Platinum in South Africa South African Journal of Science 95, November/December 1999
In 1925 he identified an even more promising occurrence in the
The platinum and
palladium resources of
the Bushveld Complex
R.G. Cawthorn
The Bushveld Complex is well-known for its large proportion of the
worlds platinum and palladium resources. There are three very dif-
ferent ore bodies, the Merensky Reef, the Upper Group 2 (UG2)
chromitite, which together can be traced on surface for 300 km in
two separate arcs, and the Platreef, which extends for over 30 km.
Their global importance has justified several resource calculations
in the past. Such historical data are compared with the information
in recent mining company annual reports. Resource calculations
tend to be bigger by a considerable factor, because mining com-
pany reports include only proven and probable reserves, where
sufficient information is available rigorously to justify such a classi-
fication. However, the remarkable continuity of layers within the
Bushveld Complex certainly justifies qualitative extrapolation to
adjacent areas, although current mines are probably exploiting the
most favourable sections of reefs. The major platinum mining
companies hold most of the mineral rights to these areas.
Historical estimates of platinum and palladium in these reefs,
which indicate about 770 and 480 million ounces, respectively
(down to a depth of 1200 metres), do not distinguish between the
different categories of proven and probable reserves and inferred
resource. The present calculations indicate about 204 and 116
million ounces of proven and probable reserves of platinum and
palladium, respectively, and 939 and 711 million ounces of inferred
resources, down to a depth of 2 km. Already mining is taking place
at 2 km in the Bushveld Complex, and so inferred resources, and
ultimately minable ore, could almost certainly be considered far
greater than even these calculations suggest. These figures repre-
sent about 75 and 50 % of the worlds platinum and palladium
resources, respectively. These figures for proven and probable re-
serves in the Bushveld Complex alone are sufficient for the next 40
years at current rate of production. However, estimated world
resources are such as to permit extraction at an annually increasing
rate of 6 % per annum for over 50 years. Expected sufficiency is less
for palladium. Thereafter, down-dip extensions of existing
Bushveld mines, lower grade areas of the Platreef and the Middle
Group Chromitite layers may become payable Demand, and hence
price, will be the determining factor in such mining activities rather
than availability of ore.
In September 1924, Dr Hans Merensky and Andries Lombaard
made a remarkable discovery, on the farm Maandagshoek near
Steelpoort in the Northern Province of South Africa, in the
eastern Bushveld Complex (Fig. 1), of a platiniferous ore body,
which now bears the name Merensky Reef.1 The enormity of the
discovery rapidly became apparent to Merensky, and he and his
and colleagues traced its outcrop within months for some 80 km.
*Department of Geology, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, WITS, 2050
South Africa. E-mail: 065rgc@cosmos.wits.ac.za
481
northern limb (Fig. 1), and the first major deposit to be pro-
moted, near Potgietersrus and called the Platreef. Its operations
were relatively short lived, but the area is now being mined as
Potgietersrust Platinums Ltd, a part of Anglo American Platinum
Corporation, and has potential to be the largest platinum- and
palladium-producing mine (see below). In the same year,
Merensky also located the reef under thick black soil cover in an
arc from Brits, through Rustenburg to Thabazimbi (Fig. 1).
The last 75 years have seen the overall consumption and uses
of platinum expand dramatically. But what of its potential sup-
ply, use and demand in the next millennium? Demand (and
hence also its price) and uses are impossible to predict far into
the future, but the resources and potential supply of platinum
and palladium can be computed with some degree of confi-
dence.
Platinum had been reported from the Bushveld Complex prior
to Merenskys discovery. In fact, the Geological Survey of South
Africa had initiated a study of its occurrence in the chromitite
layers, but only uneconomic amounts were found.2 Subse-
quently, higher grades in chromitites were identified, but exploi-
tation had to await the development of suitable metallurgical
techniques to separate the platinum from its very refractory
host.3 However, now the Upper Group 2 Chromitite layer has
surpassed the Merensky Reef as a platinum reserve (see below).
Until the 1970s, the Merensky Reef was the sole source of plati-
num in South Africa. First, Lonmin began mining the UG2, and
other companies are now actively mining it as well. For example,
Anglo American Platinum Ltd4 reports that, currently, 40 % of
platinum produced from underground is from the UG2,
compared to 15 % five years ago. Furthermore, in the last decade
open-cast mining has been re-established on the Platreef.
At the time of Merenskys discovery annual platinum con-
sumption was in the region of 100 000 ounces (subsequently all
figures will be quoted in million ounces), with most being
supplied from alluvial deposits in Russia and Columbia, and as a
by-product from nickel mining at Sudbury in Canada. The
demand was sufficiently low that Merensky5 noted in his calcu-
lations of what grade could be considered economic for mining
on the new-found ore body, that the extra production coming
from the Bushveld Complex might drive down prices by
40 % from $100 an ounce. Remarkably, he calculated a figure of
2.3 g t1 at $100 per ounce, or 3 g t1 at a lower price due to market
oversupply, as the cut-off grade for open-pit mining, almost the
same value (actually 2.5 g t1) as reported by Anglo American
Platinum Ltd 4 for their current open-pit operation near
Potgietersrus. What Merensky could not predict was that plati-
num demand and price would slump over the next decade as a
result of the Depression in the United States, and would not be-
gin a sustained recovery until after the Second World War.6
Merensky died in 1952, by which time mining of the Merensky
Reef was only just beginning to increase, and so Merensky never
witnessed the dominant role his discovery was to play in the
world platinum markets. In 1950s annual consumption had
increased to 0.3 million ounces, with South African production
contributing about one third. By 1998, consumption had in-
creased to 5 million ounces, with South Africa producing about
75 %.7 These figures correspond to an average increase of about
6 % per year for almost half a century. Can the resources sustain
such further increases?
Platinum is but one (albeit the most important) of six closely
related elements, including palladium, rhodium, iridium, ruthe-
nium and osmium (the platinum-group metals or PGM). All
have slightly different uses.7 Platinum and palladium are by far
482 South African Journal of Science 95, November/December 1999 Platinum in South Africa

Fig. 1. General map of the Bushveld Complex (centre), with sectors showing the different mining operations (exploded views). The grade of PGM and
thickness of the Merensky and UG2 reefs are shown for each mine.

the most abundant in all deposits, and the other four are always magma is about 1000 ppm (parts per million), equivalent to
minor by-products from exploitation of platinum-palladium 1000 g t1 or 0.1 %. In most rocks this Cr is locked in minerals at
deposits, except in alluvial occurrences (which are now rela- low concentration and not amenable to extraction. The mineral
tively minor producers), where osmium and iridium may be chromite contains up to 30 % Cr, and so layers of pure chromite,
abundant. Hence, in this account only data for the principal two found in the bottom part of the intrusion, are enriched by a fac-
elements platinum and palladium will be reported. tor of 300 relative to the magma. The enrichment of vanadium is
Typically, in the Merensky Reef, Platreef and UG2 the propor-
tions of platinum and palladium are about 55 % and 32 %, 44 %
and 46 %, and 46 % and 30 %, respectively, with the other metals
comprising about 15 %.
All world resource estimates recognize the importance of the
Bushveld Complex in such global figures, and so information on
this body will be the focus of this report.

Formation of the Bushveld Complex and its layering

The Bushveld Complex formed by the repeated injection of
lava (or magma) into a sub-volcanic, shallow-level chamber.
Having an areal extent of over 65 000 km2 that much is pre-
served today and a thickness reaching 7 km, it is the largest
layered intrusion in the world. Because of the enormous volume
of magma involved, cooling and crystallization were extremely
slow processes. Different minerals precipitated as the tempera-
ture fell, in a sequence determined by phase relations, and
depending on the instantaneous composition of the magma.
These minerals accumulated into sub-horizontal layers building
up from the base of the chamber. Intermittent replenishment by
hotter magma (analogous to repeated volcanic eruptions) led to
a repetition of this crystallization sequence, which produced a
repetition of the mineral layering. The rocks produced, and the
repetition of the chromite- and magnetite-rich layers, are shown
in Fig. 2. Most of the minerals forming from magma are of mini-
mal economic significance, but this process of accumulation of
layers, often composed of single minerals, leads to the concen-
tration of certain minor minerals which are of economic impor-
tance. In the case of the Bushveld Complex, layers of chromite Fig. 2. Stratigraphic section through the Bushveld Complex, showing the
and vanadium-bearing magnetite illustrate this principle. The locations of the platiniferous layers, the UG2 Chromitite and Merensky
average concentration of the element chromium (Cr) in a reefs.
Platinum in South Africa South African Journal of Science 95, November/December 1999 483

Table 1. Platinum and palladium resources in the Bushveld Complex.8,9

Region Pt grade (g t1) Pd grade (g t1) Pt (106 oz) Pd (106 oz) Pt grade (g t1) Pd grade (g t1) Pt (106 oz) Pd (106 oz)
8 9
Von Gruenewaldt Vermaak

Platreef 1.3 1.4 123 135 1.8 2.0 59 66

Eastern Bushveld
Merensky Reef 3.2 1.4 134 57 2.4 1.4 146 83
UG2 Chromitite 2.4 2.0 153 127 1.8 1.6 153 137
Western Bushveld
(north of Pilanesberg)
Merensky Reef 3.2 1.4 44 19 3.2 1.5 35 15
UG2 Chromitite 2.4 2.0 51 42 2.1 1.0 33 16
Western Bushveld
(southeast of Pilanesberg)
Merensky Reef 3.2 1.4 77 33 2.5 1.2 164 82
UG2 Chromitite 2.4 2.0 115 95 2.1 1.0 183 84
Totals 698 508 773 484

The data of Vermaak9 were based on his estimated millhead grade. The in situ data of von Gruenewaldt8 have been reduced by 25 % to allow for mining losses, dilution,
and processing losses, to make it consistent with recommendations of SAMREC.11
(Note that Vermaak deducted an amount for ore already mined out, which yielded a final resource of 728.8 million ounces. Unfortunately, there is a misprint in his Table 2.7
and the number appears as 128.8.)

less spectacular, only about 30-fold, but the vanadium-bearing
magnetite layers near the top of the Bushveld Complex are prof-
itably mined for their vanadium. The enrichment factors for
platinum and palladium are greater than for chromium or vana-
dium. The magma may have contained only a few ppb (parts per
billion), whereas the ore-bearing reefs may contain up to a few
ppm, or a 1000-fold enrichment. Such concentration processes
are very rare in nature; because they depend upon accumulation
from large volumes of slowly cooling magma, and so almost all
of the worlds PGM (and chromium) resources are to be found in
layered intrusions.
Previous resource estimates
Because of the great impact on world platinum resources in the
Bushveld Complex, there have been several previous esti-
mates.810 It is of interest to examine the consistency of earlier
figures compared to data now available as an indication of the
reliability of long-term predictions and extrapolations.
The confidence attached to any mineral resource estimate in
any deposit is a function of the amount of information available
for that deposit, its continuity and complexity. Categories of
proven and probable reserves, and inferred resources may be applied,
depending upon the information base.11 A proven reserve is de-
fined as ore available for mining without further development;
probable reserve is ore available beyond existing development,
but which has been fully evaluated by drilling. An inferred
mineral resource is defined as one where there are reasonable
and realistic prospects for eventual economic extraction, but
where the data base on quantity, grade and continuity have not
been sufficiently rigorously evaluated to consider it a reserve. In
the case of the Bushveld Complex information can sometimes be
divided into these three categories. Annual reports by mining
companies now define their proven and probable reserves in
line with the requirements of SAMREC,11 but resources are not
always presented. Furthermore, these data do not cover the
entire length and down-dip occurrence of known ore-bearing
horizons, because there are insufficient data in some sections.
Earlier estimates were based on broad extrapolations, using
minimal data, because such information was not available or
was confidential. Such calculations must be considered to define
an inferred resource. However, given that the Merensky Reef
and UG2 Chromitite layers can be traced for many tens of kilo-
metres without any physical breaks, and for distances of 300 km
wherever the Bushveld Complex crops out (Fig. 1), confidence in
the economic potential of such inferred resources must be con-
sidered very favourably.
These PGM deposits are subdivided into well-established geo-
graphic regions of the Bushveld Complex, as shown in Fig. 1. In
the eastern and western limbs the stratigraphic sections are quite
similar (Fig. 2), and the outcrops of the Merensky and UG2
chromitite reefs lie approximately parallel to each other in
semi-circular arcs, with the Merensky Reef 40400 metres above
the UG2. In the northern limb, a very similar sequence is
observed in the rocks overlying the platiniferous reef, but the ore
body itself is very much thicker than in the east or west. Histori-
cal data for these regions are compiled in Table 1. These data are
generally obtained by considering a series of uniform rectangu-
lar blocks of a constant thickness, grade, dip and measured out-
crop length.
In these calculations von Gruenewaldt8 and Vermaak9 deter-
mined the resource to a depth of 1200 metres. This was consid-
ered a maximum mining depth in the platinum mining industry,
because rock temperatures reach over 40 C at such depths, and
refrigeration becomes necessary at greater depths, which in-
creases mining costs. Vermaak9 quoted both an in situ grade, and
a grade likely to be reported for the recovered ore entering the
processing plants, for which he incorporated a dilution factor of
about 25 % due to waste and the influence of underground
losses due to mining requirements, structural and other influ-
ences, and referred to a millhead grade. The lower figure is tabu-
lated here, because it is more comparable to mining company
data. For consistency, in Table 1 the calculations of von
Gruenewaldt8 have also been reduced by 25 %, because it is of
more importance to know the realistically extractable amount of
metal rather than the total content in the rocks underground.
Differences between the two estimates in Table 1 arise for
several reasons. When von Gruenewaldt8 made his compilation,
the exact thickness and grade of Merensky and UG2, especially
in the eastern Bushveld, were not known, and he used average
figures for the entire Bushveld Complex. Furthermore, the con-
tinuation of the Bushveld Complex below younger sedimentary
cover in the northern end of the eastern limb (Fig. 1) could have
484 South African Journal of Science 95, November/December 1999 Platinum in South Africa

Fig. 3. Vertical sections through the different platinum ore bodies showing the distribution of PGM (+Au) within the reefs. Data are taken from Viljoen
and Schurmann10 and White.17 Note the very sharp cut-off of mineralization in the Merensky and UG2 reefs, but the irregular distribution in the
Platreef, making estimation of reserves and resources difficult. A., Cr, F.P., H., N., P.P. and X. refer to anorthosite, chromitite, feldspathic pyroxenite,
hornfels (floor sedimentary rocks), norite, pegmatitic pyroxenite, and xenoliths (of hornfels).

been expected, but no exploration had been undertaken to con-
firm the existence of either reef at minable depth in that area, and
so was not included in his calculation. Subsequent exploration
and mining (at the now-dormant Messina mine) has defined a
platinum reserve under cover of younger sedimentary rocks.
Von Gruenewaldt8 estimated that there was a strike length of
only 30 km of reef south of the Steelpoort River (Fig. 1). The area
underlying the Steelpoort River valley is complicated by faulting
and lack of exposure. However, in 1980s drilling in the valley by
Barplats Mines Ltd12 indicated the existence of Merensky Reef
and UG2 at depth at the proposed Rhodium Reef mine (Fig. 1).
Because of these additional data, Vermaak9 used strike lengths of
107 and 47 km north and south of the Steelpoort River, some-
what greater than the 90 and 30 km used by von Gruenewaldt.8
More information is available for the western than the eastern
limb, because of the intensity of mining. Data from there may be
subdivided into a northern and southern sector, as a result of the
emplacement of the Pilanesberg intrusion (Fig. 1), which termi-
nates outcrop for some 25 km. Geological differences in the
Merensky Reef exist on either side of this break, with thicknesses
greater to the north. The geographic extent of the northern
sector is quite well defined by the Crocodile River Fault in the
northeast (Fig. 1) and the Pilanesberg in the southwest. Rocks
from the Bushveld Complex have been identified east of the
Crocodile River Fault, but thus far only the uppermost layers,
and no platinum mineralization, have been reported. There is a
further complication to these calculations, resulting from
the elimination of reef in two so-called gap areas. The exact
position of termination of ore is reliably known near surface, but
what may happen at great depth is not known.
The eastern terminations of the platiniferous reefs southeast of
the Pilanesberg are more uncertain. The Bushveld Complex
degenerates into a series of thinner sheets which interdigitate
with the host sedimentary rocks and the layering becomes more
diffuse near Pretoria. The Merensky Reef can be identified to the
east of the Eastern Platinum Mine, but it thickens, and grade and
Pt/Pd ratio decrease. However, it is well-known in the platinum
industry that the total platinum content in a single vertical
section (cm g1) may remain comparable regardless of thickness
of reef.13 Hence, if it ever becomes economic to mine a greater
width at lower grade, the same resource of platinum per unit
strike length may be obtained from this thick reef as elsewhere.
As a result of recognition of this continuity, Vermaak9 calculated
resources based on a greater strike length along this southern
sector of 108 km compared to 70 km used by von Gruenewaldt.8
East of Brits and the Crocodile River, the UG2 degenerates and
exploitation will not be possible much further east.
The UG2 underlies the Merensky Reef in the western limb by
40 140 metres from north to south, and so in all cases both
layers can be extracted concurrently with current mining tech-
niques. Vermaak9 showed that, like the Merensky Reef, the UG2
grade decreases from north to south, but is less marked in the
case of the UG2, and the decrease is partially compensated by an
increase in thickness. Such subtleties were unknown when von
Gruenewaldt8 made his estimates. As a result, the UG2 has
greater potential than the Merensky Reef in the sector east of
Eastern Platinum Mine. The dormant Crocodile River mine was
exploiting the UG2, and one of the reasons for its suspension of
mining was the frequency of faulting near Brits, leading to an
escalation of mining costs, rather than poor grade. The shorter
strike length for the UG2 south of the Pilanesberg used by von
Gruenewaldt8 than Vermaak9 resulted in considerably increased
inferred resource for the UG2 in the latter s estimate.
In the northern limb estimation of the resource is much harder.
Unlike the Merensky and UG2 reefs, the Platreef does not have
sharply defined boundaries in terms of PGM content (Fig. 3),
and is much more irregular laterally. The layer can be traced
along the lower contact of the Bushveld Complex north of
Potgietersrus, and a comparable layer exists to the south of the
town. Von Gruenewaldt8 estimated the strike length at 60 km,
whereas Vermaak9 used figures of 35 and 15 km for the northern
and southern sectors. Very little information was publicly avail-
able when von Gruenewaldt8 made his compilation and he used
a thickness of 25 m and a total PGM grade of 3 g t1. Vermaak9 had
access to considerably more drilling information and used
figures of 10 m width and a Pt (and total PGM) grade of 1.7 (and
4.1) g t1. Current mining exploits a thickness of 20 m at a total
PGM grade of 4.9 g t1, but this is obviously in the best area in
terms of thickness and grade, and these figures should not be
extrapolated to the entire Platreef.
There are no chromitite layers in the northern limb with signif-
icant PGM contents.
In summary, the differences between the two estimates in
Table 1 are probably small compared to the uncertainties which
are embedded in these calculations. Collectively, they suggest a
resource in the order of 800 and 500 million ounces of platinum
Platinum in South Africa South African Journal of Science 95, November/December 1999 485

Table 2. Reserves and resources of platinum and palladium in Merensky Reef and Platreef as reported by mining and exploration companies.

Mining Area Ore (106 tons) Pt (106 oz) Pd (106 oz) Ore (106 tons) Pt (106 oz) Pd (106 oz) Ore (106 tons) Pt (106 oz) Pd (106 oz)
Proven reserves Probable reserves Inferred resources

Platreef 33.5 2.3 2.6 157.1 7.6 8.7 2084 136 136
Eastern Bushveld
Lebowa/Atok 7.1 0.8 0.4 60.3 6.9 2.9
Platexco 31.7 3.2 1.5
Other 2951 286 165
Western Bushveld
(north of Pilanesberg)
Union/Amandelbult 28.0 3.7 1.7 76.8 9.6 4.8
Northam 3.2 0.5 0.3
Other 7.8 0.8 0.4
Western Bushveld
(southeast of Pilanesberg)
RPM 30.4 3.7 1.8 116.4 14.9 7.5
Impala 11.2 1.9 0.9 58.7 8.1 3.6
Lonmin 273 23.8 10.0
Other 1332 113 56
Total 113.4 12.9 7.7 774 74.1 39.0 6375 536 357

In some cases, only total PGM reserves have been reported by mining companies, and the split into Pt and Pd has been estimated based on published ratios of the
different PGMs from the nearest available area. (RPM, Rustenburg Platinum Mines, including Bafokeng-Rasimone, excluding Union and Amandelbult; Lonmin, Karee,
Eastern and Western Platinum Mines).
Resources have been calculated by subtracting the mining lease areas of the different mines from the total potential area where the reefs continue to a depth of 2000
metres, and calculating the remaining tonnage based on information for grade and thickness using grade and thickness of adjacent mines.

Table 3. Reserves and resources of platinum and palladium in UG2 Chromitite as reported by mining and exploration companies.

Mining Area Ore (106 tons) Pt (106 oz) Pd (106 oz) Ore (106 tons) Pt (106 oz) Pd (106 oz) Ore (106 tons) Pt (106 oz) Pd (106 oz)
Proven reserves Probable reserves Inferred resources

Eastern Bushveld
Lebowa 217 17.8 15.2
Platexco 29.8 2.3 2.2
Rhodium Reefs 136.5 17.9 15.3
Other 3488 306 301
Western Bushveld
(north of Pilanesberg)
Union/Amandelbult 27.1 2.2 1.0 238.5 19.5 9.7
Northam* 0.2
Other 7.5 0.5 0.2
Western Bushveld
(southeast of Pilanesberg)
RPM/Bafokeng 10.0 1.0 0.4 56.1 5.5 2.3
Impala 11.6 1.9 1.0 70.3 9.5 4.8
Lonmin 415 37.4 17.0
Crocodile River 13.5 1.3 0.5
Other (total) 1529 96 53
Total 48.9 5.1 2.4 1176.7 111.2 67.0 5025 402 354

See footnote to Table 2 for details.

*At Northam considerable UG2 ore exists, but has not been proven by drilling, and modification to mill design would be required before it could be beneficiated.

and palladium, respectively, to a depth of 1200 m. The increase in
the data base over the 25-year period which elapsed between
these two calculations has made a relatively insignificant differ-
ence to resource estimates.
Proven and probable reserves
It is difficult to make a precise comparison between these
estimates in Table 1 with the information quoted by the major
mining companies in their annual reports, from which the data
in Tables 2 and 3 have been compiled. The main limitation is that
von Gruenewaldt8 and Vermaak9 did not subdivide their data
into the categories of proven and probable reserves and
resources. (Insufficient information was available in the public
domain for von Gruenewaldt8 to do so.) The mining company
data are sometimes so defined. In other cases, the distinction is
not made. In the latter situation reserves have been conserva-
tively indicated as the lowest level of confidence using the above
criteria. In some cases, as a result of this conservative reporting,
there may be only probable ore reserves on active mines; some
must obviously be considered proven. The depth to which these
calculations have been made is not always indicated. In some
cases, it is as deep as 2000 metres, in others it is less, or only to the
486 South African Journal of Science 95, November/December 1999 Platinum in South Africa

Table 4. Comparison of calculated estimates and mining company statements.

Region Pt (106 oz) Pd (106 oz) Pt (106 oz) Pd (106 oz) Pt (106 oz) Pd (106 oz)
Vermaak9 Mining companies Inferred resource
proven and probable reserves

Platreef 59 66 9.9 11.3 136 136

Eastern Bushveld
Merensky Reef 146 83 10.9 4.8 286 165
Eastern Bushveld
UG2 Chromitite 153 137 38.0 32.7 306 301
Western Bushveld
Merensky Reef 199 97 66.2 30.6 114 56
Western Bushveld
UG2 Chromitite 216 100 78.3 36.7 97 53
Totals 773 484 203.3 116.1 939 711

Data from Tables 13.

limit of the property owned by the company. In instances where Table 5. Comparison between Pt + Pd (106 oz) reserves for certain
mining and exploration areas reported by Viljoen and Schurmann,9 and
depth is known to be less than 200 metres, information has been
this report.
calculated to a depth of 2000 m, but included as inferred re-
sources. Viljoen and Schurmann10 ** This report
The total (proven and probable) reserves reported for these
Mine/Company Merensky UG2 Merensky UG2
mining companies amount to 204 and 116 million ounces of
platinum and palladium, respectively (Tables 2, 3). Data are Lebowa 19.6 39.9 11.0 33.0
taken from annual reports and press releases by mining compa- Amplats* 57.9 120.2 48.5 41.6
nies.4,14,15 The areas for which specific reserve data are available Platexco 4.7 4.5
are shown in Fig .1, from which it can be seen that there are long Rhodium Reef 33.2
stretches of reef that are not included in such calculations Northam 0.8
because they have not been sufficiently evaluated. An attempt Impala 55.9 48.0 14.5 17.2
has been made to estimate ore in these sections, using the same Lonmin 16.9 37.9 33.8 54.4
principle as used by von Gruenewaldt8 and Vermaak.9 All such Crocodile R 0 84.4 0 1.8
data, regardless of which mining company holds the mineral Platreef 42.8 0 21.2 0
Total 193.0 330.4 134.5 185.7
rights, have been combined into a single inferred resource
estimate for each limb of the Bushveld. Inferred resources are *Amplats refers to Rustenburg, Bafokeng, Union and Amandelbult mines.
approximately five times that of proven and probable reserves. **The data published by Viljoen and Schurmann10 were quoted as total PGMs.
A comparison is made in Table 4 between the data of Vermaak9 These figures have been decreased to 85 %, because that is the typical percentage
of Pt and Pd in total PGMs.
and those determined in Tables 2 and 3. The figures quoted by
Vermaak9 are quite conservative in total compared to the current
figures, and especially for the Platreef and eastern Bushveld, but cheaply, because rock temperatures would reach over 40 C, re-
the reverse is true for the western Bushveld. However, the quiring the introduction of expensive cooling by refrigeration
current figures are determined to a depth of 2000 metres, com- processes. The developments on Northam platinum mine16
pared to 1200 metres used by Vermaak.9 If the data of Vermaak demonstrate that mining can be undertaken at greater depth
were to be extrapolated to 2000 metres, they would exceed the using hydropower at <5 C for both refrigeration and running
figures given here. The reason for the preferred greater depth equipment. Backfilling of mined-out areas with waste and
used here is discussed below. crushed rock is also used there to limit the volume of under-
In Table 5 these figures are compared with those reported by ground workings which need to be ventilated and cooled. The
Viljoen and Schurmann,10 also apparently taken from company deepest level of current mining (in 1999) is at 1987 metres, where
annual reports. Their data were presented in a different format rock temperatures are 63 C and plans to mine to 2365 m are
from those here, and it is only possible to compare total PGM being implemented. These developments indicate the financial
content, not individual metals, for most of the mines. Platinum and technical viability of mining well below 1200 m. In this
and palladium typically comprise about 85 % of the total PGM in northern part of the western limb an added incentive to deeper
the ore. Their figures, especially for the UG2, appear to be mining is that the grade increases slightly down-dip, possibly as
inflated compared to those quoted here. The reason for their a result of the merging of the Merensky Reef with underlying
higher figures is not known. This comparison indicates the diffi- very low-grade layers.16 However, this change is associated with
culty of obtaining a precise figure for the metals, which results erosion of the footwall by the Merensky Reef, producing a
from different classifications of reserves and resources, and the less-regular basal contact to, and thickness of, the ore body. Such
enormity of the projections of the ore bodies. mining demonstrates that ultimately mining may well continue
to greater depths, especially once shallow ore has been largely
Limits to mining extracted. In the gold mining industry of South Africa, there is a
Table 1 includes resources to a depth of 1200 metres. At the time major research programme being pursued by the Chamber of
of those compilations, it was considered unlikely that mining ac- Mines Research Organization to develop mining techniques
tivity would extend beyond that depth, at least while there were which will permit mining at depths greater than 4 km, and so
still abundant reserves of shallow-level ore available more there is no reason to assume that the experience gained in the
Platinum in South Africa South African Journal of Science 95, November/December 1999
gold mining industry will not ultimately be applied to the plati-
num mines. Extrapolation of the above data to greater depth
than 2 km is therefore not unrealistic, and would obviously
greatly increase the inferred resource in the tables.
Down-dip continuity
The continuity of layers down-dip cannot be proven except by
drilling. The deepest boreholes on the Platreef extend to 1500
metres,17 and for other mines depths of 3300 metres have been
drilled.10 With the exception of the variation noted above in the
Northam section, there is no evidence that the Merensky or UG2
change in grade or thickness down-dip. Indeed, given that the
layers can be traced on surface with minimal variation for many
tens of kilometres, it is unlikely that sudden changes will occur
when traced down-dip for less than 10 km from the surface out-
crop.
Indirect support for the continuity at depth comes from
geophysical data, but such interpretations do not yield unique
solutions, nor can they prove the existence of specific layers such
as the Merensky Reef, nor the grade. Gravity data identify
sequences of rocks with anomalous densities, and so the
Bushveld Complex, which has higher density than most of the
surrounding rocks, can be qualitatively traced through positive
gravity (Bouguer) anomalies. Numerous studies have shown
that the Bushveld Complex is continuous at depth. In fact, the
gravity data have been shown to be consistent with continuity
between the eastern and western limbs.18
Vibroseis techniques offer a more quantitative technique for
tracing layers, or more probably packages of layers of distinctive
rock types, to depth. One example of the use of this technique in
the Bushveld Complex was described by Campbell,19 who
showed that the depth to the top of the Bushveld Complex in the
western limb, hidden under cover of granitic rocks, may be less
than predicted from extrapolation of a uniform dip as observed
at surface. He showed that the layered rocks form a gentle dome
mid-way between Rustenburg and Thabazimbi. The vibroseis
section also was interpreted to show the existence of the
Merensky Reef package. It is inferred to be present at a depth of
about 6 km, which rules out its viability as a plausible future
source of platinum, but illustrates that the Merensky Reef may
be considered to have extreme lateral and down-dip continuity,
far beyond the limits of current drilling.
Response to platinum demand
Seventy-five years ago, Merensky5 foresaw that overproduc-
tion of the abundant platinum resources at shallow level in the
Bushveld Complex could lead to a decrease in price. Conversely,
increases in price or demand would encourage expansion of
production. Mines in the Bushveld Complex have a double
advantage over mines elsewhere in the world (as discussed be-
low). All except the mines at Stillwater Complex in United States
and Great Dyke in Zimbabwe produce the PGMs as a by-product
of nickel and copper mining, and the income from the PGMs is
relatively small, although important. Hence, adjusting such
mining operations to increased platinum demand is much more
difficult than on Bushveld mines. Furthermore, these copper
nickel mines produce more palladium than platinum, as does
the Stillwater mine. The Great Dyke and Bushveld ores are
unique in having more platinum than palladium. In the case of
the Merensky Reef the ratio is greater than 2, whereas for Great
Dyke, UG2, Platreef and Stillwater the ratio decreases from 1.7 to
1.5 to 1.0 to 0.3. Consequently, mines on the Merensky Reef
focus on platinum production and can respond specifically to
increased demand in the market.
487
Future potential
Future expansion, or the ability to maintain production, will
depend entirely upon demand and the price of platinum and
palladium. The inferred resources of the Bushveld Complex are
substantial even to a depth of only 1200 metres. However,
several scenarios can be envisaged well into the future if
demand necessitates.
The most immediately obvious potential for the future lies in
adapting the knowledge from deep gold mining on the
gold-bearing Witwatersrand mines to the Merensky and UG2
ores. Being regular, gently dipping, tabular bodies, with minimal
faulting, they offer the minimum of complications, except high
temperatures, for future mining.
The eastern Bushveld hosts only one relatively small mine,
Atok/Lebowa Platinum. Current interest is focused on the
Platexco venture on the farm Winnaarshoek, which may have
one of the highest grades in the eastern limb (Fig. 1). The ratio of
Pt/Pd in the ore is slightly lower in the east than the west,9 but the
biggest obstacle to the potential for development of Merensky
Reef along a comparable strike length in the eastern limb is
currently the poorer infrastructure in terms of rail, a local
support industry, and especially water, compared to the west.
One hopes that mining and local infrastructure can develop in
tandem in this area for the financial upliftment of the local
community.
Mining the Platreef at Potgietersrus offers various opportuni-
ties. Unlike the Merensky and UG2, the Platreef mineralization
does not have sharply defined boundaries (Fig. 3). The mining of
1 metre of ore on the former bodies leaves minimal lower grade
ore behind. By contrast, the more diffuse boundaries to the ore at
Potgietersrus make the mine planning and ore evaluation more
complicated. At present, the mine operates a cut-off grade of 1.1
(or 2.5) g t1 of Pt (or total PGMs). An increase in production would
lower operating costs per unit mined, and so permit lower grade
ore and increased width to be mined. Currently, lower grade ore,
extracted from the open pit, is stockpiled. Increases in the price
of PGMs may permit lower grade ore to be mined, thereby
increasing the in situ resource and/or allowing the processing of
stockpiled material. These comments apply to the entire strike
length of the Platreef, where the definition of ore-grade material
depends on financial considerations, not geological boundaries.
Current mining is from an open pit. The dip of the ore body is
about 40, and the ratio of overlying waste rock, which has to
be removed, to ore becomes greater with increasing depth.
Ultimately, once shallow ore has been exhausted, it will be neces-
sary to develop underground mining methods. However, given
the steep dip, mining of such a thick reef to depth should be per-
fectly feasible.
Even longer-term considerations for the supply of platinum
and palladium enter the realms of speculation. The grades of
PGMs within the many other layers of chromitite below the UG2
have not been widely reported. However, the few data available
suggest that some layers may ultimately be considered of
economic potential. Reported grades are given in Fig. 4. The
Middle Group Chromitites have total PGM grades up to 3 g t1.
The few analyses published indicate considerable variation,
more so than in the Merensky and UG2, but far more data have
to be assembled before that suggestion can be substantiated.
Furthermore, their thicknesses are not as constant as the UG2.
For example, in the eastern limb, northwest of the Steelpoort
River valley, they are too thin to be considered economic what-
ever their grades. However, in the west, and southeast of the
Steelpoort valley they attain thicknesses of approximately one
metre. They are currently not considered economic in terms of
488 South African Journal of Science 95, November/December 1999 Platinum in South Africa

chromitite layers lies well into the future. In this event, grade
may not be the only consideration in PGM mining. The ability to
recover the PGMs will be influenced by the extremely small-scale
textural relationship between the platinum-bearing minerals
and the host chromite grains. The envelopment of tiny PGM
grains within refractory chromite grains could cause severe lib-
eration problems.20 In terms of the SAMREC11 definitions, it
would be justifiable to refer to these layers as containing an
inferred resource of PGMs, since grades and thicknesses and
areal extent are known. However, it would be misleading to
combine these data with those for the Merensky, UG2 and
Platreef, as their exploitation possibly awaits the depletion of all
shallow-level ore on those other horizons. Exploitation of the
lower chromitite layers probably lies at least 50 years from now,
and so falls outside the definition of an inferred resource.

Deposits elsewhere in the world

Fig. 4. Stratigraphic section, not drawn to scale, of the chromitite layers
of the Bushveld Complex, and their PGM contents, based on data from
Lee and Parry,21 Scoon and Teigler,22 von Gruenewaldt and Merkle,23
and von Gruenewaldt et al.24
their chromium potential because their Cr/Fe ratio is too low for
economic smelting. However, if higher grade chromite at
shallow depth becomes depleted, or if metallurgical technolo-
gies evolve, the MG chromitites may become a future source of
chromium. In this event, the possibility of concurrent extraction
of the PGM could be considered.
The extraction of PGMs from the UG2 chromitite has resulted
in the production of large stockpiles of relatively low-grade
chromite waste and research is currently aimed at its benefici-
ation. It is possible that the converse trend may ultimately apply
to the MG chromitite layers, with attempts to beneficiate the
PGMs as a bonus in the refining of chrome ore. However, like the
platinum resource, that of chrome ore in the Bushveld Complex
is equally enormous, and the timing of mining of alternative
Although the Bushveld Complex dominates world platinum
production and resources, there are other deposits which pro-
duce platinum and palladium, or may do so in the future,
depending upon economic forces. The information about these
resources in Table 6 is taken largely from the compilation of
Vermaak.9
In some deposits and occurrences platinum and palladium are
associated with nickel and copper sulphides, and represent a
by-product. As such, their production depends upon the
demand for the base metal, although their contribution to total
revenue may be significant. However, PGM production cannot
be geared to the PGM market alone.
The Great Dyke in Zimbabwe is another layered intrusion like
the Bushveld Complex, although with a different overall geome-
try. It has a strike length of 550 km, with mineralization occurring
in four elliptical bodies with a total strike length of 350 km. PGM
grades, at about 3 g t1, are lower than in the Bushveld Complex,
but the ratio of Pt/Pd at 1.5 is relatively high compared to most
ores.
Data from Russia are difficult to obtain, but the Norilsk-
Talnakh deposit has proved to be a major palladium source in
the past, and one assumes considerable resources remain to be
mined. The compilation of Vermaak9 indicates that much of the
remaining ore may be of the disseminated, lower grade type. In
view of the large proportion of the worlds palladium sourced
from the Norilsk region, ore grades and economic factors will be
critical for continued supply of this metal.

Table 6. Platinum and palladium resources in other countries, compared to South Africa.

Geological formation Country Ore (106 tons) Pt (106 oz) Pd (106 oz)

Great Dyke Zimbabwe 2574 143 87

Penikat Finland 0 ?93 ?248
Norilsk/Talnakh Russia 1645 89 314
Stillwater USA 320 36 130
Sudbury Canada 427 9 11
Duluth U.S.A. 0 ?9 ?32
Jinchuan China 500 6 3
Voiseys Bay Canada 125 ?2 ?2
Total 387 825
Bushveld Complex
Reserves proven and probable 203 116
Resources 937 710
World total 1527 1651
Percentage of worlds Pt and Pd in Bushveld Complex 75 50

Note that the resources for Finland, Duluth and Voiseys Bay are preceded by a question mark, because no mining has yet been undertaken on these deposits. The other
occurrences are currently being mined, and so represent a more plausible immediate resource.
Platinum in South Africa South African Journal of Science 95, November/December 1999
The Stillwater Complex is the closest analogue to the Bushveld
Complex. It is more geologically disturbed, however, and only a
small remnant (42 km long) of what was probably a very much
larger layered intrusion now survives. Its PGM resource is
correspondingly much less than the Bushveld. Although total
PGM grades are higher than in the latter, they are dominated by
palladium, with a Pt/Pd ratio of 0.3.
There are also chromitite layers in both Stillwater and Great
Dyke, but none has grades of PGMs which indicate that they
could ever be mined.
In Finland there are a number of layered intrusions that
contain base metal and PGM mineralization. Some contain
high-grade areas, but suffer from two problems. The mineraliza-
tion occurs in very thin layers, and grades have sometimes been
quoted for the ore zone, which may be less than a minimum min-
ing width. Also, these bodies have been deformed, folded and
disrupted, and so tracing the mineralization is difficult.
Vermaak9 has assumed continuity to a depth of 1200 m for his
calculations, but structural complexity make that assumption
uncertain.
The Duluth Intrusion in the United States is being extensively
explored, and widespread disseminated mineralization of
nickelcopper sulphides has been reported. These rocks contain
only 0.10.2 g t1 of PGMs and no economic base metal deposit
has yet been located.
There has recently been considerable interest in the nickel
discovery at Voiseys Bay in Labrador. Relatively recent esti-
mates put the resource at 125 million tonnes with over 1.5 % Ni.
Estimates of platinum content are in the order of 2 million
ounces. Further discoveries in the area are possible, but these
figures put the size of discovery into a perspective relative to
other deposits.
In Table 6 it is suggested that world resources, excluding the
Bushveld, could be 387 million ounces of platinum. However, it
should be pointed out that mining of the deposit with the largest
potential, the Great Dyke, has only recently been initiated, (and
one mine is currently not operational), and further mining and
exploration are needed to substantiate those data. For the second
largest resource, in Finland, no mining has yet begun, so these
resources have yet to be brought to any account.
Summary
Mining company annual reports from mines operating on the
Platreef, Merensky Reef and UG2 Chromitite in the Bushveld
Complex declare proven and probable ore reserves totalling
about 204 and 116 million ounces of platinum and palladium to
depths of 2 km. These calculations exclude enormous sections
where these ore bodies are known to occur, but where drilling
density is insufficient to justify defining the resource with any
greater certainty. These ore bodies are notably continuous along
strike and so potential ore can be considered to exist in these
intervals. They could provide an additional 939 and 711 million
ounces of platinum and palladium, respectively.
Recent developments at Northam Platinum have shown that
mining to 2 km depth at rock temperatures of 65 C is already
economically viable. There is no evidence that the platinum
grade will not continue to even greater depths, and so extrapola-
tion of the data in this report to greater depths is justifiable.
The tabulations indicate that the total proven and probable
reserves of platinum in the Bushveld Complex is in the order of
204 million ounces. Given an annual consumption at present of
489
5 million ounces, that is sufficient for 40 years, excluding ore
from anywhere else in the world. Total reserves and resources of
platinum amount to 1140 million ounces in the Bushveld and a
further 387 million ounces worldwide. Given a demand increas-
ing at 6 % per year, those existing resources would supply all
needs for over 50 years. Somewhat shorter time-scales of suffi-
ciency exist for palladium. In the longer term, the inferred
resources of the Eastern Bushveld would almost certainly
become exploitable; deeper mining could be considered in the
Western Bushveld using technology being developed on the
gold mines; lower grade ore could be mined in the Potgietersrus
area; and ultimately the Middle Group Chromitites could be
exploited for their platinum and chromium. Such developments
would enormously extend these resource calculations, but their
exploitation will be controlled by price and demand of the
precious metals.
I thank the geologists at Anglo American Platinum, Impala, Lonplats and
Northam for correcting and confirming various aspects of the data in this article.
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