Chapter 7

Div, grad, and curl

7.1 The operator and the gradient:

Recall that the gradient of a dierentiable scalar eld on an open set D in
Rn is given by the formula:
( )

= , ,..., . (7.1)
x1 x2 xn
It is often convenient to dene formally the dierential operator in vector
form as:
( )

= , ,..., . (7.2)
x1 x2 xn
Then we may view the gradient of , as the notation suggests, as the
result of multiplying the vector by the scalar eld . Note that the order

of multiplication matters, i.e., x j
is not x j .
Let us now review a couple of facts about the gradient. For any j n,

xj
is identically zero on D i (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is independent of xj . Conse-
quently,

= 0 on D = constant. (7.3)
Moreover, for any scalar c, we have:

is normal to the level set Lc (). (7.4)

Thus gives the direction of steepest change of .

1
7.2 Divergence
Let f : D Rn , D Rn , be a dierentiable vector eld. (Note that both
spaces are n-dimensional.) Let f1 , f2 , . . . , fn be the component (scalar) elds
of f . The divergence of f is dened to be
n
fj
div(f ) = f = . (7.5)
j=1
x j

This can be reexpressed symbolically in terms of the dot product as

f =( ,..., ) (f1 , . . . , fn ). (7.6)
x1 xn
Note that div(f ) is a scalar eld.
Given any n n matrix A = (aij ), its trace is dened to be:

n
tr(A) = aii .
i=1

Then it is easy to see that, if Df denotes the Jacobian matrix, then

f = tr(Df ). (7.7)
Let be a twice dierentiable scalar eld. Then its Laplacian is dened
to be

2 = (). (7.8)
It follows from (7.1),(7.5),(7.6) that

2 2 2
=
2
+ 2 + + 2 . (7.9)
x21 x2 xn
One says that is harmonic i 2 = 0. Note that we can formally
consider the dot product

2 n
=( ,..., )( ,..., )= . (7.10)
x1 xn x1 xn j=1
x2j

Then we have

2
 2 = ( ). (7.11)

Examples of harmonic functions:

(i) D = R2 ; (x, y) = ex cos y.

Then
x
= ex cos y,
y
= ex sin y,
2 2
and x2
= ex cos y,= ex cos y. So, 2 = 0.
y 2

(ii) D = R2 {0}; (x, y) = log( x2 + y 2 ) = log(r).
2 (x2 +y 2 )2x(2x) (x2 y 2 ) 2
Then
x
= 2
x
x +y 2 ,
y
= 2
y
x +y 2 , x 2 = (x2 +y 2 )2
= (x2 +y 2 )2
, and y 2
=
(x2 +y 2 )2y(2y) (x2 y 2 )
(x2 +y 2 )2
= (x2 +y 2 )2
. So, = 0.
2

These last two examples are special cases of the fact, which we mention
without proof, that for any function f : D C which is dierentiable in the
complex sense, the real and imaginary part, (f ) and (f ), are harmonic
functions. Here f is dierentiable in the complex sense if its total derivative
Df at a point z D, a priori a R-linear map from C to itself, is in fact given
by multiplication with a complex number, which we then call f (z). More
concretely,
( a b) this means that the matrix of Df in the basis 1, i is of the form
b a for some real numbers a, b. We then have f (z) = a + bi. There is
a large supply of such functions since any f given (locally) by a convergent
power series in z is complex dierentiable.
In (i) we can take f (z) = ez = ex+iy = ex cos(y) + iex sin(y) and in
(ii) we can take f (z) = log(z) = log(rei ) = log(r) + i but we must be
careful about the domain. To have a well dened argument for all z D
we must make a cut in the plane and can only dene f on, for example,
D = {z = x + iy| y = 0 x > 0} or D = {z = x + iy| y = 0 x < 0}. But
the union of D and D is C {0} as in (ii) .
(iii) D = Rn {0}; (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = (x21 + x22 + + x2n )/2 = r for some
xed R.

Then x i
= r1 xri = r2 xi , and
2
= ( 2)r4 xi xi + r2 1.
x2i

Hence 2 = ni=1 (( 2)r4 x2i + r2 ) = ( 2 + n)r2 .
So is harmonic for = 0 or = 2 n ( = 1 for n = 3).

3
7.3 Cross product in R3
The three-dimensional space is very special in that it admits a vector prod-
uct, often called the cross product. Let i,j,k denote the standard basis of
R3 . Then, for all pairs of vectors v = xi + yj + zk and v = x i + y j + z k,
the cross product is dened by

( i j k
)
v v = det x y z = (yz y z)i (xz x z)j + (xy x y)k. (7.12)
x y z

Lemma 1 (a) v v = v v (anti-commutativity) (b) ij = k, jk = i,

k i = j (c) v (v v ) = v (v v ) = 0.

Corollary: v v = 0.

Proof of Lemma (a) v v is obtained by interchanging the second and

third rows of the matrix
( i j kwhose
) determinant gives v v . Thus v v=v v .
(b) i j = det 1 0 0 , which is k as asserted. The other two identities
0 1 0
are similar.
(c) v (v v ) = x(yz y z) y(xz x z) + z(xy x y) = 0. Similarly
for v (v v ).

Geometrically, v v can, thanks to the Lemma, be interpreted as follows.

Consider the plane P in R3 dened by v,v . Then v v will lie along the
normal line to this plane at the origin, and its orientation is given by the right
hand rule: If the ngers of your right hand grab a pole and you view them
from the top as a circle in the v v -plane that is oriented counterclockwise
(i.e. corresponding to the ordering (v, v ) of the basis) then the thumb points
in the direction of v v .
Finally the length ||v v || is equal to the area of the parallelogram
spanned by v and v . Indeed this area is equal to the volume of the paral-
lelepiped spanned by v, v and a unit vector u = (ux , uy , uz ) orthogonal to v
and v . We can take u = v v /||v v || and the (signed) volume equals

ux uy uz
det x y z =ux (yz y z) uy (xz x z) + uz (xy x y)
x y z
=||v v || (u2x + u2y + u2z ) = ||v v ||.

4
More generally, the same argument shows that the (signed) volume of the
parallelepiped spanned by any three vectors u, v, v is u (v v ).

7.4 Curl of vector elds in R3

Let f : D R3 , D R3 be a dierentiable vector eld. Denote by P ,Q,R
its coordinate scalar elds, so that f = P i + Qj + Rk. Then the curl of f is
dened to be:
( i j k)
curl(f ) = f = det x
y z . (7.13)
P Q R

Note that it makes sense to denote it f , as it is formally the cross

product of with f .
If the vector eld f represents the ow of a uid, then the curl measures
how the ow rotates the vectors, whence its name.

Proposition 1 Let h (resp. f ) be a C 2 scalar (resp. vector) field. Then

(a) (h) = 0.

(b) ( f ) = 0.

Proof: (a) By denition of gradient and curl,

( )
i j k
(h) = det

x y z
h h h
x y z

( ) ( ) ( )
2h 2h 2h 2h 2h 2h
= i+ j+ k.
yz zy zx xz xy yx

Since h is C 2 , its second mixed partial derivatives are independent of the

order in which the partial derivatives are computed. Thus, (f ) = 0.
(b) By the denition of divergence and curl,
( ) ( )
R Q R P Q P
( f ) = , , , + ,
x y z y z x z x y

5
 ( ) ( ) ( )
2R 2Q 2R 2P 2Q 2P
= + + + .
xy xz yx yz zx zy
2R 2R
Again, since f is C 2 , xy
= yx
, etc., and we get the assertion.
Done.
Warning: There exist twice dierentiable scalar (resp. vector) elds
h (resp. f ), which are not C 2 , for which (a) (resp. (b)) does not hold.
When the vector eld f represents uid ow, it is often called irrota-
tional when its curl is 0. If this ow describes the movement of water in a
stream, for example, to be irrotational means that a small boat being pulled
by the ow will not rotate about its axis. We will see later in this chapter
the condition f = 0 occurs naturally in a purely mathematical setting
as well.

Examples: (i) Let D = R3 {0} and f (x, y, z) = (x2 +y y

2) i
x
(x2 +y 2 )
j. Show
that f is irrotational. Indeed, by the denition of curl,
( i j k
)

f = det x
y
y
x
z
0
(x2 +y 2 ) (x2 +y 2 )

( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( ))
x y x y
= i+ j+ k
z x + y2
2 z x2 + y 2 x x2 + y 2 y x2 + y 2
[ ]
(x2 + y 2 ) + 2x2 (x2 + y 2 ) 2y 2
= k = 0.
(x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )2
(ii) Let m be any integer = 3, D = R3 {0}, and
f (x, y, z) = r1m (xi + yj + zk), where r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 . Show that f is not
the curl of another vector eld. Indeed, suppose f = g. Then, since f
is C 1 , g will be C 2 , and by the Proposition proved above,
f = ( g) would be zero. But,
( ) (
x y z )
f = , , m, m, m
x y z r r r

rm 2x2 ( m2 )rm2 rm 2y 2 ( m2 )rm2 rm 2z 2 ( m2 )rm2

= + +
r2m r2m r2m

6
 1 ( ) 1
= 2m
3r m
m(x 2
+ y 2
+ z 2 m2
)r = m (3 m).
r r
This is non-zero as m = 3. So f is not a curl.

Warning: It may be true that the divergence of f is zero, but f is still

not a curl. In fact this happens in example (ii) above if we allow m = 3. We
cannot treat this case, however, without establishing Stokes theorem.

7.5 An interpretation of Greens theorem via

the curl
Recall that Greens theorem for a plane region with boundary a piecewise
C 1 Jordan curve C says that, given any C 1 vector eld g = (P, Q) on an open
set D containing , we have:
( ) I
Q P
dx dy = P dx + Q dy. (7.14)
x y C

We will now interpret the term Q x

P
y
. To do that, we think of the
plane as sitting in R as {z = 0}, and dene a C 1 vector eld f on D :=
3

{(x, y, z) R(
3
|(x, y) )D} by setting f (x, y, z) = g(x, y) = P i + Qj. Then
i j k ( )
f = det x
y z = Q
y
P
x
k, because P
z
= Q
z
= 0. Thus we
P Q 0
get:
Q P
( f ) k = . (7.15)
y x
And Greens theorem becomes:
H
Theorem 1 ( f ) k dx dy = C P dx + Q dy

7.6 A criterion for being conservative via the

curl
Here we just reformulate the remark after Ch. 6, Cor. 1 (which we didnt
completely prove but just made plausible) using the curl.

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Proposition 1 Let g : D R2 , D R2 open and simply connected,
g = (P, Q), be a C 1 vector field. Set f (x, y, z) = g(x, y), for all (x, y, z) R3
with (x, y) D. Suppose f = 0. Then g is conservative on D.
H
Proof: Since f = 0, Theorem 1 implies that C P dx + Q dy = 0 for all
Jordan
H curves C contained in D. In fact, f = 0 also implies that
C
P dx + Q dy = 0 for all closed curves but we wont prove this. Hence f is
conservative. Done.

Example: D = R2 {(x, 0) R2 | x 0}, g(x, y) = y

x2 +y 2
i x
x2 +y 2
j.
Determine if g is conservative on D:

Again, dene f (x, y, z) to be g(x, y) for all (x, y, z) in R3 such that (x, y)
D. Since g is evidently C 1 , f will be C 1 as well. By the Proposition above, it
will suce to check if f is irrotational, i.e., f = 0, on D R. This was
already shown in Example (i) of section 4 of this chapter. So g is conservative.