CU AA Aen etc he A? Steve DotyENERGY MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK SIXTH EDITION BY Wayne C. TURNER ScHoot. oF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT OKLAHOMA Stare LINIVERSITY AND Steve Doty Cororapo Sprines Urirrrirs Cotorabo SPRINGS, COLORADO iP CRC Press ‘THE FAIRMONT PRESS, INC. SEN CNGLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Turner, Wayne C, 1942+ Energy management handbook / by Wayne C. Turner & Steve Doty. ~ 6th ed, poem Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN: (-88173-542-6 (prin!) — 0-88173-943-4 (electronic) 1, Power resources--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Enengy conservation Handbooks, manuals, ete. I. Doty, Steve. Il. Title T163.2.T87 2006 658,2'6-de22 2006041263 Energy management handbook | by Wayne C. Turner & Steve Doty (©2007 by The Fairmont Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publica~ tion may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic ‘or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and rolrieval system, without permission in wriling from the publisher. Published by The Fairmont Press, Inc. 700 Indian Trail Lilburn, GA 30047, tel: 770-925-9388; fax: 770-381-9865 hitp:/ J wwwfairmontpress.com Distribusted by Taylor & Francis Ltd. {6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA E-mail: orders@erepress.com Distributed by Taylor & Francis Ltd. 23-25 Blades Court Deodar Road London SW15 2NU, UK E-mail: uk.tandfethomsonpublishingservices.co.uk Printed in the United States of America 10987654321 (088173-542-6 (The Fairmont Press, Ine) 0.8493-8234-3 (Taylor & Francis Ltd.) While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and ‘editors cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissionsa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.EconoMe ANALY Time Value of Money Factors—Discrete Compounding i=7% [Single Sums Uniform Series TorindF | ToFdP | ToFIndF | ToFMGA | ToFindP | ToFIndA | ToFindP | ToFindA GivenP | GivenF | GivenA | GivenF | GivenA | GivenP | GivenG | GivenG FIP. i%.n) | PIF.i%,0) | FIA.i%.0) (AIP 96, (AlG.i% 7 0700 | 0.9346 | 1.0000 0.0000 11449 | 0.8734 | 2.0700 | 0.4831 14.8080 | 0.5531 | 0.8734 | 0.4831 1.2250 | 08163 | 32149 | 0.3111 2.6243 | 0.3811 | 25060 | 0.9549 1.3108 | 0.7629 | 4.4309 | 0.2252 | 3.3872 | 0.2052 | 4.7047 | 1.4155 1.4026 | 0.7130_| 5.7507 _| 0.1730 | 41002 | 02430 } 7.6467 | 1.8650 7.5007 | 0.6663 | 7.1593 | 0.1308 | 47665 | 0.2008 | 10.9784 | 2.3032 16058 | 06227 | 8.6540 | 0.1156 | 5.3893 | 0.1856 | 14.7149 | 2.7304 1.7182 | 0.5820 }| 10.2508 | 0.0975 | 5.9713 | 0.1675 } 18.7889 | 3.1465 1.8385 | 0.5439 | 11.9780 | 0.0835 | 65152 | 0.1535 | 23.1404 | 3.5517 19672_| 05083 | 13.8164 | 0.0724 | 7.0236 | 0.1424 | 27.7156 | 3.9461 2.1049 | 0.4751 | 15.7836 | 0.0634 | 7.4987 | 0.1334 | 324005 | 4.3296 2.2522 | 0.4440 | 17.8885 | 0.0559 | 7.9427 | 0.1259 | 37.3506 | 4.7025 2.4098 | 0.4150 | 20.1406 | 0.0497 | 8.3577 | 0.1197 | 42.3302 | 5.0648 2.5785 | 0.3878 | 22.5505 | 0.0443 | 8.7455 | 0.1143 J 47.3718 | 5.4167 2.7590 | 0.3624 | 25.1280 | 0.0308 | 9.1079 | 0.1008 | 52.4461 | 5.7589 2.9522 | 0.3387 | 27.8881 | 0.0359 | 9.4466 | 0.1059 | 57.5271 | 6.0897 3.1588 | 0.3166 | 30.8402 | 0.0324 | 9.7632 | 0.1024 | 62.5923 | 6.4110 3.3799 | 0.2959 | 33.9990 | 0.0204 | 10.0591 | 0.0904 | 67.6219 | 6.7225 3.6165 | 0.2765 | 37.3790 | 0.0268 | 10.3356 | 0.0968 } 72.5001 | 7.0242 3.8607 | 0.2584 | 40.9955 | 0.0244 | 10.5940 | 0.0944 | 77.5091 _| 7.3163 4.1406 | 0.2415 | 44.8652 | 0.0223 | 10.8355 [0.0923 | 82.3303 [7.5990 4.4304 | 0.2257 | 49.0057 | 0.0204 | 11.0612 | 0.0904 } 87.0793 | 7.8725 47405 | 0.2109 | 53.4361 | 0.0187 | 11.2722 | 0.0887 | 91.7201 | 8.1369 5.0724 | 0.1971 | 58.1767 | 0.0172 | 11.4693 | 0.0872 | 96.2545 | 8.3923 5.4274 | 0.1842 | 63.2490 | 0.0158 | 11.6536 | 0.0858 _| 100.6765 | 8.6391 5.8074 | 0.1722 | 68.6765 | 0.0146 | 11.8258 | 0.0846 | 104.0814 | 8.8773 6.2139 | 0.1609 ] 74.4838 | 0.0134 | 11.9867 | 0.0834 ] 109.1656 | 9.1072 6.6488 | 0.1504 | 20.6977 | 0.0124 | 12.1371 | 0.0824 | 113.2264 | 9.9289 7.1143 | 0.1406 | 87.9465 | 0.0114 | 12.2777 | 0.0814 | 117.1622 | 9.5427 76123 | 0.1314 | 94.4608 | 0.0106 | 12.4090 | 0.0806 | 120.9718 | 9.7487 71.4235 | 0.0875 | 148.9135 | 6.715E-03 | 13.0382 | 0.0767 [141.1990 |” 10.8321 17.1443 | 0.0583 } 230.6322 | 4.336£-03 | 13.4524 | 0.0743 | 157.1807 | 11.6842 25.7289 | 0.0389 } 353.2701 | 2.831£-03| 13.7305 | 0.0728 | 169.4981 | 12.2447 36.6122 | 0.0259 | 537.3164 | 1.861E-03| 13.9157 | 0.0719 | 178.8173 | 12.8500 7.9464 | 0.0173 | 813.5204 | 1.2298-03| 14.0302 | 0.0712 | 185.7677 |_13.2324 86,9620 | 0.0115 | 1.228E+03 | 8.143E-04| 14.1214 | 0.0708 | 190.8927 | 13.5179 130.5065 | 7.662E-03 | 1.850E+03 | 5.405E-04 | 14.1763 | 0.0705 | 194.6365 | 13.7298 3.358E+03 | 2.978E-04 | 4.795E+04 | 2.085E-05 | 14.2815 | 0.0700 | 203.5103 | 14,2500 1.946E405 | 5.139E-06 | 2.780E+06 | 3.598E-07 | 14.2856 204.0674 | 14.2848 3.786E+10 | 2.6416-11 | 5.408E+11 | 1.8496-12 | 14.2857 204.0816 | 14.2857a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Economie ANAL Time Value of Money Factors—Discrete Compounding i= 12% |___Single Sums__ | To Find Given F PIF i%,) To Find F Given P FIP.1% To Find F ToFind A Given F 1.0000 0.4717 0.2963 0.2092 0.1574 TorindA ‘Gradient Series ToFindP | ToFingA GivenG | GivenG (PIG.i%.n) | (AIG. i%.7 0,000 0.7972 2.2208 4.1273 6.3970 10,0890 12,2097 14.7787 17.5487 0.1232 0.0991 0.0813 0.0877 0.0870 8.9302 11.6443 14.4714 17.3863 20.2541, 20.6546 24.1331 28.0201 32.3026 37.2797 0.0484 0.0414 0.0357 0.0309 9.0268 23.1288 25.9523 28.7024 31.3624 33.9202 6.1304 6.8660 7.8900 8.8128 9.6463 0.1831 0.1458 0.1300 0.1161 0.1037 42.7533 48.8837 55.7497 63.4397 72.0524 0.0234 0.0205 0.0179 0.0158 0.0139 36.3670 38.8973 40.9080 42,9979 44.9678 70.8038 12.1003, 13.5523, 15.1786 47,9001, 0.0926 0.0828 0.0738 0.0859 0.0588 81.6987 92.5026 104.6029 118.1552 133.9339 0.0122 0.0108 9.560E-03 8.483E-03 7.500€-03 46.8188 48,5543 50.176 51.6929 53.1048 19.0401 21.3249 23.8839 26.7499 29.9599 0.0525 0.0469 0.0419 0.0374 0.0334 150.3330 169.3740 190.6089 214.5828 241.3327 6.852E-03, 5.9048-03 5.246E-03 4.860E-03 4.146E-03 64.4177 55.6369 56.7674 57.8141 58.7821 50,1356 116.7231 230.3908 454.7505 897.5969 0.0168 8.567E-03 4.340E-03 2.199E-03 4.414E-03 484.4631 964.3595 1.912E+03 3.781603 7.472E+03, 2.064E-03 4.037E.03 5.231E-04 2.6456-04 4,338E-04 63.1970 65.8509 67.4068 68,3022 68.8100 T.T7ZEOS 3.497E+03 8,057E+05 7.232E408 5.2306+17 5.644E-04 2.860E-04 1.241608 1,383E-09 1.912618 TATOE*O4 2.913E+04 6.714E+06 6.028E+09 4.358618 8.777E-05 3.432E-05 1.489E-07 1.8598-10 2.205819 69.0948 69.2530 69.4431 69.4444 69.4444a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.EconoMe ANALY Time Value of Money Factors—Discrete Compounding i= 25% 7.0000 i 0.4644 3.8125 | 0.2623 1.4400 [Sage Sums [tno Sores Grater Sores ToFind F SL ToFRIF] Tornaa | TormdP | ToPMaA| ToFindP ] ToFMaA Given P Gena | Given. | civena | GvenP | Givenc | Givenc (A\F.i%,n) | (PJA.i%.n) | (AJP.i%,n) | (PIG,i%,n) } (A|G,i%,n) 7.7206+34 | 1,295.35 | 3.0086+35 3,238E-36 1.9520 | 0.5123 5.7656 | 0.1734 | 2.9616 | 0.4234 azo70 | o1218 | 26093 | 0.3718 71.2588 | 0.0888 | 29514 | 0.9388 45.0735 | 0.0663 | 31611 | 0.9163 19.8419 | 0.0504 | 3.9289 | 0.3004 25,8023 | 0.0388 | 3.4631 | 0.2686 . 33.2520 | 0.0301_| 3.5705 | 0.2801 11.6415 42.5661 | 0.0235 | 3.6564 | 0.2735 14.5519 54.2077 | 0.0184 | 3.7251 | 0.2684 | 11.6020 | 3.1145 18.1899 68.7596 | 0.0145 | 3.7801 | 02645 | 12.2617 | 3.2437 22.7374 26.0495 | 0.0115 | 3.8241 | 0.2615 | 12.8334 | 3.3559 28.4217 109.6868 | 9.1176-03| 3.8503 | 02501 | 13.3260 | 3.4530 35.5271 138.1085 | 7.241E-03 | 3.6874 | 0.2572 | 13.7482 | 3.5366 44.4089 | 0.0225 | 173.6357 | 5.759E-03| 3.9099 | 0.2558 ] 14.1085 | 3.6084 55.5112 | 0.0180 | 218.0446 | 4.586E-03| 3.9279 | 0.2546 | 14.4147 | 3.6698 eo3eee | 0.0144 | 273.5558 | esce-03| 3.9424 | 0.2537 ] 146741 | 3.7222 86.7362 | 0.0115 | 342.9447 | 2.916E-03| 3.9539 | 0.2529 | 148932 | 3.7667 708.4202 | 9.223E-08 | 429.6809 | 2.3276-03| 3.9631 | 0.2523 | 15.0777 | 3.8045 435.5253 | 7.379E-03 | 538.1011 | 1.8586-03| 3.9705 | 0.2519 | 15.2326 | 3.8365 169.4066 | 5.903E-03 | 673.6284 | 1.4856-03] 3.9764 | 0.2515 | 15.3625 | 3.8634 241.7582 | 4.7226-03 | 843.0320 | 1.186E-03| 3.9811 | 0.2512 | 15.4711 | 3.8861 264.6978 | 3.778E-03 | 1.055E+03 | 9.491E-04| 3.9849 | 0.2500 | 15.5618 | 3.9052 330.8722 | 3.022E-03 | 1.319E+03 | 7.579E-04 | 3.9879 | 0.2508 | 156373 | 3.9212 413.6903 | 2.418E-03 | 1.650E+03 | 6.059E-04| 3.9903 | 0.2506 | 15.7002 | 3.9346 516.9879 | 1.934£-03 | 2.064E+03 | 4.8456-04| 3.9923 | 0.2505 | 15.7524 | 3.9457 646.2349 | 1.547E-03 | 2.581€+03 | 3.875E-04| 3.9938 | 0.2504 | 15.7957 | 3.9551 207.7936 | 1.2386-03 | 3.227E+03 | 3.0996-04| 3.9950 | 0.2503 | 15.8316 | 3.9628 B.0B1E+0 | 3.245604 | 1.282E+04 | 8.116E-05 | 3.9987 | 0.2501 | 15.9481 | 3.9883 1.1756+04 | 8.507E-05 | 4.702E+04 | 2.127E-05 | 3.9997 | 0.2500 | 15.9843 | 3.9964 4.484E+04 | 2.230E-05 | 1.794£+05 | 5.575E-06 | 3.9999 | 0.2500 | 15.9954 | 3.9989 1.711E+05 | 5.846E-06 | 6.842E+05 | 1.462E-06 | 4.0000 | 0.2500 | 15.9986 | 3.9997 6.525E+05 | 1.532E-06 | 2.610E+06 | 3.831E-07 | 4.0000 | 0.2500 _| 15.9996 | 3.9999 2.489E+06 | 4.017E-07 | 9.957E+06 | 1.004E-07 | 4.0000 | 0.2500 | 15.9999 |” 4.0000 9.496E+06 | 1.053€-07 | 3.798407 | 2.633E-08 | 4.0000 | 0.2500 | 16.0000 | 4.0000 4.258E+11 | 2.349E-12 | 1.703E+12| 5.871E-13 | 4.0000 | 0.2500 | 16.0000 | 4.0000 2.778E+17 | 3.599E-18 | 1.111618 | 8.998E-19 | 4.0000 16,0000 16,0000a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.desirable to minimize the amount of excess air. As illustrated in Figure 5.1, the amount of carbon dioxide, percent by volume, in the exhaust gas reaches a maximum with no excess air stoichiometric conditions. While carbon dioxide can be used as a measure of com- plete combustion, it can not be used to optimally control the air-to-fuel ratio in a fired system. A drop in the level of carbon dioxide would not be sufficient to inform the control system if it were operating in a condition of excess: air or insufficient air. However, measuring oxygen in the exhaust gases is a direct measure of the amount of excess air. Therefore, measuring oxygen in the exhaust gas is a more common and preferred method of controlling the air-to-fuel ratio in a fired system. 5.24 Energy Conservation Measures As noted above, energy cost reduction opporluni- ties can generally be placed into one of the following cate ‘gories: reducing load, increasing efficiency, and reducing, unit energy cost. As with most energy conservation and cost reducing measures there are also a few additional ‘opportunities which are not so easily categorized. Table 5.1 lists several energy conservation measures that have been found to be very cost effective in various boilers and fired-systems. 53 KEY ELEMENTS FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY There are several opportunities for maximizing ef- ficieney and reducing operating costs in a boiler or other fired-system as noted earlier in Table 5.1. This section ex- amines in more detail several key opportunities for encr- gy and cost reduction, including excess air, stack temper- ature, load balancing, boiler blowdown, and condensate return 5.8 Excess Air In combustion processes, excess air is generally de- fined as air introduced above the stoichiometric or theo- retical requirements to effect complete and ef bustion of the fuel ‘There is an optimum level of excess-air operation for cach type of burner or furnace design and fuel type. ‘Only enough air should be supplied to ensure complete combustion of the fuel, since more than this amount in- 24 _ 20 _-l 16 = #0 co. éo 2 2, hat . ! . 20 0 20 40 60 80 AIR Figure 5.1 Theoretical flue gas analysis versus air percentage for natural gas.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.eo se sprig voor 0 ons ied Figure 5.3 Combustion efficiency chart for natural gas. flue-gas oxygen and corresponding “excess ait”: (1) por table equipment such as an Orsat flue-gas analyzer, heat prover, clectronie gas analyzer, or equivalent analyving device; and (2) permanent-type installations probe-type continuous oxygen analyzers (available from various manufacturers), which do not require external gas sam: pling systems. The major advantage of permanently mounted ‘equipment is that the on-line indication or recording, al- ows remedial action to be taken frequently to ensure continuous operation at optimum levels. Computerized systems which allow safe control of excess air over the boiler load range have proven economic for many instal- lations. Even carbon monoxide-based monitoring and control systems, which are notably more expensive than simple oxygen-based monitoring and control systems, prove lo be cost effective for larger industrial-and utility sized boiler systems. Portable equipment only allows performance check- ing on an intermittent or spot-check basis. Periodic moni- Percent Fue Gas Oxygen sora von FED ams 0g Figure 5.4 Combustion efficiency chart for number 2 fuel oil. toring may be sufficient for smaller boilers or boilers which do nol undergo significant change in operating conditions. However, continuous monitoring and control systems have the ability to respond more rapidly to changing conditions, such as load and inlet air conditions, The slack temperature rise may be obtained with portable thermocouple probes in conjunction with a potentiometer or by installing permanent temperature probes within the exhaust stack and combustion air inlet and providing continuous indication or recording, Each type of equipment provides satisfactory results for the planning and operational results desired. An analysis to establish performance can be m, with the two measurements, percent oxygen and the slack temperature rise, in addition to the particular fuel fired. As an illustration, consider the following example ade Example: Determine the potential energy savings associ- ated with reducing the amount of excess air to an opt mum level for a natural gas-fired steam boiler.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.‘Table 5.4 Boiler Performance Troubleshooting System Heat transfer related Combustion related, Problem High stack gas temperature High excess air Low excess air High carbon monoxide and combustible emissions Possible Cause Buildup of gas-or water-side deposits Improper water treatment procedure Improper soot blower operation Improper control system operation Low fuel supply pressure Change in fuel heating value Change in oil viscosity Decrease in inlet air temperature Improper control system operation Fan limitations Increase in inlet air t Plugged gas burners Unbalanced fuel and air distribution in multiburner furnaces Improper air register settings Deterioration of burner throat refractory Stoker grate condition Stoker fuel distribution orientation Low fineness on pulverized systems Miscellaneous Casing leakage Air heater leakage Coal pulverizer power Excessive blowdown Steam leaks Missing of loose insulation Excessive soot blower operation Damaged casing and insulation heaters Tube eorro Pulverizer in poor repair Too low classifier setting Improper operation Holes in waterwall tube Valve packing (Overheating Weathering Arbitrary operation schedule thal isin excess of requirements,a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.9. Corrosive properties of gas, which would require special materials 10. Direct flame impingement on recovery equip- ment Guidelines for Day-to-Day Operation 1. Maintain operation at goal excess air levels and stack temperature to obtain maximum efficiency and unit thermal performance. 2. Log percent ©, of equivalent excess air, inlet air temperature, and stack temperatures, once per shift or more frequent, noting the unit load and fuel fired. 3. Use oxygen analyzers with recorders for unils larger than about 35 x 10° Btu/hr output. 4. Maintain surface cleanliness by soot blowing at least once per shift for ash-and soot-forming fa els. 5. Establisha more frequent cleaning schedule when heat-exchange performance deteriorates due to firing particularly troublesome fucls 6. External fouling can also cause high excess air operation and higher stack temperatures than normal to achieve desired unit outputs. External fouling can be detected by use of draft loss paug- cs of waler manometers and periodically (once a week) logging the results 7. For fluegas/air preheaters, oxygen checks should be taken once a month before and after the heat ing surface to assess condition of circumferential and radial seals. If ©, between the two readings varies in excess of 1% Oy, air heater leakage is excessive to the detriment of operating efficiency and fan horsepower. 8. Check fan damper operation weekly. Adjust fan damper or operator to correspond to desired ex- cess air levels 9. Institute daily checks on continuous monitoring. equipment measuring flue-gas conditions. Check. calibration every other week. 10, Establish an experience guideline on optimum time for cleaning and changing oil guns and tips. TL. Receive the “as-fired” fuel analysis on a monthly basis from the supplier. The fuel base may have changed, dictating a different operating regimen. 12, Analyze boiler blowdown every two months for iron. Internal surface cleanliness is as important to maintaining heat-transfer characteristics and performance as external surface cleanliness. 13, When possible, a sample of coal, both raw and pulverized, should be analyzed to determine if operating changes are warranted and if the de- sign coal fineness is being obtained 5.33 Waste-Heat-Steam Generation Plants that have fired heaters and /or low-residenee- time process furnaces ofthe type designed during the era of cheap energy may have potentially significant energy- This section explores an approach ey and provide an analysis to determine overall project viabiliy. saving opporluniti to maximize energy effic ‘The major problem on older units is to determine a practical and economical approach to utilize the sensible heat in the exhaust flue gas. Typically, many vintage units have exhaust-flue-gas temperatures in the range 1050 to 11600°F. In this temperature range, a conventional flue-gas, air preheater normally is nat a practical approach because ‘of materials of construction requirements and signifi- cant burner front modifications. Additionally, equipping these units with an air preheater could materially alter the inherent radiant characteristics of the furnace, thus adversely affecting process heat transfer. An alternative approach to utilizing the available flue-gas sensible heat and maximizing overall plant energy efficiency is to con sider: (1) waste-heat-steam generation: (2) installing an unfired oF supplementary fired recirculating hot-cil loop. fr ethylene glycol loop to effectively utilize transferred heat to a remote location: and (3) installing a process feed Because most industrial process industries have a need for steam, the example is for the application of an unfired waste-heat-steam generator. ‘The hypothetical plant situation is a reformer fur- nave installed in the plant in 1963 at a time when it was rot considered economical to install a waste-heat-steam generator. As a result, the furnace currently vents hot flue ‘gas (1562°F) to the atmosphere after inspiriting ambient air to reduce the exhaust temperature so that standard materials of construction could be utilized The flue-gas temperature of 1562°F is predicated fon a measured value by thermocouple and. is based ‘on a typical average daily process load on the furnace. ‘This induced-draft furnace fires a No. 2 fuel oil and has been optimized for 20% excess air operation. Flue-gas flow is caleulated at 32,800 lb/hr. The plant utilizes ap- proximately 180,000 Ib/ hr of 300-psig saturated steam102 Evekcy MANAGEMENT HANDROOK from three boilers each having a nameplate capacity of 75,000 Ib/ hr. The plant steam load is shared equally by the three operating boilers, each supplying 60,000 lb/hr. Feedwater to the units is supplied at 220°F from a com- mon water-treating facility. The boilers are fired. with low-sulfur (0.1% sulphur by weight) No. 2 fuel oil. Boil- cer efficiency averages 85% at load. Present fuel costs are 40.76 / gal or $5.8/ 10° Blu basis of No. 2 fuel oil having a heating value of 138,80) Blu/gal. The basic approach to enhancing plant energy efficiency and minimizing cost is to generate maximum quantities of “waste” heat steam by recouping the sensible heat from the furnace exhaust flue gas, Certain guidelines would provide a “fix” on the amount of steam that could be reasonably generated. The flue-gas temperature drop could practically be reduced to 65 to 10°F above the boiler feedwater temperature ‘of 220°R. Using an approach temperature of 65°F yields an exit-lue gas temperature of 220 +65 = 285°F. This as- stumes that an economizer would be furnished integral ‘with the waste-heat-steam generator. 20 100 oo “o ° 700" A heat balance on the flue-gas side (basis of flue- {gas temperature drop) would provide the total heat duty available for steam generation. The sensible heat content of the flue gas is derived from Figures 5.10a and 5.106 based on the flue-gas temperature and percent moisture in the flue gas. Percentage moisture (by weight) in the flue gas is a function of the type of fuel fired and pereentage excess- air operation. Typical values of percentage moisture are indicated in Table 57 for various fucls and excess air. For No. 2 fuel oil firing at 20% excess ait, percent moisture by ‘weight in flue gas is approximately 6.8%. ‘Therefore, a flue-gas heat balance becomes Sensible Heat in Flue Flue-Gas Temperature Drop (°F) Gas (Btu/Ib W. 1562 412 (Fig. 5.15) 285 52 ig. 5.14) uw77 360 160 Too" or wor 08 Figure 5.10a Heat in flue gases vs. percent moisture by weight. (Derived from Keenan and Kayes 1948.)‘Table 5.7 Percent Moisture by Weight in Flue Gas Percent Excess Air FuclType 10. 15 » Naturalgas 121 172108 No.2fucloil 73 70 68 66 Coal (varies) 67-51 644.9 6347 61-45 Propane 10197 94 9 The total heat available from the flue gas for steam generation becomes (32,800 Ib.W.G,) » (360 Btu/ Ib.W. = (11.8 106 Btu/h) ‘The amount of steam that may be generated is de- termined by a thermodynamic heat balance on the steam circuit Enthalpy of steam at 300 psig saturated y= 1203 Btu/Ib 1100" ry 200" 1300" _1400" 400] a0] aa 60 ttn ge Enthalpy of saturated liquid at drum pressure of 300 psig 1h, = 400 Btu /Ib Enthalpy corresponding to feedwater temperature of 200°F hy= 188 Btu/Ib For this example, assume that boiler blowdown is 10% of steam flow. Therefore, feedwater flow through the economizer to the boiler drum will be 1.10 times the steam outflow from the boiler drum. Let the steam out- flow be designated as x. Equating heat absorbed by the waste-heat-steam generator to the heat available from reducing the flue-gas temperature from 1562°F to 285°F yields the following steam flow: (1.20)(4)(h hy) + (Uhh) = 11.8 « 10° Btu/he Therefore, steam flow, x feedwater flow boiler blowdown = 11,388 Ib /hr 10(3)= 1-10(11,388)= 12,527 Ib/ hr 2,527 — 11,388 = 1,139 Ib/hr soo re00" 560 420 Teco" 00 1800" Figure 5.10a Heat in flue gases vs. percent moisture by weight. (Derived from Keenan and Kayes 1948.)a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.10 Normal Measured: Boiler Size Boiler BoilerLoad Stack Temp. O2 Unit Et. No. (203 b/hr) 103 tb/ he) CP) ee) 2) 1 200 140 290 5 850 2 200 140 40 6 74 3 100 5, 40 7 765 Plant steam demand 35 00 mt (7002 iss 11005 ® ®. ». * A *. of / m wf | | eis ee ato Ee % & bob ‘Sto Oe Skea fone) Ste a 17 Figure 5.11 Unit efficiency vs. steam load. ser tet Borer No 2 Sate 3 2 200 / 80 é z ~ = w we io Ro io oo bo om ow ‘Sem oa 11 ox ‘se oat) Figure 5.12 Unit input vs. steam load.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.3. Operation of an excessive number of auxiliary pumps. This results in throttled, inefficient opera- tion, Requirements for Maximum Economy Establish a Boiler Loading Schedule. An optimized loading schedule will allow aay plant steam demand to be met with the minimum energy input. Some general points to consider when establishing such a schedule are as follows: 1. Boilers generally operate most efficiently at 65 to ‘85% full-load rating; centrifugal fans at 80 to 90% design rating. Equipment efficiencies fall off at higher of lower load points, with the decrease most pronounced at low-load conditions. 2. It is usually more efficient to operate a lesser num- ber of boilers at higher loads than a larger number at low loads, 3. Boilers should be put into service in order of de- creasing efficiency starting with the most efficient unit 4. Newer units and units with higher capacity are gen- crally more efficient than are older, smaller units, 5. Generally, steam plant load swings should be taken in the smallest and least efficient unit Optimize the Use of High-Pressure Boilers. The boilers in a plant that operate al the highest pressure are usually the most efficient. Its, therefore, desirable to sup~ ply as much of the plant demand as possible with these unils provided that the high-grade energy in the steam can be effectively used. This is most efficiently done by installation of back-pressure turbines providing, useful work output, while providing the exhaust steam for low- Pi eDagrating Nigh prs sta hang n reonete reducing and desuperheating station is the least efficient method of supplying low-pressure steam demands. Di- rect generation at the required pressure is usually more efficient by comparison. Establish an Auxiliary Loading Schedule, A sched~ ule for cutting plant auxilia and out of service with rising or falling plant load should. be established. es common to all boilers in Establish Procedures for Maintaining Beilers in Standby Mode. It is generally more economical to run fewer boilers at a higher rating. On the other hand, the integrity of the steam supply must be maintained in the face of forced outage of one of the operating boilers. Both conditions can sometimes be satisfied by maintaining a slandby boiler in a “live bank” mode. In this mode the boiler is isolated from the steam system at no load but kept at system operating pressure. The boiler is kept at 4 pressure by intermittent firing of either the ignitors or ‘a main burner to replace ambient heat losses. Guidelines for live banking of boilers are as follows: 1. Shut all dampers and registers to minimize heat losses from the unit 2. Establish and follow strict safety procedures for ig- nitor/burner light-off. 3. For units supplying turbines, take measures to en- sure that any condensate which has been formed during banking is not carried through to the tur bines. Units with pendant-type superheaters will _generally form condensate in these elements. Operators should familiarize themselves with emer- geney slarlup procedures and it should be ascertained that the system pressure decay which will be experienced while bringing the banked boiler(s) up to load can be tol- erated Guidelines for Day-to-Day Operation 1. Monitor all boiler efficiencies continuously and im~ mediately correct items that deteact from perfor- mance. Computerized load balancing may prove beneficial 2. Ensure that load-balancing schedules are followed. 3. Reassess the boiler loading schedule whenever a major change in the system occurs, such as an in- crease or decrease in steam demand, derating of boilers, addition/ decommissioning of boilers, or addition removal of heat-recovery equipment 4. Recheck parameters and validity of established op- crating mode. 5. Measure and record fuel usage and correlate to steam production and flue-gas analysis for determi- nation of the unit heat input relationship. 6. Keep all monitoring instrumentation calibrated and. functioning properly. 7. Optimize excess air operation and minimize boiler blowdown,108 Evekcy MANAGEMENT HANDROOK Computerized Systems Available ‘There are commercially available direct digital con- trol systems and proprietary sensor devices which accom- plish optimal steam/ power plant operation, including tic-line purchased power control. These systems control individual boilers to minimum excess ait, SO, NO, CO (and opacity if desired), and control boiler and cogenera- tion complexes to reduce and optimize fuel input. Boiler plant optimization is realized by boiler con- trols which ensure that the plant’s steam demands are met in the most cost-effective manner, continuously rec~ ognizing boiler efficiencies that differ with time, load, and. fucl quality. Similarly, computer control of cogeneration equipment can be cost effective in satisfying plant electri- cal and process steam demands. As with power boiler systems, the efficiencies for electrical generation and extraction steam generation ean be determined continuously and, as demand changes ‘occur, loading for optimum overall efficiency is deter- mined, Fully integrated computer systems can also provide electric tie-ine control, wheroby the utility tie-line load is continuously monitored and controlled within the clectri- cal contract's limits. For example, loads above the peak demand can automatically be avoided by increasing in- plant power generation, or in the event that the turbines are al full capacity, shedding loads based on previously established priorities 5.35 Boiler Blowdown Inthe generation of steam, most water impurities are rot evaporated with the steam and thus concentrate in the boiler water. The concentration of the impurities is usually regulated by the adjustment of the continuous blowdown valve, which controls the amount of water (and concen trated impurities) purged from the steam drum. ‘When the amount of blowdown is not properly es- Lablished and/or maintained, either ofthe following may happen: 1. If too little blowdown, sludge deposits and carry- ‘over will result 2. If too much blowdown, excessive hot water is re- ‘moved, resulting in increased boiler fuel require ments, boiler feedwater requirements, and boiler chemical requirements. Significant energy savings may be realized by utiliz~ ing the guides presented in this section for (1) establishing optimum blowdown levels to maintain acceptable boiler- water quality and to minimize hot-water losses, and (2) the recovery of heat from the hot-water blowdown, Where to Look For Energy-Saving Opportunities The continuous blowdown from any steam-gen- crating equipment has the potential for energy savings Whether it is a fired boiler or waste-heat-steam genera- tor. The following items should be carefully considered to maximize savings: 1. Reduce blowdown (BD) by adjustment of the blow- down valve such that the controlling water impu- rity is held at the maximum allowable level, 2. Maintain blowdown continuously at the minimum acceptable lovel. This may be achieved by frequent manual adjustments or by the installation of auto matic blowdowa controls. At current fuel costs, au- tomatic blowdown controls often prove to be eco- nomical, 3. Minimize the amount of blowdown required by: a. Recovering more clean condensate, which re duces the concentration of impurities coming 1 the boiler, b. Establishing a higher allowable drum solids level than is currently recommended by ABMA standards (see below). This must be done only on recommendation from a reputable water treatment consultant and must be followed up with lab tests for steam purity. ©. Selecting the raw-water treatment system which has the largest effect on reducing makeup water impurities. This is generally considered appli cable only to grass-roots or revamp projects. 4. Recover heat from the hot blowdown water, This is typically accomplished by flashing the water to a low pressure. This produces low-pressure steam (for utilization in an existing steam header) and hot water which may be used to preheat boiler makeup ater. ‘Tests and Evaluations STEP 1: Determine Actual Blowdown. Obtain the fol- lowing data: T = ppmofimpurities in the makeup water to the deaerator from the treatment plant; obtain average value through lab tests B= _ppmofconcentrated impurities in the boiler drum water (blowdown water); obtain average value through lab testsa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.uo Evekcy MANAGEMENT HANDROOK Example: Determine the potential energy savings associated with reducing boiler blowdown from 12% to 10% using Figure 5.13. Operating Data Average boiler load 75,000 Ib/ he Steam pressure 150 psig Make up water temperature 60°F Operating hours 8,200 he/ yr Boiler efficiency 80% Average fuel cost $2.00/108 Btu Calculation and Analysis Using the curves in Figure 5.13, enter Chart A. at 10% blowdown to the curve for 150 psig boiler drum pressure. Follow the line over to chart B and. the curve for a unit efficiency of 80%. Then follow the line down to Chart C and the curve for a fuel cost Cf $2.00/ 10° Btu. Read the scale for the equivalent fuel value in blowdown. The cost of the blowdown is estimated at $8.00/hr per 100,000 Ib/ hr of steam ‘generated. Repeat the procedure for the blowdown rate of 12% and find the cost of the blowdown is i a0 §f nil 3 £ Be: ¢ « feo 2 Dew a 8 $10.00/hr per 100,000 Ib hr of steam generated. Potential energy savings then is estimated to be = ($10.00 -8.00/lr/ 100,000 Ib/ hr) > (75,000 lb/hr) x (8,200 hr/ ye) =$12300/yr Energy Conservation Methods 1. Minimize Blowdown by Manual Adjustment. This is accomplished by establishing an operating proce- dure requiring frequent water quality testing and readjustment of blowdown valves so that water im- purities in the boiler are held at the allowable limit. Continuous indicating/ recording, analyzers may be employed allowing the operator to establish quickly the actual level of water impurity and manually re- adjust blowdown valves 2. Minimize Blowdown by Automatic Adjustment. ‘The adjustment of blowdown may be automated by the installation of automatic analyzing equipment and the replacement of manual blowdown valves with control valves (sce Figure 5.14). The cost of this equipment is frequently justifiable, particularly retin mse 13 Hourly cost of blowdown,‘when there are frequent load changes on the steam- generating equipment since the automation allows continuous maintenance of the highest allowable level of water contaminants, Literature has approxi- mated thal the average boiler plant can save about 20% blowdown by changing from manual control to automatic adjustment. 3. Decrease Blowdown by Recovering Mere Con- densate, Since clean condensate may be assumed to be essentially free of water impurities, addition of condensate to the makeup water serves lo dilute the concentration of impurities. The change in required blowdown may be calculated using equations 5.3, and 55. Example: Determine the effect on boiler blowdown of in- creasing the rate of condensate return from 50 to 75%: Operating Data MU water impurities = 10 ppm =T Maximum allowable limit in drum, = 100 ppm =B Calculate: For 50% return condensate: MU = 100% ~ 50% = 50% A=10«05=5 ppm in BFW am drum tomrcrves Xo { fae | | Consvesnity | Dain Blowsown to lowot? ‘ark orbs reeavry sytem obo} Coney Figure 5.14 Automated continuous blowdown system. ‘Se BD = A/(B-A) (100-5) For 75% return condensate: MU = 10-75% = 25 5 ppm (100-2.5) = 2.6% Conclusion These values may then be used with the curves on Figure 5.13 to approximate the potential energy sav- ings. 4. Increase Allowable Drum Solids Level. In some instances it may be possible to increase the maxi- mum allowable impurity limit without adversely affecting the operation of the steam system. How- ever, i must be emphasized that a water tx consultant should be contacted for recommendation on changes in the limits as given in Table 5.9, The changes must also be followed by lab tests for steam purily to verify that the system is operating as an- ticipated The energy savings may be evaluated by us- ing the foregoing equations for blowdown and the graphs in Figures 5.13 and 5.15. Consider the fol- lowing example. iment Example: Determine the blowdown rates as a percent. age of steam flow required to maintain boiler dram water impurity concentrations at an average of 3000 ppm and 6,000 ppm. Operating Data Average makeup water impurity (measurement). Condensate return (percent of steam flow) Assume condensate return free from impurities 10380 ppm 25% Calculation and Analysis Caleulate the impurity concentration in the boiler feed water (BFW): A=MU impurity (1,00- 150 ppm * (1.00 0.25) A= 252 ppm. cR) ‘Mathematical solution, For drum water impurity level of 3000 ppm: Se BD =A/(B-A) Se BD = 262/ (3000 - 262) Se BD = 9.6% For drum water impurity level of 6000 ppm: