Formulas for IPhO 7. sin( ) = sin cos cos sin 2. If there is an extraordinary coincidence in the intersection pt.
2. If there is an extraordinary coincidence in
Version: June 26, 2013
I Mathematics
1. Taylor series (truncate
for approximations):
F (x) = F (x0 ) + F (n) (x0 )(x x0 )n /n!
Special case linear approximation:
F (x) F (x0 ) + F (x0 )(x x0 )
Some examples for |x| 1:
sin x x, cos x 1 x2 /2, ex 1 + x
ln(1 + x) x, (1 + x)n 1 + nx
2. Perturbation method: nd the solution
iteratively using the solution to the non-
perturbed (directly solvable) problem as the
0th approximation; corrections for the next ap-
proximation are calculated on the basis on the
previous one.
3. Solution of the linear dierential equation
with constant coecients ay + by + cy = 0:
y = A exp(1 x) + B exp(2 x),
where 1,2 is the solution of the characteristic
equation a2 + b + c = 0 if 1 = 2 . If the
solution of the characteristic equation is com-
plex, while a, b and c are real numbers, then
1,2 = i and
y = Cex sin(x + 0 ).
4. Complex numbers
z = a + bi = |z|ei , z = a ib = |z|ei
|z|2 = z z = a2 + b2 , = arg z = arcsin
|z|
Rez = (z + z)/2, Imz = (z z)/2
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |, arg z1 z2 = arg z1 + arg z2
ei = cos + i sin
i i
, sin = e e
i i
cos = e +e 2 2i
5. Cross and dot products of vectors are dis-
tributive: a(b + c) = ab + ac.
a b = b a = ax bx + ay by + . . . = ab cos
|a b| = ab sin ; a b = b a a, b
a b = (ay bz by az )ex + (az bx bz ax )ey + . . .
a [b c] = b(a c) c(a b).
Mixed prod. (volume of parallelep. def. by 3
vec.):
(a, b, c) (a [b c]) = ([a b] c) = (b, c, a).
6. Cosine and sine laws:
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos
a/ sin = b/ sin = 2R
the intersection pt. of AB with the line con-
cos( ) = cos cos sin sin
tan( ) = (tan + tan )/(1 tan tan )
cos2 = 1+cos 2
, sin2 = 1cos 2
2
cos(+)+cos()
2 v2 = v0 + v1 , a2 = a0 + a1 + 2 R + aCor
cos cos = 2 , ...
cos + cos = 2(cos 2 + cos
+ formulation insignicant details may carry
2 ), . . . .
8. An angle inscribed in a circle is half of the
central angle that subtends the same arc on the
circle. Conclusions: hypotenuse of a right tri-
angle is the diameter of its circumcircle; if the
angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, it
is a cyclic quadrilateral.
9. Taking derivatives:
(f g) = f g + f g, f [g(x)] = f [g(x)]g
(sin x) = cos x, (cos x) = sin x
(ex ) = ex , (ln x) = 1/x, (xn ) = nxn1
(arctan x) = 1/(1 + x2 )
(arcsin x) = (arccos x) = 1/ 1 x2
10. Integration: the formulas are the same
as for derivatives, but with swapped left-hand-
side and rhs. (inverse operation!), e.g.
xn dx = xn+1 /(n + 1).
Special case of the substitution method:
f (ax + b)dx = F (ax + b)/a.
11. Numerical methods. Newtons iterative
method for nding roots f (x) = 0:
b dt
xn+1 = xn f (xn )/f (xn ).
Trapezoidal rule for approximate integration:
b If a = Const., then previous integrals can be
ba
f (x)dx [f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + . . .
2n
a
+2f (xn1 ) + f (xn )]
12. Derivatives and integrals of vectors: dif-
ferentiate/integrate each component; alterna-
tively dierentiate by applying the triangle rule
for the dierence of two innitesimally close
vectors.
II General recommendations
1. Check all formulas for veracity: a) examine
dimensions; b) test simple special cases (two
parameters are equal, one param. tends to 0
or ); c) verify the plausibility of solutions
qualitative behaviour.
the problem text (e.g. two things are equal) necting endpoints of vA and vB .
then the key to the solution might be there. 5. Non-inertial reference frames:
3. Read carefully the recommendations in the
problems text. Pay attention to the problems
Note: aCor v1 , ; aCor = 0 if v1 = 0.
6 . Ballistic problem: reachable region
vital information. If you have solved for some
time unsuccessfully, then read the text again y v02 /(2g) gx2 /2v02 .
perhaps you misunderstood the problem. For an optimal ballistic trajectory, initial and
4. Postpone long and time-consuming mathe- nal velocities are perpendicular.
matical calculations to the very end (when ev- 7. For nding fastest paths, Fermats and Huy-
erything else is done) while writing down all the
genss principles can be used.
initial equations which need to be simplied.
8. To nd a vector (velocity, acceleration), it
5. If the problem seems to be hopelessly di-
cult, it has usually a very simple solution (and a
is enough to nd its direction and a projection
to a single (possibly inclined) axes.
simple answer). This is valid only for Olympiad
problems, which are denitely solvable.
6. In experiments a) sketch the experimental IV Mechanics
scheme even if you dont have time for measure-
1. For a 2D equilibrium of a rigid body: 2
ments; b) think, how to increase the precision
eqns. for force, 1 eq. for torque. 1 (2) eq. for
of the results; c) write down (as a table) all
your direct measurements. force can be substituted with 1 (2) for torque.
Torque is often better boring forces can
be eliminated by a proper choice of origin. If
III Kinematics forces are applied only to 2 points, the (net)
1. For a point or for a translational motion of force application lines coincide; for 3 points,
a rigid body (integral area under a graph): the 3 lines meet at a single point.
2. Normal force and friction force can be com-
d
x
v = , x = v dt (x = vx dt etc.) bined into a single force, applied to the contact
dt
point under angle arctan with respect to the
dv d2
x
a = = 2 , v = adt normal force.
dt
3. Newtons 2nd law for transl. and rot. mo-
vx
t= vx1 dx = a1
x dv x , x = dvx tion:
ax
= ma, M
F = I (M = r F
).
found easily, e.g. For 2D geometry M and are essentially
x = v0 t + at2 /2 = (v 2 v02 )/2a. scalars and M = F l = Ft r, where l is the arm
of a force.
2. Rotational motion analogous to the
translational one: = d/dt, = d/dt; 4. Generalized coordinates. Let the systems
state be dened by a single parameter and
a = dv/dt + nv 2 /R
its time derivative so that the pot. energy
3. Curvilinear motion same as point 1, but = () and kin. en. K = 2 /2; then
vectors are to be replaced by linear velocities, = d()/d. (Hence for transl. motion:
accelerations and path lengths. force is the derivative of pot. en.)
4. Motion of a rigid body. a) vA cos = 5. If the system consists of mass points mi :
vB cos ; vA , vB velocities of pts. A and B;
rc = miri / mj , P = mivi
, angles formed by vA , vB with line AB.
b) The instantaneous center of rotation (= cen-
ter of curvature of material pt. trajectories!)
=
L miri vi , K = mi vi2 /2
can be found as the intersection pt. of perpen-
diculars to vA and vB , or (if vA , vB AB) as Iz = mi (x2i + yi2 ) = (x2 + y 2 )dm.
6. In a frame where the mass centers veloc- mom. of one of the bodies with respect to the 3. A system of N coupled oscillators has N 3. If refraction index changes continuously,
ity is vc (index c denotes quantities rel. to the impact point, d) total energy (for elastic colli- dierent eigenmodes when all the oscillators then we imaginarily divide the media into lay-
mass center): sions); in case of friction, kin. en. is conserved oscillate with the same frequency i , xj = ers of constant n and apply Snells law. Light
=L
L c vc , K = Kc + M vc2 /2
c + M R only along the axis to the friction force. Also: xj0 sin(i t + ij ), and N eigenfrequencies i ray can travel along a layer of constant n, if
=P c + Mvc e) if the sliding stops during the impact, the (which can be multiple, i = j ). General so- the requirement of total internal reection is
P
nal velocities of the contact points will have lution (with 2N integration constants Xi and marginally satised, n = n/r (where r is the
7. Steiners theorem is analogous (b dis- equal projections to the contact plane; f) if slid- i ) is a superposition of all the eigenmotions : curvature radius).
tance of the mass center from rot. axis): I =
ing doesnt stop, the momentum delivered from
Ic + mb2 . one body to the other forms angle arctan with
xj = Xi xj0 sin(i t + ij + i ) 4. If refraction index depends only on z, the
i photons mom. px , py , and en. are conserved:
8. With P and L from pt. 5, Newtons 2nd the normal of the contact plane.
law: 4. If a system described with a generalized co-
= dP /dt, M = dL/dt

17. Every motion of a rigid body can be repre- ordinate (cf IV-2) and K = 2 /2 has an kx , ky = Const., |k|/n = Const.
F sented as a rotation around the instantaneous
9 . Additionally to pt. 5, the mom. of inertia center of rotation C (in terms of velocities of
equilibrium state at = 0, for small oscilla-
tions () 2 /2 [where = (0)] so that 5. The thin lens equation (pay attention to
rel. to the z-axis through
the mass center can the body points). NB! Distance of a body point 2 = /. signs):
be found as Iz0 = i,j mi mj [(xi xj )2 + (yi P from C = to the radius of curvature of the
5. The phase of a wave at pt. x, t is = 1/a + 1/b = 1/f D.
yj )2 ]/2M . trajectory of P .
kx t + 0 , where k = 2/ is a wave vector.
10. Mom. of inertia rel. to the origin =
18. Tension in a string: for a massive hang- The value at x, t is a0 cos = a0 ei . The 6. Newtons eq. (x1 , x2 distances of the
miri2 is useful for calculating Iz of 2D bod- ing string, tensions horizontal component is phase velocity is vf = = /k and group image and the object from the focal planes):
ies or bodies with central symmetry using 2 = constant and vertical changes according to the velocity vg = d/dk. x1 x2 = f 2 .
Ix + Iy + Iz . strings mass underneath. Pressure force (per
unit length) of a string resting on a smooth
6. For linear waves (electromagn. w., small- 7. Parallax method for nding the position of
11. Physical pendulum with a reduced length amplit. sound- and water w.) any pulse can be an image: nd such a pos. for a pencils tip

l: surface is determined by its radius of curvature

2 (l) = g/(l
+ I/ml),
(l) = (
l l) = g/
l,
l = l + I/ml
12. Coecients for the momenta of inertia:
cylinder 21 , solid sphere 25 , thin spherical shell
2 1 1 1
3 , rod 12 (rel. to endpoint 3 ), square 6 .
13. Often applicable conservation laws:
energy (elastic bodies, no friction),
momentum (no net external force; can hold
only along one axis),
angular momentum (no net ext. torque, e.g.
the arms of ext. forces are 0 (can be written
rel. to 2 or 3 pts., then substitutes conserva-
tion of lin. mom.).
14. Additional forces in non-inertial frames
of ref.: inertial force ma, centrifugal force
and Coriolis force 2mv (better to b) If F |r|2 , then 2 K = .
m 2 R
avoid it; being to the velocity, it does not
create any work).
15. Tilted coordinates: for a motion on an in-
clined plane, it is often practical to align axes
along and to the plane; gravit. acceleration
has then both x- and y- components. Axes may
also be oblique (not to each other), but then
with v = vxex + vy ey , vx = to the x-projection
of v .
16. Collision of 2 bodies: conserved are a) net
momentum, b) net angular mom., c) angular
and tension: N = T /R. Analogy: surface ten-
sion pressure p = 2/R; to derive, study the
pressure force along the diameter.
19. Liquid surface takes equipot. shape (ne-
glecting ); in incompr. liquid, p = p0 w,
wvol. dens. of pot. en. (for a gas, see X-6).
20 . Adiabatic invariant: if the relative
change of the parameters of an oscillating sys-
tem is small during one period, the area of the
loop drawn on the phase plane (ie. in p-x coor-
dinates) is conserved with a very high accuracy.
21. For studying stability use a) principle of
minimum potential energy or b) principle of
small virtual displacement.
22 . Virial theorem for nite movement:
a) If F |r|, then K = (time averages);
x = cs t, where t is time step and cs is the
23. Tsiolkovsky rocket equation v = u ln M
m.
V Oscillations and waves
1. Damped oscillator:
x + 2 x + 02 x = 0 ( < 0 ).
Solution of this equation is (cf. I.2.):
A to point B is such that the wave travels the
x = x0 et sin(t 02 2 0 ). least time.
2. Eq. of motion
for a system of coupled os-
cillators: xi = j aij xj .
considered as a superpos. of sinusoidal waves; a that it wouldnt shift with resp. to the image
standing w. is the sum of two identical counter- when moving perpendicularly the position of
propagating w.: your eye.
ei(kxt) + ei(kxt) = 2eit cos kx. 8. Geometrical constructions for nding the
7. Speed of sound in a gas
paths of light rays through lenses:
cs = (p/)adiab = p/ = v /3. a) ray passing the lens center does not refract;
b) ray to the optical axis passes through the
8.
Speed of sound in elastic material cs = focus;
E/. c) after refr., initially rays meet at the focal
9. Sp. of shallow (h ) water waves: v =
plane;
gh. d) image of a plane is a plane; these two planes
1+v /c
10. Dopplers eect: = 0 1u /css . meet at the plane of the lens.
11. Huygens principle: wavefront can be con- 9. Luminous ux [unit: lumen (lm)] mea-
structed step by step, placing an imaginary sures the energy of light (emitted, passing a
wave source in every point of previous wave contour, etc), weighted according to the sensi-
tivity of an eye. Luminous intensity [candela
front. Results are curves separated by distance
(cd)] is the luminous ux (emitted by a source)
per solid angle: I = /. Illuminance [lux (lx)]
velocity in given point. Waves travel perpen-
is the luminous ux (falling onto a surface) per
dicular to wavefront.
unit area: E = /S.
VI Geometrical optics. 10. Gauss theorem for luminous ux: the ux
through a closed surface surrounding
the point
Photometry. sources of intensity Ii is = 4 Ii ; single-
1. Fermats principle: waves path from point source-case: at a distance r, E = I/r2 .
11. An experimental hint: if a grease stain on
a paper is as bright as the surrounding paper,
2. Snells law: then the paper is equally illuminated from both
sin 1 / sin 2 = n2 /n1 = v1 /v2 . sides.

VII Wave optics
1. Diraction method based on Huygens
principle: if obstacles cut the wavefront into
fragment(s), the wavefront can be divided into
small pieces which serve as imaginary point-like
light sources; the wave amplitude at the observ.
site will be the sum over the contributions of
these sources.
2. Two slit interference (the slit width
d a, ): angles of maxima max =
arcsin(n/a), n Z; I cos2 (k a2 sin ),
where k = 2/.
3. Single slit: angles of minima min =
arcsin(n/d), n Z, n = 0.
NB!
the central maximum is double-wide. I
sin2 (k d2 sin )/.
4. Diraction grating: the main maxima are
the same as in pt. 2, the width of the main
maxima the same as for pt. 3 with d be-
ing the net grating length. Spectral resolving
power = nN , where n is the order number
of the main max. and N the number of slits.
5. Resolving power of a spectral device:
=
L 11. If all the charges are at the distance R (eg.
, where L is the optical path dierence be-
tween the shortest and longest beams.
6. Resolving power of a prism:
= a dn
d .
7. Angular distance when two pts. are resolved 2.
in an ideal telescope (lens): = 1.22/d. For
that angle, the center of one point falls onto
the rst dir. min. of the other point.
8. Bragg theory: a set of ion planes of a
crystal reects X-rays if 2a sin = k; a
distance between neighb. planes, glancing
angle.
9. Reection from optically denser dielectric
media: phase shift . Semi-transparent thin
lmS also introduce phase shifts.
10. Fabry-Perot interferometer: two semi-
transp. mirrors with large reectivity r (1r
(1r)
2a
1). Resolving power . Trans-
mission spectrum can be found by introduc-
ing 5 plane waves (for left- and rightwards-
propagating waves before the device, in the
dev. and after the dev.) and tailoring these
at the region boundaries.
11. Coherent electromagnetic waves: elec-
tric elds are added; vector diagram can be
used, angle between vectors is the phase shift;
NB! dispersion: n = n() = (). En-
ergy ux density (en. per unit area and time):
I = nc 0 E 2 .
12. Malus law: for linearly polarized light
I = I0 cos2 , where is the angle between the
polarization planes.
13. /4-plate: phase shift /2 between lin-
early polarized components.
14. Brewsters angle: reected and refracted
rays are ; reected ray is completely polar-
ized; incidence angle tan B = n.
15. Dir. with optical elements: no need to
calculate optical path lengths through lenses,
prisms etc.: work simply with images. Particu-
lar conclusion: biprism gives the same dir. as
a double slit.
16 . Optical bres: Mach-Zehnder interfer-
ometer is analogous to a double-slit diraction;
circular resonator to Fabry-Perot interfer-
ometer; Bragg lters work similarly to the X-
ray case. Single-mode bres: n/n 12 (/d)2 .
VIII Circuits
1. U = IR, P = U I
Rseries = Ri , R1 = Ri1
Kirchos
laws:
I = 0, U =0
node contour
3. To reduce the number of eqns. for pt 2:
method of node potentials; method of loop cur-
rents; equivalent circuits (any 3-terminals 2. Gausss law: Bd
or Y ; 2-term. with emf r and E in series).
4. Resistance of innite chain: use self-
similarity; resistance between neighbour nodes
of innite grid: generalized method of electrical
images.
5. AC: apply pts. 14 while substituting R
with Z:
ZR = R, ZC = 1/iC, ZL = iL;
= arg Z, Ue = |Z|I
e 2
P = |U ||I| cos(arg Z) = Ii R i .
6. Characteristic
times: RC = RC, LR =
L/R, LC = 1/ LC. Relaxation to stationary
current distribution exponential, et/ .
7. Energy conservation for electric circuits:
W + Q = U q, where q is charge which has
crossed a potential drop U ; work of emf is
A = Eq.
8. WC = CU 2 /2, WL = LI 2 /2.
9. E = d/dt = d(LI)/dt, = BS.
10. Nonlinear elements: graphical method
nd the solution in U -I coordinates as an in-
tersection point of a nonlinear curve and a
line representing Ohm/Kircho laws. In case
of many intersection points study stability
some solutions are usually unstable.
11. Make use of short- and long-time limits.
For tobservation RC or LR , quasiequilib-
rium is reached: IC 0 (wire is broken
near C) and EL 0 (L is eectively short-
circuited). For tobservation RC or LR , the
charge leakage of C and current drop in L are
small, Q Q and I I: C is short-
circuited and L is broken.
12. If L = 0, then I(t) is a continuous func-
tion.
13. Through a superconducting contour, mag-
netic ux = Const. In particular, with no
external B, LI = Const.
14. Mutual inductance: magnetic ux
through a contour 1 = L1 I1 + L12 I2 (I2
current in a second contour). Theorems:
L12 = L21 M ; M L1 L2 .
IX Electromagnetism
1. F = kq1 q2 /r2 , = kq1 q2 /r Keplers
laws are applicable (Ch. XII).
S
= 0,
S
0 Ed = Q, = 4GM.
g dS
3.Circulation theorem
Bdl
l = 0 (= ),
Ed = I,
0
4. Magnetic eld caused by current element:
= 0 I dl er ;
dB
4 r2
hence, at the center of circular I: B = 2r
0I
5. F = e(v B + E),
F = I Bl.
6. From the Gausss and circulation laws:
I0
charged wire: E = 2 0r
, DC: B = 2r
charged surface E = 20 , current sheet B =
0 j
2 ;
inside a sphere (or innite cylindrical surface)
of homogeneous surface charge E = 0, inside a
cylindrical surface current to the axes B = 0,
inside a ball (d = 3), cylinder (d = 2) or layer
(d = 1) of homogeneous or j:
= r; B
E = 1 j r
d0 d0
(r radius vector from the centre).
7. Long solenoid: inside B = In0 , outside
0; ux = N BS and (with n = Nl ) induc-
tance L = /I = V n2 0 . Short solenoid
B = In4
0
( solid angle).
8. Measuring magnetic eld with a small coil
E
and ballistic galvanometer: q =
R dt =
N SB/R.
9. Potential energy of a system of charges:
qi qj 1
=k = (r)dq, dq = (r)dV.
rij 2
i>j
10. Force between parts of a uniformly
charged sphere or cylindrical surface: substi-
tute force due to charges with force due to hy-
drostatic pressure.
at the center of an inhomogeneously charged
sphere or ring), = kQ/r.
12. To nd the net charge (or potential) in-
duced by external charges, use the superpos.
pr.: smear the charges to make the problem
symmetric.
13. Conductor shields charges and electric
elds, eg. charge distribution inside a hollow
sphere cannot be seen from outside (it seems
as if there is a conducting ball carrying a total
charge Q)
14. Capacitances: C = 0 S/d (plane),
40 r(sphere), 20 l(ln R/r)1 (coaxial).
g dl = 0. 15. Dipole moment:
de = qiri = lq, d = I S.
16. Energy and torque of a dipole:
W = d E (B),
M = d E (B).
17. Dipole eld: = k d er /r ; E, B r3 .
2
18. Forces acting on a dipole: F = (E de ) ,
F = (B d ) ; interaction between 2 dipoles:
; F r4 .
19. Point charge as a magn. dipole: d
2
v /B is an adiab. inv (see IV-20).
20. Electric and magnetic images: grounded X Thermodynamics
(superconducting for magnets) planes act as
mirrors. Field of a grounded (or isolated) 1. pV = m
RT
sphere can be found as a eld of one (or two) c- 2. Internal energy of one mole U = 2i RT .
tive charge(s) inside the sphere. The eld in a 3. Volume of one mole at standard cond. is
planar waveguide (slit between metallic plates) 22,4 l.
can be obtained as a superposition of electro-
4. Adiabatic processes: slow as compared to
magnetic plane waves.
sound speed, no heat exchange: pV = Const.
21. Balls (cylinders) polarization in homo- (and T V 1 = Const.).
geneous (electric) eld: superpos. of homoge-
5. = cp /cv = (i + 2)/i.
neously charged (+ and ) balls (cylinders),
d E. 6. Boltzmanns distribution:
22. Eddy currents: power dissipation density = 0 egh/RT = 0 eU/kT .
B 2 v 2 /; momentum given during a single 7. Maxwells distribution (how many mole-
pass: F B 2 a3 d/ (where d thickness; a
cules have speed v) emv /2kT .
2
size).
8. Atm. pressure: if p p, then p =
23. Inside a superconductor and for fast pro-
cesses inside a conductor B = 0 and thus I = 0
gh.
2
(current ows in surface layer skin eect). 9. p = 1
3 mnv= nkT , v = 3kT /m,
24. Charge in homog. magnetic eld B = Bez = vnS.
moves along a cycloid with drift speed v = 10. Carnots cycle: 2 adiabats, 2 isotherms.
2. Interference: as in wave optics. 7. Properties of an ellipse: l1 + l2 = 2a (l1 , l2
3. Uncertainty (as a math. theorem): distances to the foci), 1 = 2 (light from
one focus is reected to the other), S = ab.
h h 1
px , Et , t . 8. A circle and an ellipse with a focus at the
2 2 2
For qualitative estimates by non-smooth circles center can touch each other only at the
shapes, h serves better (px h etc). longer axis.
4. Spectra: h = En Em ; width of spectral 9 . Runge-Lenz vector (the ellipticity vector):
lines is related to lifetime: h.
v
L
5. Oscillators (eg. molecule) en. levels (with
= + er = Const.
GM m
eigenfrequency 0 ): En = (n + 12 )h0 . For
many eigenfrequencies: E = i hni i .
XIII Theory of relativity
6. Tunnelling eect: barrier with width l
1. Lorentz transforms (rotation of 4D
easily penetrable, if h, where =
is
space-time
of Minkowski geometry), =
l/ /m.
1/ 1 v 2 /c2 :
7. Bohrs model: En 1/n2 . In a (classi-
cally calculated) circular orbit, there is an in- x = (x vt), y = y, t = (t vx/c2 )
teger number of wavelengths = h/mv. px = (px mv), m = (m px v/c2 )
8. Compton eect if photon is scattered 2. Length of 4-vector:
from an electron, photons = C (1 cos ). s2 = c2 t2 x2 y 2 z 2
9. Photoeect: A + mv2 /2 = h (A - work m0 c = m2 c2 p2x p2y p2z
2 2

E/B = F/eB; generalized mom. is conserved = (T1 T2 )/T1 ; derive using S-T -coordinates. of exit for electrons). I-U -graph: photocurrent 3. Adding velocities:
px = mvx Byq, py = mvy + Bxq, 11. Heat pump, inverse Carnot: = T1TT 1
. starts at the counter-voltage U = (h A)/e,
2 w = (u + v)/(1 + uv/c2 ).
saturates for large forward voltages.
as well as gen. angular mom. L = L + 12 Bqr2 . 12. Entropy: dS = dQ/T . 4. Doppler eect:
13. I law of thermodynamics: U = Q + A
10. Stefan-Boltzmann: P = T 4 .
25. MHD generator (a length along the = 0 (1 v/c)/(1 + v/c).

direction of E): 14. II law of thermodynamics: S 0 (and
real Carnot ). XII Kepler laws 5. Minkowski space can be made Euclidean if
E = vBa, r = a/bc. time is imaginary (t ict). Then, for rot. an-
26. Hysteresis: S-shaped curve (loop) in B-
15. Gaswork (look also p. 10) 1. F = GM m/r , = GM m/r.
2
gle , tan = v/ic. Express sin , and cos
H-coordinates (for a coil with core also B-I- A=
i
pdV, adiabatic: A = (pV )
2. Gravitational interaction of 2 point masses via tan , and apply the Euclidean geometry
coord.): the loop area gives the thermal energy 2 (Keplers I law): trajectory of each of them is formulae.
dissipation density per one cycle). an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola, with a focus 6. Shortening of length: l = l0 /.
16. Daltons law: p = pi .
at the center of mass of the system. Derive
27. Fields in matter: D = 0 E = 0 E +P ,
17. Boiling: pressure of saturated vapour from R.-L. v. (pt 9).
7. Lengthening of time: t = t0 .
where P is dielectric polarization vector (vol- 8. Simultaneity is relative, t = vx/c2 .
pv = p0 ; at the interface betw. 2 liquids:
ume density of dipole moment); H = B/
0 = pv1 + pv2 = p0 .
3. Keplers II law (conserv. of angular mom.):
0 J, where J is magnetization vector (vol- for a point mass in a central force eld, radius 9. F = dp/dt [= d (mv), where m = m0 ].
dt
B/ 18. Heat ux P = kST /l (k thermal vector covers equal areas in equal times. 10. Ultrarelativistic
approximation:
v c,
ume density of magnetic moment). conductivity); analogy to DC circuits (P cor-
4. Keplers III law: for two point masses at p mc, 1 v 2 /c2 2(1 v/c).
28. In an interface between two substances responds to I, T to U , k to 1/).
elliptic orbits in r2 -force eld, revolution pe-
Et , Dn (= Et ), Ht (= Bt /) and Bn are con- 19. Heat capacity: Q = c(T )dT . Solids: for 11 . Lorentz tr. for E-B: B = B || , E = E || ,
|| ||
riods relate as the longer semiaxes to the power
tinuous. low temperatures, c T 3 ; for high T , c = 3N k,
of 32 : +v B
), B
v E ).
29. Energy density: W = 21 (0 E 2 +B 2 /0 ). where N number of ions in crystal lattice. E = (E = (B
T12 /T22 = a31 /a32 . c2
30. For 1, eldlines of B are attracted to 20. Surface tension: 5. Full energy (K + ) of a body in a gravity
the ferromagnetic (acts as a potential hole, cf. U = S, F = l, p = 2/R. eld:
pt. 28).
E = GM m/2a. marks an advanced material.
31. Current density j = nev = E = E/. 6. For small ellipticities = d/a 1, tra- Corrections/suggestions kalda@ioc.ee.
XI Quantum mechanics
32. Lenzs law: system responds so as to op- jectories can be considered as having a circular Composed by J. Kalda, translated by U. Visk
pose to changes. 1. = hk (|
p p| = h/), E = h = h. shapes, with shifted foci. and J.K.