Complementary Therapies in Medicine (2010) 18, 8794

available at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevierhealth.com/journals/ctim

The sociology of Qi Gong: A qualitative study

Paul Posadzki

University of East Anglia, School of Medicine, Health Policy and Practice, NR4 7TJ Norwich, Norfolk, United Kingdom
Available online 2 April 2010

KEYWORDS Summary This paper presents an in-depth, idiographic study of how individuals experience
others during Qi Gong practice. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with three Qi Gong
Qi Gong;
groups to collect research data. These data were transcribed verbatim and subjected to content
Sociology;
and thematic analysis across and within groups. The analysis indicates extraordinary experi-
Interpersonal
ences of Qi Gong practitioners at various levels of their social functioning. Qi Gong inuences
relationships;
their social health in complex and \dimensional ways. The author compares and contrasts his
Health
results with those of recent research. Implications for practice are briey outlined and possible
strategies for future research are presented.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction ful side effects of conventional, allopathic treatment and

According to Chinese Medicine, Qi is the energy that simulta-
neously pervades the macro-cosmosthe Universe and the
micro-cosmosthe human body. Practitioners of Qi Gong
believe that Qi energy ows along channels in the human
body called meridians. Gong may be translated as a way
of development, enhancement and improvement. As such,
Qi Gong means a way of development, enhancement and
improvement of the bodys energy. Qi Gong exercises have
been used and developed for thousands of years to optimise,
control and mobilise this energy within the body as a whole.1
Qi Gong is a combination of meditation, postures and move-
ments designed to improve holistic health and to facilitate
mindbody integration.2,3 It is also a form of complementary
therapy and a way to promote health that is both efcient
and effective.4,5 There is a growing body of evidence of the
usefulness of Qi Gong as a complementary and alternative
medicine therapy.6,7 Individuals concerns about the harm-
Tel.: +44 01603 591223.
E-mail addresses: P.Posadzki@uea.ac.uk,
pawel.posadzki@hotmail.com.
overall dissatisfaction with the way that modern healthcare
systems function have contributed to the attraction of Qi
Gong exercises.
There were several logical reasons for undertaking this
study. Firstly, it is hoped that these results will improve
understanding of practitioners social perceptions of Qi Gong
and contribute to the existing body of knowledge. Sec-
ondly, the rationale for this survey was to indicate new
pathways for future research from the qualitative, socio-
logical perspective. Thirdly, and perhaps most importantly,
yet another logical reason for this survey was to combine
the authors previous qualitative studies with more empiri-
cal dataclearly, this study has emerged from the authors
earlier research interests which are summarised in the next
paragraph.
The main purpose of the authors previous concep-
tual syntheses was to combine evidence from Qi Gong,
movement therapies, preventive medicine, humanistic and
Gestalt psychology and investigate the congruence of their
essence.912 It has been asserted that the essence of Qi
Gong exercises is an increased sense of control. It can
promote self-discovery and enhance well-being, with practi-
tioners developing more exibility and adaptability in their
thoughts, emotions and behaviors; enhance the minds self-

0965-2299/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2009.12.002
88 P. Posadzki

regulatory processes; prevent mental health disorders; and Table 1 Socio-demographic data.
relieve stress, uncertainty, anxiety and depression.9 The
authors further papers have explored how the somatic reed- Group I Group II Group III
ucation techniques, namely Alexander technique (AT) and
the Feldenkrais method (FM) can be used in Qi Gong exer- Total Total Total
cises and how these modalities can be nourished due (n = 7) (n = 8) (n = 7)
to their suggested correspondences.10,11 In particular, the Age group
author has claimed that incorporation of AT into Qi Gong 1929 years 1 1 0
exercises could enable a better understanding of Qi Gong 2939 years 1 3 1
movements through learning and meta-learning processes. 3949 years 2 0 2
Furthermore, both AT and Qi Gong practitioners may become 4959 years 1 2 2
more aware of their own movements in a functional and 5969 years 2 2 1
kinesthetic way, improve their posture and liberate muscle >69 years 0 0 1
tension, resulting in positive emotional states such as joy
and happiness and efciency and uency in performance of Sex
the movements.11 Males 3 4 4
Posadzki et al.10 have also suggested that constant devel- Females 4 4 3
opment through movement and persistent self-exploration Ethnic origin
in the direction of enhanced self-organisation at the level European Caucasian 7 8 7
of personality characteristics can be achieved through the
Marital status
practice of Qi Gong. Together, Qi Gong, FM, Gestalt and
Married 5 6 6
humanistic psychology could be considered a broader con-
Not married 2 2 1
ceptual eld that promotes awareness mechanisms such as
communication between thought and movement and emo- Occupation
tions and movement; relaxation of the whole body; and University students 3 1 1
effortless concentration in the here and now to facilitate Doctors 1 1 0
personal growth, self-actualisation and self-realisation. Lawyers 0 2 0
It has been suggested that Qi Gong and educational Nurses 1 2 1
kinesiology (EK) share a number of basic underlying prin- Psychologists 0 0 3
ciples. For instance, Qi Gong, like EK, can be used as a Retired 1 1 1
form of brain gymnastics insofar as concentration on the Accountant 1 0 0
specic movements embodied by the techniques may facil- Businessman 0 1 1
itate neuroplasticity through lateralisation, concentration
Duration of QG practice
or focusing and centering.12 In all of these studies the
35 years 4 4 3
author has suggested potential social benets of Qi Gong
57 years 2 1 2
practice and recommended future research to verify these
710 years 1 2 1
claims.
>10 years 0 1 1
Therefore the aim of this study is to explore the social
perceptions of Qi Gong practitioners from an idiographic,
hermeneutical perspective dedicated to fore-grounding the
related to this method of self-healing while also being use-
subjective feelings of the participants. Within the scope of
ful to Qi Gong practitioners sense of self, autonomy and
this study, the concept of social perception is dened as
identity.
the process by which Qi Gong practitioners perceive one
another, and is an impression or a sense, or both, of the per-
sonalities and social traits of others based on their behavior Methods
(movement exercises).13 The purpose of phenomenologi-
cal research is to describe experiences or phenomena as This qualitative research has been conducted in April 2009.
they are lived; in phenomenological terms, to capture the Since qualitative design emphasises the analysis of each case
essence of lived experience of study participants,14 and Qi there is no requisite number of participants for a qualitative
Gong practitioners perceptions of others, group dynamics study, and hence the sample size is usually small.17 Three
and interpersonal relationships are investigated from this Qi Gong groups with a total of 22 participants (n = 22) par-
perspective here. The research is grounded in the qualita- ticipated in this survey (see Table 1). In all three groups,
tive approaches, thus offering a range of epistemological, men and women aged 1874 who were able to complete
theoretical and methodological possibilities for knowledge the interview in English were eligible to participate. The
building that can be unique in content, focus, and form.15 It selection criteria included those 18 years or/and above.
has been suggested that a qualitative design is most appro- The practitioners had been practicing Qi Gong for at least
priate for such studies because it examines the effects of 3 years in the UK and were all European-Caucasian. Prior
Qi Gong as a mindfulness practice in an unlimited way to the research a formal invitation letter has been sent
and elicits a wide variety of responses from participants.16 and subsequently the author contacted the group lead-
Furthermore, incorporating these sociological insights in the ers/teachers by telephone for permission to proceed with
readers perceptions and understanding of Qi Gong practi- the study. The groups were approached by the author imme-
tioners style will enable her/him to recognise the nuances diately after their Qi Gong class, informed about the study
The sociology of Qi Gong: A qualitative study
Table 2 sociodemographic characteristics.
and asked whether they would consider taking part in the
research. The sampling area was Greater London (UK),
and it can therefore be suggested that from a qualitative
methodological standpoint the groups represented a reason-
ably homogenous and purposive sample.15,18,19 This sampling
method was selected because the author believed that the
interviewees would possess the necessary knowledge and
experience of the Qi Gong; provide meaningful answers
to the questions; and have the capability to reect and
articulate.20 The author decided to use this sampling method
because Qi Gong practitioners are experts in the eld of
social perceptions of this form of exercise and the inten-
sity of social processes in this particular group had been
presumed.21
The phenomenological approach was chosen because the
social perceptions of Qi Gong practitioners are dynamic,
contextual and subjective, and have been relatively under-
studied. By focusing in depth on the explicit experiences
of Qi Gong practitioners this study builds upon the authors
sociological insights to reveal the underlying phenomena.
With this approach, truth and meaning emerge through
individuals interactions between multiple constructions of
reality and need to be understood within their social situa-
tional context.22
Ethical considerations
Ethical approval was obtained from the Faculty of Health
Research Ethics Committee. All names have been changed
to protect condentiality. All three groups agreed to par-
ticipate, and all Qi Gong practitioners in the three groups
consented to participating. There was no nancial reward
for participants.
Data collection
Prior to the interview, participants were asked to complete
a questionnaire which collected their demographic data (see
Table 2). In order to collect qualitative research data semi-
structured group interviews were held. The semi-structured
focus group interview has the characteristics of a discussion
as well as of an interview and thus allows interviewees a
partial degree of exibility. It is currently a very popular
method of data collection in many elds of applied social
research.17 When asking questions, the researcher kept to
a semi-structured questionnaire with open-ended questions
(see Appendix A). Content validity was achieved in the way
that the structure and content of the questions were scruti-
89
nised and validated by research staff at the University of
East Anglia. Topics included practitioners social percep-
tions of others and interpersonal and group relations within
their Qi Gong group. The practitioners were also asked to
express and explore in depth their lived experience during
Qi Gong exercises, and were surveyed on emerging topics.
The interviews were continued until theoretical saturation
was reached, which in all three groups was approximately
35 min from the start. To maintain accuracy in data collec-
tion, the author digitally recorded them using an iPod. For
reliability, eld notes and personal observations and feel-
ings were also recorded after each interview. On the day of
each interview verbatim transcriptions were uploaded to a
computer and transferred from WAV to MP3 format to serve
as raw data for the study.
Data analysis
The data were analysed using inductive content and the-
matic analysis across and within groups. In this process the
author generated nine code categories directly from the
transcript that were subsequently redened and resulted
in twelve categories and created new understandings of Qi
Gong practice with varied levels of specicity, and then the
topics were examined in relation to the their literal and the-
oretical replications.15,23 According to Krippendorff24 , this
may ensure formalisation and so the ndings can be easier
to replicate and/or validate. Finally, connections were made
between responses where the level of abstraction was com-
parable. This resulted in a list of themes on similar levels of
abstraction and supporting statements regarding social per-
ceptions of Qi Gong, perception of others and individual and
group relations that can be found in the transcript within
the text. No computer software has been used to analyse
the data.
Results
Qi Gong, interpersonal relationships and health
It has been suggested that evaluation of the rigor of a
qualitative study is based, in part, on the logic of the
emerging theory and the clarity with which it sheds light
on the studied phenomenon.14 Therefore to ensure scien-
tic rigor and the reliability of the research outcomes while
analysing the research data, the author openly and scrupu-
lously adhered to the philosophical perspective; existential
90
phenomenology.2528 Also, with the intention of investigat-
ing what is like to be a Qi Gong practitioner within this
social group, the author analysed the essence of the partic-
ipants social perceptions only as a separate and distinctive
phenomenon embodied in the nature of these exercises. Par-
ticipants claims regarding other experiences or phenomena
were not included in the data analysis. During this pro-
cess common themes emerged from the responses, and the
author noticed that from the phenomenological perspec-
tive it was relatively simple to categorise the participants
interpretations into similar domains of social experience
reecting the ontological richness of these classications.
Thus the author rst presents an overview of opinions about
the perception of others during Qi Gong exercises. A highly
sophisticated multiplicity and diversity of social experiences
are presented below.
When group members were asked about their per-
ception of others during Qi training Agnes responded
rst:
It is hard to do not feel it [laugh]. It means that I exactly
know that somebody else exercises next to me, but I am
ok with that, right. . .
Sandra perceives energy as a vital force moving in her
body and when asked about her perception of others during
Qi training she responded:
. . .not only can I feel that somebody else exercises next to
me and some energy is close to me but also I feel every-
bodys energy slightly differently. . .Someones stronger
than the others. I could feel these people and it was a
very specic energy.
She recognises the others energy and probably uses
extrasensory perception rather than traditional senses.
Her level of sophistication allows her to detect the diversity
and intensity of others energy. Her feelings and affects can
in turn inuence others and their perception of group29,30
when she further declares:
I think that it works that I am able to inuence myself but
also other people with energy. . .at least my experiences
seems to support this.
With a similar level of perception Samantha added:
If you can feel your own and surrounding energies you
can feel yourself as a part of the bigger whole [. . .] The
surrounding environment is important. . .
What is remarkable is the sophistication and depth of
the participants understanding of Qi Gong and their percep-
tion of others. They intentionally feel that they can transmit
their own feelings such as joy and happiness to others and
inuence their moods, feelings and emotional states. There
is also a sense of interconnectedness within the group and
between members.
Kate emphasises:
Everything depends on people you are practicing
with. . .everyone has its own unique energ. . . interper-
sonal relationships.
In a similar tone she encapsulates the essence of her
excitement:
P. Posadzki
Very sympathetic. . .I always like to exercise with this
group because they are all kind and sympathetic. . .we
all know one another. . .and relationships between us are
nice. . .When the group is nice it is wonderful to prac-
tice.
She can easily label these relationships as positive and
see them as benecial. She is keen on exercising with this
particular group and admires the social dimension of Qi
Gong. The quality, strength and dynamics of the social rela-
tionships may simply encourage a layperson to exercise.
However, Kate adds:
But during seminars there were students from diverse
backgrounds. . .and the presence of other people some-
times disturbs. . .one cannot always feel good.
This may be related to the specicity of the energy
present in such a diverse group during seminars and the fact
that the group dynamic is weak: people simply do not know
one another. To some extent, this is in line with Agnes, who
says:
Sometimes somebody can distract you. . .when I see that a
friend does wrongly, she distracts me. . .[the whole group
laughs] I simply see this movement goes uently. . .so that
it is better to exercise when somebody is skilled.
This is a generally observable trend; the perception of
others during Qi Gong exercises is also related to the level
of ones own and others mastery. Olga says:
Only if I cannot do something I look at others. . .[laughs]
but generally no such a feeling.
This is further supported by Brigitte, who states:
No, absolutely! Everyone practices by her own, internally
focused.
It is a truism, but as the reader will have noticed, exer-
cising in such a group may be benecial from the learning
perspective. Qi Gong exercises are complicated sequences
of sometimes hundreds of movements that may be more
easily memorised thanks to others presence or help. In con-
trast, Qi Gong practitioners very often have to concentrate
on their own self/state of mind and for a while may forget
that others are present.
Qi Gong, group relationships and health
The increasing interaction with the peer group provides
interpersonal contact and plays an important role in the
practitioners psychosocial development.31,32 These inter-
actions within the Qi Gong group contribute towards the
satisfaction of the practitioners needs and provide an
opportunity for socialisation. Michael, who states this in a
meaningful way, supports it:
Its like in old good family. . .In the positive sense [laughs].
Ed adds:
Not necessarily a family. . .It is hard to name it. . .It is
something like a goodness. . .it manifests in such a huge
goodness.
The sociology of Qi Gong: A qualitative study
Qi Gong exercises are accompanied by positive experi-
ences and emotions and it seems that the group is keen to
meet once a week to practice movement forms together. Ed
also enjoys practicing in the group:
Theres a difference when you exercise in the group or
alone. . .theres a different atmosphere, and apart from
that it is always the time that is designated to exercises,
at that time is sacred.
The practitioners emphasised both the pluses and
minuses of practicing alone or with the group, but it seems
that they share a diversity of mutual experiences that are
embodied in the structure of social reality.
The participants all experience the others presence as
something pleasant related both to the characteristics of
individual group members and the exercises themselves.
These benecial, positive social experiences may in turn
strengthen the physiological effects of Qi Gong exercises.
Other experiences related to sociological processes are pre-
sented below. Their level of sophistication is common among
presented cases.
Masterstudent relationships
There is a sense of mutual respect and appreciation when
one of the instructors claims:
I think about my group exercising well.
In this particular instance one may notice that the
Master empathically wants to share his or her knowledge
with others to their best advantage. The Master does not
want to hide the secrets of Qi Gong. Rather she/he cares
about the students performance, supports them and offers
a helpful hand. The practitioners also acknowledge their
instructor/Master. Agnes expresses her enthusiasm when she
admits:
I do care about Sifu [Master] looking at me.
The Qi Gong practitioners relationships are almost
always based on trust, respect and mutual understand-
ing. The Master/instructor is considered the main source of
knowledge and a moral authority within the Qi Gong group.
Qi Gong group hierarchy is similar to that of the family.
During this study the author had a sense of the groups admi-
ration of their Masters. They all looked at him or her while
practicing sequences of movement and Kate captured how:
During seminars I look at the Master. . .I am focused on
him totally. . .
She seems to want to catch every possible detail of the
form being taught. As mentioned earlier, the Master is con-
sidered the main source of the skill, i.e. the movement
form that he or she teaches. The practitioners role in this
instance is to memorise every possible detail of such a form.
On the other hand the research manager observed that
sometimes the presence of the Master may interfere with
participants responses. For instance, the author had the
impression that participants were impeded by a feeling that
the Master was judging them, and sometimes this feeling
was accompanied by their silence.
91
Discussion
Overall, the participants experiences seem to reinforce and
experientially illuminate recent work by US researchers.16
This study offers a useful tool for looking at some social
effects of Qi Gong practice. For instance, practitioners afl-
iation, self-esteem, success, and altruism needs can be met
by Qi Gong training. Secondly, Qi Gong may lead to vari-
ous interpersonal relationships within this particular social
group and clearly this is in congruence with Argyle.33 Previ-
ous research has indicated that the better the interpersonal
relationships, the more engaged individuals are in enhanc-
ing their health and the better their prospects for future
wellness and psychological health,3436 and to some extent
similar conclusions were made within the scope of this study.
The author suggests that a positive interpersonal relation-
ship exists between individuals in the Qi Gong group which
can further affect the interpersonal perception of friendli-
ness, sympathy and empathy, acceptance, warmth, regard,
and genuineness.37,38
Tsang et al.39,40 performed semi-structured interviews
with Qi Gong practitioners to obtain qualitative data. They
found that Qi Gong exercises improve activities of daily
living (ADL), social interactions and the quality of interper-
sonal relations in elderly patients,39 and therefore various
groups of therapists may use this social component of Qi
Gong exercises to mobilise patients pro-social behaviors.41
It also improves the practitioners self-identity, social well-
being and social dimension of QOL,39,40 and to some extent
a similar effect was detected in the present study. Tsang
et al.s Qigong intervention resulted in signicant changes
in the following subscales of quality of life: social activity,
and social limitation due to health problems in comparison
to the control.42,44 These ndings cannot be compared to
the results of the present research due to methodological
differences, but evidence suggests that the benets of Qi
Gong exercise on personal well-being can be explained using
the social interaction theory.45 Tsang et al. also claim that
to date this theory has been employed only rarely to anal-
yse the benets of these mindful exercises. Earlier research
by the same authors has indicated that after 8 weeks of
Qi Gong practice the intervention group participants out-
stripped themselves in improvement in physical and social
domains of self-efcacy compared with the control group.40
In the context of Banduras Social Learning Theory a devel-
opment of the perception of individuals self-agency was
also observed.46 Other studies have indicated that a Qi
Gong exercise intervention programme may improve social
support.4749 Analogically, quantitative methodology, dif-
ferent epistemological context and research tools prevent
the extrapolation and comparison of studies on social sup-
port, perceptions of individuals agency and self-efcacy
beliefs with the results of Tsang et als study, and vice
versa. However, qualitative research methods using partici-
pant observation have been utilised to show how Qi Gong
may enable individuals to overcome social stigmatisation
and discrimination,50 which is not dissimilar to the results
obtained by the author of the present paper.
Some Qi Gong practitioners in the groups surveyed had
practiced with one another for a number of years and knew
each other very well. There was also sense of group cohe-
92
sion and solidarity. Brennan would suggest that there was
a good chemistry or atmosphere in the groups interviewed,
as many statements were accompanied with laughter and
relaxation.29 It can be suggested that these social expe-
riences have been developing over the time within these
specic groups and their current dynamics depend on
members social competencies in areas such as commu-
nication, being friendly and polite, taking care of others
and helping them, looking for mutual similarities, assertive-
ness and empathy. Qi Gong exercises may also lead to
enhanced social skills and a friendly attitude through pos-
itive social comparisons and associated emotions, feelings
and thoughts.
Generally, awareness of others energy and its unique-
ness and diversity in terms of strength and intensity,
positive values, shared passion and positive interper-
sonal relationships is similar to the results obtained by
Chrisman and his colleagues,16 who noticed that experi-
ences of interconnectedness and interdependence during
Qi Gong practice may ameliorate the individualism and
social isolation16,51 that can lead to decreased physi-
cal and mental health.51 Similarly, identication with the
Qi Gong community along with the exercises themselves
may be holistically benecial to the health of those
involved.
Implications for practice
It is worth emphasizing that Qi Gong can be performed
almost anywhere: in the patients room or ward or in specic
facilities such as a physiotherapy room or rehabilitation gym.
Individual or group sessions can be run depending on patient
or group preference and the availability of the clinician or
Master.52
When performing a group session the Master or clinician
must consider the plethora of conditions such as individuals
expectations, differences in individuals cognitive abilities,
reactivity, psychomotor skills, psycho-emotional states and
the dynamics within the group. The therapists capacity to
educate his/her students and explain the essence of Qi Gong
is also of great importance.
At the end of this article the reader is also asked to
form his or her own individual opinion of Qi Gongs social
qualities, attributes and mechanisms beyond the descrip-
tion provided and to ask why, how and on what level
it works and what effects can be expected as a result.
The inspirational answers to these questions may enhance
self-education, self-knowledge and understanding of Qi
Gongs social phenomena. One may therefore choose an
appropriate Qi Gong teacher and consider Masterstudent
relationships; acknowledge and develop interpersonal rela-
tionships within this social group; persevere in the training
regimen and adjust and/or modify expectations to the
actual effects.5
Physiotherapists, occupational therapists, rehabilitants,
osteopaths, chiropractors, naturopathic medicine practi-
tioners and nurses may consider Qi Gong exercises a useful
adjunct to their treatment of various groups of compromised
patients; however it may be necessary to employ differen-
tial diagnosis, and indications and contraindications should
always be taken into account.53
P. Posadzki
Future research
More research is needed on the social dimensions of Qi
Gong exercises. Mixed method approaches and in-depth
interviews can reveal the complexity of Qi Gong and
practitioners social perceptions. Further conceptual devel-
opments such as clinical trials investigating combinations of
Qi Gong, yoga, FM, AT and EK on low back pain or emotional
wellness, for example, can be considered. Longitudinal stud-
ies, including on cost effectiveness, may also be taken
into account. Other methods of data analysis such as inter-
pretative phenomenological analysis, meta-ethnography or
the grounded theory approach can be utilised and meta-
syntheses performed.
Strengths and limitations
The quantitative research methods used in the majority of
studies reected in Discussion section and the absence
of investigation of the social dimensions of Qi Gong exer-
cises using qualitative methodologies limit the potential
value of this study. Also, personal subjectivism and inter-
est in the topic(s) may have shaped some of the arguments
presented. However, according to Glaser, each single case
presented within the scope of this paper can dialectically
be understood as both individual and universal, theoretically
saturated and representative in its data and ndings.54 The
discussion has been opened, and these concepts might and
should be part of future debate that lls existing knowledge
gaps.
Conclusions
This study explores and reveals the social perceptions of Qi
Gong practitioners from an idiographic, phenomenological
perspective using content and thematic analysis across and
within groups. Perceptions of others during Qi Gong practice
and interpersonal relationships as social phenomena can be
the most appropriate for encouraging social organisation,
social and intellectual progress within Qi Gong group. Also,
the dynamics of Qi Gong groups may inuence their mem-
bers health and wellness indirectly, so Qi Gong classes could
increase psychological wellbeing and physical, i.e. immune
function, and reduce distress and disease.
Appendix A. The interview schedule
Questions for the semi-structured interview of Qi Gong prac-
titioners
1. How long do you practice Qi Gong?
2. Could you please describe your experiences during Qi
Gong practice?
3. What do you think of other Qi Gong practitioners?
4. Do you think others can inuence on your Qi Gong per-
formance?
5. Could you please describe relationships within this Qi
Gong group?
6. Are you aware of any changes in health before and after
Qi Gong practice?
The sociology of Qi Gong: A qualitative study
7. Can you feel the presence of others during Qi Gong exer-
cises?
a. Do you see/feel/perceive yourself differently?
b. What/how does it feel like?
c. Can anybody improve/compromise your Qi Gong perfor-
mance?
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Further reading
8. Giddens A, Grifths S. Sociology. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers;
2006.
43. Craske NJ, Turner W, Zammit-Maempe J, Lee MS. Qigong ame-
liorates symptoms of chronic fatigue: a pilot uncontrolled study.
Evid Based Complement Altern Med 2008 July 15.