Criminology

The scientific study of the causation, correction, and prevention of crime.

As a subdivision of the larger field of sociology, criminology draws on psychology,

economics, anthropology, psychiatry, biology, statistics, and other disciplines to
explain the causes and prevention of criminal behavior. Subdivisions of
criminology include penology, the study of prisons and prison systems;
biocriminology, the study of the biological basis of criminal behavior; feminist
criminology, the study of women and crime; and criminalistics, the study of crime
detection, which is related to the field of Forensic Science.
Criminology has historically played a reforming role in relation to Criminal Law
and the criminal justice system. As an applied discipline, it has produced findings
that have influenced legislators, judges, prosecutors, lawyers, Probation officers,
and prison officials, prompting them to better understand crime and criminals
and to develop better and more humane sentences and treatments for criminal
behavior.6
.

Types and definitions of crime

Both the Positivist and Classical Schools take a consensus view of crime that a
crime is an act that violates the basic values and beliefs of society. Those values
and beliefs are manifested as laws that society agrees upon. However, there are
two types of laws:

Natural laws are rooted in core values shared by many cultures. Natural
laws protect against harm to persons (e.g. murder, rape, assault) or
property (theft, larceny, robbery), and form the basis of common law
systems.
are enacted by legislatures and reflect current cultural mores, albeit that
some laws may be controversial, e.g. laws that prohibit cannabis use and
gambling. Marxist criminology, Conflict criminology and Critical Criminology
claim that most relationships between state and citizen are non-consensual
and, as such, criminal law is not necessarily representative of public beliefs
 and wishes: it is exercised in the interests of the ruling or dominant class.
The more right wing criminologist tend to posit that there is a consensual
social contract between State and citizen.

Therefore, definitions of crimes will vary from place to place, in accordance to the
cultural norms and mores, but may be broadly classified as blue-collar crime,
corporate crime, organized crime, political crime, public order crime, state crime,
state-corporate crime, and white-collar crime 7

However, there have been moves in contemporary criminological theory to move

away from liberal pluralism, culturalism and postmodernism by introducing the
universal term The postmodernist school in criminology applies postmodernism
to the study of crime and criminals. It is based on an understanding of
"criminality" as a product of the use of power to limit the behaviour of those
individuals excluded from power, but who try to overcome social inequality and
behave in ways which the power structure prohibits. It focuses on the identity of
the human subject, multiculturalism, feminism, and human relationships to deal
with the concepts of "difference" and "otherness" without essentialism or
reductionism, but its contributions are not always appreciated (Carrington: 1998).
Postmodernists shift attention from Marxist concerns of economic and social
oppression to linguistic production, arguing that criminal law is a language to
create dominance relationships. For example, the language of courts (the so-
called "legalese") expresses and institutionalizes the domination of the individual,
whether accused or accuser, criminal or victim, by social institutions. According to
postmodernist criminology, the discourse of criminal law is dominant, exclusive
and rejecting, less diverse, and culturally not pluralistic, exaggerating narrowly
defined rules for the exclusion of others.8

The origin of criminology has been traced back in to the French anthropologist
Topinard whose major publication appeared in 1879. In 18 th and early 19 the
century the emphasis was on the reform of the criminal law. In June 1909 the
American institute of the criminal law and criminology was held at North western
university in Chicago. A resolution was passed that provided that President
appoint a committee of 5 persons to select Criminological treaties that should be
translated in to English. Since 1960s there have been attempt in US on the part of
lawyers sociologists and other professionals interested in the criminology, some
of whom now are professionally trained criminologist, to look at the problem of
crime from more than one descipolanry prospective. But we still probably cannot
dispute the statement of Thorsten Sellin made in 1938 that criminologists does
not exists who is an expert in all discipline which coverage in study of crime.

It could be argued that criminologists need training in sociology, law, psychiatry,

anthropology, architecture, science, social science, business, and economics.

Traditionally it has been approached as a body of knowledge aimed at scientific

explanation of criminal and delinquent behaviour as social phenomena but
criminology involves more that etiology of criminal behaviour. It is also sociology
of law. The sociology of law is concerned with the ways in which criminal law is
applied. Finally criminology can be defined as the involvement of penology or
corrections, which entails an analysis of ways in which society reacts to criminal
behaviour.

Many criminologists regard crime as one among several forms of deviance, about
which there are conflicting theories. Some consider crime a type of anomic
behavior; others characterize it as a more conscious response to social conditions,
to stress, to the breakdown in law enforcement or social order, and to the
labeling of certain behavior as deviant. Since cultures vary in organization and
values, what is considered criminal may also vary, although most societies have
restrictive laws or customs.

Hereditary physical and psychological traits are today generally ruled out as
independent causes of crime, but psychological states are believed to determine
an individual's reaction to potent environmental influences. Some criminologists
assert that certain offenders are born into environments (such as extreme
poverty or discriminated-against minority groups) that tend to generate criminal
behavior. Others argue that since only some persons succumb to these influences,
additional stimuli must be at work. One widely accepted theory is Edwin
Sutherland's concept of differential association, which argues that criminal
behavior is learned in small groups. Psychiatry generally considers crime to result
from emotional disorders, often stemming from childhood experience. The
criminal symbolically enacts a repressed wish, or desire, and crimes such as arson
or theft that result from pyromania or kleptomania are specific expressions of
personality disorders; therefore, crime prevention and the cure of offenders are
matters of treatment rather than coercion.9
. , criminology also draws on the findings of psychology, economics, and other
disciplines that investigate humans and their environment.

In examining the evolution and definition of crime, criminology often aims to

remove from this category acts that no longer conflict with society's norms and
acts that violate the norms without imperiling society, although decriminalization
of certain acts may be accompanied by attempts to enforce codes of morality (as,
for example, in the response to pornography). Criminologists are nearly
unanimous in advocating that acts involving the consumption of narcotics or
alcohol, as well as nonstandard but consensual sexual acts (known among
criminologists as crimes without victims) be removed from the category of crime.
In dealing with crime in general, the emphasis has gradually shifted from
punishment to rehabilitation. 10

Causation of Crime
Heredity and crime
Mental Disorder and Criminality
M' Naghten's Rule of Criminal Responsibility
Insanity under Indian Criminal Law
Bio-physical factors and criminality
Intelligence Testing and criminality
Personality aspects of criminals
o Hooton's View
o Sheldon's Views on Criminality
o Donald Taft
o Freud's theory of criminal behavior
o Glueck's Psychiatric Theory of Crime
Psychological concept of crime
Aristotle's Four Laws of Association
Conflict Theory of Crime
Female Criminality - Gender-based explanations
Group Therapy
 PSYCHOLOGY OF CRIMINALS.....
Another aspect of criminology that locates the cause of crime primarily within the
individual is psychology. On the outside violent offenders come in all shapes, size,
color and ages. But on inside research finds that they may share some traits.
When generally we talk about the psychology, it is the term used to study
someones mind or spirit. More especially psychology is associated with the
individuals personality, rezoning, thoughts, intelligence learning, perception,
imagination, memory and creativity11

BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS......

The human brain is not only one of the most important organs in the human
body; it is also the most complex. In the following tour, you will learn about
the basic structures that make up the brain as well as how the brain works.
This is not an in-depth look at all of the research on the brain (such a resource
would fill stacks of books). Instead, the goal of this brain tour is to
familiarize you with major brain structures and their functions.

The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that functions to make human
beings unique. Distinctly human traits including higher thought, language and
human consciousness as well as the ability to think, reason and imagine all
originate in the cerebral cortex.

The cerebral cortex is what we see when we look at the brain. It is the
outermost portion that can be divided into the four lobes of the brain. Each
bump on the surface of the brain is known as a gyrus, while each groove is
known as a sulcus
Brain structure and function
The amygdala a part of the brain involved in fear, aggression and social
interactions is implicated in crime. Among the research that points to this link
is a neuroimaging study led by Dustin Pardini, PhD, of the University of Pittsburgh.
His team found that 26-year-old men with lower amygdala volumes were more
than three times more likely to be aggressive, violent and to show psychopathic
traits three years later than men of the same age with more normal-sized
amygdalas independent of factors including history of violence and social
background (Biological Psychiatry, 2013).

Other research, such as an fMRI study led by psychologist Andrea Glenn, PhD, of
the University of Alabama, suggest that amygdala functioning not just size is
also more likely to be reduced among those with psychopathic tendencies
(Molecular Psychiatry, 2009).

At least one study indicates that such deficits may appear long before people
commit crimes. Adrian Raine, DPhil, of the department of criminology at the
University of Pennsylvania, led a study with Yu Gao, PhD, at CUNY-Brooklyn that
examined fear conditioning, which is dependent on amygdala function, in a group
of 1,795 3-year-olds. The researchers put electrodes on the children's fingers
while repeatedly playing two tones: one that was followed by a loud, unpleasant
sound and another that was played alone. Subsequently, the difference in sweat
responses to each tone by itself yielded a measure of each toddler's fear
conditioning. Twenty years later, the team identified participants who had gone
on to commit crimes and compared them with noncriminal counterparts,
matching them on gender, ethnicity and social adversity. They found that those
children who went on to commit crimes had "simply failed" to demonstrate fear
conditioning, Raine says. In other words, they were fearless when most of us
would be fearful. This finding suggests that deficits in the amygdala, which are
indirectly identifiable as early as age 3, predispose to crime at age 23 (The
American Journal of Psychiatry, 2010).

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which plays a major role in behavior
regulation and impulsivity, has also been linked to crime. Psychologist Kent Kiehl,
PhD, and colleagues at the University of New Mexico used fMRI to look at the
brains of nearly 100 adult male inmates while they completed a cognitive task
involving inhibitory control. They found that prisoners with lower ACC activity
were twice as likely to reoffend four years after they left prison than prisoners
with higher ACC activity (PNAS, 2013). While such studies need replication and
extension, Raine says, they are "proof of the concept that there may be added
value with bringing on board neurobiological information, including brain imaging
information, for future prediction of violence."

Change brain to change behavior

If we know that certain brain characteristics may predispose some people to

violence, what can we do about it? Intervene and the earlier, the better, says
Raine, author of "The Anatomy of Violence" (Random House, 2013).

In one intervention, for example, he and colleagues found that 3-year-olds who
had been assigned to an enrichment program focused on nutrition, exercise and
cognitive skills had better brain functioning at age 11 and a 34 percent reduction
in criminal activity at age 23 when compared with a control group that did not
receive the intervention (American Journal of Psychiatry, 2003). Intervening even
earlier, David Olds, PhD, of the University of Colorado, has found that pregnant
low-income mothers who were visited regularly by home nurses who talked to
them about health, education and parenting were less likely to have children who
were arrested by age 15 (Infant Mental Health Journal, 2006).

Even simple interventions may make a difference. In one preliminary study,

prisoners assigned to a 10-week yoga class improved their impulse control
(Journal of Psychiatric Research, 2013). In an earlier randomized-controlled trial of
British prisoners, those who received vitamin, mineral and essential fatty acid
supplements committed an average of 26.3 percent fewer offenses than those
who had received the placebo. They also showed a reduction in offenses of more
than 35 percent, while the placebo-taking prisoners' records remained stable
(British Journal of Psychiatry, 2002). A study in the Netherlands replicated the
effect, and now Raine is testing a similar intervention for children.
Some of the factors behind the reason of everyday crime
which we hear are:

1) Brain structure and function:

The amygdala-a part of the brain involved in fear, aggression and social
interactions -is implicated in crime. Among the research that points to this
link is a neurosurgical study led by Dustin Pardini, PhD, of the University of
Pittsburgh. His team found that 26-year-old men with lower amygdala
volumes were more than three times more likely to be aggressive, violent
and to show psychopathic traits three years later than men of the same age
with more normal-sized amygdala independent of factors including
history of violence and social background.

2) Genetics:
Turning to crime is in the genes, according to new research carried out in
the US.
A study of young men and women who had been adopted as children found
they were up to four and a half more times to have been in trouble with the
police if one of their natural parents had a criminal record.
The fact that their natural parents are having such a huge effect on their
behavior despite having little or no input in their upbringing clearly shows
the influence of genetics.
And it suggests that while criminals can be bred, but genes also plays a part
sometimes.

3) Family Structure:
Children that grew up in an abusive and disruptive home will most likely
abuse their own children. Therefore, children that were neglected and
abused are more likely to commit crimes later in life. Equally, kids who have
been sexually abused growing up often become sexual predators as adults.
Studies have shown that most serial rapists had experienced some form of
cruel abuse in the early stages of their lives.

4) Social and Economic Cause:

When you take a look at most of the people that commit crimes such as
burglary, robbery, car theft and shoplifting youll find out that a lot of them
have a very poor educational background. They rarely have employment
history and if they do their earnings are at the minimum wage or below. So,
some of these people have to make a choice between living in poverty and
a lucrative crime.

5) Peer pressure:
Kids wanting to belong tend to do things they will not normally do to fit
in with their peer group. Kids not participating in any sports or social
programs tend to fall into this trap. Also, children who have been neglected
by their families often become gang members. And we all know what these
criminal gangs do.

6) Drug and alcohol abuse:

Both alcohol and drugs greatly impairs someones ability to make good
decisions and reduces a persons restraints, therefore giving them more
courage to commit a crime. People commit crimes to support their drug
habit.
7) Easy access

Another factor many criminologists consider key to making a life of crime easier is
the availability of guns, acid and such materials. The increased availability of free
information on the Internet also makes it easy to commit certain kinds crime.
Web sites provide instructions on how to commit crime; all this information is
easily available from the comfort of a persons home. Easy access, however, will
not be the primary factor in a persons decision to commit a crime. Other
factorsbiological, psychological, or socialwill also come into play. But easy
access will surely makes the crime easier.
Some of the other reasons that can be behind the criminal activities are:
8) Mental Disorders
9) Physical Abnormalities
10) Matter of Choice
11) Complexities of Crime. 13

PSYCHOLOGYS ROLE IN THE LEGAL SYSTEM.....

Psychologists and psychiatrics are the licensed professionals that can assess both
mental health and physical states. Profilers look patterns in the behaviour to
typify the individual behind crime. These deals with subjects like whether the
offender is competent to stand trial whether or non offender was sane or insane
at the time of the offence. These are some questions of offenders state of mind
and ability of offender to understand the charges against him.

The defence of insanity is not very easy to prove. This is confined the ability of
offender to know that what is against the law and ability to understand right from
wrong.

In 1981, one of the father of UKs Criminal psychology professor Lionel Haward
describe four ways that psychologist may perform upon being professionally
involved in criminal proceedings.
Legal psychology involves empirical, psychological research of the law, legal
institutions, and people who come into contact with the law. Legal psychologists
typically take basic social and cognitive principles and apply them to issues in the
legal system such as eyewitness memory, jury decision-making, investigations,
and interviewing. The term "legal psychology" has only recently come into usage,
primarily as a way to differentiate the experimental focus of legal psychology
from the clinically-oriented forensic psychology.

Together, legal psychology and forensic psychology form the field more generally
recognized as "psychology and law". Following earlier efforts by psychologists to
address legal issues, psychology and law became a field of study in the 1960s as
part of an effort to enhance justice, though that originating concern has lessened
over time.14

The multidisciplinary American Psychological Association's Division 41, the

American Psychology-Law Society, is active with the goal of promoting the
contributions of psychology to the understanding of law and legal systems
through research, as well as providing education to psychologists in legal issues
and providing education to legal personnel on psychological issues. Further, its
mandate is to inform the psychological and legal communities and the public at
large of current research, educational, and service in the area of psychology and
law.15