Boolean Algebra and Digital
Circuits
Part 1: Boolean Algebra
Binary Logic and Digital Circuits
we saw in the previous set of lectures how
computers represent information
and in particular how they perform arithmetical
operations upon numbers
in the following set of lectures well see how binary
logic is used to design and implement digital circuits
which can perform such operations
and how simple circuits combine to perform
more complex operations
A Potted History
1854: George Booles The Laws of Thought is published, thus creating
Symbolic Logic, or Boolean Algebra
1938: John Atanasoff determines 4 principles for his ABC digital
computer:
it will use electricity instead of mechanical movements
it will use base 2 because switches are either on or off
it will use capacitors for memory because they store charge
with a regenerative process, avoiding power leakage
computations will be performed by direct logical action - which
Claude Shannon proved is essentially Boolean Algebra - rather
than by enumeration as had been done before
Boolean Algebra
a system for the manipulation of variables, where the
variables can have one of two values:
true or false
which correspond to on or off, 1 or 0
Boolean Expressions are created by applying Boolean
Operators to one or more variables:
such as AND, OR and NOT
and also NAND, NOR and XOR
Operators and their Truth Tables
each operator can be described using its truth table:
AND OR NOT
Inputs Output Inputs Output Input Output
x y x.y x y x+y x x
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
math: xy math: xy math: x
logic: x.y logic: x+y logic: x
Operators and their Truth Tables
each operator can be described using its truth table:
NAND NOR XOR
Inputs Output Inputs Output Inputs Output
x y x.y x y x+y x y xy
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
math: (x y) math: (x y) math:
(x y) (x y)
logic: x.y logic: x+y logic: xy
Boolean Functions
A Boolean Function involves:
one or more input variables
one or more operators
a result from the set {0,1}
examples:
F(x, y) = x.y
F(x, y) = x + y
F(x, y, z) = y + x.z
if x = 0, y =1 and z = 1 then we can easily evaluate the first two functions:
x.y = 1 AND 0 = 0
x + y = 1 OR 0 = 1
but in what order to we perform the operations to find the answer to the third function?
Operators: Order of Precedence
priority highest to lowest:
Inputs Intermediate Output
NOT then AND then OR
x y z x x.z F=y+x.z
F(x,y,z) = y + x.z
0 0 0 1 0 0
evaluate F when x = 0, y = 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
and z = 1
0 1 0 1 0 1
easiest to evaluate in stages:
0 1 1 1 1 1
x = NOT(0) = 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
x.z = 1 AND 1 = 1
1 0 1 0 0 0
y + x.z = 1 OR 1 = 1
1 1 0 0 0 1
so we see that it helps to evaluate
1 1 1 0 0 1
the function in pieces
(can you spot the easy way to generate the set of truth table
input values for x, y and z?)
Boolean Identities
boolean functions can quickly become complicated
yet the simpler we can make the function, the smaller
circuit well need to build for it
cheaper, more economical and faster
so theres an incentive to reduce boolean functions to their
simplest form
sometimes this can be tricky, so well look at a clever
technique for simplifying functions later
for now, well use the basic identities to perform the task
Boolean Identities
Name AND Form OR Form
Identity Law 1.x = x 0 + x = x
Null (or Dominance) Law 0.x = 0 1 + x = 1
Idempotent Law x.x = x x + x = x
Inverse Law x.x = 0 x + x = 1
Commutative Law x.y = y.x x + y = y + x
Associative Law (x.y).z = x.(y.z) (x+y)+z = x+(y+z)
Distributive Law x+y.z = (x+y).(x+z) x.(y+z) = x.y + x.z
Absorption Law x.(x+y) = x x + x.y = x
DeMorgans Law x.y = x + y x+y = x.y
Double Complement Law x = x
Table 3.5 from Computer Organization & Architecture
note the double-bar over the x
Using Identities to Simplify Functions
i. simplify F(x, y, z) = x.y.z + x.y.z + x.z
= x.y.z + x.y.z + x.z
= x.y.(z + z) + x.z distributive
= x.y.(1) + x.z inverse
= x.y + x.z identity
(examples i., ii. & iii. are based upon examples 3.2, 3.3 and the proof on p128 from Computer Organization & Architecture)
Using Identities to Simplify Functions
ii. simplify F(x, y) = y + x.y
= y + x.y
= y + (x + y) DeMorgans
= y + (y + x) commutative
= (y + y) + x associative
= 1 + x inverse
= 1 null
Using Identities to Simplify Functions
iii. prove (x + y).(x + y) = y
(x + y).(x + y)
= x.x + x.y + y.x + y.y distributive
= 0 + x.y + y.x + y.y inverse
= 0 + x.y + y.x + y idempotent
= x.y + y.x + y identity
= y.(x + x) + y distributive (& commutative)
= y.(1) + y inverse
= y + y identity
= y idempotent
DeMorgans Law
recall that:
important: note that
x.y = x + y
x.y x.y
x+y = x.y
this is one of the most useful identities in practical terms
why?
answer: it tells us how to covert AND and OR operations into NAND
and NOR operations
moreover we can determine that all other operations can be
performed using just NAND or just NOR
and that makes digital circuits much easier to produce
NAND Alone
example: show that OR, NOT and AND can be performed using NAND
operations only:
OR: x+y = x.x + y.y idempotent
= (x.x) + (y.y) double complement
= x.x.y.y DeMorgan
NOT: x = (x) simple re-write
= (x.x) idempotent
AND: x.y = x.y double complement
= (x.y) simple re-write
= (x.y).(x.y) idempotent
More DeMorgan
because building circuits is often easier just using NAND and NOR gates,
its useful to be able to negate a function (using a simple NOT operation)
this gives the complement of the function
example: if F(x, y, z) = x + y + z then find F:
F(x, y, z) = x + y + z
= w + z substituting w = x + y
= w.z DeMorgans
= x + y.z replacing x + y = w
= x.y.z DeMorgans
so we see that DeMorgans law extends for 3 variables, and in fact generally
Standardized Form
weve seen that the same boolean function can be written in many different
ways
to avoid confusion designers specify functions in a standardized (or canonical)
form
the two most common forms are:
sum of products
ANDed variables are ORed together
such as F(x, y, z) = x.y + x.z + y.z
product of sums
ORed variables are ANDed together
such as F(x, y, z) = (x + y).(x + z).(y + z)
Sum of Products
the easiest version to determine because we can just use a truth table:
find and list the values of x, y and z which make the function true
then simply OR each expression in the list together
example: a majority polling function
x y z F
so the function is:
0 0 0 0
F = xyz + xyz + xyz + xyz
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 xyz
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 xyz
1 1 0 1 xyz
1 1 1 1 xyz
Table 3.8 from Computer Organization & Architecture
To Conclude
weve learned about Boolean variables, operators, expressions and functions
weve seen how to form truth tables to help us to determine the
outcome of functions
dont underestimate the value of using these!
weve seen how to apply the identities to help us to simplify some
functions
and to transform others so that they can be expressed just using NAND
or NOR
making good use of DeMorgans law
weve seen how to represent functions in a standardized form
References & Further Learning
outline primarily based upon:
Chapter 3, Computer Organization & Architecture (3rd Edition), Null & Lobur
other material used for reference:
Set 5, CG066 Lecture Notes, Dave Harrison,Northumbria University
suggested learning activities:
practice creating truth tables for the basic operators until you are
comfortable with them
use NAND gates to build the remaining gates from the example
create a function, draw its truth table and then derive its standardized form
as a sum of products
