Elements of a Complete Formal rgument I. Double Frame Model ‘As we read any text carefully, we see that the author is trying to persuade us; all texts are truly ‘At the same time, all texts are staged within a social context, so they are also dramas. ‘The double master-frame model gives us a way to visualize this concept: Dramatic Framework: Speaker and Audience are both “characters” having a dialogue in the ‘drama of real life. ‘The Speaker presents his or her argument: By studying the characters of authors as well asthe ideas in a text, we can evaluate the quality of ‘an argument in two distinct ways. The double-frame model provides a simple way to do this; we can examine a text both in terms of the explicit message in addition to the implicit characteristics of the authors, As careful readers, we will come to accept arguments only if we believe both the ideas themselves and the people who present them. I. Elements of an Argument ‘Classical rhetoricians taught that solid arguments consisted of six basic parts. Quintilian, a ‘Roman rhetorician, listed them as follows: 1, Introduction (To Establish Good Wil!) 2. Narration (Statement of the Issue) 3, Proposition (Central Claim) 4, Confirmation (Support for the Claim) 5, Refutation (Answers to Opposition) 6. Conclusion (Call to Action) (institutio Oratoria IL. PR. 6)‘These six parts are still present in arguments today, although they don’t necessarily need to come in this order. Understanding how each of these elements works can help us better comprehend and evaluate the things we read. 1, Introduction: In her invitation to the reader, an author must do severel things. First, she must grab the reader's attention somehow. Second, she must convince the reader to continue reading. Third, she must establish her own credibility so her audience will have reason to believe her, Finally, she must give the reader a “So What,” a sense that her argument is meaningful and important. 2, Narration: In the narrative, the author introduces to the reader the issue she will address. She gives the background and history necessary to clarify the issue and demonstrate its importance. 3. Proposition: In the proposition, the author builds on the background she has given and makes a distinct claim about the issue. Today, we often call this statement the thesis. Sometimes the proposition also contains a division, which serves as a mini-outline for the organization of the entire argument, 4, Confirmation: The confirmation includes all the reasons and specific evidence the author gathers to support her claim, This section usually constitutes the bulk of the argument, 5, Refatation: In the refutation, a good author will anticipate and answer any objections which may be raised against her claim. Since most issues have many different “sides,” the author must be careful to address all opposing points of view. She also needs to comfort her audience, letting them know that she understands their concerns and that her purpose will really serve all interested parties. 6. Conclusion: In the conclusion the author usually reiterates the claim she has just defended. In addition, she will move her audience to act upon her claim. Although this isn’t a foratula into which any argument can be neatly inserted, these elements will be present in any complete argument. As we look for each of these parts, we will find all the ideas in any argument and we will understand an author’s views more quickly. Example: The Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence has all the parts of a formal argument, although all aren’t presented in an expected order. Introduction: Jefferson gets his audience’s attention by stating the issue, which is a defense of his call to action, clearly and forcefully: “When in the course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political ‘bands which have connected them with another . .. they should declare the causes which impel ‘them to the separation.” This statement not only pulls the reader into the argument, but it also introduces what the focus will be: the causes which are impelling the colonists to dissolve these political bands. In addition, Jefferson’s careful and precise language gives the reader the sense that he is someone worth listening to, He is successful in creating a strong introduction.Proposition: Although Jefferson is moving toward his claim throughout the argument, he doesu’t state it explicitly until the conclusion of the document. In the final paragraph he states: “Wo. . .declare, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES , . .and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved.” Narration and Confirmation: The “story” behind the Declaration of Independence is mingled with the confirmation. ‘Throughout the document, Jefferson makes several claims which justify his proposition: 1. “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness’ 2, “To secure these rights, Government was instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.” 3, “Whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or abolish it.” Jefferson spends much of the rest of the declaration delineating the ways in which the British government has violated the rights of men, and why the colonists are therefore justified in declaring their i 14, “The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and ‘usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States, To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.” ‘This statement is followed by numerous specific examples and much support for the claim ‘that the present situation must be changed. These examples comprise the narration. Refutation: Jefferson anticipated possible objections to his argument, and he gives two specific refutations which justify rebellion as the only possible solution for this problem. First, realizing that some colonists may have condemned any sort of anarchy or rebellion, Jefferson states: 1, “Governments long established should not be changed for light ar transient causes... . But ‘when a long train of abuses and usurpations. ‘evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their [the governed) right, their duty, to throw off such » Government.” ‘This statement shows that he, too, normally condemns unjustified rebellion; yet, he shows ‘that this particular revolt is not only justified, it is necessary. Jefferson then addresses another potential objection, the belief that rebellion should only be attempted after all other avenues have been exhausted. He claims: 2. “in every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for redress in the most humble terms. . 00 have boen deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity.” ‘Through his refutation Jefferson lets his readers know that their rebellion is a response to serious offenses and that the colonists have tried to solve the problem in fess violent ways. This diligence calms the reader into knowing that this Declaration is the only viable solution. Conclusio Jefferson includes both an emotional appeal and a call to action in his conclusion: “‘And for the support of this Declaration, with a finn reliance on the protection of DivineProvidence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.” Jefferson concludes with a reference to the Divine, which shows his audience that he has a moral foundation for this rebellion. In addition, the call to action serves as motivation for ‘those who still may be hesitant. It is an effective conclusion for this kind of argument. III. Elements of a Drama Just as we can study the Declaration of Independence as an argument, we can also analyze its dramatic characteristics, Jefferson (the speaker/character) delivers a monologue to both the citizens of America and Britain, as well as any other interested parties across the world (the audience/characters). When we read this argument as the speech of a character, we can find the ‘unstated proofs of character also working to confirm the central claim. ‘The logical structure of the argument indicates that Jefferson and the other Founding Fathers for ‘whom he was speaking were clearly rational thinkers, and their thoroughness demonstrates that the call for independence was not something these men had taken lightly, These character traits probably increased their credibility in the minds of many of their fellow countrymen who had been educated in a rational tradition. In addition, the final words of the text, “a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence,” demonstrate that these men were also God-fearing, a trait which would appeal to their more religious compatriots. ‘The authors provide other insights to their character through the words they have written. They assert that they have “petitioned for redress in the most humble terms,” which tells their readers ‘that they are not egotists, only looking out for their own best interests, In addition, the authors” ‘words show them to be brave and self-sacrificing men: “for the support of this Declaration . .. we mutually support to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.” Even though these men knew they may be giving up everything they possessed, even their lives, they were willing to sacrifice everything for their cause. With such an example to follow, how could their Finally, although the authors are clearly intelligent and educated men, they show their respect for their readers by speaking to them clearly and openly; they never condescend. The argument is vvaitten with the expectation that the readers will rise to understand it. By understanding and using the “elements of an argument” framework in combination with the double-frame model, we are now prepared to be more careful, thorough readers of any text. Works Cited Jefferson, Thomas. “The Declaration of Independence.” Dialogues and Conversations. Ed, Grant Boswell and Gary Hatch. Needham Heights, MA: Simon and Schuster, 1996, 81-83. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria. Trans. H.E, Butler. The LOEB Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, i921. Robbym Thompson Serbner Dr, Naney Chestansen BYU Reading Center ‘Winer 1997