given. interval. E124) EQ 4 © Je) =x + ae #9, x 10,1) 4. JO) =lo, rt), xe ,8) © fay =a, xeC1) epline ge} IM=B €12,2) 4. Find the range of each function for its largest domam. a say= eed b. fee) = 1 -2sinx © foy=2 JOT soy = Ex" —10x-9 ie of BeatieB. Composite Function 5. Given f(x) = Vx, g(x) = x%, and hoe) = & + 1, wnite each function. a. g(ageoy) b.FaKo@))) 6, Write each function as a composite of elementary functions, a. f@)=5- b. Fox) =og,¢ x +3 C. Inverse of a Function 7, Find the inverse of each function afRoR so 5 b#R-(8} 9 R-(@}, foy= 2x-3 x43 2.3" ef RR, JQ) RR fe) =2 +InGe-4 eI $2) I, #2), fey) = ax? ax +3 8. For each function, find the real number a which sauishes the equation f(a) = f-'(a). a.flx) = ov -2 b fla) = x? - 6x? + 130-8 D.Constant, Increasing and Decreasing Functions ax’ +2x+d ANF icy constant function. Find 3a" Fx Ob 9 se) and b. 10, Determine whether each function is increasing or decreasing on the given interval, af -6x +1, xe GB, a) Df) = -x* + 4x -3, xe C*, 2) efx) == + 3, xeER 4. fos) = ane reO5 ‘The function f(x) = 2x*~ Tx ~ 1918 given, a. On which mterval does the function decrease? b. On which anterval does the function increase? E. Even and Odd Fun 12, Determine whether each functions even, odd, or neither even nor odd. a fayette be pee = SEER Jo= © soy= (My 3 sme 4d. fox) = sin (tan? +9) e fazer £ fe) =x% sinSPECIAL FUNCTIONS A. PIECEWISE FUNCTION En 28 En 29 iecemse fumetion ‘Afunction that 1s defined by different formulas on different mntervals of s domain is called a piecewise function. 2x+1 af x>2 The precemise function FR RK f(x)=|x* af 0 2, we draw the graph of y = 2x + 1, when 0 , xi-dafx<-lory>1 1 ay=]-2 0 ifx=-lorx=1 Fay=} 5 Wa R, f(x) MS ifx>d Bx+4 if 0s we42 if x<0 31s gen. Calculate (GC), 2, Sketch the graph of each piecewise function, x ifxel a FRR, ro-| “x tel ifx>l bL£RIR, SO= a FRR, foy= | © £ROR ro | | Answers 1.49B. ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION Recall that for any number x, the absolute yalue of Xx (wnitten |]) 18 the distance between x and the ong on a number le x ifr20 WIS Ly a eeo absolute value fiction The absolute value function [/(x)| 1s defined as p)=[J@. Fe) 20 een tye af f(x) <0. B17 Draw the graph y = [x - 31. Solu We beg by drawing the graph y = x — 3, We then draw the graph y = [x ~3| by reflecung the negative part of the graph. Note ‘When solving absolute value equations or inequalities or when drawing the graph of an absolute value function, begin by finding the intervals in winch the value of the function is negatuve, positive or zero. BQ draw the graph y = |x" 11 Solution 1 Let us construct the sign table for x*~ 1 2° Lis positive for x < —I ore > Land zero for t = -L ory = 1 For these values of x, [x* x" Lis negative for -1 RS)BS draw the graph of fix) = -x- [x 421 4 38 Solu ‘Sice the expression includes an absolute value, let us begin by defining the function m pieces: wrt 2 -x-x-2) +3x if <2 xr? | = ee R326 eed awe sar af x22 stor if <2 xf x22 To draw the graph precisely; let us find the x-intercepts by calculating the roots of the equations: FQ)= | xo x +5) x, = 0%; AUX = -2,J02) = (28 43-02) =-6. ‘The vertex point of y 4 1 and the vertex point of y = + x8 2, 4 point of y Gq? Now we can draw the graph. Check Yourself 7 Draw the graphs. 1 y= [2x-3] 2 y= i'l 3. y= +2x-3 | 4 ys [ea tle +3] 5. y= |x-dp xt 2e-1 6 y= faxed] tx-3 C. SIGN FUNCTION CCGG) Ms se fanction age us fo determine dhe ‘spr fimetion Let f: R > R be a fimenon. The sign function sgn f(x) 1s defined as 1 af f>0 0 af son=0 lit fay 0,50 x R-1-1, 0} FR SR, fee) = x°— x ~ 6is given. Draw the graph of sgn (fix) Let us construct the sign table of x* — 1 i x<-2 orxe3 0 if x=-2orx=3 “1 if -2<-1 and so {x)= 2sxr<0 then -ist (t=) and so C1 - 1) -x21 and so J(a)= [-xl+ x= 1445 a+: a rs if -1-20 and 50 f(x)= [-x]+ x= 0+ x= x; MO-x2>-1 and so f(x) = [-x]+ v= -1t x= 2-1 it 1-x2Qand so f(x)=[-]+x=-242= ‘The piecemse function and the graph are as follows: of x-2 wel if -22 foo=| xf o0 © fay= dif xs cosx uf O Abe a fimetion Forall ry x, €D such that Af fos) = fay) than fs called a constant Sanction Af fs,) < fox.) thon fis called an increasing fmetion 1£f(2) s flv.) then scaled non decreasing function @ ffx, > fix) then fs called a decreasing function © ffx, = fix) then fiscalled non increasing function for any x € D, 48 fa) = fia) then fis called an even function 3Ef-a) = fla) thon fs called an odd function. ‘Tre graph ofan even fumction is symmetric with respect to the y-2ms The graph of an odd function 1s ymmetne vith respect to the ong + There az four special types of fancton 1 plecewnce fonctions the absolute value function [f)], defined as faa) #f@)20 es poe Hf f(2) <0 the sign function sgn fix), defined as, 1 if fix)>0 fmm wn-| of fat “lit fay R, fe) fez the greatest imeger less than x) if f(x) ¢Z Iffel = tthen esx <(t+D,(t EZ) Fora © Zande ER, fr +a] =p] +a ea-| (ie oes 1 What is the definition of the domain of a function? > What 1s the diffewenee between the domam and the range of a famcuon? ‘What is the difference between the image and the range ofa fmetion? 4 What is the largest possible range of a famction? 5 In which cage is the domain ofa radical function the set cf real numbers? What 1s the lation between the exponential and logarithmic functions? What is the domain of a function which is the sum or difference of different types of function? & What isa composite function? 9 What 1s rmportant about a one-to-one and onto function? 10 Ifa function is not one-to-one and onto, how can we find ats inverse? 11 What is a non-decreasing function? 12 What is a non-increasing faction? 19 What is the identity function? What is its inverse? 4 What 35 the diffemnce betwsen the graph of an even function and the graph of an odd function? 5 Can a function be even and odd at the same time? 26 Ave there any functions which are neither even nor od? Ge an example 17 Which one of the four basic trigonometric functions 1s san even function? 8 What aue the four special types of function? 19 What do we calla function which is defined by different formulas over different parts of ats domain? > How can we draw the graph ofan atsolute value function? 1 What is the dafinition of the sign finetion? 2 What is the definition of the floor function? ‘What ate the enucial points of the floor of motion? om1. Whats the domam of f(x) =—2*—» Togo AR 2) @,) OOH-h D) @, #)-@) HO 2 2, What is the domain of f(x) = (38-1138 11? A) 2, 01 B) C2, 0) ©) 10, ) D) Cx, 2] HR 3. What ss the domain of f(x ADH4-2) 8) 1021-1} 2,2) 1D) 2,21 5) 2,0, Whatis the range of for) = 0 +9 forx € |-9, 51? ALS, 3} 2) 10, 3} ©) 8, 10 1D) 19, 10} E} 10, 10), per Revi Tat 5, What 1s the range of f(x) = 2'* for x © (1, 3)? 4) Q, 8) 5) G16) ©), 19) D) @, 16) ©) @,2) 6, Find the myerse of fi I, ©) > [4 ), Hx) = a8 -2e + 5, A) v4 B) fe-T+1 D) ve-2+1 ©) F341 5) fe 4-1 7. Find the myerse of f, R > (1, @), fy = 841. A) tog3x py dog,(x—1)c) log, (e- +2 Dp) 108,x-3) F) logs x1 8. Which one of the following 1s an odd function? A) so=TF B) f@y=S-e+ ee © se) D) fee) =x +x@. Which one of the following s the graph of an odd funcuon? ADs Oo 8 10. Given that f@x)= find a. art 18 constant function, a A2 BSB O-4 D6 F)-10 ‘LL. Which one of the following fumetions is equivalent #1 forx <1? it Ag@)=x+1 2B) g@) to J@=x ©) 9@) = 2x41 D)g@) B) gy) =x 42 12, Which one of the following functions 1s equivalent fr-d if x25. ? |etoit res A 9@)=Ie1-9 3) 9@) to F)= Ix] #9 Coe) = 12-5] D) g@) = Ix 5] ©) ge) = [2-5] AN ECL) BxeChD rece.) D)xe Ht rea 14, Solve [x2] = sence - 2) wes? Dx Oxeu.2,34 DrEQ xe ta 15, Given [5x~ 1] = 4, find x aren prea b oxene prep xen § 16. How many different values does f(x) take m the interval (-3, 7)? AS B4 3 D2 Hi Lismts of Functions2x |. Whats the domam of f(x) =K 2 1 35 a F(a) = lox AR 2B) R-(9,2) OR-Pal D)R-F8, O| F)R-0,2 2. Whats the domam of f(x) =e"—ay—12? 52 BCA 6) — C)R-€2, 6) pyr ER 8. What is the domam of (x)= 244 a) 2,21 8) 10-21 (2.2) b)R- (2,2) HR 4, What is the range of f(x) = N° +5x+36 for the largest domam of f? 9, A) 10, 5) 10, > 19. 34 ) 1, 13, ©) 10, 110, iE 13, 17 Do, 2) re) 0, 4 0 > 10 5 per Revi Tat 5, What is the range of f(x) =log,(3x+1) for the largest domain of f? : 1 1 or B) CLL OC, VEZ yELD ee. 5 DR HR-eh 8, Find the mverse off: RR, f(x) = x" ~3x" + 3x. 10 By Meteo Yetta py 41 5) We-TH 7, Find the inverse of FR (1, @), f(a) = 1 + log + 1) A) log,(10""? = 1) 1B) loge ~ 1) ©) Jog,@-1) bo? ©) logs"? 8. Which one of the following 1s an even function? A) fee) B) JQ) = 2x ©) fos) = xsinx D) fla) = xeosx cosx E) fa) Cag9. Given that PR-EL BOR SO) 4s an even function, find the value of a” - f(a). A)S B10 C)-15-D) 20. EB 10, Gwen f: Ha, al > R, which of the fllowing must be an oda function? 8) 40) -JCx) » foc L019 ») Feats) 5 3 ») 709-5 ¥ LLL, Which one ofthe following fumetions is equivalent wo pea f2ht? 82-2, FOr Nyt x<-2 A) 9) = |e +21 C)g@)= Ix] 4x42 Dd) ge ©) gQ) = x24 fe +2] 12, Salve x*—3x—3 = sca" + J). Ayes Byee(-t4} C)xe(1) pre (14> Eye 13, Solve sence + 1) = [x + 1. AxEL2AU101 Bre ]2,-1) Ore) Dx el2.21 Ex eh2,0U11, 9) 14, SoWve [5x -3] 2 sen al 4 ome ER B)re|1,2) 7 Deeb -D 16, How many different values can fix) = [9x + 3] take in the unterval [2, 3)? AS B24 O85 DB £7 Lismts of Functions|] DEFINITION A. LIMIT OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION Consider the polynomial function f(x) = 2x, We are asked to investigate what happens to the value of f(x) as x gets closer to 2. We could begm by choosing a value of x which 1s close to 2, for example 1.9. We can calculate f(.5) = 2+ 1.9 = 3. Now we choose a value which i closer 10, for example 1.75: (1.79) = 3.5, Continumg like tis, we can make a table of values of fx) asx gets closer to 2 Using this table, we cam guess that as x gets closer to (Le. approaches) 2, the value of f(x) approaches 4. We say that 4 38 the himit of f(s) = 28 as x approaches 2, and write ligy@x) = 4, Tn this notation, the arrow symbol (>) means ‘approaches’. x > 2 means x approaches the number 2. Notice that for 0) 2x, lum f(x) =lam2x=4, whieh is the same as f2). Similany, we can calculate hm f(x)=hm2x=6= f() and him f(x) =lm2x=24= f2), ete. In other ‘words, in each case lim f(x)= f(c). In fact, this result is true for any polynomial function Jmit of a polvnonmal function. ‘The Limit of a polynomial function f(x) as x approaches a point c is f(c): lim f(x) In other words, for fox) = aa" tax! +. bay, bm f(x) =f) = a,c + ae +. + ay. For example, let us calculate the lumit of f(x) = 2x when x approaches 5: hum f(x) = lum2x = 2-5 = 10. EZUTITR catcuate the imits 8, kim(ax—) b. limea* +3242) c. lim@r—#*) Solu These are all polynomial functions, so we can use lim f(x) = (0) a. lam) = 4-2-1=7 b. IQ" +3x+2)= © lim(@t— 1°) =8-4—4°= 19-16 = 4. Cy +3-C+2=1-342=0