CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORSIn the petroleum industry, gas is com- pressed for transportation to consuming markets and for refining processes. This program is about the construction and operation of compressors. Unit 3 of Compressors teaches the oper- ating principles of centrifugal and axial compressors and the construction and operation of centrifugal compressors.INSTRUCTIONS This is a programed learning course. Programed learning gives information in a series of steps called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks you to make use of it. Here is how it works. First, cover the response column at the right with a mask. Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the blank, A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure in thousandths of an inch, A micrometer is a good tool for measuring very differences in size. Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the frame. If you have filled the blank with that word or a word that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next frame. The drawing of a micrometer provides information that will help you fill in the next blanks. OBJECT TO BE MEASURED. ANVIL AYE THIMBLE SPINDLE To RATCHET CAP FRAME Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only the ____and the___contact the object to be measured. small anvil, spindleThe next frame calls for a choice. Circle or underline the ap- propriate word. Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil/ spindle) moves. A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you have just done. Read the frame. Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice. Move the mask down and check the response column. Go on to the next frame. Remember to cover the response column with a mask before you begin each page. Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside down, The program is designed so that you will go through all the right-hand pages first, and then turn the book upside down and go through the other pages. spindleCENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS Section One POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY Exhibits for this program are placed in the center of the book so that they may be removed easily for reference. Please remove them now so that you will have them available when needed. 10, 1. 12. To do work, some form of energy is needed. An electric motor needs —_____ energy. Under certain conditions, matter can do work. A wound-up clock spring ( can do work / cannot do work ). ‘A moving hammer, due to its motion, ( can / cannot ) do work, Both the moving hammer and the wound-up spring possess some kind of ________ that enables them to do work The hammer is moving and the spring is not. The energy of a moving hammer and the energy of a wound-up spring is ( the same /a different ) kind of energy, ‘A moving hammer and flowing water possess kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the energy that a body possesses due to its ( motion | molecular arrangement ). ‘A.wound spring and still water behind a dam have potential energy. Potential energy is the energy that a body possesses due to its position or _______ arrangement. When a spring is wound, _____is done on Because of the work that was done on it, the wound-up spring possesses potential Suppose a ball of iron is lifted 20 feet off the ground. Work was done in lifting the iron ball. The ball, due to its position, possesses _____ energy. The ball is allowed to drop. As the ball drops, it acquires energy, due to its motion. When the ball hits the ground, it does electric can do work can energy a different motion molecular work energy potential kinetic work13. Something possessing kinetic energy can do when it is slowed down or stopped. 14. Work is done in lifting the ball. Due to the work done on it, the ball acquires ______ energy. 15. The potential energy of the ball is turned into energy as the ball drops. 16. The kinetic energy in turn can be converted into as the ball is stopped. 17. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be converted from one_______ to another. 18. Potential energy can be converted into —___ energy or work. 19. Kinetic energy can be converted into ————___ energy. 20. As work is done on an object, some kind of is added to it. PRESSURE AND VELOCITY—TWO FORMS OF GAS ENERGY 21. When an amount of gas is compressed into a smaller volume, the pressure of the gas ( increases / stays the sams). 22, To compress the gas, some ________ has to be done to it. 23. Compressed gas in a static state exerts its energy in the all directions. form of pressuré When a gas is tlowing, some of its energy in the form of pressure is converted to energy in the form of motion in (a single direction / all directions ). work potential kinetic work form, or type kinetic potential energy increases work a single direction24, 25, ‘A compressed gas possesses potential energy due to the it exerts, A flowing gas possesses kinetic energy due to its . in one direction. 26. Gas ina static state has all of its energy in the form of only. 27. Velocity is the speed of flow. The higher the speed of flow, the higher the 28. If the gas is allowed to flow, some of its pressure is converted into —______. 29, The total energy of a flowing gas is a function of its velocity, plus its 30. If no work is done and no energy is lost, the total energy of a gas during flow ( changes / remains constant ). 31. When the total energy stays the same, and energy in the form of velocity increases, energy in the form of pressure must ( increase / decrease ). 32. If the flowing gas is slowed down so that its velocity is decreased, then its pressure must 33. Anything possessing potential energy must have had some done on it at some previous time. 34, A gas with pressure has had _________ done on it. 35. By doing work on something, one ( can / cannot ) increase its total energy. 36. A compressor does work on a gas and thus adds or in- creases the total____of the gas. LAWS OF MOTION 37. When a car accelerates quickly from rest, the driver is thrown (forward / backward ). 38. When the brakes are applied as the car is moving, the driver is thrown ( forward / backward ) 39. If the wheels of a moving car are turned, but there is no traction, as on ice, the car tends to ( turn / continue in a straight line ). 40. A body at rest tends to remain at ________. 41. A body in motion tends to continue in —_____. pressure ‘motion, or flow pressure velocity velocity pressure remains constant decrease energy backward forward continue in a straight line rest ‘motion42. When a body is in motion and there is no outside force acting on it, it tends to continue in a ( straight line / curved line ). straight line 43. When a driver turns his car, the car ( opposes / does not oppose ) the change of direction. ‘opposes 44, A body at rest remains at rest unless it is acted upon by some outside —_____. force 45. Ifa gas in a pipe is not flowing, the gas tends to ( remain static / flow ). remain static DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS 48. A dynamic compressor adds energy to gas in the same manner that an electric fan does. The rotating blades of the fan force air to—___. move, or flow 47. Air that at rest tends to remain at —____. rest 48. As the fan blades start turning, they push on the air. The stationary ai the push of the blades. resists49. 50. 51. 82. 53. 54. 56. 87. As the air resists the blades, the molecules of the air are brought ( closer together / further apart ). When the air molecules are compressed, the volume of the air ( decreases | increases ) As the volume of the air decreases, its pressure The blades of the fan overcome the resistance of the air and thrust the air forward. The faster the blades turn, the ( faster / slower ) the air is pushed. The fan, by doing work on the air, actually increases the and velocity of the air. When velocity and pressure are added to a gas, its total energy A dynamic compressor increases total gas energy by adding —_____ and _______ to the gas. The total energy of a gas leaving a compressor is ( less than / greater than ) the total energy of the gas entering the compressor. The energy that a gas gains in a compressor is due to the —___done on it. Centrifugal Compressors 58. 88. Any body set in motion tends to continue in motion. If there is no gravity pull, nor any obstacle to deflect it, any body in motion travels in a ( straight / curved ) line. ‘Suppose a ball attached to a string is set in motion. Assume that there is no gravity and that the string has no effect on the ball. BALL STRING The ball moves in a ( circle / straight line ) closer together decreases increases faster pressure increases pressure, velocity greater than work straight straight line60. Suppose the string is fastened to a fixed pivot point and then the ball is set in motion aad FIXED PIVOT POINT At first, the ball moves ( in the direction of motion / toward the pivot in the direction of motion 61. When the string becomes taut, it deflects the ball. Because of the deflection, the ball actually travels in a (an) —_______. arc, or circle62. Assuming it has enough energy, the ball continues to move in aseries of arcs. At each instant of its travel, the physical tendency of the ball is to travel ina_________line. straight 63. But instead, the ball travels in a circle because it is held or deflected by the —__. string 64, The string actually applies centripetal ( pulling-in- toward-the-center ) force, causing the path of the ball to___ change, or curve 65. If the string breaks, the ball flies out in a ( larger circle / straight line ) straight line 66. Any object traveling in a circle is kept in that path of travel by ( centripetal / centrifugal ) force centripetal 67. If the centripetal force is eliminated, the object then moves in a—____ line. straight 68. The force pulling an object in a circular path toward the center is ______ force. centripetal 69. The centrifugal tendency of the object is its tendency to pull away from the ______ of rotation, or to pull center against the centripetal force. 70. The centrifugal tendency acts in ( the same direction as / the direction opposite to ) the centripetal force. the direction opposite to71. 72. 73. 74, The centrifugal tendency is actually not a force but is the result of the tendency of the object to move in a ————__ line white being pulled toward a center straight of rotation by ___ force. centripetal A ball bearing is placed close to the center of a disc that has blades. BALL BEARING BLADES As the disc begins to move, one of the blades forces the ball bearing to __. move The ball bearing tends to travel in a ( straight / curved ) straight path. The drawing shows the actual path of the ball bearing as the disc rotates. Centripetal ( pulling-in-toward-the-center ) force ( is / is not ) acting on the bearing. isnot Because of the lack of centripetal force, the bearing is forced ( toward / away from ) the center of the disc. away from76. As the disc rotates, the ball bearing ( is / is not ) in 7. 79. at. contact with the vane. This disc is rotating, For each rotation, point (A / 8 ) has the largest distance to cover. When the disc is rotating, point ( A / 8 ) moves faster. Anything that is being carried along by the rotation of the disc has a greater velocity when it is near ( the center / the outer rim ) of the disc. If anything being carried along by the rotation of the disc also travels outward from the center to the outer rim, it gains This is a compressor impeller. PLATES An impeller is made of two plates separated by the outer rim velocity blades82. 85. 87. 88. 89. ‘Suppose the impeller begins to rotate. As the impeller rotates, the blades force the air in the impeller to Air molecules tend to travel in a line. Because there is no centripetal force, the rotation forces the air molecules outward from the _____ of the impeller. As the air molecules move outward, they gain The air also tends to oppose the push of the blades, so the pressure of the air is The impeller adds both ______and to the air. The tendency of air or gas to move outward from the center of a rotating impeller is the centrifugal tendency. A compressor that uses centrifugal tendency to impart pressure and velocity to a gas is a compressor. The part of the centrifugal compressor that moves the gas is the impeller. As the impeller rotates, it moves the gas toward the rim of the impeller. 10 move straight center, or eye velocity, or speed increased Pressure, velocity centrifugal outer91. 92. 93. 94. 95. As the gas moves toward the outer rim of the impeller, its velocity . This increase in velocity away from the eye creates a low- pressure area at the ( eye / outer rim ). This low-pressure area at the eye causes a suction which (allows / does not allow ) more gas to enter. The impeller does work on the gas. The work is converted into the _____ that the gas gains. ‘The energy that the gas gains is in the form of both OR ge When the gas is at the tips of the impeller blades, it is at (maximum / minimum } velocity. As the gas leaves the impeller, it is thrust into a passage- way called the diffuser. When the gas enters the diffuser, the impeller (is / is not ) acting directly on the gas. " increases allows energy pressure, velocity maximum. isnot97. The radius of the diffuser is ( larger / smaller ) than the larger radius of the impeller. 98. Due to the larger radius, the flow path of the gas through the diffuser is in a ( larger / smaller ) spiral. larger 99. Since the flow path is longer and there is no direct action by the impeller blades, the velocity of the gas (increases / decreases ). decreases 100. As the velocity of the gas decreases, its —_____ pressure increases. 101. The diffuser converts the velocity of the gas to increased pa ae pressure 102. Gas passes from the diffuser into the volute. DIFFUSE! In the volute, the conversion from velocity to pressure (continues / does not continue ). continues 103. A centrifugal compressor, by doing work on a gas, imparts both and _______ to the gas. pressure, velocity 104, Then, the velocity of the gas is converted into pressure (within / outside of ) the compressor. within 12105, 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. m1 112. 113. Look at the compressor below. DIFFUSERS > te IMPELLERS Ithas ___ separate impellers. Each impeller and diffuser make a stage. This is a “stage centrifugal compressor. As the gas leaves the first impeller it gains some and The increased velocity is partially converted into pressure in the As the gas leaves the diffuser, it enters the return passage, which guides it into the —________ of the next impeller. When the gas enters the eye of the second impeller, it has (greater pressure than / the same pressure as ) when it entered the eye of the first impeller. Each impeller adds to the total of the gas. Greater increased pressure can be obtained from a (single-stage / multi-stage ) centrifugal compressor. Although velocity is added to gas by the impeller, the velocity is converted into within the diffuser. 13 four four velocity, pressure diffuser eye greater pressure than energy multi-stage pressure114. When the gas leaves the compressor, its pressure is (higher / lower ) than when it entered. 115. The work done by a compressor is the total added to a gas by a compressor. 116. A gas leaving a compressor contains added energy, usually in the form of increased ( pressure / velocity ) and temperature. ‘Axial Compressors 117. Motion along the axis of a shaft is called axial motion. CENTRIFUGAL AXIAL Axial motion is ( circular / straight-line ) motion. 118. A compressor that moves gas parallel to the axis of its shaft is an_______ compressor. 119. An axial compressor has stator and rotor blades. ROTOR BLADES SHAFT The rotor blades are attached to the rotate with it. and 14 higher energy pressure straight- axial shaft120. The stator blades are attached to the 121. Look at this drawing. STATOR BLADES DAAUA CASING The arrangement of blades is such that there is a set of stator blades between each two sets of. blades. 122. The rotor blades act in the same manner as the blades of afan. As they rotate, they force the gas to 123. The rotor blades impart both pressure and to the gas. 124. The rotor blades force the gas into the _ blades. 125. As the gas is thrust into the stator blades, the openings between the blades act as diffusers, thus decreasing the of the gas. 126. With the decrease in velocity, the pressure of the gas 127. The stator blades also guide the gas into the next set of _______blades. 128. Thus, the gas entering the second set of rotor blades has a slightly ( higher / lower ) pressure. 129. Each set of stator and rotor blades ____________ the gas pressure. 130. The axial compressor achieves pressure increase by using many sets of ______and____blades. 15 casing rotor move, or flow velocity stator velocity increases rotor higher increases stator, rotor131. The blades in this compressor are not the same size. DISCHARGE The blades get gradually smaller toward the end of the compressor. 192. As the gas flows through an axial compressor, it is forced to occupy successively ( more / less } volume. 133. As an amount of gas is forced to occupy less volume, its pressure 134, The parts of the axial compressor that do work on the gas are the 1. ___ blades. 195. Partial conversion from velocity to pressure is achieved by the __-.__ blades. 188. Further pressure increase is caused by forcing the gas into a smaller 187. The flow of gas through an axial compressor is in a (somewhat straight / spiral ) line of flow. REVIEW and 138. Two forms of gas energy are 138. Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can be from one form to another. 140. By doing work on a gas, a compressor can add to the ga 141. The total energy of a flowing gas is a function of its — __, —______ and temperature. 16 discharge increases rotor stator space, or volume somewhat straight pressure velocity changed, or converted energy pressure, velocity142. When the velocity of a gas decreases, its pressure 143. When a flowing gas is slowed down, the velocity loss is converted into 144, During flow, the total energy of a gas, less energy loss due to friction or heat ( changes / remains constant ) 145. Centrifugal and axial compressors are ( dynamic / po: displacement ) compressors. 146. In dynamic compressors, added velocity is changed into within the compressor. 147. The function of both diffusers and volutes is to convert gas ____into. 148. The stator blades of an axial compressor act as ( diffusers / impellers ). 149. The total energy gain of a gas leaving a compressor is due to the ______done by the compressor. RATIO OF COMPRESSION 150. A compressor is a machine that by doing work on a gas increases gas. 151. A gas normally enters a compressor at one pressure and leaves it at a ( higher / lower ) pressure. 152. The difference between the suction pressure and the discharge pressure represents the —_________ done on the gas by the compressor less losses due to heat and friction. 153. The ratio of compression, R, is the relationship between the absolute discharge pressure and the absolute suction pressure, P2/P:, where P2 is absolute pressure. 154. P sis absolute ______ pressure. 155. R is how many times the suction pressure goes into the pressure, 156. In determining R, ( absolute / gage ) pressure is used. 157. Gages are usually calibrated to read zero pressure at atmospheric conditions. They ( do/ do not ) record the pressure of the atmosphere. 7 increases pressure remains constant dynamic pressure velocity; pressure diffusers work pressure higher work discharge suction discharge absolute do notCENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS, EXHIBIT BOOK This center section contains the exhibits. It may be pulled out of the book for easy reference without up- setting the frame sequence,EXHIBIT 1 Allovdv9 Galva 100% POINT 104% RATED RPM & 2 es 3 g 8 BOUVHOSIO LV GV3H GaLVY 40 % 80 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 % OF RATED CAPACITYEXHIBIT 2 STARTUP PROCEDURE — TURBINE DRIVEN COMPRESSOR Pressure In System © open suction valve © open discharge valve (discharge check valve closed) © open bypass or vent start and bring up to speed (operating path passes through points 1, 2, and 3) * close bypass or vent * place bypass or vent on automatic control No Pressure In System © open suction and discharge valves « place bypass or vent (if used) on automatic control « start and bring up to speed (operating path passes through points 1, 2, and 3) STARTUP PROCEDURE — MOTOR DRIVEN COMPRESSOR Pressure In System * throttle suction valve # open discharge valve (discharge check valve is closed, bypass or vent is normally open) ‘start and bring up to speed (operating path passes through points 1, 2, and 3) * open suction valve slowly place bypass or vent (if used) on automatic control No Pressure In System ¢ throttle suction valve open discharge valve open bypass or vent « start unit (operating path passes through points 1,2, and 3) ‘slowly open suction valve ‘put bypass or vent on automatic control HEAD (ay 80% SPEED ‘CAPACITY NORMAL CAPACITY mit NORMAL CAPACITY mit158. Absolute pressure is total pressure. To convert from gage pressure { PSIG ), to absolute pressure (PSIA ), the pressure of the __-___ must be added. 159. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 14.7 PSI. When a gage reads 20 PSIG at sea level, the absolute pressure is ___ PIA. 160. A compressor takes in gas at atmospheric pressure, 14.7 PSIA, and discharges it at 58.8 PSIG. Suotion pressure ig _____PSIA. 161. The absolute discharge pressure is 58.8 + PSIA, 162. The R for this compressor is 73.5 163. A compressor takes in gas at 20 PSIA and discharges it at 60 PSIA. The Ris 164. Since compression always increases gas pressure, the discharge pressure during compression is always (higher lower ) than the suction pressure. 165. Since discharge pressure is always higher than suction pressure during compression, R is always ( smaller / greater ) than 1 166. R is an abbreviation for _______ of compression 167. A compressor with an R of 2 takes in gas at 20 PSIA. The discharge pressure is ( 20/2/20 2 ) PSIA. 168. Ris an indicator of the amount of _______ that the compressor adds to the gas. 169. The greater the R, the greater the _______ increase in the gas. CAPACITY OF COMPRESSORS 170. The capacity of a compressor is the volume of gas it moves in a given period of time. Cubic feet per minute (CFM) indicates the ( capacity / volume } of a compressor. 18 atmosphere 34,7 147 14.7 73.5 147 higher greater ratio 20x2 pressure pressure capacity471. The flow rate of a gas in CFM depends on the velocity of the gas and the diameter of the pipe or flow path. At the same velocity, the rate in CFM is higher if the gas is flowing through a ( larger / smaller ) diameter passage. 172. With the same size passage, the flow rate is higher when the gas flows at a higher —_. 173. When the velocity of a gas flowing through a com- pressor increases, then the capacity of the compressor 174, If the gas velocity at discharge is greater, then the pres- sure at discharge is —_. 175. Since a compressor compresses the gas that it handles, the volume of gas entering the compressor is ( greater than / less than ) the volume leaving the compressor. 176. The capacity of a compressor is the volume of gas that it moves in a given period of time. The actual CFM that a compressor moves represents the volume of gas ( before/after ) compression. 177. The actual CFM, must be measured at the ( suction / discharge ) end. REVIEW 178. stands for the |__~__ of compression. 179. R indicates the amount of _________ increase that occurs to the gas due to the compressor. 180. In determining R, ( gage / absolute ) pressure is used. 181. The capacity of a compressor is the —______ of gas that a compressor moves in a given period of time. 182, The actual CFM represents the volume of the gas moved in a given period of time ( before / after ) compression. 183. The capacity limit of a compressor represents the (maximum / minimum ) rate of flow of gas through it. 184. When a dynamic compressor nears its capacity limit, its efficiency ( increases / falls off ) 185. For maximum efficiency, a dynamic compressor should be operated ( at / at less than ) its capacity limit. : 19 larger velocity increases less, or decreased greater than before suction ratio pressure absolute amount, or volume before maximum. falls off at less thanFOOT-POUNDS AND HORSEPOWER 186. A unit for measuring work is the foot-pound. One foot-pound is the amount of work needed to raise a weight of one _________ a distance of one 187. When a weight of one pound is raised a distance of 100 feet, —_\- foot-pounds of work is done. 188, Horsepower is a unit for measuring power. One horsepower is equal to 550 foot-pounds per second. Horsepower is a unit that measures the ( amount of work done / rate at which work is done ). 189. A machine rated at one horsepower, if allowed to operate for one minute is capable of doing 60 x. = 00 -pounds of work. 190. To raise @ weight of one pound a distance of 33,000 feet, foo -pounds of work are required. 191. To raise a weight of one pound a distance of 33,000 feet in ‘one minute, one. ____ is needed. 192. A foot-pound represents ( amount / rate ) of work HEAD OF COMPRESSION 193. To compress any amount of gas, a compressor must do a certain amount of ——__— on the gas. 194. The amount of work that is done by the compressor can be expressed in = 20 pound foot 100 rate at which work is done 550 33,000 33,000 horsepower amount work foot-pounds195. The work of compression can be thought of as straight lifting of a given weight of gas. For every pound of gas that the compressor lifts a dis- tance of one foot, one _-__ of work is done. foot-pound. 196. This centrifugal compressor is lifting a gas, GAS LEVEL HEAD IN FEET The height to which the gas is lifted is called be head and is measured in feet 197. To lift the gas, the compressor ( increases / decreases } increases the velocity of the gas. 198. Ina compressor, the velocity of a gas is increased by an cre impeller 199, When the speed of the impeller is increased, the velocity of the gas —_.. increases 200. Because of its velocity, the gas will be lifted a certain number of —____ feet 201. The height to which the gas is lifted depends on the of the gas. velocity 202. When the velocity of the gas increases, the head devel- oped by the compressor 1. ' increases 203. The head that the compressor develops represents the the height to which a column of gas is ___ lifted, or raised 21204. When the unit of weight is in pounds, for each foot of distance this liquid is raised, one ————_____- of work is done. 205. When compression is thought of as straight lifting of a column of gas, the head in feet represents the output of the compressor in foot-__ per _____ of gas handled. 206. For each pound of gas that the compressor raises to the top of the head column, a corresponding amount of of work is needed. 207. If the head increases, the number of foot-pounds of work per pound of gas must —_______. RPM AND HORSEPOWER 208. RPM is an abbreviation for______ per minute. 209. The impeller of a centrifugal compressor has to to move the gas. 210. As the RPM of the impeller increases, the velocity of the pe 211. The work done by the impeller is reflected in the imparted to the gas. 212. The faster the RPM of the impeller, the ( more / less ) work is done on the gas. 213. For any given RPM, a set amount of work in units of __-______ is done per unit weight of gas. 214. For any given RPM, the head developed by the compressor is fairly (constant / variable ) 215. The density of various gases, or the weight per given volume differs, ‘A gas with a higher density weighs ( more / less ) for the same volume as a less dense gas. 216. However, for any given RPM of the compressor, the work done per pound of gas handled is ( the same / different ). 217. When a compressor at a given RPM is handling a heavier gas, the work it does per pound of gas handled is ( the same as / different from ) the work done on a pound of a lighter gas. 22 pound pounds; pound foot-pounds increase revolutions rotate, or revolve increases velocity more foot-pounds constant more the same the same as,218. Head represents the amount of foot-pounds of work done per unit weight. For the same RPM when a compressor is handling a heavier gas, the head it develops ( remains the same / changes ) 219. A compressor at a given RPM handles two different kinds of gas. The gas that requires the larger volume per given weight is ( denser / less dense ). 220. The amount of work done per each unit of weight is ( the same different) for both gases. 221. The gas that has the most units of weight per given volume is vn 222. The gas that results in the highest discharge pressure for the same head developed is ( the denser gas / the less dense gas } 223. Ata given RPM, the actual CFM of gas that the compressor moves is constant, but with a denser gas there will be { more / fewer) pounds of gas moved. 224. Ata given RPM, as more weight of gas is handled in a given time, the work done per pound ( remains the same / increases ). 225. Although the work per pound is the same, the number of pounds of gas worked on. in a given time ( increases / stays unchanged ) with a denser gas. 226. With an increase of weight handled for a given time, the rate of work ( increases / decreases ). 227. With an increase in the rate of work there is an increase in_________ required to compress the gas. 228. At any given RPM, when a compressor handles a heavier gas, the horsepower required —___ REVIEW 229. Work can be measured in units of —___-__ 280. The rate of work done is usually expressed in units of 231, When the work of compression is thought of as straight lifting of a weight of gas, then head represents the output of a compressor in. — per pound of gas handled. 23 remains the same less dense the same denser the denser gas more remains the same increases increases horsepower increases foot-pounds horsepower foot-pounds232, 233. 236. 237. 238. 239. 240. As the head developed increases, the amount of work done on each unit of weight of gas handled At any given RPM, the work done by the compressor on each pound of gas handled is ( nearly constant / variable ) The density of a gas does not affect the —___ developed, but does affect the needed. When a denser gas is handled, the discharge pressure for the same RPM When RPM increases, there is ( more | less) work done per unit weight. With an increase of RPM, there is ( an increase | no change ) in the head developed. ‘As the RPM increases, the capacity of the compressor increases and the amount of weight of gas handled per given time With an increase in RPM, the horsepower Maximum head at any given RPM represents the ( maxi- mum | minimum ) amount of work that a compressor can do on each ______ of gas handled. R, RPM AND BHP. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. The ratio of compression, R, is the absolute ——__ pressure divided by the absolute —— pressure. Ris an indicator of the amount of ____________ that the compressor adds to the gas. ‘Ata set RPM, a dynamic compressor adds a certain head to the gas. The total head added depends on the design of the compressor, the amount of flow, and the operating As RPM increases, the total head of the compressor ‘Ata fixed RPM and CFM, the dynamic compressor attains approximately the same feet of head, regardless of the ‘weight of the gas handled, The head developed by a dynamic compressor ( depends / does not depend ) on the density of the gas being handled Feet of head ( can / cannot ) be converted into PSI equivalent. 24 increases nearly constant head horsepower Increases more an increase increases increases maximum pound, or weight discharge suction pressure RPM, or speed increases does not depend can247. PSI (can / cannot ) be converted into feet of head. 248. Two compressors handling two different kinds of gas develop the same head. The compressor generating the highest discharge pressure is handling the ( denser / less dense ) gas. 249. The density of a gas does not affect the head developed, but does affect the ________ pressure. 250. The compressor with the higher R is handling the —luice gas. 251. The Ror pressure increase at the compressor ( depends / does not depend } on gas density. 252. As the density of a gas increases, the R of the compressor 253. Changes in the density of the gas do not change the (head / R ), but they do change the (head / R ). 254. As suction pressure increases, the compressor causes a higher discharge _._____ for the same head and R. 255. As temperature increases at suction, the gas is lighter and the same head causes a ( higher / lower) R 258. BHP or brake horsepower, is the horsepower that is required by the shaft of the compressor. As a gas becomes heavier the BHP required 257. Because of wide variations in gas density, the BHP re- quired by a dynamic compressor tends to ( change / re- main constant ) while the compressor is in operation. SURGING 258. Suppose a compressor is connected to a large system having a high capacity or needing large amounts of air. Because there is a demand for air, when the compressor is started there is (little / great ) resistance to the discharge of the air. 259. With little resistance at the discharge end of the com- pressor, the compressor capacity at first is ( high / low ). 260. As more air is delivered and the system fills, the capacity need of the system ( is reduced / stays the same ) 261. If the system dées not use the air as quickly as the compressor delivers it, the pressure in the system 25 can denser discharge denser depends increases head; R pressure lower increases change little high is reduced increases262. 263. 264. 265. 266. 267, 268. 269. 270. art 272. 273. 274. 275. 276. With an increase in pressure in the system, the resistance to the discharge of the compressor An increase in resistance to discharge causes the capacity of the compressor to As pressure in the system increases, the compressor has to do ( more / less ) work per pound of air. The maximum head of a dynamic compressor represents the maximum amount of —________it can do on the gas to maintain flow. If the system continues to use less air than is delivered to it, the system's pressure keeps increasing and the head required to maintain flow keeps When the head needed to maintain flow increases above the maximum head of the compressor, flow —— When the flow stops, the pressure within the compressor becomes less than the pressure in the system, and the air may flow from the into the —__. After some air flows back into the compressor or is used by the system, the pressure of the system As the pressure of the system drops below the maximum head of the compressor, the compressor again delivers gas into the ‘As the compressor begins to deliver gas again, it operates at a lower and lower capacity and higher and higher If the system still uses less air than is delivered to it, the compressor reaches its maximum head and the flow stoppage (occurs / does not occur ) again. ‘The rapid flow of gas back and forth in the compressor is called surging. Surging occurs when the compressor is operated below minimum —— The rapid reversals of surging set up severe vibrations in the compressor and piping which can cause to the compressor. ‘A compressor goes into surging because the flow of gas ( drops below / rises above ) the minimum stable level. Most dynamic compressors are equipped with protective devices that guard the compressor against —____. 26 increases decrease more work increasing stops system; compressor decreases system head, or pressure occurs capacity damage drops below surgingOPERATING CHARACTERISTICS Now refer to Exhibit 1. 277. 278. 279. 280, 281 282. ® 284. 286, 286. 287, 288. The left-hand edge of the graph shows percent of rated A point higher on the graph indicates a ( higher / lower ) head. The bottom edge of the graph shows percent of rated A point further to the right on the graph indicates ( higher / lower ) capacity. The graph shows that as head increases, capacity The compressor is discharging into a system that requires 100 percent of its rated head. According to the graph, the compressor is operating at ___________ percent capacity. ‘Suppose the discharge system does not use as much gas as the compressor delivers. The pressure at the discharge end of the compressor (increases / decreases ). The graph shows that as the required head (or pressure) ‘expressed in feet of gas increases, compressor capacity Suppose the head at discharge necessary to maintain flow reaches 102 percent of normal rated head. The head/capacity curve shows that at 102 percent head, capacity is reduced to percent of normal capacity. If pressure in the discharge system increases so that the compressor must produce 104 percent of normal rated head to maintain flow, capacity decreases to. percent of normal rated capacity. Locate the surge line on the head/capacity curve. ‘As shown on the graph, the operating point of the com- pressor at 104 per cent rated head is ( closer to / further from ) the surge line than the operating point at 102 per- cent rated head. As the head necessary to maintain flow increases, the operating point of the compressor ( approaches / recedes from ) the surge line. ar head higher capacity higher decreases 100 increases decreases 70 closer to approaches289. According to the graph, this compressor begins surging at__/.__percent rated head. 290. Capacity at surge is ——______ capacity _ percent rated Interpretation of Curves 291. Performance curves show the limits of the compressor, which are the surge point on the ( right / left ) and the normal capacity limit on the of the graph. 292. Compression is controlled by making permissible changes in pressure, flow and temperature, to keep the compressor from ‘ 293. The point where surge can occur is defined by the end of the curve. 294. Increasing the speed of a compressor will ( increase / decrease ) the generated head. 295. Increasing the speed will also increase the required for compression 296. On a constant-speed compressor with a fixed suction pressure, an increase in discharge pressure always causes (a decrease / an increase ) in capacity and ( an increase / a decrease ) in R. 297. The reduction in capacity causes a_______in the BHP required, 298. If less volume of gas is required, the compressor should be operated at a ( higher / lower ) speed. EPRECTS OF EXTERNAL SYSTEMS ON A COMPRESSOR 299. Some processes require a given weight of gas or air for any given time of operation. For example, a cat cracker requires enough air by weight to maintain the effectiveness of the catalyst. When a compressor is delivering into such a system, the main control objective is ( volume / weight ) flow. 300. For any given time, the requirement of such systems (constant / variable ). 301. Therefore, a compressor in such a system must deliver a _) ____-weight flow for any given operative time. 28 105 50 left right surging left increase BHP a decrease an increase decrease lower weight constant constant302, 303. 304, 306. 307. 308. 309, 310. att. 312. 313, In other systems, as with the production of light ends in a fractionating tower or yard air, gas must be delivered or taken out as the need arises. With such systems, the flow of gas is ( constant / variable ). With a compressor working in such systems, the objective is to move a ______ quantity of gas only at the rate it is produced or is —__. Maintaining a flow equal to make means moving gas as fast as it is ( produced / used }; and maintaining a flow equal to demand means moving gas as fast as it is ( produced / used ) There can be three basic contro! objectives with com- pressors: aconstant __/__ flow of gas; variable flow equal to ___; or variable tlow equal to Depending on the discharge systems, the change in dis- charge pressure may be large or small depending on the volume delivered to it. If the change is very small, it may be regarded as a (constant / variable ) -pressure system. If the change in discharge pressure is large, then it must be regarded as a___-pressure system. Drivers used with compressors either are constant-speed or ___-speed drivers. Steam turbines are variable-speed drivers. Electric motors, on the other hand, are normally -speed drivers. Most steam turbines have governors that control their Neither the basic control objectives nor the system char- acteristics change the method of control. With steam-turbine-driven compressors, a process signal is used to activate the governor to raise or the speed ‘As the speed of the compressor is increased, the mass or weight flow throug! As the speed. is lowered, the mass flow is also 29 variable variable needed produced used weight make demand constant variable variable constant speed, or RPM lower increases lowered314. Whenever mass flow increases, the horsepower required wolf 315. When mass flow is decreased by a decrease in speed, the actual CFM is always ( reduced / increased ) 316. When the actual CFM through a compressor is reduced, the compressor moves ( closer to / further away from ) surge. 317. Constant-speed machines are usually equipped with either variable guide vanes or a suction throttle. When the guide vanes are closed, they ( reduce / increase ) mass flow. 318. When the suction valve is throttled, the suction pressure is ( reduced / increased ). 319. With a reduction in suction pressure, the density of the gas is _______ and the total gas flow in pounds is 320. If the suction is throttled and the discharge pressure is not reduced, the actual CFM through the compressor usually (increases / decreases ). 321. Reducing mass flow by throttling may either reduce or oS the actual CFM, 322. A flow meter is a control element that can be used for constant-weight flow. When the control objective is constant-weight flow, the flow meter is placed at the (discharge / suction ) end of the compressor. 323. A pressure controller is a control element for meeting the objective of flow equal to make or demand. For flow equal to demand, the pressure controller is placed at the ____ end of the compressor. 324. For flow equal to make, the pressure controller is placed atthe end of the compressor. Review 325. There are three basic control objectives, constant- flow, and variable flow equal to , or variable flow equal to 326. The two basic system characteristics are —_____ discharge pressure and ________ discharge pres- sure systems. 327. Turbine drivers normally have governors to control their closer to reduce reduced decreased reduced decreases increase discharge discharge suction weight make, demand constant variable speed, or RPM328. A flow meter is used to control constant- ( volume/ weight ) flow. 329. A pressure controller is used to meet the delivery of (variable / constant ) flow of gas as needed. 330. Dynamic compressors operating into fixed pressure systems are usually instrumented to protect against 7 PERFORMANCE FEATURES 331. Dynamic compressors do not perform in the same way that positive displacement compressors do. A positive displacement compressor first traps a volume of gas and then the gas into a smaller volume. 332. The alternate trapping and displacement of gas is the operating principle of the ( positive displacement / dynamic ) compressor. 333. Gas is not trapped, but tlows continuously through the ‘compressor. 384, Because of simple construction, the dynamic compressor usually requires ( more | less ) maintenance. 336. Dynamic compressors tend to take more horsepower for compression than positive displacement compressors and thus they have a ( higher / lower } efficiency. 336. The dynamic compressor is an economic choice where the lower first costs and lower maintenance costs offset the effects of their reduced 337. The dynamic compressor is normally more economic when the volume of gas handled is ( large / small). 398. In general, axial compressors are used for relatively low heads and relatively high 339, For large capacities and high heads, ( an axial | a centrifugal ) compressor is used. 340. The head through a positive displacement compressor tends to vary. The head of a dynamic compressor at any operating point tends to remain ( constant / variable ). 341. For compressing large volumes of gas through rel constant heads and Rs, a is used. ively ‘compressor 31 weight variable surge displaces, or forces positive displacement dynamic lower efficiency large capacities centrifugal constant dynamicCENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS Section 2 CONSTRUCTION OF COMPRESSORS 1. There are two casing designs for centrifugal compressors. HORIZONTALLY SPLIT CASING > The horizontally split casing is in two halves that are together to form a tight enclosure. bolted 2. When the top half of the horizontally split casing is removed, all the internal components ( are easily acces- sible / must be removed from the case }. are easily accessible 32This is a vertically split casing. Some vertically split casings have only one removable side, the other side being part of the casing. VERTICALLY SPLIT CASING it is sealed by two _____which are bolted to the ends of the casing. To reach all the working components in the vertically split casing, the cover has to be pulled and the internal com- ponents must be _____ from the case. For easier accessibility of the internal working components of a compressor, the ———_ casing is preferred. When the compressor is operating, the pressure inside the ‘compressor is ( higher / lower ) than the outside pressure. The casing must be so constructed as to {gas from escaping through it. In the vertically split casing, joints through which gas can escape are only at the of the casing. In the horizontally split casing, the joint through which gas can escape is of a ( larger / smaller } area than in the vertically split casing. 33 covers removed, or pulled horizontally split higher prevent end larger10. 11. 12, 13, 14. ‘Compare the gas flow in these two cases. VERTICALLY SPLIT The high pressure is in contact with the joint more in the (horizontally / vertically ) split compressor. The casing that requires the most sealing area is the split casing. Some gases, such as hydrogen, under high pressure are extremely hard to contain, Under high pressure, hydrogen is better contained in a (vertically / horizontally ) split casing. When a compressor is used for moderate to high pressure service, to minimize the chances of leaks, @ split casing is used. The casing that allows the easiest accessibility to the internal components of a centrifugal compressor is the (vertically / horizontally ) split casing. 34 horizontally horizontally vertically vertically horizontally15. The casing that minimizes the possibility of leaks is the split casing. vertically CONSTRUCTION DETAILS ~ Impellers 16. The part of the centrifugal compressor that adds velocity to the gas is the —___. impeller 17. There are three basic impeller designs. Used for high heads and small to large flow in single stage compressors only Used for large flow, usually in single stage compressors, or as the first stage in multi- stage compressors SEMI-ENCLOSED Used mainly in multi-stage compressors ENCLOSED The flow of gas is least controlled in the —____ ‘open impeller. 18. Multistage compressors usually have ————____ enclosed impellers. 19. In the enclosed impeller, the gas is drawn into the and flows out of the edge or rim. eye 3520. Flow of gas is most controlled in the ( open / semi- enclosed / enclosed ) impeller. enclosed 21. The impeller is shrunk onto, and rotates with, the shaft. The impeller is prevented from turning on the shaft by a key 22. An unbalanced or loose impeller ( vibrates / does not vibrate ). vibrates 23. To prevent vibration, the impeller must be shrunk onto the shaft, and well —_____. balanced Diaphragms 24. A multi-stage centrifugal compressor contains diaphragms. DIFFUSERS RETURN PASSAGES DIAPHRAGM IMPELLERS The diaphragms are located between the —__. impellers 3625. Look at this drawing. DIAPHRAGMS RETURN PASSAGE DIFFUSER: | IMPELLER’ Adjacent walls of the diaphragms form a passage called the —__. diffuser 26. After the gas travels through the diffuser, it enters the return passage which guides it into the next —_______. impeller 27. The diaphragms are usually made of cast iron or other hard metal such as steel and ( rotate / do not rotate ) with do not rotate the shaft. 3728. Some diaphragms are liquid cooled. The drawing shows a cut-away view of a liquid-cooled diaphragm. 4, DISCHARGE DIAPHRAGM WATER This diaphragm has an intake and ___ tube. discharge 29. The inside of the diaphragm has a passageway through which water, for example, can —___. flow, or circulate 30. If the water circulating through the diaphragm is cool enough, the temperature of the diaphragm can be reduced 31. When the gas leaves the impeller and travels through the diffuser and return passage, it is in contact with the outside walls of the diaphragm32. The diaphragms serve as cooling systems for the gas within the . Guide Vanes 33. Guide vanes may be either permanent or replaceable. Usually, they are ahead of each impeller eye. IMPELLER GUIDE VANES These vanes are designed to guide the flow of gas efficiently into the eye of the —_. 34. The guide vanes in multi-stage centrifugal compressors are placed at the end of the return passage of the 39 compressor impeller diaphragm35. The gas that leaves an impeller passes thr diffuser passage and in the return passage is guided by ——_____ —_______ into the next impeller. guide vanes 36. Inlet guide vanes can be adjustable. ADJUSTABLE INLET GUIDE VANES. ADJUSTABLE INLET GUIDE VANES IMPELLER EYE With adjustable vanes, the angle of gas flow into the eye of the impeller can be changed, or controlled 37. The angle of flow into the eye of the impeller affects the characteristic performance curve of the impeller. ‘Compressor capacity can be controlled by adjusting the guide vanes 38. On some compressors, the guide vanes are designed to automatically adjust compressor capacity to keep the compressor within its operating capacity, or range 4039. Name these three basic impeller designs. 40. a 42, 43. 44, 45, For high heads in a single-stage compressor, an type impeller is used. In a multi-stage compressor, the first impeller can be either an enclosed or @ ————____-____ type. ‘A multi-stage centrifugal compressor has an for each stage. Each impeller discharges into a diffuser passage formed by proper positioning of adjacent —___. Much of the velocity is converted into pressure in the To direct the flow path of gas into each impeller's eye, —_———. can be used, a ‘open semi-enclosed enclosed open semi-enclosed impeller diaphragms diffuser guide vanes