(le SSCS 1 What ave te signticant geographical features of ancient Sparta? 2 How was society structure! and wha es aid indiveals and groups py 3 What was the structure and function 4 What wore tne sgnicant features of 5 What cok én 6 fi 7 ton The Spartans were unique in the ancient world, At some point in their history, for reasons that are not quite clear, they developed a society that was almost entirely geared to war, Very few Spartan sources survive—our view of Spartan society comes mainly from ancient writers who held particular views about Sparta and therefore were not impartial observers, It is wise to understand from the outset that much about Spartan society is disputed and the subject of scholarly controversy Because of thelr military skill, the Spartans dominated the Hellenic world until 371 we, when they were defeated at the battle of Leuctra. Sparta continued to exist but in a very different form 20 Antiquity 2sources on Sparta spartans ate referred to in historical texts by a number of names—Spartans, Laconians, jakedaemonians, Peloponnesians and Dorians, These names refer to their origins. The city-state was krtown as Sparta, its location on the plain of Laconia in the Peloponnese (the large peninsula of southern Greece), The name Lakedaemon referred to the broad political unit of Sparta and the areas, in the Peloponnese that it controlled. Dorian referred to the Spartans’ ethnic origins, Scholars generally acknowled; Contemporary written sources for these changes, however, are virtually non-existent, while the that Sparta underwent profound changes from ¢.900 to 600 archaeological evidence does not tell us how and why Spartan society changed so dramatically. sparta emerges c.550 nc with a different outlook from other Greek states of this period. Sparta ha undergone radical changes and modifications to its political, social and economic systems. The bulk | of our evidence for Sparta comes from the Sth and 4th centuries nc. These include histories, such as those written by Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon, as well as the political observations of Plato, and Aristotle, none of whom were Spartans, GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT Sparta was well situated 200 metres above sea level at the northern end of the alluvial plain of Lakonia, To the west of Sparta lay the Taygetus mountain range; the Pamon mountain range was situated on the eastern side and the Arcadian mountains on the northern. The Eurotas River provided much-needed water, while the small Lakonian plain (14 kilometres by 5 kilometres) enabled the ancient people to grow all the food they needed. ‘ mm sme =~ i wsicyon NA Megan Sao Sta ee Olympia ‘Aegina i? a ig, oy Gets Argos +Epidauros See ‘ Troizeni ‘Amyelae LAKONIA Kynouria, Gytheunie N " \ ° 0 km The major states of the Peloponnese Greece: Spartan Society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 8c 121The Spartan climate was one of extremes: cold in winter and hot in summer. “The mountain ranges remained snow-capped throughout the year, and the loner wooded slopes provided excellent hunting grounds and valuable timber: These mountains formed a natural barrier to the valley of Sparta. The Spartans were able to mine iton and lead, grow barley and olives, cultivate orchards and ids and graze sheep. Gytheum, the Spartan port in the Lakonian Gulf, provided shellfish for dye to colour Spartan clothing, Natural resources of Sparta stone Minerals and ores + Porphyty—2 hard green stone + on + Marble —quatied from Mt Taygetus © Copper and tn imported for bronze making Lead and clay Resources Food and animal + Crops—barey, wheat, grapes, les + Sheep and goats for wool, meat and dairy products fe from pigs! blood) + Pigs—for meat and black broth (soup * Chickens—for eggs = Bees—for honey ‘© Hare and wild boar—hunted in wid areas Spartan resources ‘ons, bah Laconia and Messenia, one should accept what playwright says inthe following passages: He say that Laconia has much arable land but i not easy t cultivate, for itis hallow, surrounded by d, and eificult for enemies to irae’ and that Messen ia land of far fruitage and watered by innumerable steams, abounding in pasturage for calle and s boing nether vers winty in the Blasts of wintor nor yet mado toa hot by the charit of Heios the sun god! anda ite below, speaking ofthe lois which the Heracieidae (sons of Heraces, founding fathers} cast forthe county, he says that the fst et conferred Tordships over the land of Laconia, a poor county,” andthe second over Messonia, whose fei i greater than words can expres". Laconia is subject to earthquakes, and infact | quacis of very costly martie—the oft quartias of Taenarian’ marble on Taenarum; ancl quarty in Tapgetu recently some men have opened la Sure, Stabe, angaphy, 856-7 j/eveloparcagas/ Taye Roma Teta Sparta and its immediate ree ek CRC Source 3.1 ‘List the resources of Lakonia described by Euripides in this, What prablems were associated with cultivating the land? = What advantages did Messenia enjoy in comparison to Lakonia? | Activity: Writing task Using Figure 3.4, write a paragraph about the resources of Sparta 12 ‘Antiquity 2SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION ro undletstand the structure of Spartan society, it is necessary to consider the very eatly history of Sparta and questions relating to the reforms of the so-called Lycurgus, Early Sparta Between 900 and 750 so, Sparta gradually gained control of the arca of Lakonia. Throughout the Greek world, at this time, a great period of expansion and colonisation took place, chiefly due to land hunger sparta was not involved in widespread colonisation, Instead, to solve the need for land, Sparta attacked neighbouring Messenia and engaged In a series of wars, reducing the population to serfdom. Success in these wars enabled Sparta to double her agricultural resources, as Messenia was the major food-producing region in the Peloponnese. It was not until 369 ac, after Sparta's defeat at Leuctra, that the Messenians revolted successfully against the Spartans, At some point after the Messenian wars, the Spartans undertook a drastic and revolutionary reorganisation of their social and political systems. The whole state became geared to a militaristic way was established. Plutarch writes that the new state that emerged at this point was due to the lawgiver Lycurgus, who had sought the help of the Delphic Oracle. of life; a new system of law and order, or eunomi He was instructed to establish a sanctuary to Zeus and Athena; divide the people into tribes and oba appoint the two kings and a Gerousia of thirty men. The issue of Lycurgus Plutarch, writing in the 2nd century ap, bemoans the lack of precise evidence for Lycurgus. Conflicting accounts had been given of most aspects of the life of Lycurgus, particularly those relating to his Initiatives as a lawmaker, Today the controversy still rages. Ancient authors, such as Herodotus and Aristotle, wrote of Lycurgus as a historical gure who handed down the laws of Sparta after consulting the will of the gods. When was Lycurgus supposed to have lived? Dates vary from the 9th century to the 7th century uc, Modem scholars generally reject the idea of a reform by a single lawgiver, Some historians believe that the Lycurgan initiative represents a series of revolutionary changes to the Spartan way of life that occurred over a period of time, The Great Rhetra The changes of reforms supposedly introduced by Lycurgus were in the form of a great Rhetva and probably date from the 7th century nc. A Rhetra is a pronouncement reflecting the oral tradition of the Spartans and their laws, often based on oracles. We know of the Great Rhetra from the writings of Plutarch. It is a widely held view that Plutarch writing about the Great Rhetra, Plutarch believed Used Aristotle's lost the ¢ ‘and presented to the Spartans. A number of problems arise concerning the Great Rhetra. If Lycurgus mnstitution of the Spartans whi Sreat Rhetra was an utterance from the Delphic Oracle brought back by the lawgiver, Ly urgus, Presented it, then it means that it had to be preserved orally for a number of centuries because writing Was not widely practised, The other problem that arises is the issue of the Delphic Oracle, When did it become so influential that its utterances became law?? Tyrtaeus, the 7th century Spartan poet, however, mentions that two kings consulted the Delphic Oracle and brought back the Great Rhetra. Scholars believe that this could refer to the early kings Polydorus and Theopompus The Great Rhetra is significant because it was the foundation document of the Spartan constitution. Tt appears to limit the powers of the two kings and it was particularly concerned with the establishment of the Gerousia Greece: Spartan Sociely to the Battle of Leuctra $71 ac 123,What were these changes or reforms? Plutarch, using Plato and Aristotle as his sources, considered that the most important change ins:ituted by Lycurgus was the Council of Elders (Gerousia), {Lycurgus} changed all the lows and are tat these should net be ed, Aer tis Lyourgus established mittary organisation, the Also important, according to Plutarch, was Lycurgus' redistribution of the land, Eunomia divsios (enomatia), companies of tity (trikades) and messes (syst) The reforms attributed to Lycurgus encompassed all aspects of Spartan life: ea en hc otre crc elier Ei economic, political and social, The ideal underpinning all of these reforms was these changes they became a well ordered state, and they dedicated a ° hae temple to Lycurgus when he ded and It was this ‘good order’ that gave | STD Obes wie te Sparta its relative stability and earned the admiration of many Greek write county and with a pumercus including Herodotus and Xenophon, bepuatn fen, tay may the Greek concept of sunomia, meaning good order and good government mphasised by duty and obedience to the law Eunarnis | moda, Me itis, eck 1,6 (good order) ~ — Evonomic system Poltioa system Social system + Helaterioiko labour based on ‘Great Rhetra) State ethos taught and freed Spartietes to be Mixed constitution: ‘maintained throug | fulltime soldiers aco EY cena + Citizens did not + ephorate © sssitia work—discoureged . arte rom pase boa © cual Kinaship + hoplite training and © Gerousia seruce rigut uanomia ond the Spartan System GOVERNMENT In his examination of ancient governments, the Greek historian Polybius praised th Spartans for having a mixed constitution composed of the best elements: kingship, oligarchy and democracy. Kings The Spartans had two kings. They were drawn from two royal families, the Agiads and the in sons of Aristodemus, a Eurypontids, According to legend, Eurysthenes and Prokles were the of Sparta. The dual kingship was one of the shout its history—in stark contrast to other descendant of Herakles. These two were the first kin most ancient of Sparta’ Institutions and survived thr city-states in Greece, where monarchies were overthrown early Sparta’s militarism required that the kings assert strong generalship. As kingship was hereditary in Sparta—Aristotle, indeed, refers to the Spartan kings as ‘hereditary generals’—there was no retiring age, and the kings often led the troops and waged war even as elderly men, In early times both kings led the armies to war but at some point there was a problem that resulted in a change of policy. Herodotus (V, 75) tells us that in the time of Kleomenes and Demaratus it was decided that only one king would go to war, the other remaining in Sparta. Two ephors attended the king in battle. Their function was to advise the king, but also to check his power. Each month, the kings and ephors exchanged oaths. The ephors swore to maintain the kingship and the kings swore to rule according to the laws, A Spartan king was expected to fulfil many roles. He was chief priest, commander-in-chief of the amy, judge and lawgiver. He also perforn of some of the rights and obligations of Spartan kings. many social duties. The following sources provide detalls 124 Antiquity 2The prerogatives ofthe Spartan kings are these: two priesthoods, of entertainment of foregn visitors, and each of them nominates tao Zeus Lakedagman and of Zeus Uranus, and te power of declaring Pythans’—officias, thats, whose duty itis to vist Delphi when war on wham they pease. In this, na Spartan may attemps to opps occasion arises, and who lke te'r mais withthe kings atthe thoi decision, under pain of outlawry. On service, the kings ko fist bic exe nc return last; they havea bodyguard of a huncred picked men, or thelr awn use as many cattle 3s they wish fea Sere re responsible forthe safe keeping of al oracles (the To them personally are allotted the skins and ss ofall anim ythians’ also have knowledge of them), and certain definite ke alee or saciice.n pacetime thelr pegs are as oo: ata Tee at et ther ole decir, These ros allow fr public eigous celebrations they ae the frst o sit down a the Bm her terest nd os ne ben bee by him to Hee ee eee se a ng sods the kings die whose ito may her seo nice a ith of erry deh os aryl. Tats is the ito rates ure he bles eres make the first ceremonial libation, and to them belong the hides of ee es a ian ne es i animals offered in sacrifice. On the fst and seventh days of every presence, Neots Te sores ek LSE In the Spartan political system, power 2 king, by tue ois vine descent, shuld perform a the pul sarees onthe wwas divided among the kings, ephors, | iy bal and shoul lead the army wherever he cy despatches lyons 350 he Gerousia (council of elders) and araned him the prvege of aking pas ofthe animals sactferd, and he aseiged i ch selected land in many ofthe prio: coma as woud ensue ha al his the Ekklesia (assembly), There were scinary requirements should te met, yet would nct make him excessively wealthy five magistrates called ephors, one llycurgus] permitted aking fo take apt fom every sos iter, 50 that he should never from each obe or tervitorial region. lack victims with which to consult the gs at anytime the ned arises, n alton a poal ence supplies plenty of water—an advantage in many ways, a5 those without appreciate even more, And everyone rises from their pace for aking, except ephars rom their chars of affice, And there isa monthly exchange of ahs, ephors acting forthe iy, ing on nis own beh. The kins cath to role act Itis believed that the ephors were instituted as part of the political system very early in Spartan history. rile that of the cy isto keep the king's poston unshaken sa long as he abies by is sath, These, then, are the prerogatives granted toa king at hore dries ifeime nothing much above te level of private citizen Their establishment has been attributed to Lycurgus, Anothe possibility is that King Theopompus introduced them some time in the 7th Xesophan, ite in Ptr parts. century w The five ephors were elected annually from among the Spartiates Activity: Roles of Spartan kings Although the ephors could not be Draw up a table under the following headings Roligious; Miltary; Legaljudicial, Social. Complote the table using, the information from the documents about the power and exercised control over most | joies of Spartan kins. re-elected, they possessed significant aspects of Spartan life. They For further investigation executives of the state advised the kings and kept a check on royal powers 8 ? yal p ‘Using the references provided, find information on the following Spartan kings: decided which units would be mobilised in times of wat called meetings of the Gerousia and the Ekklesia Leonidas: jradotus, The Histories, Vil, 203-27 received foreign ambassadors ~ pausanias |: Herodotus, 1; Thucydides, Peloponnesian War, |, 95.131-4 Archidamus Il: Thucydides, Books | and It ‘Using the Oxford Classical Dictionary, or other biographical dictionaries, write a brief biography of had charge of the training and education system— the agoge controlled other Spartan magistrates ‘were responsible for most civil and criminal cases could arrest and imprison a king ‘could banish foreigners from the state Greece: Spartan Society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 eo 128OD a | So the ephors have the power to fine anyone they wish, the right to ecu payne on the spo, the right aso to dismiss ofee-nokders Jon and pt them on trial for he ves, With they Co nat. alveys permit elected offiias to and actualy power ofthis deat utc On Spat, p18 eopha,itein. the ephorate... has supreme authority in the most impatant mater, bu pple, so that Kequently men who ar used to make them open to bribery And beeaus ‘ome trom the whl board, and ther ove th textiemely powertl and equal otha of a yrart, even the kings are compelled to curry favour vw them, which has further harmed the consttatlon; fran aristocracy h democracy... They also have supreme jurisdiction in there by chance, and accordingly it woud te better for them to decide judgment but according tothe wien rules, that isthe laws, The ep ase of importance, a ite ‘3ocordnce with the alms of he state; or excessly relaxed, whi or excessive in its austerity, withthe est that they are unable to endure it but law and onjy bodily pleasures, Arista, ite Dil & aad, Ancient Grave, 163 fora fl year but inthe ampetons,f ever thoy they at once punish yl of iytants and unpre detect any regular behaviour on anyone's ton the spot ver authori just as they pleas at alhite Understanding and using the sources is et onto tis ‘ofc 3.5, 36 and 3. From these sources, how would you describe tne powers of the turned inioa erat hough being na Je 00, isnot in Were there any checks on their authority? he rest t's fa too secretly evade at is Aristotle the ephorate? criticism of In what way does Plutarch’s sment differ from stotle's? Le though it appeared to be tothe people's advantage, in fact lt strengtnened Ptah On Spat p. 43 of ephors served to reinforce the constitution rather han weaken ft, and eve Did the ephors strengthen or ne arslocracy weaken the Spartan system? The Gerousia The council of elders, or Gerousia, consisted of twenty ight members plus the two kings. It probably began early in Spartan history as an advisory group to the kings. It is uncertain why there were twenty-eight members, The Gerousia formed an aristocratic elite, based on age, within a society that was supposedly equal. It had considerable influence and prestige. Supposedly, any Spartan male could be considered for membership of the Gerousia if ine was over the age of sixty, but in practice those chosen came from a small circle of wealthy aristocratic families. Once chosen for the Gerousia, a man held his office for life. The general assembly of Spartan citizens had the rig! to vote on stale matters, but the Gerousia and the kings could ignore the vote if it was not to thelr liking. The prepared the business and agenda for the assembly had numerous judicial functions—in particular, it tried cases that involved the ki gs, and had the right to impose penalties of loss of citizenship rights, death or exile + deliberated on public policy SOURCE 3.8 whenever an elder ced his place shouldbe taken ty the man (oer snty whose merits wate regarded as most outstanding ne selection was mad in the folowing way. The assembly ‘gathered, and picked men were shut up in a nearby buling where they Cau nether see out nor be seen, but could only hear the shouts of those in te assembly, Fri thi insta in others, it was by shouting thal they decided between the compettors er was ret wth the most shouting aed th loudest, was the man declared elected Ptah 0 Sparta op. 38-8 (ne might suppose that as lone as they are respectable men and suficinty trained in manly vitue [the eldors} would benef the tale, but should be doubted whether they shoud possess for Ie supeeme jurisdiction in cases ofimperance {for the mind, like the boxy, i subect to od age)... For thase wha have had a share inthis fee have mani ty been guilty of taki ‘and have been corrupt enough to give aay alt of pubic ropes. ulna eatdingly it would be batter if they wece accountable; they arent state, cited Dien & Gran, Ani Gres. 168 128 Antiquity 2CCU US a OR Cy nd 3.9 wv were the mem advanta sources 3.8. sof the Gerousia chosen? What were the advantages ane! | ystems the Ekklesia sme Ekle (aso refered to a5 Apa) was the assembly attended by those, over | tine ofthe full moon, The assembly: 1 elected the ephors, elders ofthe Gerousia and other magistrates 2 was responsible for passing measures put before i, such as appointments of military commanders, decisions about peace and war, resolutions for problems regarding kingship, emancipation of helots «voted by acclamation; it could not initiate legislation, and could only vote | ‘yes’ or ‘no’ «was presided over by the kings and Gerousia and, in the Sth century, by the ‘Sthenelaas) in his capacity as ephor, put the question tothe Spertan assembly. They make ther decisions by acclamation, nat by voting, anc theneaidas said a frst that he could not decide on which side the ‘2cclamations were te louder. Tis was because he wanted ta make them show tir opinions openly and so make them all the more enthusiastic for war, He therefore sai: ‘Spartans, those of you who think thatthe treaty has been broken and that the Athenians are aggressors, get up and stand on one side, Thase who da not think so, stand on the oter side," and where they were to stand, They then ros to tee fost and separated into two divsons. | ‘The peat majorty were ofthe opinion thatthe treaty had been oroken, ephors. Source 3.10, from Thucydides, illustrates the power of the ephors to dominate the assembly. | he pointes ott ita ‘The real political leadership of Sparta rested with the elders and the ephors. ‘To what extent is this an accurate description of the government of Sparta? Toys, star ofthe Peoyoneston Mor 1.87 STRUCTURE OF SPARTAN SOCIETY ‘When the Greeks frst lived in settled conditions their society was based on the following groupings: |» the tribe—a large group of families claiming descent from a common ancestor * the clan—a smaller group of families who were part of the tribe * the phratry (meaning ‘brotherhood’)—another smaller grouping within the clan, sometimes structured according to religious purposes * the household ot otkos—the single family unit. The poet Tyrtaeus wrote that originally Sparta contained three main tribes: the Hylleis, Dymanes. and Pamphyloi. When they took part in the Karneia, they were divided into nine phratriai. It is believed that by the 7th century Sparta was divided into five territorial obai By the Sth century there were three distinct social classes in Sparta: * Spartiates (liomoiol: equals, peers) + perioikoi (awellers around’) * helots (meaning ‘people’, ‘captured’, ‘from the marshes’)—serfs owned by the Spartan state. The main criteria for belonging to the citizen class of the Spartiates or exclusive homoiol were: + ownership of a plot of public land (eros) * birth—a full Spartan peer with all the rights of citizenship had to be able to prove that he was descended from the earliest sons of Herakles or the conquerors ‘membership in a military mess and the sharing of common meals (syssitia) tary training requirements (agog¢) This group formed an elite in Spartan society. They were a highly trained warrior class, holding all Political power. Access to the group was jealously guarded, * successful completion of education and mil “Greece: Spartan Society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 ec 127Spartiates and property: The kleros the Spariates were also a privileged economic group who owned most of the land in the urotas valley and Messenia. All land controlled by the Spartans was divided into allotments. Each Spartiate held a pestion of the land (kleros) and each had an equal vote in the assembly. Spartan citizens were obliged to devote their whole life to the state and were not allowed by law to engage in public activities such as trade. A Spartan could gain an estate either by being granted an allotment from the state or ty receiving an inheritance from his father. An important consequence of this arrangement twas that Sparttates had economic freedom. They did not have to concern themselves with earning a living, sut could concentrate their energies on warfare and the welfare of the state. According to Plutarch, it was the legendary lawgiver, Lycurgus, who had instituted this system and made ita law that citizen estates were not to be divided. Lycureus rersuaded the clzens ta pool allthe land and then redistribute afresh, Then they would all ve on equal teams with on another, with the same amount of property to support each, and trey woukd sock to be fist only i meri. Thete would be ne astintion oe inequaliy between indvicuals except for 3d would ‘Acting upon his word Lycurguscstribted the rest of Lakonia te the perioko fn 30000 lets, and vided the par. ject 10-he cy of Sparta nto 9000, This was the number af lat forthe Sparttes. Ptah pat, op. 16-10 The issue cf land ownership and socical equality Is a controversial one. See page L4l for a discussion of this topic. produce of his kleros, to the military mess. Failure to do ‘responsible for their taking most things too easily, bro.ght the gather in groups of about fifteen, each man contributing, \wneaten bread instead so the tabe is never bare unt hey barley meal, wine, cheese and figs, and asum of money for | Separate an go to het quarters, but neither ft extavagonty fish or meat, Syssita is the general name for the common supplied He alo put an end lo te compulsory drinking of wit meals; the Spartans also used the term pheiditia which wich undoes both body and mind, and alowed each man to ‘There was a seniority to be observed within the syssition, Just as there was In the society. These groups were mixed in ages so that the younger men might learn from their elders. Plutarch (Source 3.13) writes that strict rules had to | the odes member indicaed the deors to each person entering be observed at the common meal. and said: Not a word goes out through these. By all accoun A young man had to apply to join a particular mess. anyone desing 1 in mess was vetted inte allowing way Fach member woud tke apiece af sot bread in hishand and in silence Uow i like a bal, nto the bowl which a seen cared the syssitia, and this meant that there were some messes on his nad. Those in favour tvew the bead as it as, while those that were more exclusive than others. At the messes the gains squeezed it had wth ther hand. The effet cf squeezed 2 that ofa halon ballot, And shoul they ind even an these, they do not admit the would-be enant because tis their | Young Spartiates were not dlstributed equally throughout ‘men shared not only meals but also polisical discussions, and stories of citizens’ great deeds. In thls way, the messes became another important avenue for training and developing the young men. 128 Antiquity 2 Wien that al should be hapoy in each others companyCILMI UU Sources 3.12 and 3.13 ‘= According to Xenophon, why was the syssitin instituted? ‘+ How did a Spartan become a member of a mess group? + From these sources, what information can be gained about the lifestyle of the Spartans? Perioikoi Perioikoi means the ‘dwellers around’, and refers to the free inhabitants of the many communities scattered throughout Lakonia and Messenia and along the coastline of Sparta. These communities were autonomous but answerable to the greater state of Sparta. Perioikoi were not unique to Sparta— the term was used to describe people in Argos, Elis and Crete. The perioikoi controlled thelt own, communities but they had no voice in the government or foreign policy of Sparta, Often, in texts, the general term ‘Lakedaemonian’ refers to both Spartans and perioiko. Who were the perioikoi? There are a number of possible answers, The Athenian orator Isocrates noted that the land of Sparta had been divided among the three tribes but that this was followed by dissension and fighting, The victors—the nobles—kept the richest lands and sent the defeated to outlying districts. The nobles then organised their own system of equals; those who had been driven ‘out lost all rights to take part in government. Another ancient Greek writer, Ephorus, believed that the perioikoi emerged after the conquest of Lakonia. The two kings granted equal rights to all, but a later king, Agts the son of Eurysthenes, reversed that decision and made the perioikai inferior. It is probable that the perioikol were people of mixed origin. They could not be citizens of their own towns and of Sparta, as they lived at a distance from the centre and probably managed only infrequent visits Archaeological evidence of perioikoi Most of the Lakonian craftsmen were perioikol. Some of the evidence that archaeologists have uncovered from perioikoic communities include a bronze figurine of Hermes and an engraved gem found at Gytheum; a limestone funerary relief dating from the Sth century found at Petrina; a bronze figurine of a hoplite dedicated to Apollo Maleatas found at modern Kosmas; a coin hoard at Cythera; a erm ofa ram-headed deity (Apollo Karnetos) at Las; a marble hero telief; a bronze figurine of a bull; and a black figure krater from Kalamata. The krater that was found in the Brave of a Celtic woman at Vix, in France, Is believed to have been made in Lakonia, Treatment of the perioikoi Spartan officials, such as judges and governors, were placed {n perioikoic towns. It is unclear whether this was a regular Procedure. What is known is that the Spartan officials, the ephors, were responsible for supervising the perioikol and had the authority to put perioikoi to death without trial Usually if a crime was committed in a perioikoic community 't was dealt with at a Iocal level; ephors became involved only if Spartan interests were at stake, | Greece: Spartan Society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 FIGURE 3.6 Apollo Maleatas 128Duties of the perioikoi When a Spartan king died, it was expected that representatives of the peicikoic communities be sent to pay their respects. However, the major obligation f not undergo the same trainin for the army. Until about 465 2c, Spartans and perioikoi served separately. Herodotus, writing o} Persian Wats, tells us that the Spartans sent a force of 5000 troops to Plataca, and that ‘with them went $000 picked Lakedaemonian troops drawn from the outlying towns’, Later, Spartiates and. here were 170 perioikoi in the contingent. In {424 ac, when the Athenians attacked the Peloponnese, it was a detachment of perioikoi that joined pattle with them and were defeated. In the later part of the Sth century and into the 4th century, the perioikoi was military service. They did system as the Spartiates, yet they were expected to provide hoplites periotkoi served together; at Sphacteria for example, a Spartlate numbers declined, the proportion of perioikoi in the army Increased. At the battle of Coronea in 394 ve the majority of the force were perioikoi and neodamodeis (freed helots). By the 3rd centul it became necessary for King Agis co-opt perioikoi to make up for the shortfall in Spartiate numbers, He gave allotments of land to 15000 perioikoi and 4500 Spartiates. P Pe In addition to their military service, the perioikoi were expected to procure metals and manufacture weapons. The periotko1 seemed to have served falthfully throughout Spartan history. The only hint of their disaffection can be observed after the earthquake in the 460s, While the Spartans were recovering from this disaster, the helots raised a revolt and Thucydides tells us that periil ym two Messenian towns joined the revolt. The helots | Theopompus tells that the belots were the enslaved populations of Messenia and Lakonia who were owned by the state of Sparta. The major difference between the Spartan helots and slaves in other Greek societies was that the helots were owned by the state, not by individuals. Nevertheless, helots, ‘worked for individual Spartiates on their estates. The Spartans believed themselves to be superior to the helots and showed no hesitation in exploiting them in order to maintain their lifestyle. Tyrtacus compared helots to ‘asses exhausted under great loads: under painful necessity to bring their masters full half the fruit their ploughed land produced’.* The tasks of the helots were mainly agricultural, and they were required to hand over half of their produce to their Spartiate masters. The remaining, half was theits to use. As well as restricted property rights, the helots also had some marriage rights; ‘generally, however, they had no legal or political standing in the community ‘Wher Spartiates went to war they were accompanied by a number of helots, who probably acted. as aldes or servants, Units of helots, such as lightly armed slingers, took part in skirmishes. It appears that on rare occasions helots could be rewarded with citizenship for deeds performed during military ‘The ancient sources seem to Indicate that the Sparta 1red the helots because the latter were so numerous, Modern estimates place helot numbers between 170000 and 224000. The houses of helots were probably scattered throughout the allotments to ensure that they did not band together to revok. A historiographical issue J’ the helot system beneficial or detrimental to Spartan society? The ancient philosopher Plato ‘commented that the most vexed problem in Greece is that of the helot system. He also remarked on i frequency of slave revolts in Messenia. According to the ancient writer Critias,* the Spartans took extra precautions against the helots: they had removable arm bands on their shields, special locks and always carried a spear for fear of helot attack. Modem scholars such as Cartledge and Talbert are still debating whether the Spartan military state was really devised to keep the helots in check. 4 Tystacus, Fragment 6, n Cant, Spats and Laon, p. 382 5 Cras, n Carlee, Spat nd Laon, p 3 130 Antiquity 2. a La ees | Far fom viewing heots as organise, poltically aware cssider we should recall hat thoy had ved for generation in 2 closed country, safe from al outside invasion, a subjects ofa masterclass isl nated for canservatsm, xenophobia and only the most limited literary or cultural interests, The speci nation that many Messenians were political aware ‘soems fr fetched .. we should expect helas tohave Been relatively ignorant, simple pape, almost without education oy awareness othe cutside word. elots knew ther place within several limled horizons, clung tot and seldom thousht coherently about how to alter if, regardless of haw hurniiatng or undesirable it might seem to ater. however the widespread wilingness to undertake loyal military service demonstrates tha bythe 5th century the overwhelming maj ad accommodated themales tothe demand of thei masters, Talbert, The Rae of th eosin he ass tug part’ p, 20-1 s hard to aid the conclusion thatthe Spartans did, righty or ronal, genuinely ear helo revolt (as apposed to Individual resistance)—and with eason, inthe light ofthe actual revo ofthe mid-a60s, Nor is e29y to avoid the ‘expectation that ths fear would have expressed itself nearer to home and in ater ways than by stipulating allied atign aid incase of helo evo alge, Wichar Talbot’ revision othe Sprtan-Hotstugue: Ae, p. 380 SPOS CULM aur | | Sources 3.14 and 3.15 + What were the advantages and disadvantages ofthe helot system for the Spartans? + Examine the views of Talbert and Cartledge. On the basis of the evidence given and your own reading, | sompile alist of arguments for and against the Spartan fear of the helo. | Control of the helots They assign tothe helots every shameful ask leading to disgrace For they ordained thal ech one of hem must wear 4 dogskin cap and wrap himself in skins and raceNe a stipulated number of beatings every year regardless of any wrongdoing, so thal they wauld never forget they were slaves, Moreover, any exceeded the vigour proper 0 slave's condition, they made death the penal; and they alloted a punishment to these controling them if they ale to febuke those who were growing ft. And in gving land over to them they set them a portion which they Were constantly to hand oer, yu, ie in Cate, Spat and Loki 354 The krypteia According to ancient sources the Aryptea (secret police) played an important role in the control of hes, Plutarch says that, as part of thei taining, specially chosen bands of young men were sent Into the countryside to deal with the helots 8 day they would dsporseto obscure spats in order to hide and rest At night they made their wo to roads and "urdered any helt whom they caught. Frequent oo, they made ther way through the feds, klig te hells who od out fr ther physique and sient, tach On Spc, 40-1 Plato viewed the krypteia as a part of Spartan military taining. Our information is limited. Was it an Ongoing practice ora Fite of passage for young Spartans? Ancient sources also mention other methods for controling the helots Greece: Spartan Sociely to the Battle of Leuctra 371 ec 131SOURCE 3.18 “Thvoycdes tls how those heats who had been singled ou by the Spats for their bravery were frst crowned asf they had been granted their freedom, and made around of the sanctuaries ofthe gods; but then 2 itl ater hey all vanished—over 2000 of them — ‘ne nobody either atthe tine itso o ater ws able to explain how they had been notable eit that immediately upon taking up office the ephors would declare war on the helots, so that they could be kifled without pollution. tliminated Aristotle makes the furthe Ptr On Spars, 4 ieee Rie iece Sources 3.16, 3.17 and 3.18 ‘+ How wore the helots treated by the Spartiates? + Can you account for this treatment? ete Read the account of the helot revolt: in Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, 1, 101-3. EM an ten Exetam the role of helts in Spartan Hint: ‘= summarise the views of ancient \writers on the helats and their role in Spartan society ‘identity the key issues relevant ta this topic, Outcasts It was especially disgraceful in Spartan society for a person to lose citizenship rights, Criminals ot cowards (tresantes) were deprived by a special decree of their rights to vote and hold office. They had to sit alone at festivals; were unable to marry; and had to wear special dress and go unshaven. Everyone in society had to avoid them, Hypomeiones (Inferiors) were those who had lost theic citizenship for failing to fulfil thelr obligations. Other inferior people in Spartan socicty were the parthenai, the children of unmarried Spartan mothers and, probably, Spartan fathers. It is unclear how the hypomeiones and other outcast groups survived in Sparta, The agoge and education In order to become highly trained warriors, Spartiates submitted themselves to the rigorous education system and discipline code of Sparta known as the ‘agoge. In 669 nc, the Spartans suffered a crushing defeat by the Argives, and it may have been this humiliation that occasior ‘The agoge was designed to make the Spartans fiesce warriors and instil in them patriotism, loyalty, obedience and comradeship. At birth, Spartan boys were inspected by a government official. There was, no place in Spartan society for the weak and deformed, so any child that failed this inspection was exposed at Apothietae on the slopes of Mt Taygetus. Until the age of seven, a child was raised by his mother at home, then lifelong service ed the military changes at Sparta to the state began, and boys left home to live in the herds of boys (agelai) at ‘the barracks, Education In Sparta was a state responsibility and a government official, the paiddonomos, was in charge of the agege. According to Xenophon, the paldonoms had to administer severe whippings to the disobedient. Plato believed that Spartans were educated ‘not by persuasion but by violence’. They were taught physical and military exercises as wall as the basics of reading and writing. The boys were hardened by exercising raked and barefoot. They did not engage in music, dancing or athletic compecitions until the age of ten. Each stage of Spartan education took six years. The att of public speaking or oratory ‘was forbidden, and anyone found practising it was punished by the ephors. The Spartans, however, enjoyed music, both vocal and instrumental. In keeping played loudly and strongly, The most commonly used instruments were the flute, lyre, harp and ‘trumpet. ‘The Spartans also enjoyed dance, which they used as a method for training warriors. One of these dances, the Pyrrhic dance, was performed to flute ‘with the martial spirit of the society, they liked -heir mus ‘music, and comprised a mock fight that boys learnt at fifteen, Despite their appreciation of music and dance, the Spartans were considered uneducated by Athenian standards. 482 Antiquity 2The Gymnopaedia, a five-day festival of dancing and gymnastics (one day for each oba), was closely jinked to the Spartan training regime. oof Thyrea, included a battle of champions, and troops of young and old men sang of heroic deeds. {tis belleved that young boys participated in the morning, before it became too hot, while the men performed in the afternoon, and the old men in the evening. The group leaders wore elaborate head dresses made from either palm leaves or feathers, A grand parade was held at the end of the festival The life and training of Spartan boys ‘The festival held in honour of the slain at the ancient battle {ABLE3.1 Training timeline Birth Ten days after birth, male children were examined by a council of elders to determine whether they would live or be exposed 0-7 years Under the supervision of their mother 7-12 years, In the care of the stato eading and writing They learnt to fend Enrolled in an age group and went to live in a military barracks where they learnt military skills as well as ‘Atage ten they learnt music, dancing, athlet for themselves, obey ordei h others share responsibilles and get on v 12-18 years | Continued t They learnt games Discipline includes ive In barracks and undergo miltary training Their clothing was limited to one garment and they were given minimurn rations f endurance and skill, and were taught how to steal going be xercising naked, having short hair, sleeping on beds of rushes 18-23 years | Enrolled as an eire Able to marry Able to serve in the army but notin the frontline oF prefectfoverseer—this was a stage similar to the cadet corps years | Full-time soldier 30 years Citizen and soldier Able to live at home Allowed to grow thei although had meals in the barracks hair eighteen Spartan youths entered the stage of their training as cadets or eirenes. It is likely that they could fight, but not as front- line soldiers. As an eiren, the Spartan acted as a leader and role model for the younger boys. He had the responsibility of the whip and could dispense punishments. During this stage, the eiren applied for ‘membership of the mess. At twenty- three he was a front-line soldier and at thirty he entered full citizenship. 1a Spartan youth did not progeess through each stage of the training he "Was unable to claim full citizenship. as boys reached the age of seven, Lycurgus took charge of them al himself and lstriouted thom into troops: here he accustomed them to Ive together and be brought un together, playing and earring as a group. The captaincy of the troop was conferred upon the boy who esplayed the soundest udment and the best fitting spint, The others kept their eyes on him, responded to his instructions, and endured thelr punishments fom him, | sotnatatogetar this traning soved asa practice in learning ready obedience... The bors leamt to read and write na more than was necessary. Otherwise thelr whale education was aimed at develoning smart obedience, perseverance under sess, and vitor in battle, So as they grew older they intense their physical training, and et into the habit of cropping their hair, goin barefot and exercising naked, From the age of twelve they never wore 2 tunic, and were glen only one cloak a year. Their bodies were rough, and knew rong of baths or ong: only ona few days in the year dd they experlane such doights They slept together by squacrons and troops on mattresses which they made up for themselves from the tips of reds growing along the river Eucla, broken off by hand without the help of ny iron blado. During winter they added the so-called "thistedown’ and eived it into the ‘mattresses, since i was a substance thought ta ave aut wath Put On Spars, 9.28 Greece: Spartan Society to the Balle of Leuctra 371 sc 133Role of the Spartan army During the Persian Wars (490-479 ac), the exiled Spartan king, Demaratus, El | ‘warned the Persian King, Xerxes, of the type of opposition he could expect from | the Spartans. | Sot enthte Sewtr: ergs, The whole of Spartan society was aimed at producing a strong fighting force eee ee eee ‘eat wartlors who were willing to die for Sparta. The Spartan poet Tyrtaeus econ Sas even exhorted his countrymen: ently free; for they have a master, | and that master is Law, which they fear | ‘much more than your subjects fear yu, | it with courage for our country, and for our children tus die and never spare our ives. \atever this master commands they : 7 lo; and hs command neve va oung men, remain beside each other and fight, SE ee never great And do not begin shameful flight or fear, pa, bt aay sa a ‘But make your spirit great and brave in your heart, 9 eres, The str Bok 107 And do not be faint-hearted when you fight with men 19 nc, atthe battle of Hyslat, the Spartans were decisively defeated by thelr old eneniies, the _Argives, Perhaps in response to this humiliation. changing their whole way of life. The army in Sparta, as with most institutions, underwent changes he Spartans developed their militaristic state, thus from the 7th to the 4th centuries. Throughout the 6th century and into the beginning of the Sth century, the Spartan army was composed of all Spartiate citizens. Towards the end of the Sth century, non-Spartiates began to perform military duties. The Spartan army was organised according to the age divisions specified in the agoge. Originally 3 five tribal regions or obai of Sparta. Later this was increased to six morai, The sources differ on exactly how many n there were five divisions called morai drawn from comprised a mora—figures vary between 500 and 900, Table 3.2 shows how each mora was structured by a series of divisions, The basic unit was eompased af groups af eight men, TABLE 3.2 Divisions of the Spartan army Division Made up of Modern equivalent Mora 4 lochoi regiment Lod 2 pentekostyses battalion Pontekost 4 enomatiai company Enomotia Ailes of 8 men platoon Another group within the Spartan army was composed of hippeis (knights). This was a picked group cf 300 men whose main purpose seems to have been to guard the kings. References to this group can be found in Thucydides V, 72.4 and Herodotus VIIL, 124.3. It is believed that this elite corps was chosen annually on the basis of the age classes, Hoplite warfare ‘The Spartans, like other ancient Greeks, relied on hoplite armies. A hoplite was a heavily armed. infantryman, named after the shield he carried—the hoplon. This round, wooden shield was concave cen the inside and faced with bronze on the outside. It was approximately 1 metre wide ai weighed about 7 kilograms, A cumbersome weapon, the hoplon was difficult to hold up for long periods of lune. It was held by passing the lett forearm through a loop in the centre and gripping a handle on. the far edge, Most hoplites dropped their shields if they fled the battlefield, however Spartans saw this as loss of honour and were under strict inst cr on it’. The classical hoplite wore: ctions from their mothers to ‘return with your shield ‘6 Cited in Dillon & Gatland, Anciont Guee, 180 134 Antiquity 2yr a cloth tunic covered by a bronze breastplate + a helmet made of thin bronze, often decorated with a crest of horschair—though it protected most of the face, the helmet had no ear holes so the hoplite must have had difficulty hearing on the battlefield «bronze greaves for protection of the lower leg Apart from his hoplon, the hoplite carried a long spear, almost 3 metres in length, used for thrusting not throwing, and an iron sword. Hoplites were trained to fight in formation, not as jndividuals. This was called a phalanx. Let each man plant himsel stout and stay with bath feet Regarding ther equipment fr battle, Firmly stood upon the round, titng his ip with his teeth, are eee ner 2 crimson cloak and a bronze shel, thinking that the former has leas His thighs and cakes below and breast and shoulders ioered wh the bly of is rod tie commen wth women’ rss, and is Inti let hand et him shake hs mighy sea, rat woth the ster canbe very And let him wave the dreadful crest above his head; quickly polshed and tarnishes very " Shs He also alemed those who had Inthe dong of mihy cee lt him ern todo bate | ear And ot tnd beyond the mises dng his ried | | tone, corsiering hat hay woul thas Bute each mango cos hand o‘han an vith isn soar aera, roe noble, nd mre temiyng... When the enemy are close Or his sword let him wound and take his foe cc on enough to see, @she-goat is sactiiog, Lot him set foot beside foot, ret shied against shia SETAE SEEN Galaca eee Crest on crest, helmet on helmet ‘are to play their utes and no Sparta ‘And let him fight his man with breast aporcached to breast isto be without a garland; an orderis. ‘also gven fo posh weapons. Young ‘men are permited to enter batt with their har groomed {anointed with ol (ne from one sie, one from anather, cast your great sing-stones ‘nd with 2 cheerful and lvious appearance | Holding ether his sword hit or his lng spear ‘And you, light-armed soldiers, crouching beneath the shield ‘And hut your smooth spears at them, Standing beside the men in heavy armour esopon cite elon Gatand, Ancient Grace, p58, ‘tas, edn illon & Garni, Ancient Gece, 151 ‘Understanding and using the sources Sources 3.21 and 3.22 How well prepared for battle was the hoplite? What parts of his anatomy were vulnerable? According to Tyrtaeus, what was expected of a Spartan soldier? ‘What can be learnt about Spartan fighting methods trom Source 3.227 According to Xenophon, how did the Spartans prepare for battle? Military tactics The success of the Spartan army depended largely on the discipline of the troops in the massed hoplite formation, or phalanx, which was usually eight or more anks deep, The aim was to break t and-shove technique. The Spartans were remarkably successful in this type of 1e opposition’s line by deploying a group- Warfare. At Plataea in 479 oc, for example, they remained steady in thelr ranks ‘under a heavy barrage of Persian arrows. Another tactic that exemplifies the Spartans’ exceptional discipline is the feint used at Thermopylae. The Spartans pretended to flee from the P Shields only to turn at the right moment and inflict serious losses on the Persian FIGURES.7 _Bronve statuette of Spartan ‘tmy. The Spartans maintained their supremacy in warfare until the battle of warrior wrapped in his military cloak Leuctra in 371 nc. displaying his carefully dressed hair Greece: Spartan Society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 so 138PROFILE THE BATTLE During the 370s there had been conilict between Sparta and Boeotia. In 371 1c, it was decided that all states would make peace. Sparta took the oath for peace on behalf of all her allies; the Athenians and their allies swore individually; but the Thebans claime¢ the right to sign on behalf of themselves and the Boeotian League. Sparta refused to allow this. When the Thebans refused to dissolve the Bocotian League the Spartan. King, Cleombrotus, entered the Theban plain from the ‘western end to mount an attack at Leuctra ‘The Spartans numbered 10000. The Boeotians, under the command of Epaminondas and Pelopidas, numbered ‘6000. The Thebans, led by Epaminondas, had undergone Intensive military training in the years leading to this battle, and at Leuctra, they used the new technique of the slanting phalanx to overcome the superiority of Spartan numbers. The Theban hoplites drew up their formation fifty shields deep on the left wing. They faced the best of the Spartan army on the right wing, ‘commanded by Cleombrotus. Xenophon records that Epaminondas decided to attack Cleombrotus’ troops, believing that if these could be overcome the remainder of the opposition force would be routed easily. The strategy of Epaminondas was successful ‘The Theban cavalry moved against the Spartan infantry and disoriented them. ‘The Spartans attempted to move around the Theban, left wing. ‘The heavy phalanx of the Thebans attacked the Spartans, who were hampered by their own fleeing cavaley. {At this point the elite corps of Pelopidas and his Sacred Band joined the attack on the Spartans. ‘The Spartans found themselves caught between a retreating cavalry, a disciplined and heavily weighted Theban phalanx and the Sacred Band of Pelopidas. Despite their bravery, the Spartans were defeated. Approximately 400 of the 700 Spartiates present had. fallen, including Cleombrotus. It had been over a hundred years since a Spartan king had died in battle (Leonidas at Thermopylae in 480 xc). Finally, the Spartans sent a herald to ask for a truce. OF LEUCTRA ‘But what aly stands outs the sheer fnting quality ofthe Sparian hoplites, who, perhaps stl only tee deep and in fusion, held up an enemy force masse fy deep, for some considerable tine, and the courage of those Spates who stood to fight ott brutal and barren thaugh their ideals might be, nobody in the end could say that they had forsaken thom, for thee losses were out ofall proportion ' to those of he rest ofthe any Lazany, The Spartan Ay. 162 Aftermath of the battle of Leuctra ‘The battle of Leuctra was a turning point for Sparta. ‘Throughout the Sth century Sparta was considered the ‘major military state in Greece. Sparta’s defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War (431-404 uc) brought her political hegemony and military superiority over the Greek states. After Leuctra, Sparta was no longer a major power. ‘The Spartans proved unable to cope with the new strategies and generalship of Epaminondas. Throughout the 6th and Sth centuries, Spartan society had experienced changes, but one area that had not changed was the hereditary generalship of the kings. Due to their conservative nature, the kings did not modify Spartan fighting methods. They continued to use the old strategies that had always worked for them. At Leuctra, the Spartans failed against the innovation and genius of Epaminondas. After Epaminondas won at Leuctra, he invaded Sparta, and destroyed the economic base of Spartan society by establishing Messenian independence. Throughout the Peloponnese, pro-Spartan oligarchies were overthrown and replaced by anti-Spartan democracies. Sparta was further isolated with the formal break up of the Peloponnesian League (see Chapter 9, page 406) and the formation of a number of anti-Spartan alliances, LAU cco Read the full account of the great Battle of Leuctra in Xenophon’s Hellenica, Book VI, Chapter 6. An online version can be found at the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook site, which can be found at: htip:/fwww. fordhan.edu, ae aay 2yy spartan women ie women played important roles in their society as sparta the bearers of children, the mothers of warriors, as heiresses ‘Asa woman was burying er sen, 2 wothless old cone came uP fo her and said: "You poor woman, what a misfortune!” No, by the two gods, a piece of good fortune, she replied, because | bore hi sud managers of estates, Helot women performed vital : ‘0 that he might die for Sparta, and {domestic and agricultural functions. wht has happen The female voice of Sparta is not heard. We are totally Parc Oo Spat, p60 seliant on sources written by men, Xenophon, an Athenian soldier, actually spent some time in Sparta in the late sth and early 4th centuries uc. His evidence is therefore contemporary but biased because of his great admiration \When an lonian woman was pring herself on one ofthe tapestries she had made (hich was indeed of great valu), a Sparian woman showed off het four mest dulilul sons ansaid they ware the kind of thing noble and good woman ought to produce, and should boast of them and take pride in them or the Spartans. Aristotle, writing in the 4th century xe was highly critical of Spartan society. Plutarch wrote in the | fast century ap, 500 years after the relevant period, Everyone in Spartan society, including women, was ee expected lo support the military ethos on which the society was based. Spartiate women had considerably more freedom than the women of Athens, which naturally Toe os shocked and alarmed some of the ancient writers. Spartan Sources 3.24 and 3.25 ‘+ What do these documents tell us about the role of Spartan mothers? «How did s Wh these sour women were encouraged to play an active social role, jartan mothers The main function of upper-class Spartan women was Spartan mothers differ from Athenian mothers? ‘questions would you ask about the reliability of similar to that of their Athenian sisters—to be wives and ‘mothers of citizens, Xenophon, in his explanation of the Spartan constitution, noted that for the Spartiate or free woman, child bearing was the most important function, Just as a Spartan man’s life revolved around being a soldier, so too, the Spartan woman was educated to be the proper mother of warriors in a warrior state Children in § sara did not belong to their families, but were possessions of the state. When a Spartan was born, the elders examined the baby and decided whether it would be exposed or allowed to live. This practice seems to have applied only to male children, as girls were handed over to their mothers. CChild-rearing practices in Sparta seem to have been valued. Spartan women in the classical period achieved a great reputation as wet-nurses and were highly sought after as nannies, particularly in Athens, The education of Spartan girls The Spartan education system was controlled by the state. Young Spartan girls remained at home With thelr mothers, but they were still expected to be educated. Its assumed that, like the Spartan boys, the girls were taught the basics of reading and writing. Gils were organised into bands (similar to the boys) for team games and choral singing. Xenophon compared the upbringing of gils elsewhere in the Greek world with that which prevailed at Sparta, explaining that it was Lycurgus, the legendary Spartan lawgiver, who was supposed to have introduced this practice Understanding and using unas how can ane expect gis brought up tke this to give bith to healthy abies? Lycans onsidered save is quite adequate to produce cllhing, and though tat for ree women ne mest important job was to bear chien, Inthe fist place, therefore, he prescnbed hysical waining forthe fomae sex no les than for the male; next, jst as for men, he Brranged competitions of racing and strength for women aso, thinking that i both parents Source 3.26 According to Xenophon, what was the purpose of Spartan girls ee trang ther children waulé be mere robust Yeap, cd in Blan & Garland Ancat Gece. 383 education? + why was physica training for girls seen as important? Greece: Spartan Society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 ec 137Marriage customs rhe marriage customs of the Spartans were unlike those practised in other city-states. Whereas in Athens young girls were married in thelr early teens, Spartan girls, according to Plutarch, were ‘married when ‘they were ripe for it’—that is, when they were more physically mature (probably in their late teens). Spartans were expected to marry within their own social class. Plutarch tells the story of Lysander, who betrothed his daughters to several young men. When he died a poor man, the young men tried to back out of the arrangements. This story indicates to us that ‘a form of betrothal took place in Sparta, «+ dowries and consideration of wealth were of some importance, Matrlage by capture—by which a man would choose a bride and carry her off—is thought to have been practised in Sparta. This suggests a lack of choice on the git’s part. AJ. Ball suggests that Spartan. mothers did, in fact, have some say in whom their daughters would marry. The actual ‘capture’ was probably a symbolic act, Two descriptions of such ceremonies survive. One source tells the improbable story of a young Spartan man and woman locked ir. a dark room together. In a groping blindman’s-bluff procedure, a young man captures the git] and carries her home. Saad | the soca idesmai ok charge ofthe copied pl She ft haved er ead othe sap ten essed er ie mars eoak od sandals ad hr down aon ona mates inte dar Tre brGepoa_—o Ws nt Grund ts ne nptet, but wes saber yet hd dente meses hn woul sip indo her bat it a ard cary hero he bd sprang aia str me wih eho woul opt ret 0 Sep wherever uly Go aor wth her young men, torch On Spat p.25 The reasons for cutting the bride's hair and dressing her in men’s clothing have been much debated. Some suggestions are: + it implies chastity, or the subjection of the bride to her husband + it may ‘case’ the young bridegroom into unfamiliar sexual intercourse with a woman, For discussion How do Spartan marriage customs reflect the values of Spartan society? Its thought that some sort of pre-nuptial wedding feast took place among the women only. Special cakes in the shape of breasts were eaten, and a hymn, Alkman’s ‘Partheneion’, was sung by young. girls. Married life for a young Spartan bride has been described as ‘atrial marriage’. Itis believed that the ceremony was kept a secret until a child was produced. If the wife was barren then a new ‘marriage contract could be arranged. In Source 3.28 Plutarch describes Spartan married life. SOURCE 3.28 ‘nile spending the days with his contemporaties, and going to sleep with them, [2 man] would way vis his bride in secret, ashamed and apprehensive in case someone inthe house might ntice him. His bride atthe same time evised schemes and helpes to plan how they might meet each cther unobserved at suitable moments. It was not ust fora short pecad that young men would do tis, but for lng enough that some might even have children before they ‘aw thir own wives In dat, Such intercourse was not only an exercise in se control and moderation, but also ‘meant that partners were fertile physically, always fresh fr love, and ready for intercourse rather than being sated and pale ftom unrestricted sexual ctv. Moreover some lingering Bow of desire and affection was abways left n both. Ptr On pat, p. 25-8 138 Antiquity 2who might not dese tole wih a vite permanently bu yet mht sill be anvious to thy the name, the lwgiver lid down a law in hs behalf, Such @ ane might select some ‘woman, the wie of some man, well bor hersll al best wih far lfpring, andthe sanction and consent of her husband fist obtained, rise up children fer himself through hor, > again have children of his own w Xemapon clad in Kaan, Pablo in Ancient Hist 0.198 Understanding and using the sources Sources 3.28 and 3.29 ‘Describe a Spartan couple's living arrangements as described by Plutarch. ‘+ What do these sources reveal about the nature and purpose of Spartan marriage? .n interesting insight into the behaviour of a married Spartan woman is seen in the story of Alcibiades and imaea. ‘The Athenian adventurer Alcibiades spent some time In Sparta, where he had an affair with Timaca, the wife of the Spartan king Agis. Alcibiades fancied the idea of fathering Spartan kings, and was not displeased when Timaea became pregnant. Agis, however, realised that he could not be the father because, on his last visit home, his lovemaking with his wife had been interrupted by an earthquake. It was soon realised that Alcibiades was the father, and he was exiled from Sparta. Agis, at fist, refused to recognise = “This was exempliied aang the Spartans in the days ol their reatnes many things were managed by thei the child, Women and property in Sparta wosman Ard nearly two-fifths ofthe Martied Spartan women exercised much more control and influence in their peasant ieee eer society than did their Athenian counterparts, Though they took no part in the tthe ge dowries which are communal life of the men, and as non-citizens could not vote, they nevertheless | custaary It woud surely nave been played an important role in the transfer of property. Wealth in Sparta revolved better to have given no dows a around land ownership. The land was owned and controlled by the upper Sica caieemiepammanel class Spartiate families, ancl marriage alliances ensured that property remained Ast, cdi eto Fst, Han ‘within this small group. At the beginning of the classical period, a Spartan eee woman could inherit part of her family’s estate. However, she did not own it, and it passed to her offspring. By the end of the classical period, as Aristotle and Xenophon inform us, women did own and manage estates without male guardians. Its also believed that they owned their dowries’ In the exceptional case of an orphaned heiress it was the kings who decided whom they would Spatan man wre hy st mney (Herodovus, Vi, 87. The change seems to have come about because the | ewes nao tiem fo affairs of their husbands. Towards the end of the classical period, Aristotle noted. sie oF aT pe that women in Sparta owned two-fifths of the land, Aristotle feared that this, . ‘would lead to gynaikokratia, government by women, Spartan women through the eyes of the ancient writers The very few sources that have survived concerning the lives of Spartan women were written by and tend either otle wrote disapprovingly of thee fee Greek men from other states. They touch only on the incidentals of women's liv *o citicise the women or praise their physical attributes. Aris lifestyle and the influence they had on their husbands. He believed that it was partly for these reasons that the greatness of Sparta declined," 7 Powel th Greece: Spartan Society to the Battle of Leuctra 871 ne 138‘You make your gs take part in alhletcs and you ge them a compulsory education inthe wee Wen they grow up though dispensed from werkng wool, they have to weave! Areacahves a pely hard-working Sort of life, which is by no means despicable or useless trey have tobe tolerably ecient at running the home and managing the house and trnging up the children —they don’t undertake mitary service. This means that even i come extreme emergency eve led oa battle fr ther state and te ives of thei chdren, No Spartan git could grow up modest, even if she wanted to. they 20 ou With bare thighs and lonsecothes, to wrestle and run races they would have the experts. the legislate should go the whole way and not stick at ‘Nong wth the young men, half measures he musi just regulate the mon and alow the women to ve as they Bee ‘anc wallow inexpensive usury. {calit intra Eudes, Anomace, 165 at cited in sot Ft, Roman fein Gree and Rane p48 Understanding and using pees Sources 3.30, 3.31, 3.32, 3.33 and 3.34 + What positive comments are rmade in these sources about Spartan women? © What negative comments are made? ‘© Wht do these sources tell us about male attitudes to the women of Sparta? LYSISTRATA: Welcome, Lampito, my dear. How are things in Sari? Dati simply beautiful, What a colourful complexion! What strength! reckon you could strangle a ull LAWPITO: You could do the same, my dear, wth aroper taining, | practise rump-umps every day LYSISTRATA (prodding her) And such marvellous breasts to. LAMPITO. indignantly thank you rot to teat me as though I'm some animal ready for sacs. iopanes,Usitat, 183 Appearance and dress The women of Sparta were expressly forbidden by the Lycurgan law code from wearing make-up, jewellery or perfume, or dyeing their clothes.’ Simplicity seems to have been the order of the day, at least for part of the classical period. As the sources indicate, the Spattan lifestyle changed considerably at the end of the Sth century when ‘many Spartans, not just the women, began to use more luxury goods. The main garment worn by the women of Sparta was a short, revealing peplas, fastened on the shoulders. ‘The tunic was not sewn down the side, and allowed th women to move freely and exercise. As the women moved, however, the garment revealed their thighs—hence Spartan ‘women had a reputation as ‘thigh-displayers Religious roles ‘The most famous cult centre in Sparta is that of the goddess Artemis Orthia, This goddess was associated with childbirth, and large quantities of votive offerings have been found at the sanctuary. These offerings, itis thought, ‘were brought by women who were barren, pregnant or had survived childbirth. When a young Spartan woman. ‘married, Spartan mothers made sacrifices to the goddess. —FIGURE3.8_—_A bronze figurine of a lightly clad Spartan git Aphrodite Hera. dancing 9 Putach on Spar, Sparta, p14 140 Antiquity 2