Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Culture
Culture
Definition of culture:
According to Brooks (op.cit:21 -22) culture is all about human beings and different
from other close subjects like:
Culture is not geography: in the sense that it is no more than a concrete stage, where
the human culture is played.
Culture is not history: it is known that everything has a history, but culture is much
older than history, since started recording events with invention of writing.
Culture is not folklore: the latter means the informal oral transmission of customs and
legends, which has been studied systematically. It can only provide one piece from the
puzzle of culture.
Culture is different from sociology: '' Sociology informs us with precision that in a given
community there are three and a half children per family, but culture still waits for an
interview with one of those half children '' (Brooks,op.cit:20). Damen (1987:82) believes
that a society has a culture and a social organization. Therefore, social refers to the
interactions of groups of people, with the group serving as a major focus of analysis,
while culture refers to a set of behavioural, cognitive and emotional patterns. However,
both terms are inseparable and complementary under the title of sociocultural.
Culture is not to be confined within literature: '' literature can supply us with but a part
though clearly a most valuable part of what needs to be taught under the heading of
culture.'' (Brooks, op.cit: 21)
Culture is also not to be confused with civilization: for Brook civilization means what has
been achieved in respect of technology, science, politicsetc. within a group of people.
He consider it as an inclusive term, however; culture covers all aspects, in addition to
achievements, of that group.
2. What Culture Is/ a Historical Account:
Culture is not an easy concept to define, for it reflects what one thinks of oneself and
how one is seen by others. The term culture may be regarded by an anthropologist as a
major unifying force, by a communication professional as a major variable, or by a
psychologist as an individual mental set.'' (Damen, op.cit: 20). The concept of culture
originates in agriculture where it denotes the tillage or the cultivation of the soil and
plants. Accordingly, a 'cultured' or 'cultivated' person has a good educated and refined
mind; the ''cultivation of minds'' is ''the deliberate husbandry of natural capacities to
produce perfect rulers'' (OSullivan et al., op.cit: 69).
Anthropologists were the first to try to define culture in the 19th century, given that
this concept is the core of their discipline. Three hundred definitions were analysed by
Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1954; cited in Seelye, ibid.), on the basis of which culture was
regarded in a very broad perspective being linked to all aspects of human life, and was
viewed as what people share in the same social environment, and what sets them apart
from people from another social environment.
In short, the anthropologists of the time emphasized the diversity of human cultural
patterns, but restricted culture to what is observable and shared, without attempting to
understand their underlying rules and the circumstances of their occurrence. This is
known as the behaviourist approach to culture.
Culture is also commonly defined in a functionalist perspective. Unlike the
behaviourists, the functionalists were interested in understanding the underlying
reasons and rules which explain and govern observed behaviours and events. People
belonging to the same culture are believed to share common rules of behaving. Knowing
these rules would lead to develop an ability to predict others' actions resulting in a
better understanding of and a successful participation in the culture in question.
Both assumed that identifying cultural behaviours and their functions could objectively
and accurately be done, though, practically speaking, this proved not to be the case.
Robinson (1985) explains that designating cultural behaviours is not an easy task for
both native and none native observer, let alone their interpretation. For instance, a
cultural anthropologist may observe a smile and infer the reason for smiling is
happiness. Another may infer that the interpretation of the smile, in the same context,
is embarrassment.
The cognitive approach to culture (known also as the ideational approach) views it as a
system of ideas and mental constructs rather than material observable things. For
Robinson (op.cit:10), "culture is like a computer program. The program differs from
culture to culture. The program refers to cognitive maps". Similarly, Hofstede(1991 ; in
De Jong, 1 996: 26) refers to culture as the "software of the mind ", and De Jong as "the
set of mental rules that govern our everyday behaviour".
In general, culture has two orientations:
1. Culture with capital C mean formal culture or achievement culture consisting of
literature, fine arts, music, architecture, etc.
2. culture with small c means way of life culture or behaviour culture containing
patterns of daily living, attitudes and values.
3. Cultural Elements
3.1 Beliefs: A belief is a conviction in the truth of something that one learned by living in
a culture. It is the basis of ones actions and values. Samovar, Porter and Jain (1981; in
Damen, op.cit) identify three types of beliefs: experiential, informational and
inferential. The experiential type is based upon a persons experiences, the
informational type has to do with information acquired interpersonally and the
inferential one transcends direct observation and information. Inferential beliefs are
based on logic and thinking. It goes without saying that patterns of thinking are culture
specific
3.2 Values: Values are a set of beliefs made up of rules for making choices. They tell one
what is right and wrong, good and bad; they tell one how to live ones life. Cushner and
Brislin (op.cit: 31 8-31 9) believe that values significantly shape and pervade ones life:
''People make judgments and draw conclusions about what is and what is not of value.
These judgments give rise to certain presuppositions from which people act with little or
no conscious awareness. These presuppositions learned during childhood, play a
pervasive role in all areas of peoples adult experiences.''
3.3 Assumptions: An assumption is a belief that is not proved. Assumptions are
indispensable to everyday living. Without them, people would constantly need to ask
about the meaning of things. Differences in assumptions can go unrecognized or
dismissed. For example, a teacher may assume that if learners do not ask questions,
they understand the material. Learners may assume that if they ask questions, the
teacher will think they are not intelligent.
3.4 behaviours: Behaviours are the way people act, based on their learned beliefs and
values. The set of behaviours one is expected to engage in as a consequence of ones
social position (mother, father, teacher, president...) is known as ones role in the
society.
3.5 Rituals and Superstitions: For De Jong (op.cit: 29), ''Rituals are to do with areas of
behaviour like ways of greeting and saying farewell, and showing respect towards
others, i.e. customary' cultural behaviour, both at the level of the individual and at the
social level'' superstition is an excessively credulous belief in and reverence for the
supernatural; a widely held but irrational belief in supernatural influences, especially as
bringing good or bad luck.
3.6 Symbols and Myths: according to Hofstede (1991; in De Jong, op.cit:29) symbols
are ''words, gestures, pictures or objects that carry a particular meaning which is only
recognized by those who share the culture.''. However, Jandt (op.cit:8) associates a
cultures myths to its symbols, values, and rituals; for him, ''Myths provide the cultural
image of perfection and provide a guide for living (...). [They] are expressed in the
dominant symbols and rituals of a culture in story form''.
3.7 Taboos: Members of a culture are psychologically and physically shaped to observe
taboorelated rules. The word 'taboo' is borrowed from Tongan, a Polynesian language
(Chu, 2000). It refers to 'forbidden', 'unmentionable' and 'to be avoided' behaviour, both
verbal and non-verbal.
3.8 Stereotypes and Prejudices: A stereotype is a belief or an opinion held by one group
that the majority of a different group can be classified by the actions, appearance or
attitudes of a few members of that group. A stereotype is a one form of prejudice.
Prejudice towards a culture is essentially caused by ignorance of or preconceived ideas
about this culture.
4. The place of culture in FL classroom:
Is culture that crucial in language teaching / learning?
Notwithstanding the inseparability of language and culture, the FC is not always
'welcome' in the FL class. Some teaching professionals put forward heated arguments
against incorporating it in language courses and textbooks. Others believe it to be a
'taken-for granted' component in FL teaching, for several other arguments.
4.1 Against Culture Teaching:
Altan (1995) thinks that the target language situations and their ingrained values,
beliefs, and norms are irrelevant to the learners native environment and
background.
Teaching the literary and cultural aspects of a FL does not meet the needs and
aspirations of FLs who basically need it for science, technology, business and
international communication.
Foreign culture based textbooks are, for Altan, culturally based in the sense that
they implicitly or explicitly belittle the learners native one. The fact that makes
learning the former a threat to the latter by reshaping students patterns of
thinking.
English is the best example of a language serving as a means of ideological,
economic, technical and military imperialisman evil influence leading to
Westernization.
English enjoys the status of an international language used for specific purposes,
in various cultural environments. It is no longer viewed as a vehicle of the
Englishspeaking peoples culture and way of life. Put otherwise, it no longer
belongs uniquely to them, but to anybody who knows it.
Some educators refer to teaching English as a purely functional or
instrumental tool: nothing more than a linguistic means to certain ends, such
as fuller employment and a stronger economy, as in tourism, international
banking.
The adoption of the learners NC as cultural content in FL classrooms does not
only enhance their self-confidence and motivation to learn, but it also supports
the findings of the schemata theory research, that familiar content positively
affects the learners comprehension and assimilation of the TL, and vice versa.
Altan (op.cit) notes that a foreign cultural input would engender further
difficulties for FL learners to cope with, in addition to the already existing
linguistic complexities.
4.2 For Culture Teaching:
Proponents of the cultural component in FL teaching usually advance one of two central
arguments:
The first argument has to do with the very nature of language: linguistic forms acquire
unique colouring and bias, depending upon the beliefs, values and practices of the
speakers. This intrinsic interweaving of language and culture makes it impossible to
separate them in teaching / learning.
The second argument is geared to instrumentality, in that cultural understanding is
advocated as a prerequisite to communicate effectively with the TL speakers, and to
function appropriately in the cultural context in question.
Another argument has to do with psycho-pedagogy. It is believed that cultural pursuit
stimulates language learning, in that it awakens interest and curiosity even in less
motivated learners, broadens their intellectual horizons, develops their imaginative
powers and critical thinking, and sustains their motivation to work at a productive rate.
4.2.1 Interdependence of Culture and Language:
Byram (1989), as well as other scholars, view that cultural awareness contributes to
language awareness and proficiency; one cannot learn a language and disregards its
culture. Because language invariably reflects learners knowledge and perception of the
world and their cultural concepts and values.
Seelye (op.cit: 6) makes it clear that unless the student is learning the language in the
target culture, the cultural referents necessary to understanding a native speaker must
be learned in addition.
Tang (1999) points out that speaking a language implies thinking in that language,
hence taking on the identity of its speakers. For her the question of the inclusion (or not) of
culture in a FL curriculum, should be replaced by considering deliberate immersion versus
non-deliberate exposure to it.
Mere fluency in the production of FL utterances without any awareness of their socio-
cultural implications, or reading texts without a realization of the underlying values and
assumptions is not language learning.
4.2.2 Interdependence of Culture and Communication:
Lack of cultural knowledge results in inappropriate language use, misunderstanding, and
breakdowns in communication. One needs to adopt a culturally appropriate style to
meet the expectations of foreign interlocutors; for instance, to speak up or in a low
tone, to make or not eye contact, to be more or less confident, to state ones opinions,
to act dependently or independently from others.
4.2.3 Culture and Learning Motivation:
The benefits of teaching about the TL culture are two-fold: to enable learners to have a
better understanding of others and of themselves, but also do motivate them to learn
more of the TL. Mavi (1996:54) ''teenaged pupils become more motivated when they
learn about the life style of the foreign country whose language they are studying''.
Culture may serve as well to arouse the learners instant motivation, giving light relief, or
pervading lessons, where language learning is sometimes felt to be boring or limited: When
pace lags, when the eyes drop, when the heat comes, the smart teacher will have the cultural
unit (Steiner,ibid.).
Kitao (op.cit: 7) thinks that culture instruction makes of language learning a meaningful
and a purposeful enterprise, facilitating comprehension and assimilation.
Culture contextualizes language learning and language use, brings authenticity to the language
class and reduces its artificiality.