Saturn C-5 flight profile for rendezvous This mission will require joining in orbit, gently at the right point, two 100-ton vehicles moving at a speed of about four miles per second By P. J. deFries fons” has generally been Ti term “orbital op accepted as a description for the assembling in a near-earth orbit a multistage space activities of vehicle. The operation involves rendezvous and docking of several carth-launched space vehicles in orbit, tanking of a space vehi tenance repair, checkout, Iaunch from orbit and eutdown, and Orbital facilities are those installations in orbit in: strumental in carrying ont the operations. ‘The prin cipal orbital facility is a manned station equipped with checkout computers and instrumentation for fault analysis and repair of a space vehicle, ‘This facility would include such items as spare parts, soft and hard spacesuits, an astrotug, special tools, and supporting satellite systems for navigational and communication aid in orbital launch operations, The development of an orbitaloperations ca pability has been recognized as an indispensable tool for the exploration of space. Our first applica tion appears to be forthcoming with the early manned lunar landings of the Apollo spacecraft The orbital takeoff vehicle for the mission is in the £00,000-Ib class. Two Saturn C-5 earth-to-orbit carriers appear adequate for this undertaking, For 1 manned. planetary exploration, orbital takeoff vehicles of 1- to S-million Ib are required, depend ing on transfer time stay time, and nature of the mission, orbiting or landing. This definitely makes 4 Nova-class earth-to-orbit booster mandatory With today’s knowledge, the early manned lunar landing can conceivably be conducted with one of two modes of operation—the connecting mode ot the tanking mode. The pare for launch in near-earth orbit 485 km) a three-stage space vehicle oal in both cases is to pre: approximately of the type diagrammed below In the connecting mode, the orbital stage (RL and the Apollo spacecraft are carried sep orbit and ai All stages are fully tanked and completely operative when leaving the earth’s surface In the tanking mode, the entire orbital launch vehicle (RL) plus the manned spacecraft goes into orbit in one piece, but its lox tank is empty. The space vehicle docks in orbit with a lox tanker (T1) that is carried separately by another C-5 into orbit, and the RL is then loxed in orbit. An adequate expectation of mission success ap- rately into then connected. Staging for Orbital Launch Vehicle in Manned Lunar Mission nd ] co as 1 Lanor bancing Lunar Return | pany ety i ee a ee) Co eel 30 Astronautics / April 1962Connecting Mode at Launch wt een c c-5 #2! (SPARE) (SPARE) Fueling Mode at Launch APOLLO CAPSULE ‘R-2 LUMAR CANDING STAGE R-1 ORBITAL INCH STAFlight Profile | for Connecting Mode In tanking mode, the geometry i the same; Rl is replaced by T-1 and SC by RA/SC. SECOND C-5 FLIGHT FIRST C-5 FLIGHT ‘LAUNCH OF SPACECRAFT Lal OF ORBITAL, Hoos TER a | Pabeine ora ae J SPACECRAFT Hh TRANSFER ELLIPSE: TARGET ORBIT 250 KM ALT PARKING ORBIT TRANSFER Aas KM ALT OPERATION FARGET ORWT LINE OF SIGHT AT START OF TRANSFER Flight Profile I! for Connecting Mode Tanking-mode geomety isthe same: Rl is replaced by TH (tanker); spacecrat ls replaced by R-/epaceerat Dockins SPACECRAFT IASING ELLIPSE RF chasing ELCiPSe FIRST C-5 FLIGHT aT LAUNCH OF R-1 ORBITAL BOOSTER SECOND C-5 FLIGHT LAUNCH OF SPACECRAFT 32 Astronautics / April 1962Docking Maneuver in the Connecting Mode pears to be attainable when conducting the ground- launch preparation at the Cape with 100% spares. This means that simultaneously four Saturn C-5's are vertically assembled and checked out in the as- sembly stalls of Launch Complex 39. If the con- necting mode is to be flown, two of the C-5s are mated with RI stages and two with the Apollo spacecraft, as indicated on page 31. If the tanking mode is flown, two of the C-5s are mated with the TL and two with the R1 spacecraft combination (lox tank RI empty). ‘The launch sequence of the C-5s and the asso- ciated stay time of the stages in orbit prior to orbital launch depend on (1) launch rate of C-5 at the Cape, (2) the orbital launch window, which in the course of months occurs at irregular intervals of 3 to 14 days, and (3) the time needed for opera- tions in orbit (chasing, rendezvous, docking, tank- ing, checkout, minor adjustments). The following examples show the influence these parameters have on the orbital stay time when two orbital launch windows are 10 days apart and launch, is accomplished in the first window coming up. A launch rate of one O-5 per week and 7-, 3- ot 1-day periods allowed for orbital operations result in stay times in orbit of the unmanned stage (tanker, ‘TI, or orbital booster, R1) of 24, 20, and 18 days; for the manned part (SC or RI/SC) the stay time is 7, 3, and 1 days, For a faster launch rate at the Cape “one C-5 every three days and a minimum of one day allowed for operation in orbit—the stay time of the unmanned stage can be reduced to 7 days. With one C-5 every two days it could come down to five days in orbit prior to launch into the lunar CHASING ELLIPSE OR ‘TRANSFER ELLIPSE trajectory. It is obvious that the time of the RL or TL is mainly determined by the launch rate of the Cs and not so much by the time allowed for ma- neuvers and other operations in orbit. Considering that a vehicle like the Saturn S-IV with no modifications would lose its hydrogen fuel in earth orbit in a matter of hours, itis certainly not possible to use an ordinary present-day “flight stage as is” for either the tanking or orbital booster ap- plications. Good heat shielding requires novel struc- tural methods in stage design. ‘These methods pro- duce heft and are not desirable for flight stages. ‘They may be acceptable, however, for a tanker that stays behind in orbit. Flight Profiles Begin in Hangar For cither the connecting or tanking mode, a number of flight profiles can be conceived, of which two will be discussed here. Both begin at the Cape on Launch Complex 39 with vertical assembly and fully automatic checkout of the entire space vehicle in the hangar. ‘The Saturn space vehicle is then rolled out in vertical position to the Taunch pad without disconnecting the electrical cable tieing the vehicle to the checkout computer. Once on the pad, the space vehicle is tanked and launched. In Profile No. 1, the successful C-5 (No. 1 or No. V*) places a R1 or T1 (depending on whether con- necting ot tanking mode is being flown) into a cir- cular parking orbit at, say, typically 250-km altitude, as indicated in the illustration on page 32. The procedure for launch and injection of the R1 or the April 1962 / Astronautics 33T1 into orbit is the same as for any satellite injec- tion, ‘The Saturn guidance and control system lo- cated on the RI or the Tl guides the stage into orbit (see February 1962 Astronautics, p. 44). ‘The main propulsion of the RI is not used. Its vernier propul- sion may potentially be employed for final injection. The RI is fully tanked and oriented in orbit for minimum heat input. Control of the stage while in parking orbit is performed by the Saturn guidance and control system augmented by an optical refer- ence, for example, earth-horizon or stellar sensor. Automatic Checkout in Orbit Before the next ground launch is committed with the manned portion of the lunar vehicle, the un- manned vehicle in orbit, RI or TI, will be subjected to an automatic checkout. This checkout is done through the same automatic checkout system that conducted the checkout on the ground—with the one exception that the cable between the space vehicle and the checkout computer at the Cape is now re- placed by a radio link. The checkout in orbit is a ‘matter of 10 to 30 min and can be conducted in real time over the continental United States. Closely interwoven with this active orbital check- out system is a passive automatic fault-recognition system. Whereas the active checkout system sends stimuli into the vehicle subsystems and records the response, the passive automatic fault-recognition system only monitors operational status of the stage Concept for Saturn S-IVB/R1 Docking Kit om? =| 34 Astronautics / April 1962 during the waiting time in orbit and telemeters the events to earth stations. This system will include Teak detection and micrometeorite hit detection For this purpose the vehicle will be divided in a checkerboard-like fashion into subsystems to deter- mine the locality and nature of the failure. If a failure occurs, the next C-5 will be withheld. ‘Two different lines of action can now be considered. One is to write the orbiting vehicle off and launch the spare, or if this is already spent, start a new operational series of four vehicles at a later time. ‘This entails that minor mishaps cost an entire stage. ‘The other approach is to spend some money on mak- ing a limited repair capability in orbit available, with the obvious thought of amortizing this expense against the total loss of vehicles. ‘There may not be sufficient time available to analyze this issue thoroughly and then still develop the repair ca- ability for the early manned lunar landing if it should turn out to be advantageous. If the checkout in orbit verifies RI or T1 as in good shape, the next successful C-5 launch (No. 2 or No. 2) will inject the Apollo spacecraft or the Rl/spaceeraft combination (depending again on ‘connecting or tanking mode being flown) into a cir- cular target orbit at typically 485-km altitude, as indicated in the illustration on page 32. A direct ascent from ground into the vicinity of the R1 or T1 in its 250-km orbit, with the intention of coming immediately to a rendezvous and dock- ing, appears hardly feasible with today’s technology: the launch window on the ground would be in the order of 1 min or less if major payload degradation was to be avoided. Such tight launch windows do not appear within our capabilities, considering the launch delays experienced today with rather small vehicles compared to a multistage Saturn C-5. However, this ground launch window problem can be circumvented in a rather straightforward ‘manner if the second portion of the orbital Taunch vehicle is only aimed at arriving in an orbit co- planar with the first, irrespective of its position in this orbit. This allows a launch window on the ground of 3 to 4 hr with a minor doglegging ma- neuver to be performed (approximately 1 to 1"/s deg) provided the inclination of the orbit is not vastly different from the latitude of the Cape. Due to the different periods of the orbits, the two vehicles will continuously change their relative posi- tion to each other; the RI (or respectively, T1) can be said to be chasing the spacecraft (or respectively, Rl/spacecraft combination). After several orbits, the RI or TI will get into a position relative to the spacecraft such that a Hohmann transfer to the target orbit becomes possible. With a ground launch window of 15 min, the chasing time may be as long as 9 hr. The transfer kick at the lower orbit can be initiated by radio‘command from ground or from the manned vehicle in the higher orbit. In any case, the Saturn guidance and control package on the unmanned vehicle in the lower orbit receives the commands and then executes the maneuver. The main engine of the RL is not used; rather it uses two maneuver engines, which are of approximately 10,000-Ib-thrust each, For the tanking mode, the lox tanker (T1) will be equipped with the same set of maneuver engines; it naturally has no main propulsion, ‘The burning time for this first maneuver will be approximately Making Radar Contact In a typical case, the two orbiting vehicles are approximately 4.6-deg central angle apart when the orbital transfer is initiated, as indicated in the illus- tration on page 32. Radar contact may be estab- lished already at this stage, although it is only needed later. ‘The distance between the vehicles is 590 km, well within the capability of many radar designs. The RI or T1 will ascend in approxi- mately 45 min to the higher orbit of the manned vehicle. Ninety-five degrees after the transfer kick, the ascending vehicle will “overtake” the other. ‘This is a convenient position for the astronauts in the upper vehicle to verify the transfer trajectory or command a corrective maneuver. ‘The rendezvous maneuver proper coincides wi the apogee kick that circularizes the Hohmann ascent with the target orbit. At a range between spacecraft and ascending unmanned vehicle (RL or T1) of typically 40 km, radar acquisition is made (if not done prior). Guidance signals are generated in the spacecraft, and are radioed to the unmanned ascending vehicle, which is controlled by the Saturn guidance and control system. It will then execute the commands and bring the RI or TI stage into the immediate vicinity of the spacecraft with near zer0 relative velocity. ‘The ensuing docking maneuver may be carried out by the spacecraft itself with as much active participation of the man in the maneuver as will be possible and practical. What part man will play in the maneuver can ultimately only be determined by ‘experimenting in orbit with manned vehicles. This and only this experimenting will reveal to us how best to arrange this man-machine combination. We hope today that man can be an active element across the loop and that his complex decision-making ca- abilities will enhance the expectation of success. ‘At the same time, it appears unavoidable that we also develop the fully automatic rendezvous capa- bility for rescue of disabled spacecraft (dock and kkick the spacecraft to re-enter). A man, against our hopes, may not be capable of performing in Concept for Docking with a Tanker YN space as in an airplane. And we can use the auto- matic technique for multiple rendezvous of un- manned tankers or boosters. ‘The rendezvous maneuver itself is based on inter- vehicle radar measurements of range, range rate, and angular rate. In an ideal case, the rendezvous maneuver is nothing but a perfectly performed apogee kick. There will be a limited accuracy in the knowledge of the orbital parameters of the spacecraft, finite accuracy in the application of the transfer kick of the RI or TI from the lower to the higher orbit, and finite accuracy in the application of the apogee kick itself. So straight apogee thrust- ing must be “modulated” to reduce inaccuracies to a tolerable level. J. Harden has prepared an MSFC Technical Report on “An Analysis of Rendezvous Guidance Scheme.” ‘A feasible guidance law for the rendezvous maneuver is a “line of sight rate nulling” technique. That is, the thrust is to be applied so that the two vehicles keep their line of (contiNUED oN Pace 42) April 1962 / Astronautics 35Saturn C-5 sight rate nullin thrust is ti fechnique. ‘That be applied so that vehicles keep their line of sight nonrotating may be done. with periods, each time orientin neuvering vehicle so. th thrust its engines counteracts. the ght (LOS), as tween coast at the same time to get closer to cir ‘When LOS is nulled final acceleration brings the RL or Tl to zero relative velocity ahead of the spacecraft A typical maneuver will rotation of the line of si measured in. the in start with acquisition at a range of 46 km, a range rate of 63 m/s and an angle of the LOS with the horizontal of the target orbit of 45 deg. Assum: ing, for example, a large velocity de ficioncy of 19 m/s tangentially and 19 m/s radially, the first thrusting would begin 161 sec after acquisition; at 801 nmanned vehicle would be 300 meters in front of the spacecraft heading with 3 m/s along the LOS toward it, Instead of retaining an in- tentional final approach velocity of 3 m/s, the maneuvers can put the ve hicle into the same position with vir tually zero relative velocity under the see the same initial conditions and with ming changes in the maneuver time An alternate Flight Profile No. 2 is depicted on page 32. The difference to Profile No. 1 is only in the flight mechanics. The first unmanned stage does not go into a near circular park ing orbit, but instead is injected into a chasing ellipse with typically a 250- and 485-km apogee. The aunch places the spacecraft 1 Rl /spaceeraft) into a target orbit the altitude h coincides with ree of the chasing ellipse docking im peri the ap Rend as before, as are checkout procedures in orbit before the second launch. There is no transfer kick necessary from the lower parking or hit to the higher target orbit, and the total energy is slightly The chasing time is lon since the time difference in the periods is less e, BL, may third’ stage The orbital boost st: possibly grow out of the S-IVB) of the Saturn C-5. ‘The mod- ifications to the S-IVB take chielly the ‘docking kit” to be attached to the basic vehicle in lar to mounting an ordinar payload on the stage. Direct struc tural modifications to the S-IVB proper are in the areas of insulation and mi trometeorite protection, The drawing on page 34 schematically how the RI grows out of the S-IVB by the addition of the docking kit. In the case of the con necting mode, this addition is at the of the S-IVB, In thi tanking mode, the same package is mounted on the tanker, TI, whereas the S-IVB would have the J hidden in the complementary docking one, as indicated in the drawing. o page 35, The docking kit consists of the re cessed docking cone, two axial ma neuver engines, propellant tanks for the maneuvers, radar transponde what is instrument unit of th electrical networks, an power supply (in excess of in the standar SVB sronic gear needed in eonjuneti he standard instrument unit f ation in the chasing orbit and. the launch orbit. It would also have the nsfer lines and ¢ Xl uplings when used on the tanker, TH In the tanking’ mode the entire locking kit (both parts of it) would he separated with the tanker after lox This frees the orbital launch rehicle of all extra hardware Taunch into the lunar trajectory, and leads to better performance than can be obtained with the connecting mode where all docking and orbital-ma- neuver hardware a nary interstage structure must be car before in excess of an ried to escape A standar located SVB instrument unit on the ordinary third stage Saturn C-5 Guidance and Control Diagram for Rendezvous Mission co Parity coe Cao ey re powcrery eee eed Standard Instrumentation for Saturn Additions for Rendezvous 42 Astronautics / April 1962 FE] Penn Fores lesa occof the C5 contains the guidance, con- trol, and communication hardware for injecting payloads into orbit or to es- cape with high accuracy. In the ren- dezvous mission of the C-5, it thus be- comes an integral part of the Rl and aso guides the Tl into orbit. The block’ diagram’ on page 42 shows this standard unit. With the addition of a radar transponder and an optical refer- ence the system becomes capable of controlling the attitude of the un- manned rendezvous vehicle (the RI or T1) during waiting periods in orbit, of performing. the maneuvers ‘com: manded by the spacecraft for rendez- Yous and docking, and of cooperat- ing with the spacecraft guidance sys- tem during orbital launch. ‘The standard. instrument unit is formed by inserting instrument canis- ters into the upper sides of the S-1VB or the TI. Each canister is large enough to hold one or more subsys- tems. and has suflcient skin area to allow antenna mounting where neces- sary. The optical reference element, horizon sensor, or sun sensor or stellar sensor can likewise he accommodated in the canisters. The radar tran: ponder antenna can be mounted on the docking structure. The problem of moving mechanical parts in space ‘may favor the interferometer principle with skin-moumted antenna, X-band frequency and, potentially at least, all solid-state circuitry. During orbital waiting periods, the four-gimbal platform may accumulate drift errors that are too large for per- forming the subsequent “maneuvers with satisfactory accuracy. The opti- cal reference will then update the in- formation. It will either give the data to the digital computer, which then processes the platform outputs with a constant bias, or the platform may be torqued directly to correct for its di Checkout in orbit, although com- manded from the ground, would be conducted through the onboard digi- tal computer, while telemetry would send the response signals to the auto- ‘matic ground checkout center. During rendezvous maneuvers, the system receives its commands from the spacecraft, which may typically spec- ify magnitude and direction of ve- locity change in an acceptable coor nate system and time of ignition. The command must be given sufficiently in advance of the fring time in order for the RI or TI to assume the proper commanded attitude. The performance of the unmanned vehicle becomes known to the space- craft crew from at least two independ- fent sources. One is the radar data display; the other is the telemetered data of the inertial system of the un- manned vehicle. Potentially, the crew will also have means to observe visually, with periscope, the other ve- hicle and thus have at Teast at close range a third set of data. It will be the astronauts prerogative to decide which data is trustworthy and should be used in the next maneuver. Jn the connecting mode, a problem arises during orbital launch when at tempting to tie the spacecraft gui ance system to the propulsion, system of the RI, In order to leave the con- trol-system wiring of the RI unbroken throughout the entire mission, and to avoid making electrical contacts in space, the same radio. commend method that was used during rendez vous and docking may be continued