Kiss - Space

keep it simple science
HSC Physics Topic 1
SPACE
What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. GRAVITY & GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
2. PROJECTILES & SATELLITES
3. NEWTONS LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
4. EINSTEINS THEORY OF RELATIVITY
...all in the context of the universe and space travel
but first, an introduction...

Mass, Weight & Gravity You will study how Gravity is responsible for
were covered briefly in the Preliminary Course. holding the Solar System together...
In this topic you will revise these concepts, and

be introduced to the concept of Gravitational
Potential Energy.
Then, you move on to study two important forms

of motion that are controlled by gravity...
Projectiles... Earth is in a
Once launched, gravitational orbit
the path of a around the Sun
projectile is
entirely
determined by
gravity.
and study a variety of aspects of Physics that
relate to Space Travel
...and Satellites in Orbit.
1970s Apollo mission
There are over 1,000 to the Moon
artificial satellites in
Earth orbit.
Some provide
communication links
for telephone,
internet and TV.
Launch & Others watch the

Re-eentry weather, or study
are the patterns of land use,
tricky bits... or search for natural
resources.
In the final section you will study one of the most
Orbiting is
famous (and least understood) theories of Science:
simple Some are for
Physics! military Einsteins Theory of Relativity
surveillance.
HSC Physics Topic 1 Space
1 Usage & copying is permitted according to the
Copyright 2005-22009 keep it simple science
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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and
remember the concepts and important facts. As you proceed through the topic,
come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the whole.
At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.
Gravitational
Acceleration Height, Range,
g Projectile Time of Flight, etc
Mass Motion
& Gravitational
Potential Satellites
Weight &
Energy
Orbits
Gravity & Projectiles

Gravitational &
Fields Circular
Satellites Motion
Keplers
Law of Periods
SPACE
Gravitational
Fields
Newtons
Law of
Universal Law of
Universal
Gravitation
Einsteins Gravitation
Theory of
Relativity
Michelson-Morley
Gravity
Experiment
&
& its Significance
Space
Evidence Einsteins Probes
Supporting Idea
Relativity Frames of
and the Reference &
Consequences Relativity
HSC Physics Topic 1 Space 2 Usage & copying is permitted according to the

1. GRAVITY & GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Weight & Gravity Gravitational Field
You should already be aware that the Weight of In one way, Gravity resembles electrical charge
an object is the Force due to gravity, attracting the and magnetism... it is able to exert a force on
objects mass toward the Earth. You also know that things without touching them. Such forces are
(ignoring air resistance) all objects near the Earth explained by imagining that there is an invisible
will accelerate downwards at the same rate. This Force Field reaching through space.
acceleration rate is known as g, and is
approximately 10ms-2. Gravitational fields are imagined to surround
anything with mass... that means all matter, and
all objects. The field exerts a force on any other
Weight = Mass x Acceleration due toGravity mass that is within the field.
W = mg Unlike electro-magnetism, gravity can only

attract; it can never repel.
Weight is in newtons (N) Of the various field forces, Gravity is by far
Mass in kilograms (kg) the weakest, although when enough mass is
g is acceleration in ms-2. concentrated in one spot (e.g. the Earth) it
doesnt seem weak!
Measuring g How This Relates

One of the first activities you may have done in to g
class would have been to determine the value
of g, the acceleration due to gravity. It turns out that the rate at
which a pendulum swings
A common experimental method to do this (its Period) is controlled
s
involves using a pendulum. by only 2 things:

etre
in m
By accurately timing (say) 10 swings of the its length, and

pendulum, and then dividing by 10, the Period the acceleration due to
gth
gravity
(T) can be measured. This value needs to be
Len
squared for graphing. Mathematically,
The length of the pendulum (L) is also T2 = 42L

measured as accurately as possible. g
Typically, the measurements are repeated for so, T2 = 42

several different lengths of pendulum, then the Time taken for 1 complete L g
results are graphed as shown. (back-aand-fforth) swing is
called the Period of the You are NOT required to
pendulum (T) know this equation.
Analysis
3.0
The straight line graph shows there is a direct

relationship between the Length (L) and the (Period)2.
it
tf
T2 = 42 4.0
es
Gradient,
fb
eo
L g
2.0
Lin
Therefore, g 42/4.0 = 9.9 ms-2.

(s2)
Accepted value, g = 9.81ms-2

(Period)2
1.0
Gradient = T2 4.0
L Explanations for Not Getting Exact Value:
The main causes of experimental error are any jerking,
stretching or twisting in the string, which causes the
pendulum swing to be irregular. This is why the most
accurate results will be obtained with very small, gentle
0
0 0.5 1.0 swings.

Length of Pendulum (m)

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Gravitational Potential Energy(GPE) Gravity and Weight

Potential Energy is commonly defined as the on Other Planets
energy stored in an object. In the case of any We are so used to the gravity effects on Earth
object on or near the Earth, the amount of GPE that we need to be reminded that g is different
it contains depends on elsewhere, such as on another planet in our
Solar System.
its mass
its height above the Earth Since g is different, and W = mg
it follows that things have a different weight if
If that object is allowed to fall down, it loses taken to another planet.
some GPE and gains some other form of energy,
such as Kinetic or Heat. To raise the object Values of g in Other Places in the Solar
higher, you must do work on it, in order to System
increase the amount of GPE it contains.
Planet g g
However, for mathematical reasons, the point (ms-2) (as multiple of Earths)
where an object is defined to have zero GPE is Earth 9.81 1.00
not on Earth, but at a point an infinite distance Mars 3.8 0.39
away. So GPE is defined as follows: Jupiter 25.8 2.63
Neptune 10.4 1.06
Gravitational Potential Energy Moon 1.6 0.17
is a measure of the work done
to move an object from infinity,
to a point within the gravitational field.
This definition has an important consequence:

it defines GPE as the work done to bring an
object towards the Earth, but we know that you
need to do work to push an object (upwards)
away from Earth.
Therefore, GPE is, by definition, a negative

quantity!
GPE = -GmM
R
G = Gravitational Constant (= 6.67x10-11)
m = mass of object (kg)
M = mass of Earth, or other planet (kg) Calculating a Weight
R = distance (metres) of mass m from the
centre of the Earth
on another Planet
Example
Note: the HSC Syllabus does NOT require you to If an astronaut in his space
carry out calculations using this equation. You ARE suit weighs 1,350N on Earth,
required to know the definition for GPE. what will he weigh on Mars
where g=3.84ms-2?
In the interests of better understanding, here is an
example of how the equation could be used: Solution W = mg
On Earth, 1,350 = m x 9.81
How much GPE does a 500kg satellite have when in mass = 1,350/9.81
orbit 250km (= 250,000m) above the Earths surface? = 137.6 kg
(Earths mass = 5.98x1024kg,
Earth radius = 6.38x106m)
So on Mars, W = mg
Solution GPE = -GmM = 137.6x3.84
R = 528kg.
= -6.67x10-11x500x5.98x1024
(6.38x106 + 250,000)
= -3.00x1010 J. WORKSHEET at end of this section
The negative value is due to the definition of GPE.

Worksheet 1 Gravity & GPE

Fill in the blank spaces. Student Name...........................................
The weight of an object is the Any mass within a gravitational field
a)...................... due to b).......................... possesses Gravitaional Potential
Energy (GPE). This is defined as the
Near the Earth, all objects will amount of l)................................ to move
c)................................... at the same rate, an object from m)................................ to
approximately d)..................ms-2 a point within the field. In reality, work
must be done to move any mass in the
Experimentally, g can be easily opposite direction, so the definition
determined by measuring the length means that the value for GPE is always
and e).............................. of a pendulum. a n)................................... quantity.
When the results are graphed
appropriately, the f)................................ The value of g at the surface of the
of the graph allows calculation of g. Earth is o)...................ms-2, but has a
different value in other places, so the
Gravity acts at a distance by way of a p)................................. of any object will
g)...................... ........................ the same be different on a different planet.
as electro-magnetism, but the force only However, the q)........................ will
h)....................... and can never remain the same.
i)....................... Gravity is a property of
mass; every object is surrounded by a
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
j).................................... which will attract BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
any other k)........................... within the
field.
Worksheet 2 Practice Problems
Mass & Weight Student Name ...........................................
1. 2.
A small space probe has a mass of 575kg. If a martian weighs 250N when at home, what
will he/she/it weigh:
a) What is its mass a) on Earth? (hint: firstly find the mass)
i) in orbit?
ii) on the Moon?

b) on Neptune?
iii) on Jupiter?
c) on the Moon?
b) What is its weight
i) on Earth?
3.
A rock sample, weight 83.0N, was collected by a
space probe from the planet Neptune.
ii) on the Moon? a) What is its mass?
b) What will it weigh on Earth?
iii) on Jupiter?
c) On which planet would it weigh 206N?

2. PROJECTILES & SATELLITES

What is a Projectile? Projectile Motion
A projectile is any object that is launched, and By simple observation of a golf ball trajectory, or
then moves only under the influence of gravity. a thrown cricket ball, the motion of any
projectile can be seen to be a curve. It is in fact
Examples: a parabola, and you might think the Physics of
this is going to be difficult. NOT SO... it is really
Once struck, kicked or very simple. Just remember the following:
thrown, a ball in any sport Horizontal Motion
becomes a projectile. is CONSTANT VELOCITY
Vertical Motion
is CONSTANT ACCELERATION
at g, DOWNWARDS
Projectiles You must analyse projectile motion as 2

separate motions; horizontal (x-axis) and
Any bullet, vertical (y-axis) must be dealt with separately,
shell or bomb and combined as vectors if necessary.
is a projectile
once it is fired, The Trajectory (Path)
launched or of a Projectile
dropped. At any instant, the projectiles
The Intitial Launch position or velocity is the vector sum
Velocity has horizontal & of horizontal + vertical components
vertical components
Horizontal
Maximum Height
Velocity
Not a Vx
An example which is
NOT a Projectile: Projectile Uy
U Vertical
Velocity
Vy
A rocket or guided missile, angle of launch
while still under power, is Ux
NOT a projectile. Range = Total Horizontal Displacement
Once the engine stops Equations for Projectile Motion

firing it becomes a
projectile. 1. Resolve the Initial Launch Velocity into
Vertical & Horizontal Components
Projectiles are subject to
U Uy
only one force... Sin = Uy & Cos = Ux
Gravity! U U
Uy = U.Sin , Ux = U.Cos Ux
When a projectile is travelling through air, there
is, of course, an air-resistance force acting as 2. Horizontal Motion is constant velocity, so
well. For simplicity, (K.I.S.S. Principle) air-
resistance will be ignored throughout this topic. Vx = Sx is all you need
t
In reality, a projectile in air, does not
behave the way described here 3. Vertical Motion is constant acceleration at g
because of the effects of air-resistance.
To find vertical velocity:
Vy = Uy + g.t (from v=u+at)
The exact motion depends on many To find vertical displacement:
factors and the Physics becomes very Sy = Uy.t + 1.g.t2 (from S=ut+ 1at2)
complex, and beyond the scope 2 2
of this course. The syllabus specifies a 3rd equation as well, but
its use can be avoided. (K.I.S.S. Principle)


Analysing Projectile Motion

Example 1
The cannon shown fires a shell at an initial velocity of 400ms-1.
If it fires at an angle of 20o, calculate:
a) the vertical and horizontal components of the initial velocity.
b) the time of flight. (assuming the shell lands at U=400ms-11

the same horizontal level)
c) the range. (same assumption) = 20o
d) the maximum height it reaches.
a)
Uy = U.Sin Ux = U.Cos
= 400..Sin20 =400Cos20
=136.8ms-11 =375.9ms-11 Point to Note:
(upwards) (horizontal)
The mass of the projectile does NOT enter
into any calculation. The trajectory is
determined by launch velocity & angle, plus
gravity. Mass is irrelevant!
b) The shell is fired upwards, but c) Range is horizontal displacement

acceleration due to gravity is downwards.
You must assign up = (+ve), down = ( -v ve). Remember
Vx= Ux= constant velocity
At the top of its arc, the shell will have an
instantaneous vertical velocity= zero. Vx = Sx
t
Vy = Uy + g.t Sx = Vx.t (use time of flight)
0 = 136.8 + (-99.81)xt
t = -1
136.8/-99.81 = 375.9 x 27.9
= 13.95 s = 10,488m
This means it takes 13.95s to reach the top Range = 1.05x104m

of its arc. Since the motion is symmetrical, (i.e. 10.5 km)
it must take twice as long for the total
flight.
time of flight = 27.9s
d) Vertical Height (up =(+ve), down =( -v

ve))
Sy = Uy.t + 1.g.t2
2
= 136.8x13.95 + 0.5x(-9 9.81)x(13.95)2
= 1901.5 + (-9 947.7)
= 953.8m = 9.54x102m.
Note: the time used is the time to reach the top of

the arc... the time at the highest point.

Analysing Projectile Motion

Example 2
The batsman has just hit the ball upwards at an angle of 55o, with an
intial velocity of 28.0ms-1. The boundary of the field is 62.0m away from
the batsman.
Resolve the velocity into vertical and horizontal components, then use
these to find:
a) the time of flight of the ball. Remember to let UP = (+ve)
DOWN = ( -v ve)
b) the maximum height reached. acceleration = g = -9
9.81ms-22
c) whether or not he has hit a 6 by clearing the boundary.
d) the velocity of the ball (including direction) at the instant t = 3.50s.
Vertical & Horizontal

a) Time of Flight
Components of Velocity
At highest point Vy=0, so
Uy = U.Sin , Ux = U.Cos
=28Sin55 =28Cos55
Vy = Uy + g.t
=22.9ms-11 =16.1ms-11
0 = 22.9 + (-9
9.81)xt
t = -2
22.9/-99.81
= 2.33s
b) Maximum Height This is the mid-ppoint of the

is achieved at t = 2.33s, so arc, so
time of flight = 4.66s
Sy = Uy.t + 1.g.t2
2
9.81)x(2.33)2
= 22.9x2.33+0.5x(-9
= 53.5 + (-226.6)
= 26.9m
c) Range will determine if hes hit a 6.
Vx= Ux= constant velocity

Sx = Vx.t (use total time of flight)
= 16.1 x 4.66
= 75.0m Thatll be 6 !
d) Velocity at t = 3.50s ?
Vertical Horizontal
16.1
Vy = Uy + g.t Vx= Ux= constant
Re
su
lta
11.4
nt
=22.9+(-99.81)x3.50 = 16.1ms-11 Ve
loc
11.4ms-11
= -1 ity
(this means it is downwards)
By Pythagorus, Tan = 11.4/16.1

V2 = Vy2 + Vx2 35o
11.4)2 + 16.12
= (-1
V = Sq.root(389.17) = 19.7ms-11 at an angle 35o below horizontal

Analysing Projectile Motion (cont) Projectiles Launched Horizontally

If you find solving Projectile Motion problems is A common situation with projectile motion is
difficult, try to learn these basic rules: when a projectile is launched horizontally, as in
the following example. This involves half the
The launch velocity must be resolved into a normal trajectory.
horizontal velocity (Ux) and a vertical velocity Plane flying horizontally,
(Uy). Once you have these, you can deal with at constant 50.0ms-11
vertical and horizontal motion as 2 separate
things. Releases a bomb from
Altitude = 700m
The motion is symmetrical, so at the highest
point, the elapsed time is exactly half the total
time of flight. Questions
a) How long does it take for the
The top of the arc is the mid-p
point.
At this point Vy = zero bomb to hit the ground?
b) At what velocity does it hit?
Horizontal
c) If the plane continues flying
Maximum Height
Velocity straight and level, where is it when

Vx the bomb hits?
Uy Vertical
U
Velocity
Vy Solution
angle of launch Because the plane is flying horizontally, the
Ux intitial velocity vectors of the bomb are:
Horizontal, Ux= 50.0ms-1,
Range = Total Horizontal Displacement
Vertical, Uy= zero
a) Time to hit the ground
Also, at the highest point, Vy = zero. We know the vertical distance to fall (-700m
The projectile has been rising to this point. (down)), the acceleration rate (g= -9.81ms-2)
After this point it begins falling. and that Uy=0.
For an instant Vy = 0. Very useful knowledge!
Sy = Uy.t + 1.g.t2
2
Maximum Range is achieved at a launch angle
-700 = 0xt + 0.5 x(-9.81)x t2
of 45o.
-700 = -4.905xt2
t2 = -700/-4.905
LAUNCH ANGLE 45o t = 11.9s
GIVES MAXIMUM b) Final Velocity at impact
Angle greater than 45o RANGE Vertical Horizontal
Vy = Uy + g.t Vx= Ux
Angles less than 45o
= 0 + (-9.81)x11.9 Vx= 50.0ms-1.
Vy= -117ms-1. (down)
50.0
V2=Vy2 + Vx2
PROJECTILES LAUNCHED AT
SAME VELOCITY = 1172 + 50.02
Fin
V = Sq.Root(16,189)
al
Ve
= 127ms-1.
117
Horizontal Motion is constant velocity... easy.

loc
Use Vx = Ux and Sx = Ux.t

ity
Tan = 117/50
Vertical Motion is constant acceleration 67o.
at g= -9.81ms-2, so use Vy = Uy + g.t
to find t at the max.height (when Vy=0) Bomb hits the ground at 127ms-1,
or, find Vy at a known time. at angle 67o below horizontal.
c) Where is the Plane?

Use Sy = Uy.t + 1.g.t2 Since both plane and bomb travel at the same
2 horizontal velocity, it follows that they have
to find vertical displacement (Sy) at a known both travelled exactly the same horizontal
time, or find the time to fall through a known distance when the bomb hits. i.e. the plane is
height (if Uy=0) directly above the bomb at impact.
(In warfare, this is a problem for low-level

bombers... the bombs must have
WORKSHEET at the end of this section delayed-action fuses)

Galileo and Projectile Motion Isaac Newton and Orbiting

Notice that NONE of the equations used to Once Isaac Newton had developed the Maths
analyse Projectile Motion ever use the mass of and discovered the laws of motion and gravity,
the projectile. This is because all objects, he too looked at Projectile Motion.
regardless of mass, accelerate with gravity at
the same rate (so long as air-resistance is Newton imagined a cannon on a very high
insignificant). mountain, firing projectiles horizontally with
ever-increasing launch velocities:
It was Galileo, (1564-1642) who you learned
about in The Cosmic Engine, who first If launch velocity is high
discovered this. enough, the projectile
escapes from the Earths
gravity
EARTH
At the right velocity, the projectile

curves downwards at the same
rate as the Earth curves... it will
circle the Earth in orbit!
Newton had discovered the concept of a

gravitational orbit, and the concept of escape
velocity.
His famous experiment was to drop objects of
the same size and shape, but of different weight, Escape Velocity is defined as the launch
from the leaning tower in Pisa. He found that all velocity needed for a projectile to escape from
objects hit the ground at the same time, thereby the Earths gravitational field.
proving the point.
Mathematically, it can be shown that
He also studied projectile motion. In his day,
cannon balls were the ultimate weapon, but Escape Velocity, Ve = 2GME / RE
trajectories were not understood at all. To slow
the motion down for easier study, Galileo rolled G= Gravitational Constant (later in topic)
balls down an incline: ME= Mass of the Earth
RE= Radius of Earth
You are NOT required to learn, nor use,

this equation.
Although not
falling freely, the balls What you should learn is that:
accelerated uniformly, and Galileo was
able to see that the motion was a combination The mass of the projectile is not a factor.
of 2 motions: Therefore, all projectiles, regardless of mass,
horizontal, constant velocity need the same velocity to escape from Earth,
and vertical, constant acceleration about 11km per second!
Galileo had discovered the basic principles of The Escape Velocity depends only on the mass
Projectile Motion. and radius of the Earth.
Unfortunately, he lacked the mathematical It follows that different planets have different
formulas to go any further with his analysis. escape velocities. Here are a few examples...
That only became possible after the work of PLANET ESCAPE VELOCITY
Isaac Newton, and his 3 Laws of Motion, and in km/sec (ms-1)
Theory of Gravitation. Earth 11.2 1.12 x104
Moon 2.3 2.3 x103
Coincidentally, Newton was born in the same Mars 5.0 5.0 x103
year that Galileo died. Jupiter 60.0 6.0 x104

Placing a Satellite in Earth Orbit Rockets Achieve Orbit

A projectile needs an enormous velocity to To keep the g-forces low while accelerating to
escape from the Earths gravitational field... the velocity required for orbit, AND then to
about 11 km per second. Think of a place 11 km operate in the airless conditions of space, the
away from you, and imagine getting there in 1 rocket is the only practical technology
second flat! developed so far.
What about Newtons idea of an orbiting A Brief History of Rocketry

projectile? If it is travelling at the right velocity, Simple solid-fuel (e.g. gunpowder) rockets have
a projectiles down-curving trajectory will match been used as fireworks and weapons for over
the curvature of the Earth, so it keeps falling 500 years.
down, but can never reach the surface. A
projectile in orbit like this is called a About 100 years ago, the Russian Tsiolkovsky
satellite. (1857-1935) was the first to seriously propose
rockets as vehicles to reach outer space. He
It can be shown that to achieve orbit, the launch developed the theory of multi-stage, liquid-fuel
velocity required is less than escape velocity, rockets as being the only practical means of
but still very high... about 8 km per second. How achieving space flight.
is this velocity possible?
The American Robert Goddard (1882-
In a 19th century novel, author Jules Verne 1945) developed rocketry theory futher,
proposed using a huge cannon to fire a space but also carried out practical
capsule (including human passengers) into experiments including the first liquid-
space. Lets consider the Physics: fuel rocket engine.
V2
The g-Forces in a Space Launch Goddards experiments were the basis
To accelerate a capsule (and astronauts) of new weapons research during
upwards to orbital velocity requires a force. The World War II, especially by Nazi
upward thrust force must overcome the Germany. Wernher von Braun (1912-
downward weight force AND provide upward 1977) and others developed the
acceleration. liquid-fuel V2 rocket to deliver
explosive warheads at supersonic
Astronaut During Acceleration to Orbital Velocity
speeds from hundreds of kilometers away.
Total Net Force
Net
Force= ma causes acceleration At the end of the war many V2s, and the German
Greek letter
F = ma Sigma ( )
scientists who developed them, were captured
means total by either the Russians or the Americans. They
If up = (+ve), down ( -v
ve) continued their research in their new
then countries, firstly to develop rockets to carry
Weight = mg nuclear weapons (during the Cold War) and
Force
F = T - mg = ma later for space research.
THRUST Force = T T = ma + mg The Russians

achieved the
So, if the Thrust This means the astronaut first satellite
force causes will feel the thrust as an (Sputnik
acceleration of (say) increase in weight. 1957) and the
about 10ms-2, as well first human The business
as overcoming his weight force, the 80kg in orbit, and end of a
astronaut will feel a pushing force of; the 1970s liquid-
Americans fuel rocket
T = ma + mg the first engine
= 80x10 + 80x10 10ms-2 )
( g manned
= 1,600N missions to the Moon (1969).
Space
This is twice his normal weight of 800N... Since then, the use of
Shuttle
we say the force is 2g. satellites has become
launch
routine and essential to our
A fit, trained astronaut can tolerate forces of communications, while
5g, but anything above about 10g is life- (unmanned) probes have
threatening. Jules Vernes cannon astronauts visited nearly every other
would have suffered forces of about 200g... planet in the Solar System.
instantly fatal.

Direction of Launch Physics of a Rocket Launch Conservation of

Straight upwards, right? Momentum
Wrong!
Why a rocket moves was dealt with in the
To reach Earth orbit, rockets are aimed toward Preliminary topic Moving About.
the EAST to take advantage of the Earths Reaction force pushes
rotation. The rocket will climb vertically to clear Newtons 3rd Law rocket forward
the launch pad, then be turned eastward.
Launch
Trajectory
Force on = Force on
Exhaust Rocket
Gases
Orbit path Action Force
pushes on
exhaust gasses,
accelerating
them
backwards
Earth, viewed It can also be shown that
from above
North Pole Change of Momentum = Change of Momentum
of Exhaust Gases of Rocket
Rotation
backwards ( -v
ve) forwards (+ve)
At the equator, the Earth is rotating eastwards at ( -)Mass x velocity = Mass x velocity
about 1,700km/hr (almost 0.5km/sec) so the
rocket already has that much velocity towards The mass x velocity (per second) of the
its orbital speed. exhaust gases stays fairly constant during the
lift-off. However, the mass of the rocket
Rocket launch facilities are always sited as decreases as its fuel is burnt. Therefore, the
close to the equator as possible, and usually rockets velocity must keep increasing in order
near the east coast of a continent so the launch to maintain the Conservation of Momemtum.
is outwards over the ocean.
Forces Experienced by Astronauts

If the Thrust force from the rocket engine
remains constant throughout the burn, but the
total rocket mass decreases due to consumption of
the fuel, then the acceleration increases.
The concept of g-forces was explained on the

previous page.
Thrust Force, T = ma + mg
If T remains constant, but m keeps decreasing,
then a must keep increasing.
(This assumes g is constant...
Actually it decreases with altitude,
so a must increase even more)
Not only does the rocket accelerate upwards, but

even the acceleration keeps accelerating!
The astronauts will feel increasing g-forces. At

lift-off, they will experience perhaps only 2g, but
over several minutes this will increase to perhaps
Photo by Shelley Kiser 7g as the rocket burns thousands of tonnes of
fuel and its mass decreases.
The Space Shuttles engines are throttled-back

during the launch to counteract this, so the
astronauts are not injured by increasing g-force. Photo: Russian Soyez lift-off,
courtesy Ali Cimen, senior
reporter, Zaman Daily, Istanbul.

Types of Orbits Satellites and Orbits Orbits & Centripetal Force

There are 2 main types of The orbit of a satellite is often an oval-
satellite orbits: shape, or ellipse. However, in this
topic we will always assume the orbits are
Low-Earth Orbit circular... K.I.S.S. Principle.
As the name suggests, this type of orbit is
relatively close to the Earth, generally from Circular Motion was introduced in a Preliminary
about 200km, out to about 1,000km above the topic. To maintain motion in a circle an object
surface. must be constantly acted upon by Centripetal
Force, which acts towards the centre of the
For any satellite, the closer it is, the faster it circle.
must travel to stay in orbit. Therefore, in a Low- Object in V Instaneous Velocity
Earth Orbit a satellite is travelling quickly and Circular vector is a tangent to
Motion the circle
will complete an orbit in only a few hours.
A common low orbit is a Polar Orbit in which Fc Fc

the satellite tracks over the north and south
V
poles while the Earth rotates underneath it. Centripetal Force
Vector
This type of orbit is
always towards centre The object is constantly
ideal for taking photos
accelerating. The
N or Radar surveys of centripetal acceleration
Earth. vector is towards the
Polar Orbit centre.
The satellite only sees

a narrow north-s south What Causes Centripetal Force?
Earths strip of the Earth, but Example Centripetal Force caused by...
Rotation as the Earth rotates, Swinging an object Tension Force in the string.
each orbit looks at a around on a string.
Equator
new strip.
Vehicle turning a Friction Force between tyres
Eventually, the entire circular corner. and road.
S Earth can be surveyed.
Satellite in orbit Gravitational Force between
around Earth. satellite mass and Earths
Being a close orbit, fine mass.
details can be seen.
Geo-stationary Orbits are those where Fc = mv2

the period of the satellite (time taken for one orbit) R
is exactly the same as the Earth itself... 1 day. Fc = Centripetal Force, in newtons (N)
m = mass of object in orbit, in kg
v = orbital velocity, in ms-1
This means that the satellite is always directly
R = radius of orbit, in metres (m)
above the same spot on the Earth, and seems to
remain motionless in the same position in the When considering the radius of a satellite orbit, you
sky. Its not really motionless, of course, but need to be aware that the orbital distance is often
orbiting around at the same angular rate as the described as the height above the surface. To get
Earth itself. the radius, you may need to add the radius of the
Earth itself... 6,370km (6.37 x 106 m)
Geo-stationary orbits are usually above the
equator, and have to be about 36,000km above the Calculating Velocity from Radius & Period
surface in order to have the correct orbital speed. Satellite motion is often described by the
radius of the orbit, and the time taken
for 1 orbit = the Period (T)
Being so far out, these satellites are not much
good for photographs or surveys, but are ideal Now, circumference of a circle = 2R
for communications. They stay in the same
distance
relative position in the sky and so radio and Therefore, the orbital velocity V = 2R traveled
microwave dishes can be permanently aimed at T
time taken
the satellite, for continuous TV, telephone and
internet relays to almost anywhere on Earth.
Three geo-stationary satellites, spaced evenly

around the equator, can cover virtually the Example Problem next page...
whole Earth with their transmissions.

Keplers Law of Periods

Centripetal Force and Satellites
Example Problem When Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) studied the
A 250kg satellite in a circular movement of the planets around the Sun (see
orbit 200km above the R Preliminary topic Cosmic Engine) he
Earth, has an orbital discovered that there was always a
period of 1.47hours.
200km mathematical relationship between the Period of
a) What is its orbital velocity? the orbit and its Radius:
b) What centripetal force acts
on the satellite? R3 T2 (Greek letter alpha ( ) means
(Radius of Earth = 6.37x106m) proportional to)
This means that
Solution
a) First, find the true radius of the orbit, and get R3 = constant
everything into S.I. units: T2
Radius of orbit = 200,000 + 6.37x106 = 6.57x106m This means that for every satellite of the Earth,
Period = 1.47hr = 1.47 x 60 x 60 = 5.29x103 seconds
the (Radius)3 divided by (Period)2 has the same
V = 2R = 2 x x 6.57x106/5.29x103 = 7.80x103ms-1. value.
T This is a very useful relationship...
see Example Problem at bottom left
b) Fc = mv2 = 250x(7.80x103)2/6.57x106
R
= 2,315 = 2.32 x 103 N.
At this point, the HSC Syllabus is rather
The satellite is travelling at about 8 km/sec, vague about whether you need to learn
held in orbit by a gravitational force of about 2,300N. and know the following mathematical
development.
WORKSHEET at the end of this section You may be safe to ignore it... (K.I.S.S.) but follow it if
you can. Either way, you DO need to be able to use the
final equation shown below.
Keplers Law of Periods was discovered empirically...

that is, it was discovered by observing the motion of
the planets, but Kepler had no idea WHY it was so.
Keplers Law of Periods When Isaac Newon developed his Law of Universal
Gravitation (next section) he was able to prove the
Example Problem theoretical basis for Keplers Law, as follows:
A geo-stationary satellite has a period of 24.0 hours.
Use Keplers Law of Periods to find its orbital radius. The Centripetal Force of orbiting is provided by
Use data from the example above. the Gravitational Force between the satellite and
the Earth, so
Solution
For the satellite above, R3 = 6,5703 = 1.31 x 1011
Centripetal Force = Gravitational Force
(units are km & hours) T2 1.472
Fc = mv2 = FG = GMm
According to the law of periods, ALL satellites of Earth R R2
must have the same value for R3/T2
v2 = GM but v = 2R
So, for the geo-stationary satellite: R T
R3 = 1.31 x 1011 So, 42R2 = GM
T2 T2 R
So R3 = 1.31x1011x(24.0)2 re-arranging, R3 = GM
R = CubeRoot(7.55x1013) T2 42
= 4.23 x 104 km
This is approx. 42,000km from Earths centre, or about Since the right hand side are all constant values,
36,000km above the surface. this proves Keplers Law and establishes the Force
of Gravity as the controlling force for all orbiting
Note: When using Keplers Law in this way satellites, including planets around the Sun.
it doesnt matter which units are used,
as long as you are consistent. In the above,
G = Universal Gravitational Constant
In this example, km & hrs were used. The same result M = mass of the Earth (or body being orbited)
will occur if metres & seconds are used. m = mass of satellite... notice that it disappears!

Keplers Law of Periods (Again!) Re-Entry From Orbit

On the previous page, the sample problem was able to Getting a spacecraft into orbit is difficult enough, but
calculate the orbital radius for a geo-stationary the most dangerous process is getting it down again
satellite by comparing the ratio of R3/T2 for 2 satellites. in one piece with any astronauts on board alive and
well.
With Newtons development of Keplers Law, we can
do it again a different way... In orbit, the satellite and astronauts have a high
velocity (kinetic energy) and a large amount of GPE
Example Problem due to height above the Earth. To get safely back to
Find the orbital radius of a geo-stationary satellite, Earth, the spacecraft must decelerate and shed all
given that its period of orbit is 24.0 hours. that energy.
(24.0hr = 24.0x60x60 = 8.64 x 104 sec)
Doing this way, you MUST use S.I. units!! It is impossible to carry enough fuel to use rocket
engines to decelerate downwards in a reverse of the
(G= Gravitational Constant = 6.67 x 10-11 lift-off, riding the rocket back down at the same rate it
M = Mass of Earth = 5.97 x 1024kg) went up.
R3 = GM Instead, the capsule is slowed by retro-rockets just
T2 42 enough to cause it to enter the top of the atmosphere
so that friction with the air does 2 things:
R3 = 6.67x10-11 x 5.97x1024 x (8.64x104)2
42
R = CubeRoot (7.5295x1022) cause deceleration of the capsule at a survivable
= 4.22 x 107m. rate of deceleration not more than (say) 5-g, and
convert all the Ek and GPE into heat energy.
This is about 42,000km, or about 36,000km above the
surface... the same answer as before. (It better be!) The trick is to enter the atmosphere at the
correct angle:
WORKSHEET at the end of the section
Angle too shallow...
Spacecraft bounces off upper air
Decay of Low-Earth Orbits layers, back into space
Where does Space begin?
Its generally agreed that by 100km above the Upper Atmosphere

surface of the Earth the atmosphere has ended,
and youre in outer space. However, although
this seems to be a vacuum, there are still a few
atoms and molecules of gases extending out Earths Surface
many hundreds of kilometres.
Angle correct...
Therefore, any satellite in a low-Earth orbit will Spacecraft decelerates safely along
be constantly colliding with this extremely thin a descent path of about 1,000km
outer atmosphere. The friction or air- of Atmospheric
resistance this causes is extremely small, but Braking
over a period of months or years, it gradually
Correct angle is
slows the satellite down.
between 5-77o
As it slows, its orbit decays. This means it
Earths Surface
loses a little altitude and gradually spirals
downward. As it gets slightly lower it will
encounter even more gas molecules, so the Angle too steep...
decay process speeds up. g-fforces may kill astronauts.
Heat may cause craft to burn-u up.
Once the satellite reaches about the 100km level
the friction becomes powerful enough to cause
heating and rapid loss of speed. At this point the
satellite will probably burn up and be
destroyed as it crashes downward.
Earths Surface
Modern satellites are designed to reach their
low-Earth orbit with enough fuel still available to Early spacecraft used ablation shields, designed to
carry out short rocket engine burns as melt and carry heat away, with the final descent by
needed to counteract decay and boost parachute. The Space Shuttle uses high temperature
themselves back up to the correct orbit. This tiles and high-tech insulation for heat protection, and
way they can remain in low-Earth orbits for glides in on its wings for final landing like an aircraft.
many years.
HSC Physics Topic 1 Space Usage & copying is permitted according to the
Copyright 2005-22009 keep it simple science 15

Worksheet 3 Projectiles & Satellites

A projectile is any object which is launched, and then The only feasible technology (so far) for achieving the
moves a).................................. The path of a projectile necessary af)................... ........................., while
is called its b)................................, and is a curve. keeping the ag).................................. reasonably low,
Mathematically, the curve is a c).................................. is the use of ah)............................ One of the important
steps in the history of rocketry was achieved by
To analyse projectile motion it is essential to treat the Robert Goddard, who built and tested the first
motion as 2 separate motions; d).................................. ai).............................-fuelled rocket.
and .................................... If the launch velocity and
the e)............................ of launch are known, you Rockets are always launched towards the
should always start by f)...................................... the aj)...................... to take advantage of the Earths
initial velocity into horizontal and vertical ak)................................. Rocket propulsion is a
g)...................................... consequence of Newtons al)........... Law. During the
launch, momentum is am).............................. The
The horizontal motion is always h)........................ backward momentum gained by the exhaust gases is
....................... and the vertical is constant matched by the an).......................... momentum gained
i)................................... due to j)............................. The by the ao)............................. However, the mass of the
usual strategy is to find the k)...................... of flight, rocket ap)....................... rapidly as is burns huge
by using the fact that at the top of the projectiles arc amounts of fuel. This means that even with constant
its vertical velocity is l)......................... Once this is thrust, the acceleration rate aq).........................., and
known, it becomes possible to calculate the the astronauts feel increasing ar)..............................
maximum m)....................... attained, and the
n)........................ (total horizontal displacement.). The There are basically 2 different types of orbit for a
projectiles position and velocity at any instant can be satellite: as)........................................ orbits are when
found by combining the o)............................. and the satellite is at).......................... km from Earth and
....................................... vectors. Maximum range of travelling very au).............................. This is ideal for
any projectile occurs when the angle of launch is satellites used for av)...................................... and
p).................... degrees upwards. ........................................... The other type of orbit is
called aw)..................................... For this the satellite
Historically, it was q)...................................... who first is positioned so its ax)......................... is exactly 24
proved that (ignoring air-resistance) all objects hours. This means it orbits at the same relative rate
accelerate under gravity r)..................... as the Earths ay)........................., and seems to stay
................................... He also investigated projectile in the az).................................................... This is ideal
motion and was the first to see that the horizontal for ba)................................ satellites.
motion is constant s).......................... while the
t)................................. is constant acceleration. Any object undergoing Circular Motion is being acted
upon by bb).............................. force, which is always
Later, u)...................................... developed the directed towards the bc)............................................
mathematics of both gravity and motion, which For an object twirled on a string, the centripetal force
allowed projectile motion to be understood and is provided by the bd)...................... ..............................
ananalysed. He also discovered the concept of For a car turning a corner, its the force of
v)...................... velocity, and of objects being in be)..................... between tyres and road. For a
w)..........................., by imaging what would happen to satellite, its the force of bf).....................................
cannon balls being fired horizontally at increasing
velocities from a high mountain. Johannes bg)............................... discovered the Law
of Periods for satellites. Later, Newton was able to
Escape Velocity is defined as the velocity a shown that this was a consequence of
projectile needs in order to x)...................... bh)............................ attraction between the satellite
............................................... and whatever it is orbiting.
Satellites & Orbits Low-Earth orbits will eventually bi)............................

If a projectile is travelling horizontally at the correct due to the satellite gradually losing speed by collision
y)..................................., then its down-curving with bj)...................................................
trajectory will match the z)................................. of the
Earth. The projectile will continue to fall down but Re-entry of a spacecraft from orbit is extremely
never reach the surface... it is a aa)............................... dangerous: bk)....................... from high velocity can
which is ab)................................. around the Earth. To cause high g-forces, and friction causes production
place a satellite in orbit, it must be of bl)........................... energy which can cause the
ac).................................... up to orbital speeds. craft to burn-up. The trick is to enter the atmosphere
at exactly the correct bm)...........................
During upward acceleration, an astronaut will
experience ad).......................... which feel like an
increase in ae)......................... and can be life-
threatening if too high.
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES


Projectiles Student Name ...........................................
1. For each of the following projectiles, resolve 3. The bullet in Q1(b), was fired from a height of
the initial launch velocity into horizontal and 2.00m, across a level field. Calculate:
vertical components. a) how long it takes to hit the ground.
a) A rugby ball kicked upwards at an angle of

60o, with velocity 20.5ms-1.
b) how far from the gun it lands.
b) A bullet fired horizontally at 250ms-1.

c) At the same instant that the bullet left the
barrel, the empty bullet cartridge dropped (from
rest) from the breech of the gun, 2.00m above
the ground. How long does it take to hit the
c) A baseball thrown at 15.0ms-1, and an up ground? Comment on this result, in light of the
angle of 25o. answer to (a).
d) An artillery shell fired at 350ms-1, upwards at 70o.

4. For the artillery shell in Q1(d), calculate:
a) the time to reach the highest point of its arc.
e) An arrow released from the bow at 40.0ms-1,

at 45o up.
b) the maximum height reached.
2. For the arrow in Q1(e), find

a) the time to reach the highest point of its arc. c) its range (on level ground).
5. The rugby ball in Q1(a) was at ground level

b) the maximum height reached. when kicked.
a) Find its exact position 2.50s after being
kicked.
c) its range (on level ground).
b) What is its instantaneous velocity at this

same time?
Remember that for full marks

in calculations, you need to show
FORMULA, NUMERICAL SUBSTITUTION,
APPROPRIATE PRECISION and UNITS


Orbits & Centripetal Force Student Name ...........................................
1. 2. (cont)
A satellite orbiting 1,000km above the Earths b) What is its altitude above the earths surface?
surface has a period of 1.74 hours. (Radius of
Earth=6.37x106m)
a) Find its orbital velocity, using V=2R/T
c) What is the period of its orbit?
b) If the satellite has a mass of 600kg, find the

centripetal force holding it in orbit.
3. A satellite is being held in Earth orbit by a

centripetal force of 2,195N. The orbit is 350km
above the Earth, and the satellites period is 1.52
hours.
2. a) Find the orbital velocity.
A 1,500kg satellite is in a low-Earth orbit travelling
at a velocity of 6.13 km/s (6.13x103ms-1). The
Centripetal force acting on it is 5.32x103N.
a) What is the radius of its orbit?

b) What is the satellites mass?

Keplers Law of Periods Student Name ...........................................
1. Fill in the table using data for each of the 3.
satellites in Qs 1, 2 & 3 in Worksheet 4. a) Planet Mars has mass= 6.57x1023kg.
Radius (m) Period (s) R3/T2 Calculate the orbital constant GM/42 for
Mars. (G=Gravitational Constant = 6.67x10-11)
Q1.
Q2.
Q3. b) Find the orbital Radius of a satellite orbitting

Mars, if its Period is 1.60x103s.
Explain how this data supports Keplers Law of
Periods.
2. Use the average value of R3/T2 from the table c) Find the period of a Mars satellite when
above to calculate the following: R=2.56x107m.
a) Find the Radius of an Earth orbit if the
Period is 1.60x103s.
b) What is the radius of orbit if T=1.15x104s? d) In Q2(c) you calculated the period of an Earth
satellite with the same orbital radius.
Compare the answers to Q2(c) and Q3(c). Which

c) Find the period of a satellite if R= 2.56x107m. satellite travels at the highest orbital velocity?
e) Complete the blanks in this general

statement:
d) Find T when the satellite orbit is 2,000km At a given orbital radius, a satellite orbiting a
above the Earths surface. smaller planet needs to travel at a
............................................... velocity. The bigger
the planet, the ............................................. the
velocity would need to be.

Worksheet 7 Test Questions sections 1&2 Student Name...........................................

7.
Multiple Choice During a launch, the acceleration of a rocket:
A. increases, because mass decreases.
1. According to the formal definition of Gravitational
B. increases, because kinetic energy increases.
Potential Energy (GPE)
C. decreases, because momentum increases.
A. There is zero GPE on the surface of the Earth.
D. remains constant, because of constant thrust
B. GPE depends on mass, height and velocity.
force.
C. There is zero GPE at an infinite distance
from Earth.
8.
D. GPE depends only on the weigh of the object.
To get maximum advantage from the rotation of the
Earth, a space launch is always directed toward the
10ms-2 while on Mars g
2. On Earth g 4ms-2. A 100kg
A. north
object transported to Mars would have mass and
B. south
weight (respectively) of:
C. east
A. 100kg and 400N.
D. west
B. 400kg and 1,000N.
C. 100kg and 1,000N.
9.
D. 400kg and 400N.
The chief of the C.I.A. has asked you to plan the
deployment of a spy-satellite in an orbit suitable for
3. The diagram shows the trajectory of a projectile,
taking photos of suspected terrorist bases, in many
and 2 points X & Y.
locations, world-wide. You would be best to plan for
X Y the satellite to be in a:
A. Low-Earth Orbit, around the Equator.

Which pair of vectors below correctly identifies the
B. Geo-stationary Orbit, above the Equator.
total acceleration vector of the projectile at points X
C. Geo-stationary orbit, allowing full earth coverage.
and Y?
D. Low-Earth, Polar Orbit.
Point X Point Y
A.
10.
Once the Space Shuttle reaches its orbital velocity the
B.
engines are turned off, and the craft orbits in free-
falling circular motion. This motion is characterized
C.
by:
A. constant acceleration directed at a tangent to the
D.
circle.
B. constant velocity, with no forces acting.
4.
C. constant centrifugal force, pushing things
To analyse projectile motion mathematically, usually
outwards.
the first thing to do is to:
D. constant acceleration directed at the centre of the
A. find the time of flight.
circle.
B. calculate the range.
C. calculate the maximum height reached.
11.
D. resolve the initial velocity into vertical & horizontal
The data below relates to 3 of the moons of Jupiter
components.
and one of the moons of Mars. The units of
measurement are arbitrary. Which moon (A,B,C or D)
5.
belongs to Mars?
Ignoring air-resistance, the maximum range for any
projectile (for the same launch velocity) will occur
Moon Orbital Radius Orbital Period
when:
A. 9.2 12.5
A. it is launched horizontally.
B. 8.5 10.0
B. it is launched at 45o upwards.
C. 13.3 19.6
C. it is launched to achieve a greater height.
D. 10.0 12.8
D. its vertical acceleration is increased.
12.
6.
All Low-Earth orbits are prone to decay because of:
It is known that the value of escape velocity for any
A. the satellite running out of fuel to maintain forward
planet is
speed.
proportional to the mass of the planet, and
B. friction with the few gas molecules in its orbital
inversely proportional to the planets radius.
path.
Therefore, the planet which would definitely have a
C. Earths gravity gradually pulling it downwards.
lower escape velocity than Earth would have
D. magnetic effects of a Polar orbit.
(compared to Earth)
A. more mass, smaller radius.

B. less mass, larger radius.
C. more mass, larger radius.
D. less mass, smaller radius.

Worksheet 7 Test Questions sections 1&2 Student Name...........................................
Longer Response Questions 17. (3 marks)

Mark values shown are suggestions only, and are to It was Isaac Newton who discovered the concept of
give you an idea of how detailed an answer is orbiting the Earth by thinking about projectiles.
appropriate. Answer on reverse if insufficient space. Outline Newtons scenario for how a projectile could
end up in orbit.
13. (3 marks)
An alien creature weighs 7.25x103N on its home
planet. On Earth, the creature weighs 5.84x103N.
a) What is the creatures mass?
18. (4 marks)
Author Jules Verne wrote a novel in which a space
ship was launched by firing it from a cannon, on a
b) What is the value of g on the creatures home journey to the Moon. The required velocity would be
planet? 1.05x104ms-1.
With the cannon barrel 200m long, it would be
reasonable for the time of launch (i.e. duration of
acceleration) to be 7.50s.
14. (4 marks) a) Calculate the acceleration rate of the capsule.

A ball was rolled along a
horizontal table at 5.45ms-1. b) What is the value (in terms of g) of the g-force
If the table is 1.20m high, where will that the passengers would experience?
the ball hit the ground?
c) Comment on the feasibility of such a launch.
19. (3 marks)
Give a brief outline of the contributions of one of
these men to the science of rocketry.
Tsiolkovsky, Goddard or von Braun
15. (8 marks)
An arrow was released from the bow at an upward
angle of 60o and an initial velocity of 42.0ms-1. It hits
its target at the same horizontal level from which it 20. (4 marks)
was released. The early space rocket engines produced a constant
a) Find the time of flight. thrust force throughout their burn. One of the
advantages of the Space Shuttle engine is that it has
a throttle control. During launch, the engine is
b) Find the maximum height reached. gradually throttled back and thrust reduced during
the ascent into orbit. Explain how this contributes to
the safety and comfort of the astronauts on board.
c) Calculate the distance from bow to target.
16. (6 marks) 21. (6 marks)

These military bombs
Photo: Arian Kulp a) Use the relationship R3/T2 =GM/42 to find the
are designed to be radius of orbit of an Earth satellite with a period of
dropped from the 2.00hours.
aircraft at an altitude of
15,000m when the b) Calculate the orbital velocity of this satellite.
plane is in level flight at
a velocity of 300ms-1.
c) Find the strength of the force holding it in orbit,
a) Ignoring air- given that the satellite has a mass of 2,650kg.
resistance, how far in
front of the target must
the bombs be released?
22. (5 marks)
Discuss the problems of recovering a spacecraft from
orbit and outline the process of atmospheric
braking, with reference to the importance of the
b) How fast will they be going (magnitude only) when angle of descent.
they hit the ground?

3. NEWTONS LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Gravitational Fields Effects of Mass & Distance on FG
The concept of the Gravitational Field was introduced How does the Gravitational Force change for
in section 1. Every mass acts as if surrounded by an different masses, and different distances?
invisible force field which attracts any other mass
within the field. Theoretically, the field extends to Imagine 2 masses, each 1kg, separated by a
infinity, and therefore every mass in the universe is distance of 1 metre.
exerting some force on every other mass in the
universe... thats why its called Universal Gravitation.
FG = GMm = G x 1 x 1 = G
d2 12
Newtons Gravitation Equation Effect of masses
It was Isaac Newton who showed that the Now imagine doubling the mass of one object:
strength of the gravitational force between 2 FG = GMm = G x 2 x 1 = 2G (Twice the force)
masses: d2 12
is proportional to the product of the masses, What if both masses are doubled?
and FG = GMm = G x 2 x 2 = 4G (4X the force)
inversely proportional to the square of the d2 12
distance between them.
Effect of Distance
Go back to the original masses, and double the
FG = GMm distance:
d2 FG = GMm = G x 1 x 1 = G ( 1/4 the force)
d2 22 4
FG = Gravitational Force, in N.
G = Universal Gravitational Constant = 6.67 x 10-11 Gravitational Force shows the Inverse Square
M and m = the 2 masses involved, in kg. relationship...
d = distance between M & m (centre to centre) in metres. triple the distance = one ninth the force
10 x the distance = 1/100 the force, etc.
In the previous section on satellite orbits, you were
already using equations derived from this.
Universal Gravitation and
Orbiting Satellites
It should be obvious by now that it is FG which
Example Calculation 1 provides the centripetal force to hold any
Find the gravitational force acting between the Earth satellite in its orbit, and is the basis for Keplers
and the Moon. Law of Periods.
Earth mass = 5.97 x 1024kg
Moon mass = 6.02 x 1022kg. Not only does this apply to artificial satellites
Distance Earth-Moon = 248,000km = 2.48x108m. launched into Earth orbit, but for the orbiting of
the Moon around the Earth, and of all the planets
Solution FG = GMm around the Sun.
d2
= 6.67x10-11x5.97x1024x6.02x1022
(2.48x108)2
= 3.90 x 1020N.
Example 2
Find the gravitational force acting between the Earth,
and an 80kg person standing on the surface, 6,370km
from Earths centre (d=6.37 x 106m).
Solution FG = GMm
d2
= 6.67x10-11x5.97x1024x 80
(6.37x106)2
= 785 N.
This is, of course, the persons weight!... and sure Our entire Solar System is orbiting the Galaxy
enough because of gravity, and whole galaxies orbit
W = mg = 80 x 9.81 = 785N. each other. Ultimately, gravity holds the entire
Gravitational Force = Weight Force universe together, and its strength, compared to
the expansion of the Big Bang, will determine
the final fate of the Universe.
To 3rd planetary fly-b
by

Slingshot Effect for Planet orbit

Space Probes
One of the more interesting aspects of gravity 2nd
and its effects on space exploration is called the planet
visited
Slingshot Effect.
Slingshot
Scientists wish to explore and learn about all the Trajectory
planets, comets, etc, in the Solar System, but...
1st planet
It costs billions of dollars to send a space Planet orbit
visited
probe to another planet, so...
It makes sense to send one probe to several

planets, rather than a separate spacecraft to
each planet, but...
the distances are enormous. Even at the high

speed of an inter-planetary probe (50,000 km/hr)
it still takes years to reach other planets.
Furthermore, having reached and done a fly- Spacecraft

by to study one planet, the probe may need to
change direction and speed to alter course for
the next destination, and...
So how can the the spacecraft gain extra
velocity (and kinetic energy) from nothing?
It may be impossible to carry enough fuel to
make the necessary direction changes by using
The answer is that whatever energy the
rocket engines alone.
spacecraft gains, the planet loses. Energy is
conserved. The planets spin will be slowed
Got all that?
down slightly by the transfer of energy to the
spacecraft.
The solution to all these factors is to fly the
spacecraft close enough to a planet so that the
Of course, the huge mass of a planet means that
planets gravity causes it to swing around into a
the energy it loses is so small to be totally
new direction AND gain velocity (without
insignificant.
burning any fuel).

Universal Gravitation 1.
Fill in the blanks. Fred (75kg) and girlfriend Sue (60kg) are very
much attracted to each other. How much?
The strength of the gravitational force of Find the gravitational force attracting them when
attraction between 2 masses is proportional to they are 0.5m apart.
a)................................. and inversely proportional
to b).................................................................... So,
if one mass is doubled the force will 2.
c)............................., but if the distance is What is the gravitational force of attraction
doubled, then the force will d).................... between 2 small asteroids with masses of
................................................ 6.75x108kg and 2.48x109kg separated by 425m?
The force due to gravity provides the

e).............................................. force for all
satellites, including the Moon and
f).................................... orbiting the Sun. In space 3.
exploration, gravity can be used to alter a The mass of the Moon is 6.02x1022kg. A comet
spacecrafts g)................................. and to gain with mass 5.67x1010kg is attracted to the Moon
by a force of 6.88x1010N. How far apart are the 2
h)............................................ This is known as the
bodies?
i)...................................... Effect. The spacecraft
gains energy, while j).............................................
loses an k)................................. amount.

4. EINSTEINS THEORY OF RELATIVITY

The Aether Theory In Michelson & Morleys experiment the boats
The idea of the universal aether was a theory were beams of light from the same source, split
developed to explain the transmission of light and reflected into 2 right-angled beams sent out
through empty space (vacuum) and through to mirrors and reflected back. The current was
transparent substances like glass or water. the aether wind blowing through the
laboratory due to the movement of the Earth
The basic idea was this: orbiting the Sun at 100,000km/hr.
Sound waves are vibrations in air.
Water waves travel as disturbances in water.
Sounds and shock waves travel Stationary Aether
through the solid Earth. throughout the
It seems that all waves have a medium to travel Universe
through, so what is the medium for light waves? Earth is hurtling through
the Aether while orbiting
the Sun.
From the 17th to 19th centuries, as modern Science Equipment is able
developed, it became the general belief that there was This creates a current or to be rotated
a substance called the aether which was present aether wind
throughout the universe as the medium for light
waves to be carried in. The aether was invisible,
weightless and present everywhere, even inside
things like a block of glass, so light could travel
through it. The vacuum of space was actually filled by
the universal aether.
In the laboratory, this
The Michelson-Morley Experiment light beam travels This one travels with
In 1887, American scientists A.A. Michelson and across the current the aether wind
E.W. Morley attempted to detect the aether by
observing the way that the movement of the
Earth through the aether would affect the On arrival back at the start, the beams were re-
transmission of light. combined in an interferometer, producing an
interference pattern as the light waves re-
An Analogy to their experiment... combined.
Imagine 2 identical boats, capable The entire apparatus was mounted on a rotating
of exactly the same speed. They table. Once the apparatus was working, and the
both travel a course out and back interference pattern appeared, the whole thing
over exactly the same distance, but was rotated 90o, so that the paths of the light
at right angles to each other. rays in the aether wind were swapped.
Theoretically, this should have created a change
In still water, they will get back at
Travels out and back
in the interference pattern, as the difference

across the current
the same time. between the beams was swapped.

But what if there is a current? The Result...
Now, they will NOT arrive back at
the same time, because the current There was NO CHANGE in the interference
will alter their relative speeds. pattern.
(The one moving across the current
will arrive later.) The experiment was repeated in many other
laboratories, with more sensitve interferometers
and all sorts of refinements and adjustments.
The result remained negative... no effect of the

aether wind could be detected.
water current
Either the experiment has
water current something wrong with it
or
the theory of the Aether is wrong!
water current
Travels with, and then against, the current

Enter Albert Einstein...


How Science Works Relative Motion and

The Michelson-Morley Experiment is probably Frames of Reference
the most famous failed experiment in the Ever been sitting in a train at a station looking at
history of Science. Its importance is not just another train beside you? Suddenly, the other train
historical interest, but a lesson in how Science begins moving. Or is it your train beginning to move
works. the other way?
The only way to be sure is to look out the other side

There is no such thing as a failed experiment!
at the station itself, in order to judge which train is
really moving. You are using the railway station as
Scientists produce hypotheses in an attempt to your Frame of Reference in order to judge the
explain the universe and its phenomena. There relative motion of the 2 trains.
can be 2 or more totally different hypotheses
attempting to explain the same thing. We often use the Earth itself (or a railway station
attached to it) as our frame of reference. The Earth
Natural Phenomenon seems fixed and immovable, so everything else can
to be explained be judged as moving relative to the fixed Earth... but
we also know its NOT really fixed and unmoving, but
orbiting around the Sun.
Astronomers use the background of fixed stars as

their frame of reference to judge relative planetary
movements, but we know that these arent really fixed
Hypothesis 1 Hypothesis 2 either.
e.g the Aether e.g. Relativity In fact, there is no point in the entire Universe
that is truly fixed that could be used as an
absolute reference to judge and measure all
motion against.
Sir Isaac Newton was aware of this idea, and

Predictions arise Predictions arise figured out that it really doesnt matter whether
from this idea. from this idea. your frame of reference is stationary or moving
at a constant velocity. So long as it is not
These can be These can be accelerating, the observations, and
tested by tested by measurements of motion will come out the same
experiment experiment anyway. This raises the idea of an Inertial
Frame of Reference.
An Inertial Frame of Reference

is not accelerating
Experimental Experimental
Results Results
Within any Inertial Frame of Reference
DO NOT DO
all motion experiments
agree with agree with
(and all Laws of Physics)
predictions predictions
will produce the same results
Hypothesis Hypothesis Distinguishing Inertial & Non-Inertial

Rejected as Accepted as Frames of Reference
Imagine you are inside a closed vehicle and cannot
Wrong Correct Theory see out. How can you tell if your Frame of
Reference is Inertial or not?
This is exactly what happened. In the 30 years
after the Michelson-Morley Experiment, a new A simple indication would be to hang a mass on a
Hypothesis was proposed which did not require string from the ceiling. If it hangs straight down
any aether. From it arose many predictions there is no acceleration. If it hangs at an angle, (due
which have all been spectacularly confirmed by to its inertia) then your vehicle is accelerating.
experiment, so we believe the Aether Theory
is wrong, and Relativity Theory correct. Does it matter whether your vehicle is stationary or
moving at constant velocity? Not at all! The mass
The Michelson-Morley Experiment was not a still hangs straight down, and any Physics
experiments will give the same result as any other
failure... it was a vital link in the scientific search observer in any other Inertial Frame of Reference.
for truth.

Albert Einsteins Strange Idea The Principle of Relativity

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) has gone down in was already well known before Einstein, and stated in
the History of Science as one of the Greats, various forms by Galileo, Newton and many others.
and just about the only scientist to ever match
the achievements of the great Sir Isaac Newton. 1. In an Inertial Frame of Reference
all measurements and experiments
Einsteins Theory of Relativity is famous as a give the same results
great achievement, (true!) and as something
incredibly complicated that hardly anyone can 2. It is impossible to detect the motion
understand (false! Its a dead-simple idea, but it of an Inertial Frame of Reference by
defies common sense.) experiment within that frame of reference
Einstein once declared common sense as a 3. The only way to measure the motion
deposit of prejudice laid down in the mind prior of your frame of reference
to the age of 18. To understand Einsteins is by measuring it against
Relativity you need to ignore common sense someone elses frame of reference
and have a child-like open-mind to fantasy and
the K.I.S.S. Principle... These are all statements of the Principle of
Relativity.
Einsteins Gedanken (a Thought Experiment)

Einstein had, in some ways, a child-like imagination. He wondered what it would be like to travel on
a train moving at the speed of light. (100 years ago a train was the ultimate in high-speed travel).
Train Velocity at, or near,

the speed of light
Relativity Train Tours
What if you tried to look in a mirror? But Einstein remembered Michelson & Morleys failure to
Classical Physics would suggest that light measure the aether wind and applied the Principle of
(trying to travel in the aether wind) from Relativity...
your face could not catch up to the
mirror to reflect off it. In a non-accelerating, Inertial Frame of Reference, you
So, vampire-llike, you have no reflection!
would measure the speed of light (and anything else, like
reflection) exactly the same as anyone else... you would
see your reflection, and everything appears normal.
What Would Another Observer See?

But, if you are travelling at the speed
What about a person standing in the train station of light, how is it possible for you,
as you flash (literally!) through at the speed of
light? What would they see through the train and the stationary observers on the
window as you zap by? platform, to both measure the same
light wave as having the
Again, according to the results of the Michelson-
Morley experiment, these observers will measure
same velocity?
light waves from you as travelling at the same
speed of light as you measure inside the train, Well, says Einstein,
because everyone is in an Inertial F. of R. if THE SPEED OF LIGHT is FIXED,
(Naturally, both train and platform are fully then SPACE and TIME must be
equipped with interferometers and high-tech ways RELATIVE.
to do this)
What does this mean?

Einsteins Thought Experiment continued...

You are on a train travelling at, or near, the speed of light. You carry out some Physics experiments
and measure the speed of light, and the law of reflection as being perfectly normal.
Train Velocity at, or near,
the speed of light
Relativity Train Tours
Meanwhile, stationary observers are standing Seen and measured by them,

on the platform as your train flashes by. They YOUR LENGTH & TIME HAS CHANGED!
also measure the speed of light and get the And you see them the same way!
exact same answer.
Einsteins conclusion from the
However, the people Principle of Relativity and the
on the platform see Michelson-Morley experiment is that:
you as
compressed in The Speed of Light is Always the Same
space like this: (for observers in Inertial Frames of Reference)
and therefore,
Furthermore, when
LENGTH & TIME must change
they study your
clock they see it is as measured by another observer
running much slower who is in relative motion
than their own is.
Length Contraction & Time Dilation

If you can ignore common sense and accept the fantasy of a train moving
at 300,000 km/sec then Einsteins proposal makes sense:
If everyone (in any Inertial F. of R.) measures the speed of light as being the same, then the measurements of
SPACE and TIME must be relative, and different as seen by an observer in another F. of R.
It turns out that the measurement of length must

L = Lo 1 - v 2 get shorter as your velocity increases...
c2 (as seen by an observer in another Inertial F. of R.)
...and time gets longer. Time goes slower!
L = Length observed by outside observer
Lo= rest length measured within F.of R.
Example Calculation
v = relative velocity of observer On board a spacecraft travelling at 0.5c (i.e. half
c = speed of light = 3.00 x 108ms-1 the speed of light = 1.50x108ms-1) relative to the
Earth, you measure your craft as being 100 metres
THIS IS LENGTH CONTRACTION. long. Carrying out this measurement takes you 100
IT OCCURS ONLY IN THE DIRECTION OF seconds.
THE RELATIVE MOTION
Observers on Earth (with an amazing telescope) are
watching you. How much time elapses for them, and
t= to what is their measurement of your spacecraft?
1 - v2 Solution
c2 The factor 1 - v2 = Sq.Root(1- (1/2)2/12)
t = time observed by outside observer c2 = 0.866
to= time measured within F.of R. So Length, L=Lox 0.866 = 100x0.866 = 86.6m.
v = relative velocity of observer Time, t = to/ 0.866 = 100/0.866 = 115s.
c = speed of light = 3.00 x 108ms-1
They see your craft as being shorter,
THIS IS TIME DILATION and your time as going slower!

Relativity and Reality Mass Changes Too

Do these alterations to time and space really Not only does length contract, and time stretch,
happen? Yes they do, and they have been but mass changes too.
measured!
m= mo
Extremely accurate atomic clocks have been
synchronized, then one flown around the world in a 1 - v2
high speed aircraft. When brought back together, c2
the clock that travelled was slightly behind the m = mass observed by outside observer
other... while travelling at high speed its time had mo= rest mass measured within F.of R.
slowed down a little, relative to the other. v = relative velocity of observer
c = speed of light = 3.00 x 108ms-1
Certain unstable sub-atomic particles always
decay within a precise time. When these THIS IS MASS DILATION
particles are travelling at high speeds in a
particle accelerator, their decay time is much
longer (as measured by the stationary
scientists). At high speed the particles time has Two of the most fundamental laws ever
slowed down relative to the scientists time. discovered by Science are the Law of
Conservation of Energy and the Law of
Its important for you to realise that, if this particle Conservation of Matter. These state that
could think, it would not notice any slow-down in energy and matter (mass) cannot be created nor
time... its own feeling of time and its little digital destroyed.
watch would seem perfectly normal to it. But, from
the relative viewpoint of the scientists measuring Einstein found that the only way to avoid
the particles decay, its time has slowed down breaking these laws under Relativity was to
relative to laboratory time. combine them. Hence, the most famous
equation of all:
Confirmation of Relativity
Einstein published his theory in 2 parts, in 1905 and E = mc2
1915. At that time there was no way to test the
predictions of Relativity to find supporting evidence. E = Energy, in joules
m = Mass, in kg
The Michelson-Morley experiment had failed to find c = speed of light = 3.00 x 108ms-1
supporting evidence for the existence of the aether,
so maybe Relativity would fail too, but first
scientists had to find testable predictions. THIS IS THE EQUIVALENCE OF
MASS & ENERGY
The first test was that, according to Relativity, light
from a distant star passing close to the Sun should be
bent by a measurable amount, making the star appear Within 30 years of Einsteins ideas being
to change position in the sky. The only way to test this published, the Equivalence of Mass & Energy
prediction was during a solar eclipse. was dramatically confirmed by the release of
nuclear energy from atomic fission.
At the next occurrence of an eclipse, the
observations were made, and showed results
exactly as predicted by Relativity.
In the following years, experiments with nuclear

reactions (which led to the development of the
atom bomb, and nuclear power) were able to
confirm the conversion of matter into energy
according to E=mc2.
Photo of the atom bomb
explosion on the
Later still came the measurements of time Japanese city of Nagasaki,
dilation (described above) and mass dilation has 1945.
also been measured for high-speed particles in This is the process occurring in a nuclear
a particle accelerator. reactor used to generate electricity in many
countries. It is also the energy source in an
EVERY RELATIVITY PREDICTION THAT CAN BE atomic bomb.
TESTED HAS SHOWN RESULTS SUPPORTING
& CONFIRMING THE THEORY... Einstein, a life-long pacifist, was appalled by the
thats why we believe it to be correct. destructive uses of the technology which grew
from his discoveries.

Some Implications of Relativity

What Happens as This all means that as your spacecraft
accelerates and approaches the speed of light,
Speed Approaches c your faithful observer sees your length
Several of the Relativity equations 1 - v2 approach zero, your time slowing down and
contain the factor: c2 approaching being totally stopped, and your
mass increasing to approach infinity.
This is known as the Lorentz-FitzGerald
Contraction. In the following explanations it At the speed of light, the calculations for time
will be referred to as the LFC. and mass dilation become mathematically
undefined... this is generally taken to mean
Consider firstly, what happens to the value of that no object can ever be accelerated up to the
the LFC at different relative velocities: speed of light.
Another way to reach this conclusion is that as

If V=zero: LFC = Sq.Root(1-0) = 1
you speed up, your mass increases. To
accelerate more, greater force is needed
This means that if you (in your spacecraft) and because your increased mass resists
the observer watching you have zero relative acceleration. As your mass approaches infinity,
velocity (i.e. you are travelling at the same an infinite amount of force is needed to
relative speed) then both of you will measure accelerate you more...its impossible to reach c.
the same length, time and mass... no relativistic
effects occur. All the energy put into trying to accelerate goes
into increasing your mass, according to E=mc2.
As V increases, the value of the LFC decreases:
Relative Velocity Value of Simultaneous Events
Another consequence of Relativity is that you,
(as fraction of c) LFC
and your observer, will not agree on
Approaching zero
0.1c 0.995
Approaching c
simultaneous events. You may see 2 things

0.5c 0.886 occur at the same instant, but the relativistic
0.9c 0.436 observer will see the 2 events occurring at
0.99c 0.141 different times.
0.999c 0.045 It is even possible that the observer could see
an effect (e.g. spilt milk) before seeing the cause
If V = c: LFC = Sq.Root( 1 - 1) = zero (e.g. glass tipped over). Curiouser & curioser!
How We Define Length & Time

Our S.I. unit of length, the metre, was originally Our defintion of length is actually based on the
defined by the French as One ten-millionth of measurement of time! (Whats even more
the distance from the Equator to the Earths amazing is that we actually have ways to
North Pole. measure such a fraction of a second!)
Based on this, So how do we define a second of time?

special metal bars The modern definition involves a multiple of the
were carefully time it takes for a certain type of atom to
made to be used as undergo an atomic vibration, which is
the standard believed to be particularly regular and is, of
metre from which course, measurable.
all other measuring Part of the
mechanism of
devices were One of the precisely-m
made
an atomic
made. platinum bars used to define the
clock which
metre up until 1960.
measures
As our technology atomic
improved, so did our ability to measure time and vibrations to
distance. Today we define the metre as the give our
distance travelled by light during a time interval standards of
of 1/299,792,458th of a second. time and
distance.

Worksheet 9 Relativity
The theory of the aether was invented to Albert Einstein applied this principle to the
explain a)......................................................... Michelson-Morley result. He concluded that all
because it was thought that all waves needed a observers will always measure the speed of light
b)............................. to travel through. The aether as being p)..................................... For this to
was invisible and c)................................, and was happen, then q)......................... and
present throughout the d)..................................... .............................. must be relative. This means
that the measurements of length and time as
The American scientists e).............................. & seen by r)....................
............................... attempted to detect the .......................................................... ................ will
aether by experiment. Their apparatus used 2 be different.
f)..................................., travelling at right angles.
When brought together by mirrors, the beams Relativity Theory predicts that Length will
produced an g).......................................... pattern. s)....................... while time will t)..........................
The idea was that the pattern should change Also, mass will u)............................., thereby
when the apparatus was h)..................................., making it impossible to actually
because one beam should be travelling with the v).............................................. Relativity also
aether wind and the other i)............................... predicts that mass can be converted into
it. This aether wind would be caused by w).............................. and vice-versa.
j)...................... ........................... through space.
The result was that k)........................... Although it defies common sense, many aspects
.............................................................. of Relativity have been confirmed by
x)......................................... For example,
An l)......................... Frame of Reference is one synchronised clocks have been found to
which is not m)....................................... Within disagree if one of them is
such a place, all measurements and y).............................................................. The
experiments will give the n)................ conversion of mass into energy has been
.......................... This idea is known as the observed (many times) during
Principle of o)....................................... z)............................ reactions.

Relativity Student Name ...........................................
1. A spacecraft is travelling at 95% of the speed of 2.(cont.)
light relative to an observer on Earth. On board is a b) What relativistic mass will it have if accelerated up
fluorescent light tube which is 0.95m long and is to 0.9999c? (99.99% of c)
switched on for 1 hour ship-time.
a) How long is the fluoro tube as seen be the Earth

observer?
3. In a nuclear reactor, over a perio of time, a total of

2.35kg of mass deficit occurs. This mass has
disappeared during the nuclear reactions.
Calculate the amount of energy this has released.
b) The Earth observer measures the time for which
the light was on. What time does he measure?
4. According to the Big Bang Theory, in the first

moments of the Universe there was nothing but
energy. Later, matter formed by conversion from the
2. A sub-atomic particle has a rest mass of energy.
5.95x10-29kg. The particle was accelerated by a
particle accelerator up to a velocity of 0.99c. (99% c) Calculate how much energy was needed to produce
enough matter to form the Earth
a) What relativistic mass will the particle now have, if (mass= 5.97 x 1024kg).
measured by the scientists in the laboratory?

Worksheet 11 Test Questions sections 3 & 4 Student Name...........................................

Multiple Choice Longer Response Questions
Mark values shown are suggestions only, and are to
1. The gravitational force between 2 masses is give you an idea of how detailed an answer is
F units when they are distance d apart. appropriate. Answer on reverse if insufficient space.
If these masses were brought closer, to a
7. (5 marks)
distance 0.25d, then the force between them An astronaut with mass (including spacesuit) 120kg
would be: is standing on the surface of the planet Mercury. The
A. 0.25 F B. 4F planet has a mass of 2.99x1023kg and radius
C. F/16 D. 16F 2.42x106m.
a) Calculate the gravitational force acting on the
2. The Aether was an idea astronaut.
A. for a new anaesthetic.
B. used to explain the Principle of Relativity.
C. to explain how light could travel in a vacuum. b) From your answer to (a) calculate the value of g
D. to explain the interference of light waves. on the surface of Mercury.
3. In an Inertial Frame of Reference a mass 8. (5 marks)

hanging from the ceiling by a string would a) Explain what is meant by the Slingshot Effect.
probably.
A. swing back and forth. b) Why is it useful in space exploration.
B. hang straight down.
C. hang at an angle from the vertical. c) State how energy is conserved in the process.
D. undergo mass dilation due to relativistic
effects.
9. (7 marks)
Give a brief description of the famous Michelson-
4. Two cosmonauts in separate spacecraft Morley experiment, including:
travelling at different relativistic velocities are a) their aim or purpose in doing the experiment.
able to make a series of observations and
measurements of their own spacecraft, and of b) an outline of the method used.
each others spacecraft. The one thing they
would agree with each other about is:
A. the simultaneity of 2 events occurring together. c) the results.
B. the value of the velocity of light.
C. the passage of time in each others spacecraft.
D. the length of each others spacecraft. 10. (3 marks)
What did Albert Einstein conclude about the
5. The first experimental confirmation of measurement of space and time, taking into account
Einsteins Theory of Relativity was: the results of the Michelson-Morley experiment?
A. the change in the apparent position of a star
due to the gravity of the Sun.
B. the result of the Michelson-Morley 11. (8 marks)
Experiment. A sub-atomic particle, at rest in the laboratory, has the
C. the release of energy from the first following characteristics:
atom bomb. Mass = 3.22x10-27kg. Diameter= 7.38x10-16m.
D. measurements made with a mirror on a Half-Life (Time to decay)= 2.58x10-2s.
high speed train.
The particle is now accelerated up to a velocity of
6. 0.999c (i.e. 99.9% of the speed of light) in a particle
From the Earth, you are able to observe and accelerator. Calculate:
a) its relativistic
measure several features of an alien spacecraft i) diameter
as it flies by at 90% of the speed of light. ii) half-life
Compared to the measurements made by the iii) mass
alien on board, your measurements would as measured by the scientists in the laboratory.
show:
Craft mass Craft length Craft time
A. less shorter faster b) While travelling at 0.999c, the particle undergoes a
B. more longer slower nuclear reaction which results in its total annihilation
C. more shorter slower by conversion to energy. What energy release is
D. less longer faster measured by the scientists? (The scientists observe
the conversion of its relativistic mass, not rest-mass)

CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC
Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic
helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts.
Practise on this blank version.
SPACE

Answer Section Worksheet 4

1.
Worksheet 1 Uy = U.Sin Ux = U.Cos
a) force b) gravity a) = 20.5xSin60 =20.5xCos60
c) accelerate d) 10 (9.81) = 17.8ms-1. = 10.3ms-1.
e) period f) gradient b) vertical = zero horizontal = 250ms-1.
g) force field h) attracts c) Uy = 15.0xSin25 Ux = 15.0xCos25
i) repel j) gravitational field = 6.34ms-1. = 13.6ms-1.
k) mass l) work done d) 350xSin70 350xCos70
m) infinity n) negative = 329ms-1. = 120ms-1.
o) 9.81 p) weight e) 40.0xSin45 40.0xCos45
q) mass = 28.3ms-1. = 28.3ms-1.
2.
Worksheet 2 a) At highest point, Vy=0, and Vy = Uy + g.t
1. 0 = 28.3 + (-9.81x t)
a) i) 575kg ii) 575kg iii) 575kg. t = -28.3/-9.81
b) i) W=mg = 575x9.81 = 5,641 = 5.64x103N. = 2.88s.
ii) W=mg = 575x1.6 = 920 = 9.2x102N. b) Sy = Uy.t + 1.g.t2
iii) W=mg = 575x25.8 = 14,835 = 1.48x104N. 2
2. = 28.3x2.88 + (0.5x (-9.81) x 2.882)
a) On Mars; W=mg, so m=W/g = 250/2.8 = 65.8kg = 81.5 + ( -40.7) = 40.8m.
On Earth; W=mg = 65.8x9.81 = 645 = 6.5x102N. c) Sx = Vx.t = 28.3 x (2.88x2)
b) On Neptune; W=mg = 65.8x10.4= 684 = 6.8x102N. (twice the time to reach max.ht.)
c) On Moon; W=mg = 65.8x1.6 = 105 = 1.1x102N. = 163m.
3. 3.
a) On Neptune; W=83.0 =mg, so m= 83.0/10.4 = 7.98kg. a) It is fired from max height,
b) On Earth; W=mg = 7.98x9.81 = 78.3N. so Sy = -2.00 (down, so -ve)
c) W=206=mg, so g=206/7.98 = 25.8ms-2. Sy = Uy.t + 1.g.t2
matches Jupiter 2
-2.00 = 0xt +(0.5x( -9.81)x t2)
Worksheet 3 -2.00 = 0 - 4.905 x t2
a) only under gravity b) trajectory t2 = -2.00/-4.905
c) parabola d) horizontal & vertical t = 0.639s.
e) angle f) resolving b) Sx = Vx.t = 250x0.639 = 160m.
g) components h) constant velocity c) see working for (a).
i) acceleration j) gravity Empty cartridge takes 0.639s to hit the ground. It
k) time l) zero falls down at exactly the same rate as the bullet. The
m) height n) range difference is where each lands horizontally.
o) horizontal & vertical p) 45 4.
q) Galileo r) at the same rate a) At highest point, Vy=0, and Vy = Uy + g.t
s) velocity t) vertical 0 = 329 + (-9.81)x t
u) Newton v) escape t = -329/-9.81
w) orbit = 33.5s.
x) escape from the Earths gravitational field b) Sy = Uy.t + 1.g.t2
y) velocity z) curvature 2
aa) satellite ab) in orbit = 329x33.5 + (0.5x( -9.81)x33.52)
ac) accelerated ad) g-forces = 11,022 - 5,505
ae) weight af) velocity = 5,517 = 5.52x103m.
ag) g-forces ah) rockets c) Sx = Vx.t = 120x(33.5x2)
ai) liquid aj) east (twice the time to reach max.ht.)
ak) rotation al) 3rd = 8,040 = 8.04x103m.
am) conserved an) forward 5.
ao) rocket ap) decreases a) Vertical displacement Horizontal Displ.
aq) increases ar) g-forces Sy = Uy.t + 1.g.t2 Sx = Vx.t
as) low-Earth at) 200-1,000 2 = 10.3 x 2.50
au) quickly/fast av) photos & surveys = 17.8x2.50 + (0.5x(-9.81)x2.502) = 25.8m
aw) geo-stationary ax) period = 44.5 + (-30.65)
ay) rotation az) same position in the sky =13.4m (+ve, therefore up)
ba) communication bb) centripetal Ball is 25.8 metres down-field and 13.4 m high.
bc) centre of the circle bd) tension in the string b) Vertical velocity Horizontal velocity
be) friction bf) gravity Vy = Uy + g.t Vx = Ux = 10.3 ms-1
bg) Kepler bh) gravitational = 17.8 + (-9.81)x2.50
bi) decay = -6.725ms-1 (downwards) 10.3
bj) gas molecules/upper atmosph.
V2 = Vy2 + Vx2 = 10.32 + 6.7252 Re 6.725
bk) deceleration bl) heat sul
tan
bm) angle V = sq.Root(151.32) = 12.3ms-1. t vel
Tan = 6.725/10.3, oci
ty
33o below horizontal

Worksheet 5 Worksheet 7
1. 1. C 2. A 3. C 4. D 5. B 6. B
a) T=1.74 hours = 1.74x60x60= 6,264s 7. A 8. C 9. D 10. D 11. A 12. D
R= 1,000 km (=106m) + 6.37x106 = 7.37x106m
V = 2R/T 13.
= 2xx7.37x106/6,264 a) On Earth: W=mg, so m=W/g = 5.84x103/9.81
= 7,393 = 7.39x103ms-1. = 595kg.
b) Fc=mv2/R = 600x(7.39x103)2/7.37x106 b) On home planet: W=mg, so g=W/m = 7.25x103/595
= 4.45x103N. = 12.2ms-2.
2. 14.
a)Fc=mv2/R, so R = mv2/F = 1,500x(6.13x103)2/5.32x103 Uy=0, Ux=5.45ms-1, Sy = -1.20m (down (-ve))
= 1.06x107m. Time of flight: Sy = Uy.t + 0.5.g.t2
b)Altitude =1.06x107 - 6.37x106 = 4.23x106m (4,230km) -1.20 = 0xt + (0.5x(-9.81)xt2)
c) V=2R/T, so T = 2R/V = 2xpx1.06x107/6.13x103 t = sq.root( -1.20/-4.905)
= 1.09x104s. (3.02 hours) = 0.495s.
3. Horizontal distance: Sx = Ux.t = 5.45x0.495 = 2.95m.
R = 350km + 6.37x106m = 6.72x106m The ball lands 2.95m from the base of the table.
T= 1.52 hrs = 1.52x60x60 = 5.47x103s.
a) V=2R/T = 2xx6.72x106/5.47x103 15.
= 7.72x103ms-1. Uy = U.Sin Ux = U.Cos
b)Fc=mv2/R, so m=F.R/v2 = 2,195x6.72x106/(7.72x103)2 = 42.0xSin60 = 42.0xCos60
= 247kg. = 36.4ms-1 = 21.0ms-1.
Worksheet 6 a) At max.height, Vy = 0,
1. and Vy = Uy + g.t
Question Radius(m) Period(s) R3/T2 0 = 36.4 x (-9.81)x t
1 7.37x106 6.26x103 1.02x1013 t = -36.4/-9.81
= 3.71s (to highest point)
2 1.06x107 1.09x104 1.00x1013 Time of flight = 3.71x2 = 7.42s.
b) Sy = Uy.t + 0.5.g.t2 (use time to highest point)
3 6.72x106 5.47x103 1.01x1013 = 36.4x3.71 + (0.5x(-9.81)x3.712)
= 135 + ( -67.5) = 67.5m.
The ratio R3/T2 is the same for all 3 satellites. c) Range: Sx = Ux.t = 21.0x7.42 (Time for entire flight)
(slight differences are due to rounding-off errors in = 156m.
calculations) 16.
Keplers Law states that this ratio should be the same a) Uy=0, Ux=300ms-1, Sy = -15,000m (down (-ve))
for the satellites of any planet. Time of flight: Sy = Uy.t + 0.5.g.t2
-15,000 = 0xt + (0.5x(-9.81)xt2)
2. t = sq.root( -15,000/-4.905)
Average value from table = 1.01x1013= constant = 55.3s.
a) R3 = constant x T2 Horizontal distance: Sx = Ux.t = 300x55.3 = 16,590m
R=Cube.Root(1.01x1013x(1.60x103)2) = 2.96x106m. = 1.66x104m.
b) R=Cube.Root(1.01x1013x(1.15x104)2) = 1.10x107m. Bombs must be released over 16km before the target.
c) T2 = R3/constant b) Vy = Uy + g.t Ux=300ms-1.
T =Sq.Root(2.56x107)3/1.01x1013) = 4.08x104s. = 0 + ( -9.81)x55.3 300
d) R = 2,000km + 6.37x106m = 8.37x106m. = 542ms-1.
T =Sq.Root(8.37x106)3/1.01x1013) = 7.62x103s. V2 = Vy2 + Vx2 = 5422 + 3002 Re 542
sul
3. V = sq.Root(383,764) = 619ms-1. tan
tv
elo
a) constant = GM/42 = 6.67x10-11x6.57x1023/4x2 (almost twice the speed of sound!) city
= 1.11x1012
b) R3/T2 = constant, so R=Cube.Root(constant x T2) 17.
= He imagined a cannon firing projectiles horizontally
Cube.root(1.11x1012x(1.60x103)2) from a very high mountain. As the launch velocity is
= 1.42x106m. increased, the shot travels further before reaching the
c) T =sq.Root(R3/constant) = (2.56x107)3/1.11x1012 ground. At a high-enough velocity, the downward
= 1.23x105s. curve of its trajectory could match the curvature of
d) Earth satellite, T = 4.08x104s. the Earth. This projectile would travel right around the
Mars satellite, T = 1.23x105s. Earth, constantly falling towards it, but never getting
Earth satellites period is shorter, therefore it travels any closer.
faster.
18.
e) At a given orbital radius, a satellite orbiting a a) a = (v-u)/t = (1.05x104 - 0)/7.50
smaller planet needs to travel at a ....lower.....velocity. = 1,400 (1.40x103) ms-2.
The bigger the planet, the ....faster (higher).... the b) multiple of g: 1,400/9.81 =143 times g
velocity would need to be. Passengers experience g-force equivalent of 143
times their normal weight.
c) This amount of g-force would be instantly fatal.
This is not a feasible method for human space launch.

Worksheet 7 (cont.) Worksheet 9

19. a) transmission of light in vacuum
(example) For 3 marks, try to make 3 points. b) medium c) massless / weightless
Robert Goddard built and tested the first liquid-fuel d) Universe e) Michelson & Morley
rocket engine, an essential step for practical rocketry. f) beams of light g) interference
His experiments in the 1920s-1930s were the basis h) rotated 90 degrees i) across
for later research during World War II which led to the j) the Earths motion
first long-range rockets. Goddard also advanced the k) no change to the interference pattern-no aether
theory of multi-stage rockets as the way to reach wind detected.
outer space. l) Inertial m) accelerating
n) same results o) Relativity
20. p) the same q) space & time
Although a rocket may produce constant thrust, the r) an observer travelling at a different relative velocity
mass decreases rapidly as the fuel is burned. This s) shorten t) lengthen / slow down
means that the rate of acceleration increases during u) increase v) accelerate to the speed of
the ascent. This means that the g-forces keep light
increasing. w) energy x) observation/experiment
y) transported at high speed z) nuclear
By being able to throttle back the engines, the Space
Shuttle can reduce this effect and maintain more
constant g-forces during the acent. This is much
safer and more comfortable for the astronauts. Worksheet 10 1 - v2
Using the abbreviation LFC=
21. c2
a) period, T= 2.00hr = 2.00x60x60 = 7,200s. 1.
R3/T2 = GM/42 a) At 0.95c, LFC = Sq.root( 1 - (0.952/12))
R = Cube.Root(GMT2/42) = 0.31
= Cube.Root(6.67x10-11x5.97x1024x(7,200)2/42 L = L0 x LFC = 0.95 x 0.31 = 0.29m.
= 8.06x106m. b) t = t0 /LFC = 1/0.31 = 3.2 hours.
b) V = 2R/T = 2xpx8.06x106/7,200
= 7.03x103ms-1. 2.
c) Fc=mv /R = 2,650x(7.03x103)2/8.06x106
2 a) At 0.99c, LFC = Sq.root(1 - (0.992/12))
= 1.62x104N. = 0.14
22. m = m0 / LFC = 5.95x10-29/0.14 = 4.25x10-28kg.
It is impossible for a spacecraft to carry enough fuel b) At 0.9999c, LFC = Sq.root(1 - (0.99992/12))= 0.01414
to use its rocket engines for the complete m = m0 / LFC = 5.95x10-29/0.01414 = 4.21x10-27kg.
deceleration and descent from the high speed of
orbit. So atmospheric braking is used instead. If the 3.
capsule enters the atmosphere at just the right angle, E=mc2 = 2.35x(3.00x108)2 = 2.12x1017J.
friction can slow it down gradually, with the energy
being converted to heat. 4.
E=mc2 = 5.97x1024x(3.00x108)2 = 5.37x1041J.
If the re-entry angle is too steep, the g-forces will be
too high, and the craft may burn up. If the angle is too
shallow, the craft may bounce off the atmosphere and
go into an un-recoverable orbit. Worksheet 11
1. D 2. C 3. B 4. B 5. A 6. C
Worksheet 8
a) the product of the masses 7.
b) the square of the distance between them a)FG=GMm/d2 = 6.67x10-11x2.99x1023x120/(2.42x106)2
c) double d) decrease by a factor of 4. = 409N.
e) centripetal f) the planets b) This gravitational force is the astronauts weight,
g) direction/trajectory h) speed and W= mg, so g=W/m = 409/120 = 3.41ms-2.
i) Slingshot j) planet
k) equal 8.
Practice Problems a) The Slingshot Effect is the technique of flying a
1. spacecraft near a planet so that the planets gravity
FG = GMm/d2 = 6.67x10-11x75x60/0.52 accelerates the craft and alters its trajectory onto a
= 1.20x10-6N. (about 1 millionth of a newton) new, desired heading.
2.
FG = GMm/d2 = 6.67x10-11x6.75x108x2.48x109/425 b) It is useful for enabling a craft to visit several
= 2.63x105N. planets on one flight, gaining speed and a new
3. direction without the need for large amounts of fuel.
d =Sq.Root(GMm/F)
= Sq.root(6.67x10-11x6.02x1022x5.67x1010/6.88x1010) c) The gain of energy by the spacecraft is exactly
= 1.82x106m. equal to the loss of energy by the planet (which loses
(Since this equals 1,820km, and the radius of the an insignificant amount of rotational energy).
Moon is 1,738km, then the comet is just 82km from
the surface... DEEP IMPACT about to happen!)
HSC Physics Topic 1 Space Usage & copying is permitted according to the
Copyright 2005-22009 keep it simple science 34

Worksheet 11 (cont) 11.

a) At 0.999c, the LFC factor
9. 1 - v2
a) The M-M experiment was designed to detect the = Sq.Root(1 - 0.9992) = 0.0447
universal aether which had been hypothesised as a c2 12
medium for transmission of light waves.
i) L = L0 x LFC
b) The method involved a beam of light, split into 2 = 7.38x10-16x0.0447
beams which travelled at right angles. Mirrors then = 3.30x10-17m. (observed diameter)
recombined the beams in an interferometer to ii) t = t0 /LFC
produce an interference pattern. The apparatus could = 2.58x10-2 / 0.0447
then be rotated 90 degrees. Since one beam traveled = 5.77x10-1s (observed half-life)
along the aether wind (caused by the Earths iii) m = m0 / LFC
movement) and the other across it, there should have = 3.22x10-27/ 0.0447
been a change in the interference pattern when the = 7.20x10-26kg (observed mass)
apparatus was rotated. b) E = mc2 = 7.20x10-26x(3.00x108)2 = 6.48x10-9J.
c) The result was negative. No change in the

interference pattern occurred.
10.
Einstein concluded that the speed of light is constant NOTICE ANY ERRORS?
for all observers in any Inertial Frame of Reference
(IFR), regardless of relative motion. This why the M-M Our material is carefully proof-read
experiment failed to detect a difference between the
speed of light in 2 different directions.
but were only human
However, this requires that the measurements of
space and time must be different relative to an If you notice any errors, please let us know
observers IFR. This means that measurements of
length and time taken in one IFR, will be different to
what a relativistic observer sees.
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keep it simple science

HSC Physics Topic 1

but first, an introduction...

In this topic you will revise these concepts, and

Then, you move on to study two important forms

Launch & Others watch the

CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Gravity & Projectiles

1. GRAVITY & GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

W = mg Unlike electro-magnetism, gravity can only

Measuring g How This Relates

involves using a pendulum. by only 2 things:

By accurately timing (say) 10 swings of the its length, and

squared for graphing. Mathematically,

The length of the pendulum (L) is also T2 = 42L

Typically, the measurements are repeated for so, T2 = 42

The straight line graph shows there is a direct

Therefore, g 42/4.0 = 9.9 ms-2.

Accepted value, g = 9.81ms-2

0 0.5 1.0 swings.

HSC Physics Topic 1 Space

Gravitational Potential Energy(GPE) Gravity and Weight

This definition has an important consequence:

Therefore, GPE is, by definition, a negative

Worksheet 1 Gravity & GPE

ii) on the Moon?

b) What will it weigh on Earth?

c) On which planet would it weigh 206N?

2. PROJECTILES & SATELLITES

Projectiles You must analyse projectile motion as 2

Once the engine stops Equations for Projectile Motion

HSC Physics Topic 1 Space

Analysing Projectile Motion

a) the vertical and horizontal components of the initial velocity.

b) the time of flight. (assuming the shell lands at U=400ms-11

c) the range. (same assumption) = 20o

d) the maximum height it reaches.

b) The shell is fired upwards, but c) Range is horizontal displacement

This means it takes 13.95s to reach the top Range = 1.05x104m

time of flight = 27.9s

d) Vertical Height (up =(+ve), down =( -v

Note: the time used is the time to reach the top of

Analysing Projectile Motion

c) whether or not he has hit a 6 by clearing the boundary.

d) the velocity of the ball (including direction) at the instant t = 3.50s.

Vertical & Horizontal

b) Maximum Height This is the mid-ppoint of the

c) Range will determine if hes hit a 6.

Vx= Ux= constant velocity

By Pythagorus, Tan = 11.4/16.1

Analysing Projectile Motion (cont) Projectiles Launched Horizontally

Velocity straight and level, where is it when

Horizontal Motion is constant velocity... easy.

Use Vx = Ux and Sx = Ux.t

c) Where is the Plane?

(In warfare, this is a problem for low-level

Galileo and Projectile Motion Isaac Newton and Orbiting

At the right velocity, the projectile

Newton had discovered the concept of a

You are NOT required to learn, nor use,

Placing a Satellite in Earth Orbit Rockets Achieve Orbit

What about Newtons idea of an orbiting A Brief History of Rocketry

THRUST Force = T T = ma + mg The Russians

Direction of Launch Physics of a Rocket Launch Conservation of