TELEVISION ENGINEERING oy D SVSTEMS =Information contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy ‘or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but ‘are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. IN Z| NZ] J) Tata McGraw-Hill Copyright © 2006, by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings Cif any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. First reprint 2007 ROLLCRXYRARYB ‘This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. ISBN 0-07-058596-2 Published by the Tata MeGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, typeset in Times at Script Makers, 19, Al-B, DDA Market, Pashchim Vihar, New Delhi 110 063 and printed at Rashtriya Printers, M-135, Panchsheel Garden, Naveen Shahdara, Delhi 110 032 Cover Printer: Rashtriya Printers set eauContents Preface xix Acknowledgements xxii Part ia Television Fundamentals 11 Introduction 2 1.2 Intensity of Light in a Picture ¢ 1.3 Image 4 1.4 Picture Frame 4 1.5 Aspect Ratio 5 16 Picture Elements & 1L.2Z_Details and Resolution 7 1.8 Visual Acuteness and Viewing Distance 8 1,10 Brightness 11 4.11 Tonal Gradation and Contrast__12 1.12_Characteristics of Colour_12 1.14 Colour Temperature 14 1.15__Primary Colours _15 1.16 Complementary Colours 16 1.17 Additive Mixing of Colours 16 1.18 Subtractive Mixing of Colours 17 1.19 Hue, Saturation and Luminance 18 20 ‘Tristi Val 2 1.21__Trichromatic Coefficients and Colour Triangle 22 1.22__Chromaticity Diagram 23 1.23 Spectral and Non-spectral Colours 24 124 Colour Circle 25 Ct iatica of & 1,.26_Bass and Treble 271.27_Stereophonic and Surround Sound Systems 27 1.28 Transducers for Light and Sound 28 129 Basic El f Tolavisi 38 1.30__Colour Labels 33 Summary 34 Exercises 35 Answers 37 2,__FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF TELEVISION _39 2.1 Scanning 39 2.2 Need of Scanning 40 2.3 Sawtooth Currents for Scanning 4 2.4 Progressive Scanning 42 2.5 Interlaced Scanning 43 2.6 Fields 45 2.7 Frame, Field and Line Frequencies 46 28 Active Li a 2.9 Kell Factor 47 2.11 Bandwidth 49 2.12 Determination of Number of Scanning Lines 53 2.13 Synchronisation 65 2.14 Blanking 56 2.15 Composite Video Signal 56 2.16 Positive and Negative Polarities of CVS 56 2.17__H-blanking Pulse 60 2.18 Vertical Blanking Pulse 62 2.19 Modulation Requirements for TV_ 66 2.20 TV Channels used in India 70 2.21 RF Spectrum 70 Summary 72 Exercises 73 Answers 76 3,__TELEVISION STANDARDS CD a Definiti 79 3.2__Need of a TV Standard 79 3.3 Reasons of TV Standards being Different in Different Countries 80Transducers for Television 4, TELEVISION CAMERA TUBES CSS 4.1 Introduction _9] 42 ral Chi visti bi 4.3 Image Orthicon Camera Tube _95 4.4 Vidicon Camera Tube 98 4.5 Plumbicon Camera Tube 102 46 Satieon 107 4.7 ___Newvicon 109 48 Chalnicon 110 4.9 Silicon-vidicon Camera Tube (or Silicon Diode Array) JJ0 4.10 Solid State Camera Based on Charge Coupled Device 111 4.11 Night Vision Camera 116 Summary 118 Exercises 119 Answers 120 5._PICTURE TUBES 5.1__Introduction _122 6,.2___Monochrome Picture Tube 122 5.3 Focussing of the Beam 126 5.4 Magnetic Deflection vs Electrostatic Deflection for TV__127 6.5 Colour Picture Tubes 12.9 5,6 Delta Gun Picture Tube 129 5.9 Degaussing 135 5.10 Adjustments in Colour Picture Tube 136 5.11 Colour Purity Adjustment 136 5.12 Adjustment of Convergence 138 5.13 Grey Scale Tracking 142 5.14 Pincushion Effect 142 6.15 Barrel Effect 144 5.16 Flatter Squarer Tubes (FST) 144 1 oli ict 5.18 Liquid Crystal Displays 145 5.19 Large Screen Displays 147 5.20 Standard Designations for Picture Tubes 148 5.21 Screen Phosphors 1495.22 Precautions in Handling Picture Tubes 149 Summary 152 Exercises 153 Answers 154 Part i Television Broadcast Systems and Circuits 6.1__Introduction _159 6.3 Circuit Diagrams for Monochrome TV Transmitter 163 64 Wide-Band Video Amplifiers 163 6.5 RF Carrier Generator 168 6.6 Amplitude Modulation 177 6.7 Modulator for Video Signal 173 6.8 Modulators for Audio Signal 776 6.9 Diplexer_176 Summary 177 Exercises 177 Answers 179 ‘L_MONOCHROME RECEIVER iB ‘L1__Introduction 181 7.2 Superhetrodyne Receiver 181 7.4 Importance of the Inter-carrier Frequency in TV Receivers 189 715 El oT for TV Recei 190 7.6__ Frequency Response of IF Output Signal 194 ‘L1__Surface Acoustic Wave Filter 196 78 Video D Circuit 197 79 Cireuits for Cancellation of Noise 198 7.10 Trap Circuits 200 7.11 Keyed AGC Circuit 203 7.12 DC Restoration 207 7.14 Syne Separator 209 7115 Vertical Deflection Circuits _210 Horizontal Ds ion Circuits 21.7.17_Phase Splitter 213 7.18 Automatic Frequency Control 214 719 Heoscil 1 Dri 215 7.20_Horizontal Output Power Amplifier 217 q S Section of TV Recei 290 722i in a TV Recei 223 71.23 Waveforms at Different Stages of a TV Receiver 225 7.24 Monochrome Receiver Based on ICs 225 Summary 226 Exercises 227 Answers 229 8. COMPATIBILITY AND COLOUR TELEVISION FUNDAMENTALS CB 8.1 Introduction 237 8.2 Compatibility 232 8.3 Colour Camera Tubes 295 8.4 Three-tube-camera 235 8.5 Single Tube Camera 236 8.6 Adjustment of White Balance in Colour Camera 237 8.7___ Luminance Signal 238 8.8 Chrominance Signal 240 8.9 Colour Difference Signals Actually Transmitted 241 8.10 Weighting Factors for Colour Difference Signals 242 8.11 Modulation of Sub-carrier by Colour Difference Signals 246 8.12 Interleaving of Chroma Signals in between Monochrome Signals 250 8.13__Line Frequency for Colour TV Systems 252 8.14 Dot Patterns 252 815 _F hich Choice of S: . Frequency Depends 253 Summary 255 Exercises 256 Answers 258 9, NTSC AND PAL COLOUR SYSTEMS _260 9.1 Introduction 260 9.2 Basic Elements of NTSC System 26] 9.3 Weighted Colour Difference Signals J and of NTSC System 261 9.4 Resolution of Colours and Bandwidths in NTSC System 26310. il. 9.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of NTSC System 271 9.9 Introduction to PAL Coiour System 271 9.10 PAL Transmitter 272 9.11 Production of Luminance (Y) and Chrominance U and V) Signals 274 9.12 PAL Encoder 275 9.13 Video and Audio Modulators 276 9.14 PAL Receiver 276 9.15 Simple PAL (or S-PAL) Colour Decoder 277 9.16 D-PAL Decoder 279 9.17 Automatic Correction of Colour Error in PAL Receivers 280 9.18 Controls in PAL Receiver 283 9.19 Advantages and Disadvantages of PAL System 285 Summary 286 Exercises 287 Answers 290 SECAM TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER 292 10.1 Introduction 292 10.2 SECAM Transmitter 293 10.3 SECAM Receiver 296 10.4_ Advantages and Disadvantages of the French SECAM System 298 10.5 _SECAM V (NIR SECAM) 299 Summary 300 Exercises 300 Answers 302 TELEVISION ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION 303 11.1 Introduction 303 11.2 Difference between Transmitting Antenna and Receiving Antenna 303 11.3. Antenna Characteristics 305 11.4 Basic Half Wave Antenna 308 11.5 TW Transmitter Antennas 313 11.6 TV Receiver Antennas 314 11.7 Antenna Feeders 318 11.8 Impedance Matching 321119 Balun 222 11.10 Propagation of Radio Waves 323 11.11 Ground Wave 324 11.12 Sky Wave 324 11.18 Space Wave Propagation 225 11.14 Effect of Super Refraction on Line of Sight Distance 327 11.15 Methods of Increasing Line of Sight Distance 328 11.16 Reflection and Ghost Image 3230 11.17 Reflection and Fading 330 11.18 Fringe Area 331 11.19 Booster Amplifier 332 Summary 333 Exercises 334 Answers 336 Part Advanced System and Techniques for Televisil 12, SATELLITE COMMUNICATION FOR TELEVISION 341 12.2 Origin of Satellite Communication 341 12.3 History of Satellite Communication 242 12.4 Current Status and Recent Trends 342 12.5 Geostationary Orbit and other Orbits 344 12.6 Mechanism of Launching a Satellite 347 12.7 Elements of Satellite Communication 348 12.8 Power System for Satellite 349 12.9 Communication Sub-system Inside a Satellite 350 12.10 Transponders 351 12.11 Spacecraft Antennas 352 12.12 Satellite Channel and Link Design 354 12.13 Frequency Bands 355 12,14 Path Loss 358 12.15 Noise Figure and Noise Temperature 360 12.16 G/T Ratio of Earth Stations 360 12.17 FM Improvement Factor 362 12.18 Preemphasis and Deemphasis in FM 364 12.19 Earth Station Technology 365 12.20 Design of Uplink’s Earth Station 365 12.21 Link Budget 366 12.22 Design of Downlink 36712.23 12.24 12.25 12.26 Low Noise Amplifiers 369 Satellite TV for Rebroadcast 370 Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) Service Through CATV Network 372 Direct to Home TV (DTH) Satellite 372 Summary 374 Exercises 375 Answers 378 13. DIGITAL TELEVISION AND OTHER MODERN DEVICES 380 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 Introduction 380 Digital Video Baseband System 380 Digital Picture Transmission and Reception 383 Picture-in-picture Feature in Digital TV 385 Surround Sound System 386 Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital TV 388 Wide Dimension High Definition TV 390 New Techniques used for High Definition 391 Mac Encoder 397 12.10 Mac Receiver and Decoder 393 Number of Scanning Lines for Wide Dimension TV_ 394 Standards of Wide Dimension HDTV 395 Video Telephone and Video Conference 396 Teletext 397 Viewdata 399 Remote Control Unit 401 TV Games 402 Facsimile (FAX) 405 FAX Transmitter 405 Facsimile Receiver 407 Digital FAX 408 TV in Multimedia 409 Three-dimension (3-D) TV 410 Summary 410 Exercises 411 Answers 412 14, VIDEO RECORDING AND REPRODUCTION _ 414 14.1 Introduction 414 14.2 Principle of Recording Electrical Signals on Tape and their Reproduction 41415. 16. 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14,8 14.9 14.10 14,11 14,12 14.13 14,14 14.15 Rotating Heads and VHS Format 416 Helical Recording 417 Need of Frequency Modulation for Video Recording 418 Under-colour System for Recording of Luminance and Colour Signals 418 Recording of Video Signals on Magnetic Tape 419 Reproduction of Video Signals from Magnetic Tape 421 Combined Stages of Recording and Playback in VCR 422 Video Recording on Dise 424 Video Compact Disc (VCD) 425 Digital Video Disc (DVD) 428 Techniques used to Increase Capacity in DVD 431 DVD Features 434 DVD Applications 435 Summary 435 Exercises 436 Answers 438 TELEVISION STUDIO AND TRANSMISSION LINK 441 15.1 Introduction 441 15.2 Production Control Room (PCR) 442 15.3 Communication between Units 442 15.4 Live Performance Studio 442 15.5 Cameras 444 15.6 Special Effects Generator (SEG) 446 15.7 Switcher 446 15.8 Studio Lights 447 15.9 Microphones 448 15.10 Telecine Equipment 448 15.11 Control of Reverberation in a TV Studio 450 15.12 Production of Programmes Outside the Studio 457 15.13 Electronic News Gathering (ENG) 451 15.14 Outside Broadcast Van (OB VAN) 453 15.15 Studio to Transmitter Link 453 15.16 Slow Motion in TV 455 15.17 Slow Sean TV 455 Summary 456 Exercises 456 Answers 459 NON-RADIATING VIDEO SYSTEM 462 16.1 Introduction 46218. 16.2 Closed Cireuit Television (CCTV) 462 16.3 Master Antenna Television (MATV) 464 16.4 Cable Television (CATV) 466 16.5 Channels for Cable TV 470 16.6 Pay TV through Cables 474 16.7 Two Way Cable Systems 476 16.8 Cable Radiation 476 Summary 477 Exercises 477 Answers 479 Part Troubleshooting and Maintenance POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS FOR TELEVISION 481 17.1. Introduction 483 17.2 Extra High Tension Voltage 483 17.3 Voltage Multipliers 486 17.4 Measurement of EHT 487 17.5 Regulated Power Supply for Low Voltage Stages 488 17.6 Series Regulator 489 17.7 Parallel or Shunt Regulator Cireuit 491 17.8 Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS) 491 17.9 Power Supply for TV Broadcast Transmitters 494 Summary 494 Exercises 494 Answers 496 TEST INSTRUMENTS AND ALIGNMENT PROCEDURE 498 18,1 Introduction 498 18.2 Pattern Generator 499 18.3 Colour Bar Generator 502 18.4 Colour Bar Signal Generator 503 18.5 _ Sweep Generator (Wobulator) 504 18.6__Marker Generator 505 18.7__Sweep Generator with Marker 506 188 Alignment of a TV Receiver 508 Summary 512 Exercises 512 Answers 51419, 20. TROUBLESHOOTING IN VIDEO SYSTEMS 19.1 Introduction 516 19.2. Faults in Monochrome TV Receivers 516 19.3 Faults in Colour TV Receivers 527 19.4 Testing a TV Receiver S30 19.5 Faults in Monochrome and Colour TV Transmitters 531 19.6 Testing of TV Transmissions 532 19.7 Troubleshooting in VCR 632 Summary 534 Exercises 536 Answers 537 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE 539 20.1 Introduction 539 20.2 Reliability of Equipment at the Stage of Purchase 540 20.3 Installation 540 20.4 Preparation of Site 540 20.5 Physical Environment 541 20.6 Electrical Environment 542 20.7 Layout of Electric and Signal Leads 542 20.8 Artificial Earth 542 Assembly and Fixation of the Machine 544 Testing and Commissioning 544 Safety Measures 544 20.12 Installation of TV Receiver’s Antenna 546 20.13 Fixation of TV Receiver 548 20.14 Testing and Commissioning of TV Receiver after Installation 549 20.15 Preventive Maintenance of a TV Receiver and Care in its Handling 549 Summary 551 Exercises 552 Answers 553 Part Appendices Appendix I. Units of Light 557 Appendix II. Comparison of TV Camera Tubes 560 Appendix III. Comparison between Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Deflections 361BRED Cottenis” Appendix IV, Comparison of Colour Picture Tubes 562 ndix V. Frequency Modulation ‘Theory and Methads 564 Appendix VI. Demodulation of FM (Theory and Methods) 571 Appendix VII. Waveforms at Different Stages of a TV Receiver 578 Appendix VIII. Comparison Table for NTSC, PAL and SECAM. Systems 582 Appendix IX. Launching Mechanism and Orbit Control 586 Appendix X. Multiple Access Systems 607 Appendix XI. Comparison between TV and FAX 631 index 632Preface This book, Principles of Television Engineering and Video Systems, isthe outcome of my stint at teaching Television Engineering and Satellite TV to the undergraduate students at Delhi and Lucknow. Absence of a book covering the complete syllabi of the subject was an added motivation. The book is divided into six parts, comprising 20 Chapters and 11 Appendices and meets the syllabi requirement of most engineering universities, institutes and science courses pertaining to electronics and communication. Part I of the book, consists of three chapters, describing charac- teristics of light and sound, fundamentals of monochrome and colour television and TV standards. It explains in detail the progressive and interlaced scanning, production and specifications of composite video signal (including H-syne and V-sync pulses), resolution and bandwidth, frequency spectrum and different modulation processes used. TV standards of various countries have also been explained. Part II, consisting of two chapters, deals with transducers used in TV. Camera tubes and the latest solid state camera have been described in detail in Chapter 4. Picture tubes for monochrome TV and colour TV, including colour purity and convergence adjustments have been dealt with in Chapter 5. Part III, consists of six chapters, describing all aspects of TV broadcast systems, i.e. transmitters, receivers, antennas and propa- gation. Chapter 6 covers the monochrome transmitter and Chapter 7, the monochrome receiver. Chapter 8 explains the compatibility criteria and fundamentals of colour TV systems. Chapter 9 gives detailed description of NTSC and PAL systems, and Chapter 10, of SECAM system. NTSC and PAL have been clubbed in one chapter because both have more similarities than dissimilarities. SECAM has not been prescribed in many syllabi, and has therefore been described separately in Chapter 10, so that students may omit it, if they wish to. Chapter 11 describes antennas for TV transmitters and receivers and also theEEE Preface. propagation characteristics of VHF/UHF and microwaves used by TV broadcast and relay systems. The recent years have seen the induction of some new and revolutionary ideas in TV engineering, resulting in some advanced TV systems. Part IV, comprising Chapters 12 through 16, deals with such systems to make the students conversant with modern TV techniques. Chapter 12 describes the concepts involved in the design of satellite links and optimum utilization of its resources, While this chapter cannot be a substitute for a separate book on satellites, still it explains the broad. principles in general and about satellite TV in particular. Starting from the origin of satellite, the chapter discusses working of transponders, earth stations. It also explains details of the link design in terms of C/N and G/T ratios and FM improvement factor. It also discusses TV broadcast and direct to home TV systems. While the fundamentals and link designs have been explained in the text, the technology used in launching, orbit control, telemetry and multiple access systems have been described in appendices. This methodology will give flexibility to the students to study the topics as per requirements of the syllabus. Chapter 13 explains the concepts involved in the system of digital TV (including wide dimension high definition TV), video-text, interactive view-data system, remote controlling techniques, TV games, facsimile transmission and reception and three dimension TV. Chapter 14 gives broad coverage to video recording on magnetic tapes and optical discs (VCDs and DVDs). Chapter 15 describes the facilities used in a TV studio and OB Van for production of TV programmes. Chapter 16 explains the working of non-radiating video systems, like CCTV, MATV and CATV. Part V, consisting of four chapters, is concerned mainly with quality maintenance of power supply and video equipment. Chapter 17 describes circuits for power supply units including SMPS and production. of extra high tension voltage (EHT). Chapter 18 thoroughly explains the test instruments and alignment procedure for TV circuits. Principles and uses of pattern generator, colour bar signal generator, sweep generator with marker and wobbuloscope have been explained. Chapter 19 gives eomprehensive treatment of troubleshooting in TV receivers, trans- mitters and video recorders with the help of flow charts and tables, depicting common faults and their remedies. Chapter 20 is primarily meant for preventive maintenance of equipment in general and of TV studio and receiver in particular. As the standard installation practice increases MTBF and, hence, facilitates preventive maintenance, the2 Prefiee EE principles used to ensure quality installation and safety precautions have also been described broadly in this chapter. Part VI consists of 11 useful Appendices. At the end of each chapter, summary, review questions, short-answer questions and multiple-choice questions have been given to enable the students to evaluate the extent to which they have been able to follow the topic. Answers to short-answer questions and multiple-choice questions have been given. A large number of Examples, numerical problems, flow charts and illustrations have been inserted appropriately in the text to enhance students’ understanding. Comparative tables have been included for different cameras, picture tubes, colour systems, multiple access systems, etc. in appendices, highlighting their distinguishing features and applications. In this book, I have poured in 12 years of my teaching experience of the subject and of providing consultancy service to the TV manufacturers from time to time to solve the technical problems and to improve performance. It is hoped that the book would meet the expectations of the students and the teachers alike. The practising TV engineers would also benefit from the book. Suggestions and comments from the users of the book are welcome. RG GuptaAcknowledgements The project was entrusted to me in 2001 by Dr. N. Subrahmanyam, the then managing director of Tata McGraw-Hill when the books evaluation corporation of Australia recommended my earlier book Audio and Video Systems (published by TMH) for their engineering institutes. With the overwhelming response to that book in India and abroad, I hope this book would also prove itself worthy of the trust deposed in me by TMH. Editing of this book was taken up under the leadership of Ms Vibha Mahajan, Senior Sponsoring Editor. Shukti Mukherjee, Mini Narayanan and Anjili Razdan of TMH finalized the project as per international standards in publication. I am thankful to all of them. The typescript was reviewed by scholarly reviewers. I express my sincere thanks to them, in particular to 1, Shailesh V Khanolkar, Padre Conceicao College of Engineering, Goa 2. Surendra J Bhosale, Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute, Mumbai When the project was under preparation, I received valuable support from the management of BBDNITM (in particular, Dr. Akhilesh Das, Chairman, Mr R.K. Agarwal, Executive Director, Prof. P.N. Kapoor, Director Engineering and Prof. A.K. Mitra, Director Management and Computer Applications). I express my grateful thanks to them. I also acknowledge with thanks the help I received from my colleagues, Prof. A.N. Singh, HOD, Mechanical Engineering Departmentin preparing some engineering drawings, Dr. Manuj Darbari, HOD, IT and Mr S. Tahilyani, HOD, Electronics Engineering Department for some useful reference literature. Ayush and Varsha, child artists also deserve my thanks for drawing some beautiful pictures. My thanks are also due to Mr Shailendra Dwivedi for the initial typesetting at his press, Shivam Arts. RG GurraTelevision Fundamentals_ Crapler fF _ Chapter S Copyrighted materialCharacteristics of Light and Sound SO The word ‘television’ has its origin in two Greek words ‘tele’ and ‘vision’. Tele means ‘at distance’ and vision means ‘seeing’. After the successful development of radio broadcast of sound, man started dreaming of seeing pictures too at a distance beyond barriers. There was one serious problem in broadcasting the pictures, While in sound, there is only one amplitude at a time, in a scene there are thousands of points, each having different amplitude of light (brightness and colour) at any instant of time (spreading through width, height and depth in space). Each point of variation at a time requires a channel for transmission, hence to transmit the whole picture, several thousands of radio frequency channels were needed. This was not feasible. These space variations of intensity and colour occurring simultaneously were to be converted into electrical signals varying with time (i.e. single valued function of time) for transmission through a single radio frequency channel. To achieve this, values of light in a picture-image were first converted into an electrical charge-image on a photo-sensitive target and then the charge was extracted from point to point in quick succession by a process called scanning. The scanned signal represented variation of light with time and so it was in a form suitable for radio transmission. Again at the receiver, the detected signal varying with time was reconverted into light varying in space on the fluorescent screen of aspecially designed cathode ray tube. The scanning speed was faster than the persistence of vision, an important characteristic of the eye. This made the discrete points appear as one whole picture. The original picture was thus reproduced and man’s dream of seeing pictures at a distance was realised. ' Before the study of the elements of a TV transmitting and receiving stem is taken up, it is necessary to study the characteristics of light and sound which have to be transmitted for receiving TV programmes at a distance. Units in which the values of light and sound are expressed have been defined in Appendix I. 1.2 INTENSITY OF LIGHT IN A PICTURE The intensity of illumination can vary from darkness (light of faint stars in the universe, which is taken as reference = 0 dB) to light of bright sun on snow (110 dB). On this seale, twilight is 50 dB and good reading light is 80 dB, Similarly colour can have countless variations in a picture within the limits of visible spectrum (red to violet). A scene consists of variations of intensity of light and colour in space in three dimensions and its image in two dimensions. The variations may be sharp (abrupt) or may show slow gradation of shade from white (brightest light) to black (zero light). The rate of variation of the intensity represents frequency of variation. In TV it may vary from 0 to about 5 MHz. 1,3) IMAGE Eye senses the variations of light occurring in its field of view and forms an image of the scene on the retina. Similarly a camera picks up a portion of the scene falling in its field of view and forms its image on a photographic film (as in cinema) or on a semiconductor plate (as in TV camera tube). The image is thus a two dimensional picture on a plane surface. The effect of the third dimension (depth) in the image is produced by the fact that light from the distant objects is of reduced intensity, the reduction being proportional to the distance. Good artists create the impression of depth in their paintings by using this principle. Tf yc kav aint RRR is AR AR When a scene is filmed, the field of view of the lens being limited, the camera catches a small portion of the scene when its shutter is opened. The image recorded on the film in an exposure is called picture frameCharicteristies of Light and Sound: EER in cinema terminology. Each exposure gives a still picture. If a scene does not change (e.g. a hill or a building), all exposures will give the same image. But when an event is filmed, the scene changes from instant to instant. Recording of a changing scene requires several exposures in quick succession. In cinema, there are 24 exposures (photographs) per second recorded on 24 films, moving and coming in the focus of the camera lens one after the other. Each exposure gives a still picture, but each still is a different picture while filming a changing scene (or movie picture). In television, the situation is slightly different. The TV camera lens continuously focuses the scene on a target plate. There are no shutters opening or closing. Instead the image is converted into an electrical charge-image, and electrical signal is extracted from each point of the charge image in quick succession by a continuous extraction process with interruption (akin to closing the shutter) every 40 millisecond (explained in detail in Chapter 4). In TV, the process of extraction of signal from point te point is called scanning and interruption is called blanking (these are described in Chapter 2). 25 frames are scanned in one second in European system (adopted by India) and 30 in American system (This difference in the two systems is due to electric mains frequency being 50 in Europe and 60 in America), Each sequence of scanning in TV (like each exposure in cinema) is called a frame. is "ASPECT RATIO (eae cae aaa a a aici Width to height ratio of a picture frame is called aspect ratio. Width is kept longer than height because of the following facts: 1, Horizontal dimension of a scene is generally more than its vertical dimension. 2. Eyes can move with more ease and comfort in the horizontal plane than in the vertical. 38. The fovea, the surface of maximum sensitivity and resolution at the centre of the retina in the eye has greater width than height. Hence, the longer width of the image ensures more efficient use of the fovea. 4, As a result of intensive subjective tests by the cinema people, aspect ratio of 4 : 3 was found to be most pleasing aesthetically, and less fatiguing to the eyes. The same ratio was accepted by the television engineers as the cinema films formed a major part of the TV programmes. This enabled direct transmission of films without wastage of any film area.