Instructional Objectives At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand * Stress concentration and the factors responsible. ‘* Determination of stress concentration factor; experimental and theoretical methods. * Fatigue strength reduction factor and notch sensitivity factor. * Methods of reducing stress concentration. 1 Introduction In developing a machine it is impoc: notches, shoulders etc, Some exariv'e nanges in cross-section, holes, wn in figure Le COLLAR BEARING GEAR. ‘GRUB SCREW Fiig.1 - Some typical ilustrations leading to stress concentration. Any such discontinuity in a member affects the stress distribution in the neighbourhood and the discontinuity acts as a stress raiser. Consider a Plate with a centrally located hole and the plate is subjected to uniform tensile load at the ends. Stress distribution at a section A-A passing through the hole and anotherj > atom section BB away from the hole are shown in figure 2Z .>, Stress distributior is i in the away from the hole is uniform but at AA there is a sharp rise in stress " ;, vicinity of the hole. Stress concentration factor k, is defined as k, yA where {+ This is the theoretical or a at section AA is simply P/t(w-2b) and 0, geometric stress concentration factor and the factor is not affected by the material properties. 3.2.1.2F- Stress concentration due to @ centr! hole in a plate subjected to an uni-axial loading. It is possible to predict the stress concentration factors for certain geometric shapes using theory of elasticity approach. For example, for an elliptical hole in an infinite plate, subjected to a uniform tensile stress 0; (figure- 3.) , stress distribution around the discontinuity is disturbed and at points remote from the discontinuity the effect is insignificant. According to such an analysis 3, =9, (: + 2) =o 1 "Tacb the hole reduces to a circular one and therefore 6, =3o, which gives k,=3. |f, however ‘b’ is large compared to ‘a’ then the Stress at the edge of transversecrack is very large and consequently k is also very large. If 'b’ is small compared toa then the stress at the edge of a longitudinal crack does not rise and k,=1. o Ss Kel F1g°3* Stress concentration due to a central elliptical hole in a plate subjected to auni-axial loading. Stress concentration factors may also be obtained using any one of the following experimental techniques: Hy Strain gage method 2. Photoelasticity method 3. 4. Grid method Brittle coating technique For more accurate estimation numerical methods like Finite element analysis may be employed. Theoretical stress concentration factors for different configurations are available in handbooks. Some typical plots of theoretical stress concentration factors and ratio for a stepped shaft are shown in fige 4.”0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 Fiig-4% Variation of theoretical stress concentration factor with r/d of a stepped shaft for different values of D/d subjected to uni-axial loading » In design under fatigue loading, stress concentration factor is used in modifying the values of endurance limit while in design under static loading it simply acts as stress modifier. This means Actual stress=k, xcalculated stress, For ductile materials under static loading effect of stress concentration is not very serious but for brittle materials even for static loading it is important. tis found that some materials are not very sensitive to the existence of notches oF discontinuity. In such cases it is not necessary to use the full value of k, andinstead a reduced value is needed. This is given by a factor known as fatigue strength reduction factor k, and this is defined as Endurance limit of notch free specimens ‘Endurance limit of notched specimens Another term called Notch sensitivity factor, q is often used in design and this is defined as k,-4 and this indicates no The value of ‘q’ usually lies between 0 and 1. If q=0, k,= and this indicates full notch notch sensitivity. If however then k; sensitivity. Design charts for ‘q’ can be found in design hand-books and knowing k,, k, may be obtained. A typical set of notch sensitivity curves for steel is Shawn in a.s| Notch sensitivity q £ £ Notch radius, in F/'g.5¢. Variation of notch sensitivity with notch radius for steels of different ultimate tensile strength « Fig-5-.2. Methods of reducing stress concentration ‘A number of methods are available to reduce stress concentration in machine parts. Some of them are as follows: 1. Provide a fillet radius so that the cross-section may change gradually. 2. Sometimes an elliptical fillet is also used. 3. If a notch is unavoidable it is better to provide a number of small notches rather than a long one. This reduces the stress concentration to a large extent. 4. If a projection is unavoidable from design considerations it is preferable to provide a narrow notch than a wide notch. 5. Stress relieving groove are sometimes provided. These are demonstrated in figure 5 Force flow around a comer with fillet: Low stress concentration. (b) Force flow around a large notch —_Force flow around a number of small notches: Low stress concentration.(c) Force flow around a wide projection Force flow, around a narrow projection: Low stress concentration. (d) Force flow around a sudden _Force flow around a stress relieving groove. change in diameter in a shaft £74. + Illustrations of different methods to reduce stress concentration ae (Ref.{1)). 3 Theoretical basis of stress concentration Consider a plate with a hole acted upon by a stresso. St. Verant's principle states that if a system of forces is replaced by another statically equivalent system of forces then the stresses and displacements at points remote from the region concerned are unaffected. In figure @ ‘a’ is the radius of the hole and at r=b, b>>a the stresses are not affected by the presence of the hole.Here, o, For plane stress conditions: 6, COs? 8 +6, si , cos0sin 6, =6,8in’ 8+, 2s, c080sino (c,-6,)sindcose +1, (cos* e—sin?6) This reduces to , = 000s? 0 $ (00820+1)= 5+ Fc0s20 ° os 6 =asin?o g(t 00828) = 5-5 00828 oe, =- differences in the material. Cameras which sense differences ‘« :cmperature can be used to display the stress field in special materia!s. s = Se i Automobile Hook and Clevis Crack Tip Connecting RodEffect of Geometry The discontinuity geometry | has a significant effect on the stress distribution around it. b Nominal w=|io{2 } the hole is : b As b approaches zero, the situation approaches that of a very fine crack. The stress at the edge become very large. The size and orientation of the crack with respect to the applied stresses play a very large role.Cantilever Case: The discontinuity here is a simple circular hole , drilled through the depth of the beam on its centerline. The sketch shows the stress distribution at two sections of a cantilever beam, and illustrates the presence of stress concentration. At section A, the stress is uniform across the width of the beam, and calculable from the following relationship: where : o= stress, psi (N/m?) M = bending moment , in-Ibs (N-m) I= moment of inertia of beam cross section, in* (m*) P = load, Ibs (N) c = half-thickness of beam, in (m)At section B, the nominal stress, based upon the net area of the section, is: Mg:c 6P! Op(nom) = => i, (b-djt L_b-d If the location of the hole is selected so that Lb the nominal stress at section B is the same as that at section A.. The maximum stress at section B, however, is much greater, due to the stress concentration effect. As shown in the sketch, the maximum s'ross exists at the edge of the hole, on the transverse diameter, and the stress decreases rapidly with the distance from the hole. By definition the stress concentration factor, K,, is the ratio of the maximum stress at the hole to the nominal stress at the same point. That is, _g(max) _ (max) o,(nom) 6Pt (o-d)\t? Since the nominal stresses and the peak stress at the edge of the hole, are all uniaxial, the strain and stress are proportional. Thus, the stress concentration factor is equal to the ratio of the maximum to nominal strains at section B. Therefore, ¢ = So(max) _ sx(max) : &,(nom) £4 K, ———————__—— Stress Concentration Factors for Round Bar with fillet Tension 124 19+ Q os Spots, Fig. 2-9, Peterson 0.10 01S 0.20 025 030 d Spotts, Fig. 2-8, Peterson BendingTorsion TensionStress concentration for a rectangular plate with fillet Suess concentreton factor, Ke Tension for rectangular plate with fillet. (a) Axial 26 i x24 al | ; B22 Sug = SM Bending 3 en Te B20 =? TSS fis 4 5 ~~ ais =< Hh=5 + mee 2) &4 Sr S12 12 105 101 ee ee rs i re 0 i 010 025.~=«StCSSSCB Radius-to-height ratio, r/ (b)w S 28 up 26 [ : Bo Stress concentration for a plate g a ae with a hole Eo & 20 3 18 . . Le Tension E+ me 14- t —P._P. rab Owe A Oa y Ln firiit foriitiiiy 1 OL 02 03 Od os 06 Ke wn en oR A © Stress concentration fi w o 12 10 pore to pe te dit tt 0 a1 02 03 O4 os 06 Drameter-to-vadth rato, 4/6 Dismeter-to-wadth rato, d/b Bending