QUANTUM FIELD THEORY F. Mandl and G. Shaw A Wiley-tnterscience Publication John Wiley & Sons CHICHESTER. NEW YORK BRISBANE TORONTO: SINGAPORE[Constight © 1984 by John Wey an Son Lid Reprinted Ape 1958 All igh reserve No part ofthis ook may be reproduced by any men, or rented, or waited nt achine nguage ‘Stout the wren permistion ofthe pubber trary of Cones Catling I Pbliton Dates Mandl, F (Fase 1923 ‘Quanta bel bor. 7 Wiley-Inenenctpubeton, Indtade ingen Quantum Sl thor Shaw, Gata 1902. Tie, OCITRISNET ia oT ges ISBN 647110509 (cx) ISBN 047150806 (pape) ris Libary Cataloging a Pabcton Dates Mandl F ‘Quantum Bel hor. TP Guantam fel hry E Tie Isham, sare "gees 1SBN 0.471 105090 (cot) ISBN 0 471 501506 pape) Primed aod bod in Gret tin Contents Pretace 1 PHOTONS AND THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. YI Particles and fields 12. The electromagnetic fl in the absence of charges 21 The sasial fel 122. Harmonic osilator 123. The quantized radiation fd 13. The elec dipole interaction 1 The electromagnetic Hed inthe presence of charges LA Classical electrodynamics 142 Quantum electrodynamics 143 Radiative transitions in atoms 44 Thomson satering 1S Appendie: The Schrodinger, Heienberp and interation etures Problems YX LAGRANGIAN FIELD THEORY 21. Relativistic notation 22. Clana Lagrangian Geld theory 23 Quantzed Lagrangian eld theory 24 1s 6 9 2 2% 2 23 THE KLEIN-GORDON FIELD DAL The real Klein- Gordon felt 32. The compler Klein. Gordon feld 33. ovarian commutation tlations AA The meson propagator Problems 4 THE DIRAC FIELD 4.1 The number representation fr fermions 42 The Direc equation 43 Second quantization 444 The fermion propagator 45 The electromagnatic interaction and gauge invatance Probleme 5 PHOTONS: COVARIANT THEORY The ssc elds 52 Covariant quantization 53. The photon propagator Problems <6 THE SMATRIX EXPANSION 6.1 Natural dimensions and unis 62 The Smatrix expansion R63 Wick’ thoorem 7 FEYNMAN DIAGRAMS AND RULES IN QED {ATL Feynman diagrams in configuration space 372_ Feynman diagrams in momentum space < 731 The fistonder tems $™ 722. Compton scattering 123 Eetron electron satring 2124 Chved loons 273 "Feynman rules for QED 274 Leptons Problems 8 QED PROCESSES IN LOWEST ORDER BA The crossecton 82 Spin sums “ “ a so s 6 6 6 cn esses 9s o% 02 17 108 9 rt i as ra ir br Bs a be 1 as as 86 a7 88 rr) Photon poatzation sums Lepton pair preduction in (ee) eolisions Bhabha seateing. ‘Compton seatering Seatering by an external td Bremsstshlong 9. RADIATIVE CORRECTIONS on 92 93 38 95 36 “The second-order radiative cosections of QED. ‘The photon saoneray “The let slenerey Enter line renormalization ‘The vertex modifcaion Applications StI The anomalous enagnetic moments 962 The Lamb shit “The infrared divergence Higher-order radiative corrections: renormalizabil Problems 10 REGULARIZATION int 02 103, 104 105 Mathematical peliminaris IOL.C Some standard integrals 10.2. Feynman parameterization ‘Cutof segularization: the eetron mass shit Dimensional regularization 1031 Inroduetion 1032 General results Yacoum polarization The anomalous magnetic moment Problems 11 WEAK INTERACTIONS sul xu M3 xia ns Inrodution Leptonic weak interactions. “The fre vector boson eld ‘The Feynman rules forthe 1VB theory Desay rates 4 M6 19 153 159 16s 16s mm vs 16 12 187 192 196 21 29 221 2 m a ns 225 2s an x9 a a 23s ns be 22 aa bas11.6 Applications ofthe 1VB theory 246 The Muon decay ar 1162. Neutrino scatering 253 1.63 The leptons decay of the W boson ass 117 _Dificlis with the IV theory 25s Problems 29 12 A GAUGE THEORY OF WEAK INTERACTIONS 261 121 The simplest gauge theory: QED 262 2. Global phase transformation and comerved weak curents 263 123. The gnugevavarant elecso-weak interaction 268 124 Properties ofthe eauge bosons m 123. Lepton and gauge boson masses ns 126 Appendix: Two gauge ansformation results 2s 261" The tansformaton law (12326) 26 1262. The SUG) gauge invariance of Bq (1257) am 13. SPONTANBOUS SYMMETRY BREAKING 79 131 The Goldstone model 280 132. The Higes model 28 133, The standard eletro-weak theory 29 14 THE STANDARD ELECTRO-WEAK THEORY 14. The Lagrangian densy in the snitary gauge 142. Feynman rules 143 Elastic neutrine-elecron scattering 144. Elecson positon ansilation 143 The Higgs boson Problems APPENDIX 4 THE DIRAC EQUATION, mr Ad The Dirac equation ar A2 Contraction identities Ey 3 Traces cr) ‘AA. Plane wave solutions a [AS Energy projection operators aa [AG Helicty and spin projection operators a AT. Relativistic properties Eo AB. Particular representations ofthe matrices. x6 Problems 39 APPENDIX B_ FEYNMAN RULES AND FORMULAE FOR PERTURBATION THEORY INDEX Mt ssiPreface ‘Our aim in writing this book hes been to produce a short introduction to ‘quantum field theory, suitable for beginning research stodents in theoretical {ind experimental physics. The main objectives are: (to explain the base physics and foram of quantum fld theory, (i) co make the read ly Droficent in perturbation theory calculations sing Feynman diagrams, and {io intoduee the reader to gauge theories which replaying such ental role in elementary parte physics, “The theory hasbeen applied to two areas. The Beginning parts ofthe Book ei! with quantum lectrodynamice (QED) where quantum eld theory had Insert triumph The st four chapters on Weak interactions introduce non- ‘Aten gauge groupe spontaneous symmetry breaking and the Higgs tmechanism, culminating it the. Weinberg Salam standard electro-neak theory, For reasons of space, we have ined ourselves to purely leptonic processes, but this theory i equally successful when extended to include Fadsons. The recent observations of the W= and Z° bosons with the predicted masses, nd further suppor otis theory, and there is very hope ‘hati the fundamental theory of electro-weak interactions. “The introductory nature ofthis Book and the dese to Keep it easonably short have influenced both the lve of eaten and the selection of materi We have formulated quantum field theory in terms of noacommuting ‘operator, as this approach should be familar to the reader from non ‘Slatvsie quantum meshanies and brings Out ost clearly the physical meaning ofthe formalism stems of patie creation and annihilation tperators, We have ony developed the formals tothe level we require Ueuppcations, Thee concentrate primi on eacultions i lowest ordernh Pete of perturbation theory. The techniques for obisining cross-sections, decay ‘tee and spin-and polaation sume have Been developed in detail and Sppled tow variety of proceses, many of them of itrest i current research ‘nletro-nenk interttons Alter studying this material, the ead shoukd te able to tackle confidently an} proces in lowest order. ‘Our treatment of renormalization and radiative coretions is much less ‘complete. We have explained the general concepts of regularization and fenormalization. For QED we have shown in some detail how to calculate {he lowest-order rditive corrections using dimensional repularization 38 tell a the older cutoff techniques. The infred divergence and its ‘Connection with radiative corretions have smiley been discussed in lowest ‘order only. The scope of tis book prcliesa erous study of igheronder ovrectons in QED snd of the renormalization ofthe elstro-weak theory. For the later, the Feyaman path integral formulation of quantum fel theory seems almost ental Regretful, we were not able 10 provide 8 shot and simple treatment ofthis topic. “Ths book aroue out of lectures which both of us ave given over many years We have greatly benefited from discussions with students and Colleagues, some of whom have read parts ofthe manuscript. We would ike {o then all of them for their help nd particulty Sandy Donnachie who rcouraged us to embatk on this collaboration. January 1986 Franz Mav Graton Sia _ SN AO A NpIn this book we have always taken e>0 so that the charge of the electron is (~e). ee we CHAPTER 1 Photons and the electromagnetic field 14 [PARTICLES AND FIELDS “The concep of photons asthe quanta of the electromagnetic eld dates back {orth beginning of ths century. In order fo explain the spectrum of Back: body radiation Planck, in 190, postulated thatthe process of emission and bsoeplion of radiation by fom oovurs discontinuously in quant Einstein by 1905 had arived at a more drasc interpretation. From statistical nalysis of the, Planck radiation law and from the energetics of the photoelectric fleet he conchided that it was not merely the atomic ‘rechanism ofemision and absogption of radiation Which is quantized, but that eletromagnetc radiation self consists of photons. The Compton eet ‘confirmed thi iterpretation. "The foundations of a spsematic quantum theory of fields were laid by Dita in 1927 in his famous paper on The Quantum Theory ofthe Emission and Absorption of Radiation From the quantization of the electromagnetic Feld one is naturally ed to the quantization of any classical i the quanta Of the feld being paricles with welhdefined properties The interactions between these partis is brought bout by other feds whose quanta are ther particles For example, we can thik of the interaction between Cetiuly charged particles such as clectrons and positrons, 3s being ‘brought about by the electromagnetic eld or as due to an exchange of ‘Photons, The eleetons and posttons themselves can be thought of 38 the (Gouna ofan electvon positon field. An important reason for quantizing2 Photos and the electromagnetic elt Chap. ‘sich partic lds iso allow forthe possibility that the numberof particles ‘changes as fr example, the creation or anntiation of eletron-positron pairs “These and other processes of course only oocur through the interactions, of fels. The solution ofthe equations ofthe quantized interacting felds txtremely diffcult If the interaction is sufciently weak, one can employ Petturbation theory, This has been outstandingly sucesfal in quantum ketcodynamics, where complete agreement ensts between theory and ‘experiment to. an incredibly high degree of accuraey. More reveal, Perturbation theory has azo very successfully been applied to weak "The most important modern pertrbaton-theoretic technique employs Feynman dingraos which ate also extremely useflin many afeas other than ‘elatvstic quantum Geld theory. We shall later develop the Feynman iagram technique and apply ito electromagnetic and weak atractions. For this a Lorentz covariant formulation wil be essential, Th this introductory chapter we employ a simpler non-covarant approach hich sues for many applications and brings out many ofthe ideas of Fe quantization. We shall consider the important case of eetrodyeamies for which a complete clsical theory—Maxwells—exsts. AB quantum ‘lestrodynamice wil be ederved ltr we sali this ehapter at times rely fom pwsibility arguments rather than fully justify all tps 12 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD IN-THE ABSENCE OF CHARGES 1241 |The clase eld) Cassia eee tromagnetc theory ie summed up in Maxwells equations. nthe presence of charge desiy (a1) anda current density io the eerie find magnetic elds F and B sty the equations vE=p cu 1, ee vowels le cu) ven=0 (ue) 128 vara (4) where, throughout this book, rationalized Gaussian (es) units ed! "Te aa aed ation Lent Hee nih In thse wi ee cue cout ghee ty Sheth Sih een wsatonaes Goin on STEAL ETL Van! Cieepondnayiorne hea b= Eeyig en ee bg 12 The lestomagnsti a the abs wfcanges From the second pat of Maxwell's equations [(.1e) nd (14) follows th exstene of scalar and vector potentials gfx.) and ACs) defined by 128 em gs. (12) do not determine the potentials uniquely sine for an arbiteary funetion f(x the tasformation vy, tear Bavaa B= -¥6 a, one -y a3) leaves the feds Band unaltered The transformation (13) s known as & lpge transformation ofthe second kind. Since alhobservable quantities can be expresed in terns of E and B, ii «fundamental requirement of any 1 ‘hry formulated in terms of potentials that ts pauge-invarian ie thatthe | predictions for observable quantities are invariant under such gauge {tansormatons TExpresed in terms of the potentials, the second pair of Maxwells uations [(1.1e and (-1)] ate satisfied automatically, while the frst pair {ita and (119)} become 2g 12 weaye cote (tava wee Thoma (eema)=# oy we e(L2E ove oa+v(iteva)= bs cay) where ra o=bh-w ws ‘We now go on to consider the ease ofthe fee Rel, ie the absence of charges and curents p= 0, J= 0. We can then choose a gauge forthe potentials such that vAn0, a6, “The condition (1.6) defines the Coulomb or radiation gauge. Actor field vith vanishing divergence, Le-saisfying Eq, (1.6), s called a transverse Bel, tine for a wave At) = Agro Eq (16) gives aco, an ie Ais pempendiculas tothe direction of propagation kof the wave. Inthe‘Coulomb gauge, the vector potential it transverse vector: la thischapter we ‘hall be employing the Coulomb gauge In the absence of charges, Eq (4a) now becomes V26=0 with the solution, which vanishes at inity, @ = 0. Hence Fg (4b) reduces 0 the wave equation cAno, as) “The corresponding electric and magnetic elds ae, rom Eas. (1.2) given wy 124 em and, ke A re transverse els. The solution of Eq, (18) ae the transverse fecromagnetic waves in free space. These waves are often called the radiation Del Is enery is piven by AA ES as tag 3 J 02 BE) (19 Inorder to quantize the theory we shall want to introduce canonically con: jugate coordinates ike x and pn non-relativistic quantum mechanis) for ‘ach degree of reedom and subject these o commutation relations. Ata given Instant of time the vector potential A must be specie at every point xin space Looked a rom this View point, the electromagnetic field possesses a ‘Continous infiny of degree of freedom. The problem can be simpiied by ‘considering the radiation onde large euic enone ofside Land volume = 13 andimposing pevoaic boundary conditions on he vector potential A at the surlacr ofthe cube, The vector polenta ean then be epeseated as 2 Fourie series i. it specie by the denurerable set of Fourie expansion cocfcints, and we have obtained description of he fin terms ofa n= fife but denumerable number of degres of freedom. The Fourier analysis corresponds 0 finding the normal modes of the radiation fel, each mode bing deserbed independently of the others by a harmonic oscillator ‘equation (All thisis analogous to the Fourier analysis of vibrating string) ‘This wil enable ws to. quantize the radiation ald by taking over the ‘quantization of the harmonic oscillator from non-relativistic quantum ‘mechanics, ‘With the periodic boundary conditions 0, any the functions 1) form complete net of transverse orthonormal vector fds Here the wave fects hat of he form Fmwmsitsh —memaim= 0, . as) so that thefts (1.12) stl the periodicity condition (.11)e(k) and exh) fre two mutually perpendicular fal unt vestrs which ae also orthogonal ox MYERS EMER, ee L 2 (D4) ‘The last of these conditions ensues thatthe fields (1.12) are transverse satialying the Coulomb gauge condition (1) and (1.7) Wecan now expand the vector potential A(x.) 6 & Fourier seis aan Z2( Ae) eaaaneremne ey (9 wine oy =e Te summations with expt rand ae oct bth Pobriatntatrr= 17 Goren Kant Orlow moments ae ero ett st ihe mma arr come ony The fermof ters (113 emu ft he eco pea ea A= Ea (Cid uamcrandon At atnchnuat ime The ine pendence Crib Fons geno aoe Se Amat ay ve Slunion (8) Seetutag Eq 019 9 0 and psig oo maa Shute, oe sass Bato ofa) 16) ‘These are the harmonic oscilator equations of the normal modes of the radition field I nll prove convenient to take thee Soations ithe form ath) = afk) exp (io), a.) where the o(k) ae intial amplitudes a ime r= 0 a, (115) for the vector pote, with Eg. (1.17) and its complex conjugate subsitted forthe amplitades and ap represents our final result forthe classical theory We can express the energy ofthe radiation eld, Ea (110) in terms ofthe ampltades by substitting Eqs (1.9) and (118)ia (1.10) lndcaryingout the integration overthe volume V othe enclose Inthe way tne obtains Has = ET hoya, cus) "wun chet (112 eee ny poles le By king prope couple near conanone te ptpoaraon1 Photons al he ctromusntc eld Chap. Note that this it independont of ine, as expected in the absence of charges and currents; we could equally have writen the ie dependent amplitudes (7) stead, since the ane dependence of wand of a? canoes ‘As already stated, we shall quantize the radiation Held by quanszig the {individual hurmoniecnilator mode, As the interpretation ofthe quantized fed theory in terms of photons is intimately connected withthe quantum eatment ofthe harmonic esllator, we shall summarize the late. 122, Harmonic ol “The hat onic oscilstor Hamiltonian i, in an obvious notation, + mate, with qand psatsying the commutation elation ep] = i, Weiatroducethe operators Hae He Shs are nonin ‘These satsy the commutation relation [well=1, cy) and the Hamiltonian expressed in terms of «und a becomes: Hn = Ya +a!) = haf + 4. (120) ‘This is essentially the operator New, aay hich s positive definite, ie for any state (¥) CHINIY) = Catal) = Cala) > 0 Hence, N posesies lonest non-negative eigenvalue 2950. 1 follows from the eigenvalue equation Nia) = al) and (19) that Not) == Dai, Nae = (e+ Dela, (122) ie aa) and ali) are eigenfunctions of WN belonging to the eigenvalues (2-1) and (a+ 0 espetvly. Since a the Lowest eigenvalue we must have ‘ha = 0, a2) and since a) = ace) 4, (1.23) implies ap =O. 1 flows fom Eqs (119) and (1.22) that the cigeavales of N are the integers m= 0,1, 2 and tha ifn) = 1, then the states tI), defied by Ae, almaine DRED, 20 ae also normed to unity. <0) wr I, the normed eigenfunctions of N are m= 2m, O12, (128) ‘These ate also the eigenfunctions ofthe harmonic oxllator Hamiltonian (1.20) with the energy eigenvalues B= hain +d, m= 0.1.2, (126) ‘The operators and" ar called lowering and raising operators because of the properties (128). We shale that nthe quantize eld theory fe) rere- sete atte with n quanta, The operator «(ehanaog a) into —1)) wll ‘noite a quantum similarly a” wil create a quantum. ‘So far we have considered one stat of tie, say t= 0. We now discuss the equations of motion ia the Heisenberg picture! Ia this picture, the operators ar functions of tne. Tn particular in fa Hd ay ca withthe iia condition (0) = a the lowering Operator considered so fi. Since Hy. is timesndependent, and ul?) and a") satisfy the same commutation relation (1:19) a5 a and the Heenberg equation of motion (127) reduces to a) M4 soul) with the solution a ao (2) 123 (The quantized radation fd The harmonic oilator results we have derived can at once be applied to the radiation fel. ts Hamiltonian, Bq, (118) isa superposition of independent sc SRDe agate ar aie acne depen of te Sin:basmonicoscilator Hamiltonians (120), one foreach mode ofthe radiation fe. (The onder ofthe factors in (18) is mot sgnicant and canbe changed, since the anda? are. classcal amplitudes) We therefore introduce commutation rations analogous +0 Eq (1.19) (ash a) = Bd (ena) eden of om and write the Hamitonian (1.18) as Has = ES hoch +9. 130) The operators 2k = ath) 1.2... and eigenfunctions of the form then have eigenvalues (h 1135) [wor ra ‘The eigenfunctions ofthe radiation Hamiltonian (130) are products of such Irakyy >, «3p oom) (UMint>, 03 with every EE bona +d. 033) “The interpretation ofthese equations is straightforward generalization {tom one harmonic osilatr toa superposiion of independent osilators ‘one for each radiation mode (hr) ak) operating on the sate (1.32) will educe the oceupaion number nk) ofthe tmode(h.?) by unity, faving all ‘other oecupation numbers uallered, ie from Eq (124 28) = EARL oR) Bhds 38 Correspondingly the energy (1.3) is reduced by hoy = kl We interpret “G{4) as an antblation (or destruction or absorption) operator hich tonite one photon in the mode (kL. with momentum Mh, energy fn linear polarization vector ek). Similarly af) is imtexpreted as. Creation operator of sucha photon. The assertion that a(k) and a(k) are sbsorpton and creation operators of photons with momentum Rk can be stl by clelatig the momentum of the radiation Bld, We salle later thatthe momentum operator of the Feld wen by PHTTAwsa +d, as) which leads tothe above interpretation. We shall not consider the more Jnicate problem ofthe angular momentum ofthe photons but only mention that ercular polarization sae obtained by forming linear combinations ee ae aremore appropriate or his Remembering tate) (kK) form a ih handed Cartes coordinate system we See that these two combinations orespond to angular momentum ‘= in the direction k (analogous to the properties of the spherial harmonics Vj") .e.they represen sght-and le [cular polaris the photon behaves ik a pasiceof sin 1. The hid spin component i of coutse missing becuse ofthe Wansverse nature ofthe photon fed “The state of lowest energy ofthe radiation ld is the vacuum sate in which ll occupation numbers m(k) are zero. According to Eqs. (1.30) or (1.3) this state asthe energy 434 5 ho, This isan infinite constant which Js of no physial significance: we a ‘altogether by siting he zero_of-the energy sale to coincide with the vacuum state ). This ‘corresponds to replasing Ea, (30) by Hae LE htt) aan term in Eq, (1.35) for the momentum will similarly be dropped. I. ‘sctally vanishes in any case due to symmetry i the k summation} “The representation (1.32) in which states ate specie by the occupation [Thee numbers nik) is called the mamber representation Wis of great practical importance in calculating (ansons (possibly via intermediate stats) between inland inal states containing dente numbers of photons with welldetned properties. These Meas are ofcourse not restricted to photons Botaply gemeraly tothe particles of quantaed ede Weshallhave a oly the formatiam in one fespect We have seen that the photon occupation fumbes nh) can assume al vals 0,2, Thus, photons satisfy Bose” instein static! They ate bosons So 4 molfcation willbe required (0 describe particles obeying Ferm Dae stasis (frmios), such aselecrons for muons, for which the occupation mummers are restricted (0 the vals 0 snd 'We have quantized the electromagnetic fel by replacing the classical amplitudes a and a? inthe vector potential (15) By operators, 0 that the1 Photon at the detromugntc eld Chap. ‘vector potential and the electsc and magnetic lds become operators. In particular, the vector potential (115) becomes, nthe Heisenberg picture [cL Eqs (128) and (L17)]},the time-dependent operator maneET({)"amumer, asm weo-Er(A)"aniremnn, gasp ‘The operator A* contains only absorption operators, AW only eration operators A" and A~ are called the postive and negative fequeoey part of A! The operators for B(x) and BAX) follow from Eqs. (1.9). There is an spotantdilerence between 1 quantized Beld theory and non-elatviaic ‘quantum mechanics. In the former tis the amplitudes (and bene the Bl), ‘thi are operators andthe potion and ime coordinates (x?) ae ordinary ‘numbers, whereas the later the postion coordinates but not the ie) ar operators Finally, we note that a sate with a defnite number y of photons (Lean lgensate ofthe ttl photon number operator W = YS, NA) cannot bea ‘asia eld, not eve for > so, Thies a consequence ofthe fac that E, like A, is linear in the creation and absorption operators. Hence the expectation value of Bin sucha sate vanishes I is posible to form so-called ‘coherent sates for which CB) represents a transverse wave and for ‘which the relative fuctuation AE/ tends to 20 asthe number of ‘Photons i the state, » For example, for optical transitions in atoms, Risof the order fof | Aad dtesin the range 4000-7500 A Similan, for gamma-raysemitted by nucle, Ris ofthe ordet of few ermis (1 = 10-7? m) and since 32x e119) we hae ate i we sm a tae the oxo intraton ween es sn Se Ses Sa cd12 Photons andthe eestomagntic eld Chap. {197)E in MeV) for gamma-tay of E MeV, the det dipole aprox mation is valid upto gute igh gamma-ray enres: thee are selection rls forbidding a tration in the elec dipole approximation i might stil occu athe magnetic trations OF i parts ofthe cleric interactions which are neglected the dipole eppoximation Tt ‘may happen that tration is tly forbidden, ie cannot ceed in fist der peruibation theory even when the exact infraction fused ao perturbation instead of Hy (Eq (1401) In such cases the trasition can til scar in higher orders of perturbation theory or, pohly by some ute to ial state (B) ad the oxcupation ‘umber of one photon state wll change fom m(Q) to mh) 1 The ital Si al states ofthe sper wil be Menah =a, 1Bntk) 1) = Bond) 1) ey whet the occupation nimbers ofthe photon sates which are not changed in ‘the tanstion are ot showa. The dipole operator (Ll) now becomes Da nen -e. cas) whet the summation is over the atomic electrons and we have introduced the abbreviation x, The transverse else field y(, 1) whish occurs nthe itraction (140) i rom Eqs. (1.38) 1 2A00.0) 0.0) = oo. Let us consider radiative emission. The transition matrix element of the interaction (140) between the stats (1.42) then is ven by (Bind) + WHA, mth) (2) a sate D0 em (Ray oe anaes can where the Ist in follows from Eg (1.26) ‘meme Quan Secon Snes Bet, Ne York, 19 Chap The transition probability per unit time between init (142) is given by limedependen perturbation theory as and final states w= Ba) +A MAADE Es Bhan) — 48) where Ey and fate the energies of the inital and final atomic tates |) and |B}. The deta funtion ensues conservation of ener i the transition, ie "he emited photos enery fay must satisfy the Bohr equency condition Wy 0= (Es ~ Fah 46) “The deta function is eliminated in the wsusl way from a. (145) by integrating over a narrow group of final photon sates. The number of photon stats inthe interval (kk + dk, all the same polaizaton sate eh) oF E08), vere _ ve akan! GF ay From Eqs (1.48)-(147) we obtain the probability per uit time for an atomie transition 4) ~ |B) with emision ofa photon of wave vector inthe Tange (kk dh) and wih polarization vector V4 4k d0.25 ar F aa) d= HE 4— Ex hoy) (he » (FP) ow + nvexarvior. ca {we perform the integration with respect tok (=e) and subsite (1.43) for Dy the last expression reduces to eo? a d= SSP Gh) + Heth) neal? (150) where xy stands forthe matrix element xac= (BIIAD = (BIE FIA), sy *Timedepedet peut hy i cml eloped i Darden, Qn can a "ep, Oa Ime cen F(a, Face (Gen Mecha dey, New Yok eS YA LE St ura Sih ee sie NY ie St sé lwed weve wc oe EC] ore P=)14 Photon andthe estomagntic eld Chap. ‘The most intresting feature of Ea (10) he osteo the Stor tm) 1 ih he ean er pon te) moe Present. a! thas he ato (5 pope om eprons Induced (or siete) emotion, adaen which tes fom, the ‘adation ie on he stom cea we ca hk ofits ering om thereat onan ofthe ctons att rm an be produce fm Semiclassical theory of raation” Howeve even wh no ration pesca intaty (ui) = 0} the tansconproaby (1.0) iflen am sere “This coreponds tthe spontanes emvon of ation rom Mm, ‘uth canbo be derived rom seas thor radiation as (1. and(.8) epee the bas ea bout ono aiation inde aipoe aston, a me yb inate some conscquenes ‘Tosum ove the wo polatzaton stats for agen we ate ht 0 sh and t= WM oma orthonormal eooiate stem, Hence, Zeina = eats ex aiees (sae xbaXl — cos?) wer the lt line but one defines the angle @ which the compen vector Xe makes with Hence from Eq (150) 7 eo Ae Bnd ies dt) + saa sin? 8.052) For spontancous emission, the total transition probability per wait imei bianed fom the fast uation, with mt) 0, by teat ove ll directions. Since eee oe foo oan 8, ve obtain wilt = B)= 22 ng ass) ‘heli time + ofan excited atom state A> is defined asthe reprocal of she ta anson probity pe ut neopets > Eval By. ase) SESE LSM uma Mechs ed Min ew Yar, Jn purtcula, if he nate (A> ean decay to states with non-zero foal angular ‘omentum, Ha, (14) mist contain & summation over the corresponding ‘magnetic quantum numbers. “he selection fules for cleric pole tanstons fellow from the matrix clement (151). For example since is 8 Veto, the states |4) apd |B) must have opposite parity and the total angular momentum quantum number J of the atom and is -component Af must sats the selection cules By-021 nod = +420, aM=040 “The second selection rule (not J = 01+ J = 0) applies srl to one-photon process, n0t ony in the electric dipole approximation, tia consequence of Whe fat that there are no one photon states wth mo angular momentum. To form such a state fom the spin tof the photon and a unt of orbital angular momentum regures all three componeats of the spin angular ‘momentum, but because ofthe transversality ofthe ration fl only to ofthe spin components ae avaiable [compare Ea (136)] Filly, we note tht very similar resis hal for the absorption oadiation in leat dipole transitions. The mati element (Bande) ~ HHA, mk corresponding to Eg, (18) now involves the factor (m0)! instead of {nah} = 1]"* Our final rest for emision, Eq. (180), abo holds for Stuorption, with [a4k) + 1) replaced by [n(k)], df being the solid angle Sefining the incident radiation, and the mati element Xn, Fa. (151) ‘presenting tration rom analomiestate[A) withenergy Ey toastate|B> ‘wth eneray Ey > Ey Correspondingly te frequeney cis defined by ho Fy Ey intend of £4 (146) THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD IN THE PRESENCE OF CHARGES, [Ait the special case ofthe electric uiple interaction, we now want con- ‘le the general interaction of moving charges and an electromagnetic fel [Asthis problem wl later be teatedina flavin covariant way, weshall not sve a figorous complete deivation but rather stress the physia inter- pretation. As in the lat section, the motion of the charges will again be eseribed non-eatvsielly. Ta Section L41 we shall deal with the Hamiltonian formulation ofthe clsial theory. This will enable us very ceasl to go over to the quantized theory in Section 1.42. n Sections 143 tnd 144 we shall illustrate the appiation of the theory for radiative {tutsions and Thomson searingLAL Clasical eectodyaumis ‘We would expe the Hamiltonian ofa system of moving charges, such a an ‘oma a electromagnetic el consist othe para art refering co mato (a the charges) a pat referring tothe lectromagnetc field, and 8 part describing te interaction between matter and fel Fora syst af pint masses ma with charges, and poston coordinates the Hamiltonian i mop hien as where He ithe Coulomb interaction 5 (1550) and py = md the kinetic momentum ofthe th parts. This isthe tual Hamiltonian of atomic physics, for example "The elvtomagnetic eld in Hatraction with charges is described by Maxwells equations (Eqs (1.1), We coatinue to use the Coulomb gauss, eA 0, a0 thatthe electric eld (1.2) decomposes into transverse and Iongitoinal elds whore (A longitudinal field i defined by the condition V 4 By = 0) The magnetic Feld isgven by B= « . The foal energy ofthe dectromagnti eld 1 foe emer an be writen Jetsons fice “The last integral can be transformed, using Poisson's equation V9 = ~p, frees OSD ws hus the energy aswciated with the longitudinal field isthe energy of the dnvtantanons letanatc interaction between the charges. With id= Sess nt) 1g. (1.86) reduces “Bat sn ipo tents Eke deny ea Bake aa =4 fed + BIO ass) as (3.5) allow fo the instantaneous Coulomb interaction of charges To slow for he interaction of moving charges with an clestromagnels Bld, one ‘rst replace the mater Hamstonian (1383) by 1 y=S 3h (n-Ea) +H 39 whore Ay = Af} denotes the vector potetial athe position of he charge at time f, In Eq. (158) pi the momentum coordinate canoacaly ‘Conjugate to the poston coordinate, ia the sense of Lagrangian mechanics, and it is elated to the velocity ¥,= dr ofthe ith particle by namin a, Wi oaly fr A =0 eat his caja momentum eds (the inti tomatsm mg The tenon efor 139) Hs tha en the “Set qu of mono the args Gn Pie 2 aa) where and B, are the electric and magnti fds at the instantaneous postion of the th charge or the Lagnagan an Heit orto smc sich he dn seam ei Cau Man ah aay en MnWe can regroup the terms in Ea, (1.59) a5 Hy Ha + Hy ao nese My the interaction Hamiltonian of matter an fl seven by aE {Slower acwt rhe eee inter” enn rm nt i eetesmiee ao neeenenm neta ea as as this Hamiltonian leads tothe comet equations of motion (1.60) for hares, sot also leads othe correct field equations (18), with WA = 0, for the potential nestiaa os) 142 Quantum electrodynamics Te quantization ofthe system described by the Hamiltonian (1.63) is atid ‘out by subjecting the partite” coordinates, and canonically conjugate ‘momenta to the usual commulation telations (eg in the coordinate ‘epresentation p> ~iA¥), and quantizing the radiation i as in Section 123, The longitudinal elecrc field Fy dort not provide any additional ‘egrees of feedom, being completly determined via the fist Maxwell ‘quation V-E, » p by the charges. ‘The interaction Hn Ba. (1.68) is usually (ented a a perturbation which ‘nuses transitions between the sats of the notiteractng Hemiltonan Hy = Ha + Hs (164) ‘The eigenstates of Hy are again ofthe fem, [A smb) = A) > With (A) and |.) egensates of Hy and Hog SM Hee: Te Quan Try of Ration bs Cedan Pes, Of 184, Compared with the clctte dipole interaction (1.40), the interstion (1.62) sisi that itcontainsa erm quadratic inthe vector potential This esis ‘a tworphoton process in Risvorder perturbation theory (.. emission of sorption oftwo photons or scattering) Ta addition, the fist term in (1.62) ‘ontuis magnetic interactions apd higher-order effets due to the spatial, ‘atation of A(t) which are absent from the ekestre dipole interaction (14) These aspects are ilstrated inthe applications to radiative ansitions and Thomson scalteing which low 143 Radiative trantons We consider transitions between two states af an atom with emision oF shsoepion of one photon. Thik problem wa teat in Sesion 1.3 inthe ‘ectte dipole approximation bul now we shall use the teraction (1.62, "We shall consider the emission process between the ntl and final states (142) Using the expansion (138 ofthe vector potential we obtain the matrix ‘lmeat fortis eansiton [which ress from the term lear in A in Eg. (rey Bonde) + TIA, n> ep hye 7 (PL) toad + 11th Le Me pid om (aig) oa ence Lee niay (165) Using this matrix element, one ealzultes the transition probably per ust lime a in Secon 1.3 Tnscad of Eqs. (150) and (1.81), one obtains w= 28 ays lede- R. The atomic wavenctions [4 tnd |B) restrict the elective values of 1 rR, so that hee, < AR 1. We ‘awe in Section 13 that this inequality i generously sated for optical ‘stomie transitions, From the equation of motion i= [rH] and Eg (1.46) cal IAD = BIA =~20 Photons a he estoy eld Chap 1 Hence, in the approximation (1.67), Eqs (165) and (1.65) reduce to the lettic dipole form, Eqs. (1.8) and 1.0, IE selection rues forbid the transition [4) to |B) via the eee dipole interaction it may in general sl occur via higher terms in the expansion of the exponentials ens With the second tem, the expression within the modulus signin Ea. (1.66 Witte fen in Ea, (1.66) 1k) 6B (mike A> EB, eatonecanS ropaiad, where a (= 1,2,3) label the Cartesian components of the vectors, and p, The mattis clement an be writen asthe sum ofan antsymmetic ad {symmetric seeond-rank tensor Brant = {AE ara ~rarala) + AT Cane + rare “The sm consi te att angle moment opera a ovespondh 1 the map ile tsa. pie hs mast he Smet by hapa at) The symm cepts oh et Sosdropoenencton Te pry and tngarsaetom secon es ithe wanton tous aout by she ma cnt cay ‘Serine romtn foran Webi ot ny anepanon eee td magnetic mato, te pote detain. and sar Ionian Ass es poe rch a exon ee he Silt uc nts prea ater ten Carson cudnt “he rou (16) can apn be sdped oe ee of atop f tain y regalo Eh) 1) 89 NB) an he tpplops ‘Scranton oh i see LAA Thorson ettering As asecond illsiration we consider Thomson seaterng i. the setting of photons of energy ha by atom electrons, with ha large compared tothe binding energies of the electrons, so that they can be considered a fee ‘lecirons, but ho ery small compared to the lecron cst energy m! In this ease the energy ho of the scattered photon isnot changed a! = ha, since for small ecll momenta the reol energy may be neglected qi S04 S Deo, Quinn Mechs en Pp, Os 976, Seon The watering fom an ntl state with one photon of momentum Nand prezation ek) (with x= [ of 2) t0 a final state with one photon of hromentum MK’ and polarization ek’) (with = 1 0 2) ean occur in fist Sine perturbation theory athe tem im A? inthe traction (1.2) Tt an “iho ocur in second-order pertorbation theory vate tem linear in Ain Eq, {i2h but one can show thet under our conditions the contbution ofthe Acsond-order process is neglpible® The operator A(0,1) can, trom 1g (138), be writen ‘0 2 teks) 6h) = FS arty these % [ah)e“H + ahead eM + ahs) e") (iss) whee = ck r= 12. This operator can bring about the transition from "he initial state ks) to te final state IB (we se a somewhat simpli hut unambigoous notation) in two ways either of the factors in square putenteses ean act fo absorb the intl photon and the other factor thea ‘eats the final photon, One then obsins the matrix element for this trans Uo fom Eq (162) 03g A7O.0Nk ad = (hak) teem nee Invioay? whore w= ck and ~ ok. The transition probability pee unit time fora ‘photon, initially i the state kya, toe satered into an element of solid Single din the dretin K, and with polasztion gk’), is given by 1 a A sepa — may oh} ears oye whore [k= kl. Dividing this transition probability per unit time by the ‘neident photon ux (/V), one obtains the corresponding dileential cro en-sk) JA rilethre KP 0, a) her Shu lowed Qt Mas A, Rn, Ma 122 Photons a the lst e) Chap hore the classical eetron radius has been introduced by am) For an unpolarized incident photon beam, the unpolarized dierential rosesction the final polarization sates not observed) obtained from Eq. (1.69) by summing over nal and averaging over ial polarization slate, Weintroduc the abbreviations e, = ek) and g = ek) Sine ye and & = k/k form an orthonormal coordinate syste, fog ee Sima Fay 1-8 = ante here 0 is the angle between the directions and of the incident and scattered photons, ithe angle of scattering From the las tw equations 53, 3 eet 40 — sia K+ cox). ‘nd hence the unpolarized dierent eros-secion for scattering through an angle i rom Eg (165) given a8 216) 80 ~ HC + cos? 20. (162) Integrating over angles, we obtain the total crsesection for Thomson scattering fea 3 ont £13 = 665 x 10° em? an 1S” APPENDIX: THE SCHRODINGER, HEISENBERG AND INTERACTION PICTURES ‘These thre pictues (abbreviated SP, HP and LP.)ar thee ferent ways ‘of deserbing the time development ofa system, We sal derive the HP and ‘the LP from the SP. Quantities in these three picture willbe distinguished bythe label §, Hand Tn the SP. the time dependence is carried by the states according tthe Schringer equation an) This can formally besolved in terms of the state of the system at an arbitrary inital time to [Ade UA tae a7 whore U is the unitary operator: : U2 UG) = mm, 75) By means of U we can carey out a unitary transformation of sates and ‘operators (0) frm the SP. tothe HP. in which we deine VA. On= UA Ds= 1Ast)s 75) and om =U'0W. an AC E= ty states and operators inthe two pictures ae the same. We sce from Bq. (1.76) that inthe H.P. state vectors are constant i ime: the time dependence i cari by the Hesenberg operators From Eq (1.77) Haws 78) Since the wansformation fom the SP 0 the HLP.is unitary, tenures the invariance of matrix elements and commutation relations KB HOA, Ds = WCB, HONDIA. De am) and if 0 and P are two operators for which [0F, P= const, then 10%, PMO) equals the sume constant Diferentaton of Ea, (177) gives the Hesenberg equation of motion [0% 10. (130) 4 oy ind on Vor am operator which i time-dependent in the SP. (corresponding 10 8 sqanlty hich lasealy hasan explicit tne dependence), Eq. (180) is nugmented to nd om anZ on + torn as stl et caniing peter Heys as In quantum fed theory H, will deserbe the interaction between two fs Memselves deseribed by Hy. (Note that the suffix T on Hy sands for aerastion It doesnot Ibel x pctre- Eq (1-2) holds in ny ptr) The1s lated to the S.P. bythe unitary transformation Uys Ulta) = ote (183) HA. USA Ds ass) and 0) = io. ass) ‘Thus the relation between LP. and S.P 8 similar 1 that between HP, and SP, but with the unitary transformation Up involving the. none Jterating Humitonisn Mo, instead of U ivolving the total Haaitonian From Eq (1.85) y= HS = Ho, (186) Diflerentating Eq (L85) gives the diferetisl equation of motion of operators in the LP: ‘ F010 = (010. He) as Sabsttting Eq, (1.84) into the Schebdingr equation (1.72), ome obtains {he equation of motion of state vectors in the LP. ave ay cs) oe Pra ee aw, PROBLEMS | Theradiaton fed nie a cubic encour which coun no charge seid bytes shew Heian ome sean) hte 1.30 ih ee ‘thar Date te aang proper te ane pT =TE A Ti ip normalizes cc) (313 ft Caen fhe etrucoa opto a) with he mpl aukio = 40, (i) The mean number of photoes the ensure i the state een by R= CaN =i w photon number operator costae in the atc) gv (ANF = Gv — =i o (Te capesain ae of he le el in he ate hen by cette) = came (SP) “eandex ene +8) © where ¥ i the volume ofthe encore Arey ay, (ab? = CaP ~ " o Wenetedin Secon 123 that heexpectation valucofEinastte witha efite utero photons er sofa sucha tae camot represents asa et ranfor eg phtonaumbers In oot hows im Bay (ACD) ‘he rane Mottin in phonon mbes ‘Sidzucopinate[o)grcoerintoa cal etsteln which te doe dct fei8 cect, Ths state k) baled conernt ate and represents te lest ‘funtm-methiieal appooch to canal eetomagaci had (Fos al Resi he yt etd te edt eon 13) ‘st en by Ua =h sabe A= Als.) and d= $a the vector and sale potentas of the ‘stomagnes el a he poston taf he partie at me iy Show that te momentum conjugate ton pen by poms ta, wo {ie the cosjgate moment pl ot he Klee momenta mn net) and "ha tagranges equations race tothe souabnr of motion of te parle Feompare Ee (1.80) ndece[estens] » Thechage Ii) Bere the oreponding Hamatonian faompar Eg. (19)) a ‘show thatthe rniting Haron equations agin ead to Eas (A) and (8).1 For Them saterng of am poled team of photons, bitin the Ciena ewracton for scttng tage nt mage Bere send ‘adatom being ineary plaid is ger Grecon. By cendeig tro imately perpen Seon fe Your oul to easrne Ey 15n {orth unpolaraed dierent croseaecon, ee Show that fr = 90 the ated team 10 percent ier plariad tae cecton ote nol te pane o ener CHAPTER 2 Lagrangian field theory lo the ast chapter we quantized the clecromagnetic field by Fourier naling the classical fel into normal modes and imposing harmonic ‘ilatoFcommatation relations om the normal coordinates. We shall now Take the elds at each point in space as the dypamical variables and ‘juntas these diet. This approach generalizes the casical mechanics of 1 system of partils, and its quantization, 1.8 cominoous system, fe. 10 Michls? One introduces a Lagrangian (acally, as we shall sc, itis @ Ugrangian density) from which the Geld equations follow by means of Hamiton' principle. One intcduces momenta conjugate 1 the fis and inapses canonical commutation felations dietly on the fk and the njugate momenta. This formaliem provides & systematic quantization procedure for any classical fed theory derivable from a Lagrangian, Since this approweh is equivalent fo that ofthe last chapter, one cin only obiain thowns in thie way a diferent formalism wil be needed for fermions ‘Another diference fom Chapter is that the theory wil now be detcloped ina mans elativitclly covariant form, andin Section 21 we ‘all define our eatviete notation. The dassical Lagrangian fd theory willbe developed in Seton 22, tobe quantized in Secion 23. An important, FEvtureofu Lagrangian eld theory that als symmetry properties and the tomequent conservation we are contained inthe Lagrangian density. We ‘hull consider some ofthese aepects a Secuon 24 "Ye ln taggin ad Hanon mshi oe example, doped in He ‘atin Ming i i Aen Ney Ring Nn Choets Zand ceear Tteeta PALL: Mh Pm One Sctc 7 and2) RELATIVISTIC NOTATION| ‘We shall write x (= 0,1, 2,3) forthe space-time four-veetor with the time component»? = ct and the space coordinates x!) =1,2,3hie-x¢ = (ee §) ‘The components of four-vectors will be labeled by Greck indices the components of spatial theee-vector by Lain indices By means ofthe metic tensor gv, with Compunents G00" 941 = ~022 = ~on= +1 Mitte} en We define the covariant vector fom the contavariant x nen E aoe = oe an Inthe lst expression we have used the summation convention: repeated Greek indices one contravariant and one covariant, are summed. From qu (21) and 22) we hives, = (Ct —). ‘We also deine the contravarant metre tensor 9 by Oty = 08 = a ey where 5% is the usual Kronecker dla: 3 From Eas. 21) and (23) "= 9 A Loven ansform 1 idan and 8 Oia vane es eave, an = es lant ext, =o, is a seal quantity, Hence Rhy, =a. eo {n adition the matrix A must be reat ensure the calty of the space time coordinates) 'A Tour-component object + (4) tansforming like x(x, under Lorentz transformations and hence with invariant, sa conteavariant (covariant) fourrvetor. An examples theener-momentum vetor p= (Ec 9). When no confusion can rs, We shall lle omit the tensor indies WE may write x for oF "The scalar prot of two fourvectors a and b can be writen in various ways ab =o", oa i HP en Like? = eye the sular product ab is am invariant under Lorentz framsonmatons The four-dimensional generalization of the gradient operator transforms ti foursetor fs) i ela funtion, $0 is s0~4e,) and hence i fe # 4) iv sovarant fourvsto Simay Bevonee aw is comtravariant foursnector: Note that indices following a comma denote “ierentation nally. e ote tha the operator C1 is a salar: Co oak 7-Peo! 9) 2 CLASSICAL LAGRANGIAN FIELD. THEORY ‘Wie considera sytem which requires several elds d(x) r= Speci The inden may label components ofthe same eld [or example the components of the vector potential ACQ)] of it may refer to diferent Independent lds, We restrict ourselves to theories which can be derived by ‘nats of a sanational priseiple fom an action integral involving. @ gcangian density P= Ladd 0) hore the derivative bus defined by Eq, (28a). The Lagrangian density {10}, depending wn the fields and thee Bat derivatives only snot the vst general ease possible, but ft covers all Choris ascused in this book greatly simples the formalism, “we detne the action inegal S(O) for an arbitrary region © of the four Atensonal space time continuum by sey | eee om there dx stands forthe four-dimensional element de® "We now postulate that the equations of motion Le the Feld equations, are80 Lapa eld teary Chap 2 ined fom the flowing variational princph which coset analogous to Hamilons pile n mechani. For anata repon we conser variations of the fields, = 4100) + 44) + 8948, en nthe surface TM) bounding the epion 5640) =0 on FO) en “The felds may be real of comple. In the case ofa complex fll), he fells (2) and Ce) are treated as iwo independent fils. Alternatively, « ‘comple il (scam be decomposed int a pir of real elds which ae then lteated as independent fields. We now demand that for an arbitrary region and the variation (212-213) the ation (211) basa stationary ¥ asia) =0 aw (Caleulating 8510) tom Fg. 2.11), we obtain? which 150 = [afin « 2 toh Loti ae (cie* [emcee whet the last in is obtained by partial integration, since ais) Stan bot ‘Th st am a £4215 be omered 1a sue te on he {ice wing Gs des arm ae ac” Sen Oont titans nagelccher ancora eeraey ‘son nd aay vats Spe B' 19 ale oe Bae Tapa eaten aw oa 24, be (F9, ‘These ae the equations of motion of the fields. In order to quantize this classical theory bythe canonical formalism of ‘on-telativtic quantum mechanics we must inttoduce conjugite variables, Weare dealing witha system witha continuously infinite mimber of derees of treadom, corresponding to the vals of the fields oy comsideted at functions of time, at each point of space'x. We shall agtin approximate the Pea, 16) 21) and here mma paints and ocr, ) system by one having countable numberof degrees of feedom and ult ‘ately go tothe eontinaum tim, ‘Consider the stem ata fixed instant of ime and decompose the thee sinensional space... the fat spacelike surface ¢ = cons, into small ells of ‘ual volume x, labelled bythe index = 1,2... Weapproximate the values ‘the Bld within each cil by thir vals at, sy, the centre of the cell X=, The sjsem is now described by the dacrele et of geecalized Sovedinate: deh) 4002 O00 Lae Qt which ae the vals ofthe flds atthe discrete tice sites x I we also ‘place te spatial derivatives of the fields by their iferene coecients retween neighbouring sts, we can write the Lagrangian of the dicrete reo Lo FR LGA dH. 8.2) ew ‘whore the dot denotes ifrentition with repost to time, The Lagrangian deny inthe th cell, 2, depends onthe fils at the neighbouring tcc ‘tes om account of the approximation ofthe spatial derivatives. We define momenta conjugate to gy in the usual Way as a _ at P= Fe ag MODI ew shore og, mans get 7 0* eq or he Hamitonian ofthe discrete system i then given by He Spd = bulndindlied~ 4). ey With a view to going to the limit dx, ~ 0, etting the cel size and the lace spacing shenk to 210, we deine the fi 7 i we ne nt a 0) edo. he ie Laggan tn oon fan 8 ond ome fore 2 Tras em U HW32 Lagrangian ed nergy Chap. 2 and ne feo, 228) where the Hamiltonian density 2s) is defined by 20) = RIL) ~ Libr Goad 225) and the integrations in Eqs. (223) and (224 ar over al pace, at time With ‘our Lagrangian density which does not depend expiity on the time, the ‘Hanitonan is ofesira Castano tine The conervsonofchrps val ‘pe proved in Scoton 24 where the expresions (224) and 228) for the Hamiltonian wil also te iederive, fe Asan example, consider the Lagrangian density £~Hb06!— 28) 226) for a single real eld g(x), with pa constant which has the dimensions (sgt) In the next chapter we shall ce thatthe quanta of this eld are jnless neural bosons with Compton wavelength "ie, particles of mass “hats The equntion of motion (216) for this fl the Kl Gordon equation (a+ H)¢69 = 0. a2 the conjogate field (222) is A) = 5.60) 22 and the Hamiltonian density (225) is ete) + (9) + 2 es) © QUANTIZED LAGRANGIAN FIELD THEORY Wis now easy t go from te classical to the quantum fl theory by inter preting the conjugate coordinates and momenta of the dierete lattice “approximation, Eqs (217) and (219) as Hesenberg operators and subject ing these to the usual eanoneal commutation relations. bby ox, (230) [hU.o6001 = Fetsehali.0) 0 we let the latice spacing g0 to zero, Eqs. (2.30) go over into the Lotion su' 0) conmmtation relations for the Rls [bla i) = thd Ste =X) la. 84a] = Eta 0 4.0] = 0} sien the imi, 8 yO, bb Dsomes the tee dimensional Dirac ks fonetion 4G), te pts € and 3 ‘peavey Noted the leat ete ie; ye talon how chapter we Tal State conimtators ofthe elds at ifort or the Kkin- Gordon eld 226), Eqs (2) reduce tothe commutation ee dems actin aa [04 4 0) = [4 0 es 1 =O In the neat chapter we shall stuy the Klin-Gordon fed in deta 24 SYMMETRIES AND CONSERVATION LAWS, 1 lows rom the Heisenberg equation of motion ofan operat O() 000, & (se are nt considering operators with explicit ime-dependencs) that 0 is a ‘nstant of the mation provided [o.m=0. Constants of the motion generally stem from invariance properties of systems under groups of transformations, eg translational and rotational tnwsrunce lead to conservation of linear and angular momentom, respec: Uisely. Such transformations lend to equivalent dexeriptions ofthe ster for ‘sample, rere to two rames of ference related by Lorentz transforma ‘inn: Quantum-mechanically, two such deseriptions must be related DY @ lary transformation U under which sates and operators transform ‘cording 1 02 Coe .10) > aN>= =0, all ore) of expressed in terms ofthe fd operators (38), by oreo 0, alls, G17) ‘The vacuum has the infinite energy 45, hoy. As discussed forthe radiation felony energy dierences are observable: Hence, thi infinite constant ‘harmless and easily removed by measuring allenerics relative to the vacuum One can avoid the explicit occurence of uch infinite constants by normal ‘ordering of operators na normal produc, ll sbxorpion operators stad to ‘he right of al creation operators in each product of operators. Denoting the ‘normal product by Nt.) we have, for example, Neath) = ahah atk, G18) and NOON = NEU) + 6° COME") + 8-0 = NEG" "G] + NEHED-OD) 4 NEO" + NOIP"ON] 6) + EUW +6°S"O) + 6° CIE-O, oa) Where the order ofthe factors fs ben interchanged inthe second term ie all positve frequency parts 9" (which contain only absorption operator) Sand to the ight ofall negative fequency parts 9 (which contain only «xeation operator)! Normal ordering does nt fix the order of absorption ot exeation operators each amongst themselves, but since cach of these ‘ommute amongst thembelves such difrent way of writing. « normal ‘wut comment edn he toa pose NAB) ea ae feat rovuet are equal for example, exprsion (318) also uals alka). Hence in arranging a product of operators in nora oder, one simpy teats ‘em as though all commutators vanish. ‘Clearly, the vacuum expectation value of any normal product vanishes. We redefine the Lagrangian density 2 and all observables, such asthe energy ‘momentum or angular momentam of the fel, or their Jeni, as normal Feoduets Wearefte todo ths ait merely corresponds toa particular order ‘factors before quantization, With observable defined as normal products, their vacuum expectation values vanish. In parcular, Eqs. (18) and (16) P= Uti P) =F heath. 2 From the vacuum state 0) one constructs patie states in the sare way a seas done for photons in Section 12, For example, one-particle states are linear superpositions of 616), all; e21) two-paticle sates are linear superpositions of a7ye1K0>, all kand W 4h, 620m) pln, alk, G29 and soon. With the vacuum state normalized, ie. (0) = 1, he states (3.21) fare aio normalized. That isthe purpose of the factor Ij)? in Eq, (3210. Similar factors eur for more than two pats The particles of the Klein-Gordon feld are bosons: the occupation humbers can take on any value mk) =0, 1,2... Eg. (3.21) ilustrates sinother aspect of boson states: they are syometic under interchange of rte labels Since all creation operators commute witheach other, we have aah) = ok '0> om 32 THE COMPLEX KLEIN-GORDON FIELD! We shall now extend te treatment of the last section tothe complex Klein- Gordon itd. The new feature this introduces is as we know rom Section 2 ‘thatwecan assocateu conserved charge with the fill Forte real eld this was ‘ot possible, Weshall concentrate on his aspect ofaconservedcharge.Inother ‘expect he ral and complex fields ae very simila, and we shall only quote the mn revit leaving tension tothe render.For the complex Kiein-Gordon field, the Lagrangian density (35) is replaced by ¥ Wl? 1880), 02 where we have at once writen the quantized operator a «normal prot Bred Sina stan neds nyt asin oe cs OeM=8 sew 2 y= 4a weno 029 and the equal-time commutation relations (2.31) become [een 8X0) = ihe) [ot n= (oa. 9°.) = E4060, d0e.01}. 020) Bea, 810.01 = C606 ,408,00 = 0 ‘Analogously to Eqs. (48), we write the Fourier expansions ofthe fils as H=9'e9 90 =F(FE) Tae owe CaM Carne NW Ie Oa) cata = HE = Ca AE). “2 From the commutation relations (3.28) follows that we can interpret ok) and ak), and Bik) and Bk as absorption and creation operators of (49 {per of patles—we shall ell them apartiles and epartces and Nak) =aldethy, Ns) = ADH, 629) asthe coresponding number operators with eigenalves 1,2... Hence & ‘umber representation can be setup as before, with tates Coating a nd bbpartsles generated by tmeans ofthe cteation operators a and B from the ‘acum state 0) whichis now defined by sk) = Wk}0> = 0, al 300) ‘or equivalently by BP ERIO> = 90) =O, all x (0.308) expressed in tems of th absorption and eration operators the eneray ‘momentim operator (25) ofthe complex Klein-Ceordoa Held assumes the {oem we expeet, (1ie.8) = EMEA) +N) esp ‘We now turn 1 the charg. From the invariance ofthe Lagrangian density (223) under the phase transformation (2.1) felons the conservation of ‘charge 0, Ea. (242), which now takes the form, 0 Zit fence - dnote am “The corresponding charge-curent density is given by $00) = tte) = GEN 9-3 oy ich viol ties he cominy equation fold om {ixpressd in tem of creation and absorption operators Eg (332) becomes = aS (NAA - Ni) 635) which clearly commutes withthe Hamsitonin H, Ea. (30. Teollows rom Eq (3.3) that one must associate charges +g and —9 wth, sand particles, respectively. Apart frm the sign ofthe charge, a and be rraris have Identical properties. Furthermore, the theory i completly Symmetric between them, av one ses from Eqs (327)(838). Interchange Inga and b metely changes the sgn of Q. This revalts nt resected to spin bosons but hols generaly. The occurence of anipartles in. association with ll parties of nonzero charge sa fundamental feature of relaivi “qintum field theory which is ull vindicated by experiment. "An cuample af particle-antipartile pi isthe pt f charged p-mesons. Taking q = e(>0) one can enti the x"- and x "mesons with the and b= patie ofthe complex Kicin-Gordon feld.On th other hand fora real Tl the charge operator 0, By (3.32) oF (3.39), iidentialy zero, and sich a Fld coreesponds to neural meson, such asthe‘The above considerations ate not restricted to electric charge, The invariance of the Lagrangian density under phase ranformations would allow conservation of other adatve quantities which by analogy one would call some kind of charge other than electri. The above argument woul ead to the occurrence of pars of partic and antipartis aiflring fom each othe in the sign of his new kind of charge. Besse ofthis, even cectrily ‘neutral particles may possess antparticks. This situation docs occur ia nature. The elecrcally neural pueUdo-cilar K®-meson poseesees an a particle, the K'-meson, which sas electrically neural K® and R° posses ‘opposite hypercharge, Y= 41 and are represented by a complex Klein ‘Gordon eld Hypercharge is ery nearly conterved (unlike ele charge which s always exaly conserved) which why it a useful concep. To be Specific, hypercharge is comterved in the strong interactions which aze responsible for nuclear forces and associated production o strange particles, butitis ot conserve in the weak interactions (about 10" times Weaker than the strong interactions) responsible forthe decay of ange partie, Instead of tating the complex Klin-Gordon Bld direly in terms of and 6 as independent fields, as we have done, one can define two eal Klein-Gordon folds dy and) by 1 ets mito, 036) (tion and use thee as independent lls We shal not give the developmen in {erm ofthe el elds asthe twopproaces ar closely elated avery simic Sige he els ahd ee eal the erestion a annlton operators asocated with them cannot describe charged particles and it onl nea Combinations of them, coresponding tothe complex felds (136), whch deserbe charged partis. Consequently, when dealing. wth comerved ‘hargs tit antral more natural o work dey with he comple el 33. COVARIANT COMMUTATION RELATIONS Wile the equations of motion obtained using the Lagrangian formalism ate maniesty covariant, this # ot so obvious for the feld commutation relations derived by the canonical fermalsm, since these single out equa Times. Taking the real Klin- Gordon feld as typical example, we shall ilstrate the covariance ofthe commutation claion by caleulting the com- ‘mutator [ote 9) fortwo arbitrary space-time points x and y. Sine this commutators 2 salar, t mast equal an invariant fonction Writing 6 = 6" + 9", we note that [o°e.9°O) = LOWEN = oan since §°( ) contains only absorption (creation) operators [960,601 = 60. OLE CAYO, — 3H) and we ned only evaluate the fist commutator onthe right-hand side ofthis ‘squation From Eqs (38) one ota oa wy tanetone Emap) eee ~ 2087 Ja, oe. e-0 aun 039 whore we have taken the limit + 2 see E948}, ain the lst inte [y= aye, We introduce the definition aw “i (0 eae ome 40 ia ae mee singe this and related functions will ocur repeatedly Ea (3.3% ean then be [¥en 8°] = ihed"O = 9, ean and [o-(e.8" 91 = —iheat yp sient yh) 0. BITTE ity co. esl of eon 0) a ey as TEs ay] eww 8 lvor = (+9) 04 Te aA ae Lowe amma 6 ing i cal ee ee Sipe te bes in a Tendon aeae—n0-0 am ih ea es (6)! The an 2) mp at Studies bre 9h = 19629662910) 63) We define the tme-ordered or T-produet by hea" ~x) eae, he> Se, if > Atl Treen =f (1 x¥/6,ee) be: the operators are weten in chronological orer with timerunning from right co lf eale? operators operste ist Using the step oafh t1>0 ie =f) ey 654) ae the T-product ean be written i TECH] = 6 = NAEREL + AE — NBKRTBE). 55) j ‘The Feyaman Afenction Ay is defined by the vacium expectation value “ of this Tproduc: os Ite Aes — 1) = CMT dE 056 From Eas. (3.52) and (242) his leads to the explicit defisition ade, Bob) = BDAC) — BAU os Fig 33, Conibton rom oven etchant to meclon-aeon Ste Thus aparece iest Aes) = £440) itr 20 osm) "We would tke fo beable o visualize the meaning of dy, Fa. (3.56) For meson inthe direction of the arrow, om x tox or vce versa. Hence oF {> 1 this vacuum expectation value becomes Og(s6(0H0). Weean tak the vacuum expectation value (350) eterred toa the Feynman propagator this epression as represealing« meson being crested at © avelig to =, forthe mesons of the Klsi-Gordon fd. We shal bi eal the meson and being ansiisted at The coreaponding expresion fr > propagator, to distinguish trom the fermion and photon propagators Yo be admits a similar interpretation as a meson ereted a reduced ater. Dropssaing to where it absorbed. These tw situations are Miatrted "To ilustrate how these propsgators arse, we shall consider qualitatively Sschematcally in Fig 32. The dashed lines represent the propagation ef he nycleon-nuclon seating In his process there wile two nucleons but 0 Imesons present in the inital and inal sates (ie. belore and after the ‘eatterng). The scattering the interaction, cortesponds tothe exchange of ‘Virtual mesons between the nucleons The simplest such process the one : a tneson exchange schematically stated in Fig 33. The continuous fines rent the nclons the dashed ine the mesos As before, two stutions 7 [iuwaccording to whether! > or? > nthe actual cleulatin al values, / ti and are intersted ener, coresponding oemision and absorption of the meson occurring st any two space-time pont 4 ivi intresting to note that the dvson ito the two 1p of process (2) and () of Pig. 3.3, dspending on wheter ¢> oF > fis not Lorentz considering both cases together leads tothe covariant Feynman propagator {G50 which we represent bythe single diagram in Fig. 34 No ime-ordering Is implied inthis Gagram and correspondingly there is no arrow on the Fig 32. The meoe propagior (56 meson line, ‘We have bere introduced the ideas of Feynman graphs or diagrams. We The defn (5) wie modi femins shall deal with these uly ner and sal se that they rea most weal way of