Professional Documents
Culture Documents
World ^History
JOHN J. BUTT
GREENWOOD PRESS
Westport, Connecticut London
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Butt, John J.
The Greenwood dictionary of world history / John J. Butt,
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-313-32765-3 (alk. paper)
1. HistoryDictionaries. I. Title. II. Title: Dictionary of world history.
D9.B87 2006
903dc22 2005020918
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.
Copyright 2006 by John J. Butt
All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be
reproduced, by any process or technique, without the
express written consent of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2005020918
ISBN: 0-313-32765-3
First published in 2006
Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881
An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.
www.greenwood.com
Printed in the United States of America
@r
The paper used in this book complies with the
Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ix
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES xi
TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES xxxvii
LIST OF MAPS lxiii
MAPS lxv
THE DICTIONARY 1
WEB SITES 371
BIBLIOGRAPHY 373
INDEX 375
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INTRODUCTION TO THE
GREENWOOD DICTIONARY
OF WORLD HISTORY
The Greenwood Dictionary of World History is for high school and college students.
It is not comprehensive (that would be impossible and cumbersome in the attempt)
but, rather, includes entries that might be of use to students. Entries were
selected based on the guidelines and recommendations of organizations and
agencies such as the National Council for History Education, the National Center
for History in the Schools, the World History Association, the College Board
World History Advanced Placement Test, and many state standards for history
education. The entries are truly global in range and chronologically span prehis-
tory to the present day. The content of the definitions has been kept brief and
concise to provide fundamental facts rather than encyclopedic information. Spell-
ings follow the most current usage, and foreign words and names follow modern
standards. Common variant spellings of foreign names are shown in parentheses.
The existence of separate entries is noted within definitions through the use
of boldface. The Topical List of Entries is intended to provide some assistance in
locating entries related to a particular region of the world or era. However, many
entries cross the boundaries. Breaking the categories into smaller units might
make some sense, but that process would be endless. The maps are intended
for reference along with the entries, and they too are also not intended to be
comprehensive. The same is true for the list of Web sites. Web sites are additionally
ephemeral. The URLs are good as of the publication of this dictionary, but they
can change at any time. These supplemental instruments should help students
and teachers to flesh out their understanding of world history.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Barrangay Biafra
Barth, Karl Bible
Bartok, Bela Bill of Rights, United States
Barton, Clara Bishop
Baseball Bismarck, Otto von
Basho, Matsuo Black Death
Basilica Black Friars (see Dominicans [Black Friars])
Basques Black Hole of Calcutta
Bastille Black Panthers
Battle of the Atlantic (see Atlantic, Battle of Black Ships
the) Blitzkrieg
Bay of Pigs Boadicea (see Boudicca [Boadicea])
Beauvoir, Simone de Boccaccio, Giovanni
Becket, Thomas Bodhisattva
Beckett, Samuel Barclay Boers (see Afrikaners)
Bede, "the Venerable" Boer Wars (see Anglo-Boer Wars)
Bedouin Boethius, Ancius
Beethoven, Ludwig van Bolivar, Simon
Begin, Menachem Bologna University
Beijing (Peking) Bolshevik Revolution
Bell, Alexander Graham Bolsheviks
Benares (Varanasi) Bombay (Mumbai)
Benedict, Saint Bonaparte, Napoleon (see Napoleon
Benedictines Bonaparte)
Benelux Book of Akbar
Ben-Gurion, David Book of Exodus
Benin, Kingdom of Book of Odes (Shi Jing)
Berbers Book of the Dead
Bergen-Belsen Booth, John Wilkes
Berlin, Conference of Borges, Jorge Luis
Berlin, Congress of [1878] Borgia, Cesare
Berlin, Congress of [1884-1885] (see Berlin, Bormann, Martin
Conference of) Borobodur
Berlin, Division of Bose, Subhas Chandra
Berlin, Occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina
Berlin Air Lift Boston Tea Party
Berlin Wall Botha, Pieter Willem (P. W.)
Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint Botticelli, Sandro
Bernini, Lorenzo Giovanni Boudicca (Boadicea)
Bessemer, Sir Henry Bourbon
Bhagavad Gita Bourgeois
Bhakti Boxer Rebellion (Boxer Uprising)
Bhubaneswar Boyle, Robert
Bhutan Brahe, Tycho
Bhutto, Benazir Brahma
Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali Brahman
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES XV
Jainism Kailasantha
James I and VI Kalidasa
James II Kamakura
Janissaries Kamasutra
Japan, Occupation of Kami
Japan Inc. Kamikaze
Jati Kana (Katakana)
Jayavarman Kanagawa, Treaty of
Jefferson, Thomas Kanchipuram (Kanchi)
Jericho Kangxi (K'ang-hsi)
Jerusalem Kang Youwei (K'ang Yu-wei)
Jesuits (see Society of Jesus [Jesuits]) Kanishka
Jesus Christ (see Jesus of Nazareth) Kant, Immanuel
Jesus of Nazareth Kashmir
Jewish Diaspora Kaunda, Kenneth
Jews, Expulsion from Spain of the Kautilya
Jiang Jieshi (see Chiang Kai-shek) Kemal, Mustafa (Kemal Pasha) (see Atatiirk,
Jiang Qing Kemal [Kemal Pasha])
Jiang Zemin Kempis, Thomas a
Jihad Kennedy, John F.
Jinnah, Muhammad Ali Kennedy, Robert F.
Jizya (Jizyah) Kent State
Joan of Arc Kenyatta, Jomo
John of Salisbury Kepler, Johannes
John I Keynes, John Maynard
John Paul II KGB (Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnost)
Johnson, Lyndon Baines Khajuraho
Jomon Khayyam, Omar (see Rubaiyat)
Joseph II Khazars
Juarez, Benito Khilafat Movement
Judaea (Judea) Khitan People
Judah Khmer Rouge
Judaism Khoisan
Julian Calendar Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah
Julio-Claudian Dynasty Khrushchev, Nikita
Julius Caesar (see Caesar, Julius) Khubilai Khan
Julius II Khyber Pass
Junks Kiev
Jurchen Kim Dae Jung
Justinian (Justinian the Great) Kim II Sung
Justinian Law (see Corpus Juris Civilis; Kim Jong II
Justinian [Justinian the Great]) King, Martin Luther, Jr.
Ka'aba (Kabah) Kipchak
Kabir Kirghiz
Kaempfer, Engelbert Kita Ikki
Kaifeng Knight
XXIV ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES
AFRICA
ASIA
Mamallapuram Panini
Manchuria Panmunjom
Manchus Pao-chia System (see Baojia)
Manichaeism Parhae
Maoism Pariahs
Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) Park Chung Hee
Marco Polo (see Polo, Marco) Pataliputra
Marcos, Ferdinand Peace Constitution
Maurya Empire Peking (see Beijing)
May Fourth Movement People's Liberation Army
Meiji Constitution People's Republic of China (PRC)
Meiji Japan Pergamum
Meiji Restoration Plassey, Battle of
Mekong River Polo, Marco
Mencius (Mengzi) Pol Pot
Middle Kingdom Polynesian Culture
Middle Path Port Arthur
Minamoto Yoritomo Prakrit Language
Ming Punjab
Ming Hongwu (see Hongwu) Pure Land
Mohenjo-Daro P'yongyang
Mon Qianlong (Ch'ien-lung)
Mongol Empire Qin
Mukden Incident Qing
Muong Qingdao (Tsingtao)
Murasaki Shikibu Qin Shi Huangdi
Muromachi Period (see Ashikaga) Qiu Jin
Muslim League Quezon, Manuel Luis
Mutsu Munemitsu Raj (see British Raj)
Nagasaki Raja
Nanjing, Treaty of Rajasthani Art
Nanking, Rape of Rajputs
Nehru, Jawaharlal Ramayana
Neo-Confucianism Red Fort (Lai Qila)
Nerchinsk, Treaty of Red Guards
Ne Win, U Red River
Ngyuyen Van Thieu Republic of China
No Rhee, Syngman (Yi Song-man)
Oda Nobunaga Rigveda
One Hundred Schools Rites of Zhou (Zhou Li)
Onin War Rizal, Jose
Opium War Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Osaka Ryoanji Temple
Paekche Kingdom Sailendra (Shailendra)
Pagan Sakamoto Ryoma
Pallavas Samarkand
TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES xliii
Samudragupta Sukhothai
Samurai (see Bushi) Sun Yat-sen
Sanskrit Sunzi (Sun-tzu)
Sati (Suttee) Surat
Satori Suttee (see Sati [Suttee])
Satyagraha Tagalog
Sepoy Mutiny Tagore, Rabindranath
Shamans Taika
Shang Taiping Rebellion
Shanghai Taj Mahal
Shankara Tale of Genji (see Genji, Tale of)
Shinto Tamerlane (see Timur [Timur Leng,
Shiva "Timur the Lame," or Tamerlane])
Shoen Tang
Shogun Tang Taixang
Shotoku Taishi Tangut
Shudras Tang Xuanzang
Siam Tantras
Siddhartha Gautama Tantrism
Sihanouk, Norodom Taoism (see Daoism)
Sikhs Tea Ceremony
Silk Roads Tenno
Silla Terra-Cotta Army
Silver Trade Tet Offensive
Sima Qian Theravada Buddhism
Sinan Tianshan (T'ien-shan)
Singapore Tibet
Sinitic language Timur (Timur Leng, "Timur the Lame"
Sino-Japanese War [1894-1895] or Tamerlane)
Sino-Japanese War [1931-1945] Tokugawa
Sino-Vietnamese Tonkin (Tongking)
Sogdiana Toyotomi Hideyoshi
Song Transoxiana
Song Mei-ling (Song Meiling) Treaty of Nerchinsk (see Nerchinsk,
Song Qingling (Soong Ch'ing-ling) Treaty of)
Song Taizu Treaty Ports
Spice Trade Tributary System
Srivijaya Trung Sisters
Steppe Turkestan
Strait of Malacca Turks
Stupa Untouchables (see Pariahs)
Suharto Upanishads
Sui Uzbeks
Sui Wendi Vaishya
Sui Yangdi Varna
Sukarno Varuna
xliv TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES
EUROPEANCIENT TO 500
Thucydides Tyrant
Tiberius Vandals
Tiber River Virgil (Vergil)
Trajan Visigoths (see Goths)
Transalpine (see Gaul) Wergild
Trojan War Xenophon
Twelve Tables Xerxes I, "the Great"
Tyranny (see Tyrant) Zeus
MEDIEVAL: 500-1500
Knight Portolan
Leo IX, Saint Prester John
Leonardo da Vinci (see Da Vinci, Prince Henry (see Henry, Prince,
Leonardo) "the Navigator")
Longbow Prussia
Louis IX, Saint Raphael
Magna Carta Renaissance
Magyars Renaissance Architecture
Manorialism Renaissance Art
Marco Polo (see Polo, Marco) Renaissance Florence
Martel, Charles Renaissance Literature
Martin V Richard I, "the Lionhearted"
Masaccio Robert I, the Bruce (Robert Bruce)
Medici Roman Catholic Church
Medieval Era (see Middle Ages) Romanesque architecture
Medieval Optimum Runnymeade (see Magna Carta)
Merovingians Rus
Michelangelo Russia
Middle Ages Russian Orthodox Church
Modern Devotion Movement Saint Bernard Pass
Nevsky, Alexander, Saint Santa Maria
Norman Conquest Savonarola, Girolamo
Normans Saxons
Norsemen (see Normans; Vikings) Scholasticism
Northmen (see Normans; Vikings) Scriptoria
Northumbria (see Anglo-Saxon Serf
England) Sforza, Francesco
Notre Dame Cathedral Sigismund
Ottoman Empire Song of Roland
Ottoman Turks Spanish Inquisition
Otto I, "the Great" Spice Trade
Oxford University States General (see Estates General
Papacy (the Pope) [States General])
Parchment Strozzi, Alessandra
Parlement Theodoric
Peasants' Revolt, English (see English Tordesillas, Treaty of
Peasants' Revolt) Tours, Battle of
Petrarch Universities
Philip II (Philip Augustus) Urban II
Philip IV, "the Fair" Urban VI
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni Urbino, Duchy of
Pisa, Council of (see Council of Pisa) Valois
Plague (see Black Death) Van Eyck, Jan
Plantagenet Venice
Poitiers, Battle of Vespucci, Amerigo
Polo, Marco Vikings
1 TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES
MODERN: 1500-PRESENT
Trent, Council of (see Council of Trent) Wars of Religion (see French Wars
Triple Alliance of Religion)
Triple Entente Waterloo, Battle of
Tycho (see Brahe, Tycho) Watt, James
Ultra Watteau, Jean-Antoine
Union, Act of Weber, Max
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Weimar Republic
(USSR) Wesley, John
United Kingdom of Great Britain Westphalia, Peace of (see Westphalia,
and Northern Ireland Treaty of)
United Provinces Westphalia, Treaty of
William I, "the Silent" (William of
USSR, Fall of the
Orange)
Utopia (see More, Thomas)
WoUstonecraft, Mary (see Godwin,
Versailles, Palace of
Mary WoUstonecraft)
Versailles Treaty
World System
Vesalius, Andreas Worms, Diet of
Vichy Worms, Edict of
Victoria, Queen Xavier, Saint Francis
Vienna, Congress of Young Ireland
Voltaire Young Italy
Wallenstein, Albrecht von Yugoslavia
Walpole, Horace Zollverein
Walpole, Robert Zwingli, Huldrych
LATIN AMERICA
Sheikh Transoxiana
Shia Muslims Tutankhamon
Shiite Muslims (see Shia Muslims) Ulugh Beg
Sidon Umar
Sogdiana Umayyad Caliphate
Solomon Umma
Solomonic Dynasty United Arab Republic
Suez Canal Ur
Suez Crisis
Uruk
Sufism
Usman dan Fodio
Suleyman I, "the Magnificent"
Vezir/Wazir
Sumer
Sunni Muslims Wahhabism
Susa Yahweh
Talmud Yathrib
Temple Mount (see Hebrew Temple) Young Turks (Committee of Union
Temple of Jerusalem (see Hebrew and Progress [CUP])
Temple) Zanj
Tigris River Ziggurat
Topkapi Palace Zoroaster (see Zoroastrianism)
Torah Zoroastrianism
NORTH AMERICA
OTHER
Beginnings of Civilization
The Spread of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Christianity
World Civilizations, c. 100 C.E.
Global Exploration
Oceanic Trading Routes to the End of the Seventeenth Century
Late Twentieth-Century wars
International Organizations c. 2004
Contemporary Political Map
Societies of Oceania
Early Mesopotamia and Syria
Ancient Egypt and Nubia
Early India
Middle East, 1500-1100 B.C.E.
Ancient World, Eastern Mediterranean
Ancient Greece
Alexander's Empire
The Silk Roads
The Eastern Mediterranean in the Time of Kleopatra VII
Palestine in New Testament Times
The Roman Empire, 214 C.E.
ChinaThree Kingdoms, 264 C.E.
The Maya, 300 B.C.E.
The Rise and Spread of Islam in Arabia, 624-634 C.E.
The Global Expansion of Islam, 624-c. 750 C.E.
ChinaThe T a n g Empire, c. 645-700 C.E.
South and Mesoamerica, c. 900
Viking Homelands, c. 900 C.E.
Viking Attacks, Trade, and Settlement, c. 910 C.E.
Middle East in the Late Eleventh Century
Mongol Conquests, 1206-1259
Byzantine Empire, c. 1270
The Major Crusades, c. 1100-1300
The Rise of the Aztec Empire, 1200-1500
Europe and the Mediterranean, c. 1200
Western Europe, c. 1330
The Black DeathSpread of the Bubonic Plague, 1346-1353
Expansion of the Ottoman Empire, 1328-1672
lxiv LIST OF MAPS
Abolitionists
Abdul Hamid (1842-1918) Advocates ofthe abolition of slavery in the
Last sultan of Turkey. He promulgated eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in
the first constitution of Turkey in 1876. Europe and the United States. In Britain
At his accession Abdul Hamid was suspi- individuals such as John Wesley, John
ciously regarded as too liberal, but he Newton, Olaudah Equiano, and William
soon showed himself as a despot and Wilberforce led the way to the abolition of
was known as "the Great Assassin" for his the slave trade in 1807 and the abolition
attacks on enemies and, especially, for of slavery in the British Empire in 1833.
his massacres of Christian Armenians The movement in the United States was es-
(1894-1896). Abdul Hamid was deposed pecially strong from 1830 to 1861, leading
after the revolt ofthe Young Turks. to the start of the American Civil War in
1861. Abolitionists used the press, lectures,
Abdullah ibn Hussein (1882-1951) church pulpits, petitions, and even riots
First king of Jordan (1946-1951). Hussein and assaults to promote their view. Some
was amir of Transjordan (1921-1946) leaders ofthe U.S. abolitionist movement
under British protection. When Jordan were William Lloyd Garrison, Harriet
2 ABORIGINE
twentieth and early twenty-first centuries American struggle for independence and
wrote Things Fall Apart in 1958 as an at- in the early years as a nation. Adams had a
tempt to counter western distortions of major role in the Continental Congress
Africans as simple and childlike. It describes (1774-1777); wrote the constitution ofthe
the corruption brought from the West and State of Massachusetts; was a signer of
the complexity and dilemmas of African the 1783 Treaty of Paris, ending the war
culture and society. His later works in- with Britain; and was the nation's first
clude Anthills ofthe Savannah (1987). vice president (to George Washington).
His presidency was troubled by feuding
Acheson, Dean (1893-1971) with other members of his party, the
U.S. Secretary of State (1949-1953) and Federalists, and by the backlash against
adviser to four U.S. presidents. Acheson the Alien and Sedition Acts.
contributed much to U.S. foreign policy
during the Cold War. His focus was on the Adams, John Quincy (1767-1848)
European sector ofthe Cold War problem, Sixth president ofthe United States (1825-
especially during the Korean War; he 1829). The eldest son of president John
feared that expanding the United States' Adams (a Federalist), John Quincy Adams
influence in Asia would threaten U.S. (a Republican) was, before his own presi-
interests in Europe. dency, a great American diplomat. He de-
veloped what came to be known as the
Acropolis Monroe Doctrine. Adams had less success
A citadel or fortified part of an ancient as a president than as a diplomat. Lacking
Greek city, usually just outside the city and tact, he had difficulty getting popular sup-
often raised up on a mountainside for de- port for many of his proposals. After his
fensive purposes. Each Greek polis had presidency, Adams played a prominent
an acropolis for the defense of the entire role in the campaign to end slavery.
community. Athens's acropolis was de- Aden
stroyed by the Persians in 480 B.C.E. but City in Yemen that was an important trad-
was rebuilt, including the Parthenon. ing port for thousands of years. Aden is
named in the Old Testament. It was a
Actium, Battle of (31 B.C.E.) major terminus in the spice trade from
Roman naval battle in which Octavian de- Asia to the Middle East. In the nineteenth
feated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in century the British made Aden a strategic
western Greece. Marcus Agrippa led the base and a coaling station on the route
fleet for Octavian at Actium. Mark Antony to India. In 1937 Aden became a British
and Cleopatra both committed suicide crown colony. It became part of South
after the defeat. Octavian thereby elimi- Arabia in 1963 and the capital of South
nated all competitors and became ruler of Yemen in 1968. With the merger of
Rome and in 27 B.C.E. was declared princeps South Yemen and North Yemen in 1990
and named Augustus ("Revered One"). Aden was no longer a capital, but it
remains an important port for long-
Act of Union. See Union, Act of distance trade.
Adams, John (1735-1826) Adenauer, Konrad (1876-1967)
Second president of the United States German statesman and first chancellor
(1797-1801); a prominent figure in the of the Federal Republic of Germany
4 ADOWA, BATTLE OF
warning, returned home with Cassandra French army, ignoring their disastrous de-
and Clytemnestra, and was eventually feats at the similar Battles of Crecy (1346)
murdered by Clytemnestra's lover. Aga- and Poitiers (1356), charged mounted
memnon's son Orestes avenged him. cavalry against English archers using long-
See also Greece, Mycenaean bows, pikemen, and dismounted knights.
The heavily outnumbered English deci-
Age of Enlightenment. See Enlightenment sively defeated the French. The French
lost 5,000-7,000 men while the English
Age of Exploration lost 300.
Era when Europeans influenced by the Re-
naissance (and its focus on classical texts, Agitational Propaganda (Agitprop)
including those on geography) and by the Political "guerilla theatre" of the avant-
rising threat of the Ottoman Turks, who garde, which used short plays to protest
cut off access to the East via the Silk Roads during the 1960s and 1970s. These plays
and markets around the Black Sea, began were performed on streets and in city
to explore the west coast of Africa. After a parks to spread political protest ideals to
successful attack on the North African city the communities and people who did not
of Ceuta in 1415 provided a foothold, the attend theater plays. Some examples are
Portuguese slowly and methodically began the San Francisco Mime Troupe and play-
in 1419 to explore southward along the wrights David Rabe and Sam Shepard.
coast of Africa under Prince Henry, "the
Navigator." As they explored they accu- Agora
mulated empirical evidence, altered ship Ancient Greek community assembly
design, and developed navigational tech- space, usually in the center of a town. The
nology. In 1487 the Portuguese Bartolo- agora was also used as a marketplace. The
meu Dias rounded the tip of Africa; in significance of the agora is that most an-
1498 Vasco Da Gama sailed to India. In cient civilizations took care to ensure that
1492 the Genoese mapmaker Christopher the common people could not meet,
Columbus, who had worked in Lisbon, whereas the Greeks ensured that they
Portugal, fulfilled his idea of sailing west to could. This did not mean the people had
get to the East for the queen and king of political power but that the will of the
Spain. In 1519-1522 Ferdinand Magellan people mattered, an important factor
led an expedition to circumnavigate the eventually leading to democracy.
globe sailing west. He was killed in the East
Indies, but a small group of men under Agrarian Society
Juan Sebastian de Elcano made it back to Term for a culture that moved to cultiva-
Europe. Within approximately 100 years tion and livestock rearing from hunting
Europe had opened access to the entire and gathering. The process of developing
world, encountering new continents, peo- agrarian society took place during the
ples, animals, and diseases. This was the Neolithic agricultural revolution. Agrar-
beginning of the West's domination of ian society requires enormous outlays of
much of the world. work but can support a larger popula-
tion than hunting and gathering. Agrarian
Agincourt, Battle of (1415) society made it possible to develop civi-
Battle between England and France in the lizations with cities and advanced social
Hundred Years War (1338-1453). The organizations.
8 AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION, MODERN
typhoid fever was a shock from which Vic- at Aachen that brought together scholars
toria never completely recovered, causing from all over Europe and created the
her to retreat from public life. Carolingian renaissance, or cultural re-
vival, that saved much of classical Roman
Alberti, Leone Battista (1404-1472) art and literature.
Italian Renaissance architect and scholar
of architecture. He first wrote treatises Alexander I (1777-1825)
on architecture and studied the works Tsar of Russia (1801-1825) and early in
of ancient Rome and upon Filippo his rule a reformer. Alexander attempted
Brunelleschi's death became the leading to reform education and serfdom but was
Renaissance architect. Alberti designed the resisted by the aristocracy. Alexander's
Palazzo Rucellai (1446-1451) in Florence Russia fought against Napoleon Bona-
and the church of S. Andrea (1470) in parte, but with defeat Russia supported
Mantua among others. France against Britain. Russia later joined
Prussia and Britain to defeat Napoleon.
Albigensians Alexander formed the Holy Alliance to
Members of a medieval sect who at- defend Christianity and in his later years
tempted to live a pure Christian life by suppressed liberal movements.
rejecting the material world. Located in
southern France, the movement became Alexander II (1818-1881)
popular. The Albigensian view of a dual- Tsar of Russia (1855-1881), known as the
ity known as Catharism (God created "Tsar Liberator" for emancipating mil-
good; something else created the evil in the lions of serfs in 1861. He also reformed the
world) was declared heretical by the administration and the military and ex-
Roman Catholic Church and condemned tended Russia's borders in the Caucasus,
in 1119, 1179, and 1215. In their attempt Central Asia, and the Far East, although he
to live pure lives Albigensians remained sold Alaska to the United States in the
celibate and renounced all desires of the 1867 Alaska Purchase. Secret revolution-
flesh. An Albigensian Crusade in 1208- ary societies in Russia attempted his assas-
1229 destroyed the Albigensians by execu- sination in 1862 and succeeded in 1881.
tions and confiscations of their property.
Alexander III (1845-1894)
Albuquerque, Alfonso de (1453-1515) Tsar of Russia (1881-1894) whose conser-
Portuguese admiral and conqueror in the vative suppression of liberal ideas and
East Indies. Albuquerque conquered Goa groups strengthened their resolve. Al-
in India, Ceylon, the Sundra Islands, though interested in reforms of adminis-
Malacca in the East Indies, and the island tration, taxes, and attitudes toward trade
of Hormuz in the Persian Gulf. Goa unions, Alexander was repressive toward
became the center of the Portuguese over- nihilist and populist secret societies be-
seas empire. Albuquerque, although often cause they had assassinated his father in
brutal, was known for his justice, but court 1881. This stance strengthened the secret
intrigue destroyed him and he died re- societies and weakened the hold of the
turning to Portugal. state going into the twentieth century.
assassinated, Alexander forged one of the was a major center of both Hellenistic and
largest but shortest-lived empires in world Jewish culture from 500 to 1500 C.E. Off
history. In 334 B.C.E. Alexander crossed the the coast of Alexandria was the Pharos
Hellespont into Asia Minor with approxi- lighthouse, one ofthe seven wonders ofthe
mately 35,000 men to conquer Persia, ancient world.
leading the cavalry himself. His father had
planned the project but died before he was Alfred "the Great" (849-899)
able to carry it out. Alexander was noted Anglo-Saxon king of England. Alfred ex-
for his tactical genius and fearless lead- panded the area of England under control
ership. Eventually he conquered Syria, ofthe king by pushing back Danish Viking
Egypt, most of the Middle East, Persia, invaders. He was noted for three innova-
Bactria (modern-day Afghanistan), and tions: Alfred divided his army into two
northwestern India. Alexander wanted to units that would each serve six months;
consolidate the empire, build roads and he built a navy of faster and longer ships
infrastructure, and unify the government, to challenge the Vikings on the seas;
but he died of fever at age thirty-three. and he built fortified settlements so that
Often recognized as one of the world's everyone was within a day's walk of pro-
greatest generals, Alexander built one of tection. Considered a great warrior, Alfred
the world's largest empires with a vibrant was also known as a scholar and a bril-
economy and established dozens of new liant administrator.
cities. His conquests began the spread of
Hellenistic Greek culture throughout the Alhambra
Middle East and into India. Muslim palace in Spain. Constructed be-
tween 1238 and 1358, the palace-fortress
Alexander VI (c. 1430-1503) was part of a Muslim royal city of Granada.
Pope (1492-1503) and member of the After the expulsion of the Muslims in
Spanish Borgia family who mediated dis- 1492, much of the interior of Alhambra
putes between Portugal and Spain after the was ruined, and it was further destroyed
discovery of the New World and con- and rebuilt in other styles over the centu-
demned Girolamo Savonarola to death in ries. The Citadel remains in the Moorish
1498. Alexander VI settled the dispute of style.
ownership of lands around the world with
The Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, dividing Ali (c. 600-661 C.E.)
the world into eastern and western spheres Son-in-law and son of an uncle of
for Portugal and Spain, respectively. Muhammad and fourth caliph (656-661).
Muhammad, at his death in 632, left no in-
Alexandria structions as to a successor and no sons.
City founded by Alexander the Great Some of his followers selected Abu Bakr
in 332 B.C.E. on the Mediterranean coast as caliph (successor) while others claimed
of Egypt. Alexander intended the city as that Muhammad had stated at Ghadir
the capital of his conquests. Alexandria Qumm that Ali was his successor. The dis-
became an important commercial center pute arose over how to understand the
and transshipment point between Asia and term successor. Because Ali was the son of
Europe and was equally famous for its Muhammad's uncle and the husband of
schools and its library, one ofthe great re- Muhammad's sole living daughter, Fatima,
positories of classical learning. Alexandria Ali was followed as the successor. Ali was
12 ALIGHIERI, DANTE
assert more authority over the North in 1759, and Montreal in 1760. For his suc-
American colonies through direct tax- cess Amherst was made governor-general
ation with the Stamp Act (1765), the of British North America.
Townshend Acts (1767), and the Intolera-
ble Acts (in response to the Boston Tea Amin, Dada Idi (c. 1927-2003)
Party in 1773). The British refused to bend Ugandan military leader and head of state
to colonial demands and war broke out in (1971-1979). With limited education Idi
1775 at the Battles of Lexington and Amin rose from enlisted soldier to become
Concord, although many colonists, called one of Africa's most notorious leaders. At
Loyalists, did not support independence the independence of Uganda in 1962 Amin
from England. The early phase of the war was commander ofthe army and an ally of
(1775-1776) was fought in New England; President Milton Obote. In 1971 Amin led
the next phase (1776-1779), in the mid- a coup against Obote and became head of
Atlantic colonies; and the final stage state. Under his leadership Ugandan vio-
(1779-1781) played out in the West and lence and corruption increased and the
the South, where American forces (sup- country's economy was nearly destroyed.
ported by the French navy) forced the During his reign an estimated 300,000
British general Charles Cornwallis to sur- Ugandans were murdered. An invasion by
render at Yorktown, Virginia. The Treaty Tanzanian forces united with Ugandan
of Paris (1783) declared American auton- rebels drove Amin out of Uganda in 1979.
omy. Born of the Enlightenment, the He died in Saudi Arabia in 2003.
American Revolution concluded with the
formation of a government based on Amir
the sovereignty ofthe people, separation of Title for high-ranking military officials in
church and state, a written constitution, the Islamic world that became increasingly
and checks and balances. The United common after the Abbasid caliphate
States Constitution, ratified by the states (750-945 C.E.). As a result of their military
in 1788, would serve as ideological inspira- skill many amirs became political elites in
tion for the French Revolution. their own right, at some times relying on
caliphal, or state, patronage and at other
Amerindians times dispensing such patronage in state-
Native American peoples. Amerindians of like fashion on their own.
various types and cultures ranged from
highly civilized urban dwellers in Central Amon-Re
and South America such as the Maya, Most powerful ancient Egyptian god
the Incas, and the Aztecs to the North before Amenhotep IV's reign. Amon-Re
American hunters and gatherers. Some, was a combination of Amon of Thebes and
such as the Iroquois, developed sophisti- Re of Heliopolis (the sun god). By the
cated political organizations. The Hopi, fourteenth century B.C.E. the two gods had
the Anasazi, and the Apache left signifi- been combined into Amon-Re, making
cant elements of culture. this god more important and powerful
than any other in a prelude to monothe-
Amherst, Lord Jeffery (1717-1797) ism. When Amenhotep (renamed Akhen-
English general who won Canada from the aton) came to the Egyptian throne he
French for Britain. Louisbourg was sur- substituted a sun-cult god, Aton, for
rendered to Amherst in 1758, Ticonderoga Amon-Re.
16 AMORITES
ANC. See African National Congress and Burma. Angkor Thorn was the capital
(ANC) and Angkor's greatest city, covering 4
square miles (10.4 sq km) with a pop-
Ancestor Worship ulation of as many as 1 million people.
East Asian worship of ancestors; common Angkor is famous for its huge temple com-
in many cultures. In China the emphasis plexes, among the largest ever constructed.
on lineage and family included rites to pre- Greatly influenced by Indian culture, the
vious generations. The practice goes back temples were primarily Hindu, but the
to at least Shang times, when the kings Angkor rulers also incorporated Buddhist
honored their direct ancestors. People and indigenous beliefs. The most famous
held annual ceremonies for family an- temple is Angkor Wat. The prosperous
cestors and often maintained ancestral state, based on an elaborate irrigation
tombs for their lineage. Tomb-Sweeping system, went into a decline after the
Day, the fourth day of the fourth month, twelfth century and relocated its capital to
was a time to return and perform ceremo- Phnom Penh in 1432, confining itself to
nies at the ancestral tomb or memorial in the present-day territory of Cambodia.
Korea. Japanese and Vietnamese also had
rites honoring family ancestors. Angkor Wat
Largest and most famous of the temple
Andrada e Silva, Jose Bonifacio de complexes built in the Cambodian capital
(1763-1838) of Angkor. Constructed by Suryavarman
Brazilian statesman and scientist. Andrada II (r. 1113-1150) as a Hindu temple dedi-
e Silva is known as the "architect of Brazil- cated to Shiva, Brahma, and Vishnu, it
ian independence" for guiding Brazil to served as both a royal temple and an
independence from Portugal in 1822. He administrative center and covers nearly
was also a renowned metallurgist who 1 square mile (2.6 sq km). It was later
studied in Portugal, France, Germany, converted to a Buddhist temple and was
Norway, Switzerland, and Britain. abandoned in the fifteenth century. The
temple is among the most magnificent in
Andropov, Yuri (1914-1984) the world, vast in size and with many
Head of the Soviet Union's KGB (state beautiful and skillfully rendered carvings
security apparatus) (1967-1982), general of Hindu and Khmer scenes. Angkor Wat
secretary of the Soviet Communist Party represents the wealth and high culture of
Central Committee (1982-1984), and the Angkor state. The ruins were rediscov-
Soviet president (1983-1984). He became ered in the nineteenth century.
a member of the Politburo in 1973.
Andropov became ill in 1983 and died Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839-1842,
the following year. 1878-1880, 1919)
Three conflicts in which Britain attempted
Angkor to extend its control over Afghanistan. In
Name of Cambodian state and its cap- 1839 Britain, already well established in
ital from 802 to 1432. At its peak under India, sought to counter Russian interest
Suryavarman II (r. 1113-1150) and Jaya- in Afghanistan by replacing the Afghan
varman VIII (r. 1181-1218), Angkor con- leader with a pro-British king. After fairly
trolled much of what is now Cambodia, easy conquest, an Afghan revolt in 1841
Laos, and Thailand and parts of Vietnam forced the British out. In 1878 the British
18 ANGLO-BOER WARS
again moved to exclude Russian influence of Burma. In the second war the British re-
by controlling Kabul, but after severe sponded to hostile treatment of their mer-
fighting the British were again driven chants by seizing Rangoon and southern
out. In 1919 Afghanistan attacked British Burma. In the third war the British cap-
India and, although defeated, Afghanistan tured the capital of Mandalay, sent King
gained independence in the Treaty of Thibaw into exile, and made Burma part
Rawalpindi (1919). of British India. Burma would not regain
independence until 1948.
Anglo-Boer Wars (1880-1881,
1899-1902) Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Wars fought between Britain and the Afri- Record chronicling Anglo-Saxon history
kaners, also known as Boers (Dutch for annually from 1 to 1156 C.E. but written
farmers), of southern Africa. Dutch colo- from circa 890 C.E. to the 1150s. Kept origi-
nists had arrived in the southern African nally by monks, it has survived in seven
Cape Colony in 1652 and ruled native Af- copies. It is extremely valuable for study of
ricans. With the arrival ofthe British in the the history of Anglo-Saxon England and
nineteenth century, Afrikaners left Cape the English language.
Colony and refused to become part of a
British colony. Afrikaners put up fierce re- Anglo-Saxon England
sistance, and the first Anglo-Boer War Series of kingdoms developed by the
ended in defeat ofthe British. In 1899 the Anglos, Saxons, and Jutes who settled in
British attempted to absorb the Afrikaners England between 400 and 600 C.E. There
again, and war broke out. The Afrikaners were seven major Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
were successful with their guerrilla tech- known as the Heptarchy: Northumbria,
niques and their entrapment and sieges of Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex, Kent,
the British at Ladysmith, Kimberley, and and Wessex. Egbert of Wessex unified
Mafeking. The Afrikaners won some inde- much of England, but Danish Viking
pendence in representative government, invasions disrupted the process. Alfred
although British influence remained dom- the Great defeated the Danes in 878 and
inant in the Union of South Africa. The continued the process of unification. Be-
wars left the British questioning their tween 900 and 1066 Anglo-Saxon England
military might but also left Britain with became a unified, strong, commercial
highly experienced troops who proved Christian state with a vibrant literature,
invaluable at the outbreak of World documented in the Anglo-Saxon Chroni-
War I. The real losers of the Anglo-Boer cle. When the Normans invaded in 1066
War of 1899-1902 were the black South Anglo-Saxon England was not inferior to
Africans. the kingdoms ofthe continent but lost the
conflict only by misfortune. The Normans
Anglo-Burmese Wars intermarried with the Anglo-Saxons, and
Series of wars between the British based in many of their traditions were absorbed
India and the kingdom of Burma (1824 into Anglo-Norman England.
1826, 1851-1851, 1885) that led to the
British conquest of Burma (Myanmar). In Anglo-Zulu War (1879)
the first war the British, reacting to a War between the Zulu of southern Africa
threatened Burmese invasion of Bengal, and the British colonial army. Cetshwayo
seized the Arakan and Tenasserim regions kaMpande (1832-1884), the last Zulu
ANTHONY, SUSAN B. 19
king, led a policy of friendship with the were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in
British until Britain moved to create a con- 2001 for their commitment to world peace
federation of states in southern Africa. The and human rights.
Zulus fought defensively yet inflicted
severe losses on the British army. Zululand Anno Domini
was not annexed, and Cetshwayo was Latin for "in the year of the Lord." The
restored to the Zulu throne temporarily. reckoning of years previously was by reigns
of kings. The Anno Domini (abbreviated
An Lushan (703-757) A.D.) system of reckoning is based on the
Chinese general of Turkish background work of Dionysius Exiguus (d. c. 550), al-
who led a revolt against the Tang in 755, though his calculations are inaccurate. The
proclaiming himself the emperor of a new actual birth of Christ is believed to have
dynasty. Although he was murdered by his taken place around 4 B.C.E. With the use
son soon after, the rebellion he started of the more standardized dating of A.D.
continued until the Tang suppressed it in came the usage of B.C., "Before Christ."
763 with the help of the Uighurs. The An By the 1990s, the new terminology of
Lushan rebellion accelerated the decline of C.E. ("Common Era") and B.C.E. ("Before
the Tang dynasty, resulting in the Chinese the Common Era") became the norm,
retreat from Central Asia, where China although they have the same dating
would not reestablish its authority until value based on the Gregorian calendar.
the Qing, and led to the emergence of the
Uighurs as a major power in much of Anschluss (meaning "annexation")
Central Asia. The March 1938 annexation of Austria
into "Greater Germany" by Adolf Hitler.
Annam Although Austrians were a German-
Term (from the Chinese for "pacified speaking people, the annexation was
south") used by the Chinese and some- forced upon Austria in opposition to the
times by Westerners for Vietnam. From Versailles Treaty and Hitler's own state-
the late nineteenth century it was used by ments of two years earlier. That France
the French for the northern region of and Britain took no action against the
Vietnam. The term was never used by Anschluss encouraged Hitler to march into
the Vietnamese. western Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland in
March 1939, forcing Europe closer to
Annan, Kofi (1938-) World War II.
Ghanaian international civil servant,
secretary-general of the United Nations Anthony, Susan B. (1820-1906)
Organization, and recipient of the Nobel Early advocate for woman's suffrage in the
Prize for Peace in 2001. Educated in United States. Anthony was also the
Ghana and the United States, Annan has founder (1890) and president (1892-
served with the United States since 1962 1900) of the National American Woman
except for two years. As undersecretary he Suffrage Association. Anthony did not live
won acclaim for his handling of the civil to see her goal accomplished, however,
war in Bosnia, and since 1997 as secretary- and suffered disappointment when, in
general Annan has repaired relations be- 1869, Congress did not include a pro-
tween the United Nations and the United hibition against sex discrimination in
States. Kofi Annan and the United Nations its amendments concerning race. The
20 ANTIBALLISTIC MISSILE TREATY
Nineteenth Amendment, giving women Christians blamed Jews for the death of
the right to vote and owing much to the Jesus, and during the years ofthe Crusades
work of Anthony and her colleagues, was and the Inquisitions Jews were attacked
passed in 1920. and sometimes driven from entire coun-
tries. Anti-Semitism survived into early
Antiballistic Missile Treaty. See SALT I modern times, and in eastern Europe po-
(Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty) groms, widespread attacks on Jews, were
often condoned and even organized by
Anti-Comintern Pact (1936) governments. In the twentieth century
A mutual agreement between Japan and Anti-Semitism increased in Europe under
Germany to unite against communist the stresses of the Great Depression, and
subversion. The pact was not an alliance, Nazi Germany developed a national po-
but it did contain secret provisos for licy of Anti-Semitism, exterminating mil-
exchange of information and consulta- lions of Jews. However, Germany was by
tion should either country be attacked by no means the only country where Anti-
the Soviet Union. Italy signed the pact a Semitism was widespread.
year later, which added to the suspi-
cions of American diplomats that Japan Antony, Mark (80-30 B.C.E.)
had allied itself with the fascist powers in Roman cavalry officer who rose to fame
Europe. alongside Julius Caesar. After Caesar was
assassinated in 44 B.C.E. Antony became
Antigone. See Sophocles part of a triumvirate with Octavian and
Marcus Lepidus. Tensions with Octavian
Antigonid Dynasty (306-168 B.C.E.) caused the triumvirate to break up, and the
Ancient Macedonian ruling house carved two faced off when Antony fought along-
out of the remains of Alexander the side Cleopatra (queen of Egypt) against
Great's empire. With control of most of the Roman navy in the Battle of Actium.
the Middle East and conquests in the east- Defeated, Mark Antony committed sui-
ern Mediterranean, Antigonus I, a general cide in 30 B.C.E.
of Alexander the Great, was proclaimed
king in 306 B.C.E. He was attempting to re- Apache
establish Alexander's empire. In the fifth Native Americans inhabiting the North
generation, Philip V of Macedonia came American Southwest until the end of the
into conflict with Rome in 215. In 197 nineteenth century. The group had vary-
Rome defeated the Antigonids and rele- ing emphases (depending on the tribe) on
gated them to its control in Macedonia. hunting, gathering wild plants, farming,
Under Perseus they once again tried to free and raiding for subsistence. The Apache
Greece from Rome, but their defeat in 168 came into periodic conflict with Spain
was the end of the dynasty. and, later, the United States until the late
nineteenth century, when they were con-
Anti-Semitism quered and allowed to live on reservations
Prejudice against Jews. Anti-Semitism is a within the United States.
misnomer because most Middle Eastern
peoples are Semites, not only the Jews. Apartheid
Anti-Semitism developed from religious Policy of racial separation predominant in
differences in Europe in the Middle Ages. South Africa until 1993. Whites had long
AQUEDUCT 21
dominated blacks in South Africa, but gods to a question of humankind, and ora-
after 1961, when the country withdrew cles were places or individuals where or
from the British Commonwealth and through whom the gods could be con-
became a republic, the Afrikaners built up sulted and answers provided, on both im-
their economic position and imposed a portant and private matters. The Apollo
structure of separation of the races called oracle at Delphi was the most celebrated
apartheid. In 1993 President F. W. de oracle in antiquity and claimed superior-
Klerk struck down apartheid by introduc- ity over all others.
ing open democratic elections and major-
ity rule. Black leader Nelson Mandela was Appian Way (Appia Via)
elected president of South Africa in 1994. Most famous Roman road, leading to
lower Italy and constructed in 312 B.C.E.
Apennines It was the major thoroughfare for com-
Mountain range traversing the entire merce and the Roman armies and for
Italian peninsula. The Apennine geogra- contact between the city of Rome and the
phy determined much of Italy's historical southern Roman Republic and, later,
development with the division into Ligu- the Roman Empire. The Appian Way was
rian, Tuscan, and Umbrian Apennines and once known as the queen of long-
the creation of the major political divi- distance roads.
sions. The Apennines also give rise to the
major rivers of Italy. Apprenticeship (from the Latin for "to
learn")
Aphrodite Arrangement whereby one individual is
Ancient Greek goddess of love, identified bound by agreement to serve another for a
later with the Roman goddess Venus. set period of time in order to learn a craft,
Aphrodite and Venus play an important trade, skill, or body of knowledge. An ap-
part in the literature of Greece and Rome prentice often lives with the master, typi-
and also the literature and art of the cally for seven years, to learn not just the
Renaissance. trade skills but also the social expectations
of the field. In medieval Europe appren-
Apollo ticeship was very common. In all cultures
Ancient Greek god of manly youth and and at all times apprenticeship has been
beauty, of poetry, music, and oracles. used to train in fields such as crafts, music,
Apollo, the son of Jupiter and Latona and law, and medicine.
the twin of Artemis, was the god ofthe fine
arts, music, poetry, and eloquence as well as Apulia
of medicine or healing and was also known Region of Italy inhabited by the Apuli, a
for his numerous affairs. Later Apollo was Samnite tribe, before it was conquered by
associated with the sun-god Helios. the Romans. The Appian Way and the
Trajana Way traversed Apulia. The region
Apollo Oracle at Delphi produced much grain, wine, and olives.
Apollo, the Greek god, had several oracles
associated with him, the most famous of Aqueduct
them at Delphi, where people from all over Ancient Roman engineering and develop-
Greece came to consult and make of- ment of the rounded arch enabled the
ferings. An oraculum was an answer ofthe Romans to build bridges across ravines
22 AQUINAS, SAINT THOMAS
and valleys to bring water into Roman Aden, the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of
cities and supply the citizens with clean Oman, and the Persian Gulf. Arabia is the
running water. One of the earliest Roman site of the origin of numerous cultures,
aqueducts was built by Appius Claudius from the Semites of much of the Middle
Caecus (the builder ofthe Appian Way) in East to the kingdom ofthe Queen of Sheba
312 B.C.E. The aqueducts often served as circa 950 B.C.E. and the rise of Islam in the
bridges for Roman roads, accelerating the seventh century C.E.
movement of Roman troops and their
supplies. Arab-Israeli War, 1967 (also called the
Six-Day War or the June War)
Aquinas, Saint Thomas (c. 1225-1274) The third of five wars between Israel and
Most important medieval philosopher surrounding Arab states, fought from June
(whose philosophy is known as Tho- 5 to June 11, 1967. After a surprise attack
mism). A Dominican monk and a profes- that crippled the Egyptian Air Force and
sor of theology at the University of Paris, launched the war, Israel also destroyed the
Aquinas successfully synthesized classical air capabilities of both Syria and Jordan.
Greek and Roman philosophy and Judaeo- This advantage translated into large terri-
Christian theology and attempted to torial gains for Israel that came at the ex-
merge faith and reason. Summa Theologica pense of the Arab nations: Israel took
is often regarded as the most important of control ofthe Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza
his many works. Aquinas was canonized Strip from Egypt, the West Bank from
in 1323. Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria.
On November 22, 1967, the United
Aquino, Corazon (1933-) Nations issued Resolution 242, which
Political leader and president of the called on Israel to return the territories
Philippines (1986-1992). She was the taken in the war in exchange for peace
wife of political opposition leader Begnino from its neighbors and authorized a
Aquino, who was assassinated in 1983 as special representative to negotiate peace
he returned from exile. After the incident between Israel and its Arab neighbors.
Corazon Aquino emerged as the candidate
against dictatorial President Ferdinand Arab-Israeli War, 1973 (also called the
Marcos when he unexpectedly called for Yom Kippur War, the October War, or
elections in early 1986. Officially, Marcos the Ramadan War)
was reelected but Aquino's supporters The fourth offivewars between Israel and
contested the results, leading to mass dem- its Arab neighbors. The war began on Oc-
onstrations and the eventual ouster of tober 6 when Egypt and Syria launched a
Marcos and Aquino's assumption of the surprise attack on Israeli forces in territor-
presidency. The first woman president of ies occupied by Israel since the 1967 Arab-
the Philippines, Aquino presided over the Israeli War. Egypt and Syria, with small
restoration of democracy but was less suc- contributions from Iraq, Jordan, and other
cessful in curbing corruption and dealing Arab states, sought to regain territory lost
with the nation's widespread poverty. in the 1967 war. The United Nations
issued Resolution 338, calling for a cease-
Arabia fire. The cease-fire did not take effect, and
Peninsula at the southwestern extremity of involvement of the United States and the
Asia bounded by the Red Sea, the Gulf of Soviet Union threatened to escalate the
ARBENZ GUZMAN, JACOBO 23
conflict. The war formally ended with a work for a private firm in 1956. In 1958 he
cease-fire in May 1974. and two associates formed FATAH, a
Palestinian group dedicated to the liber-
Arab League ation of Palestine through broad-based
Confederation of Arab states founded in revolutionary struggle. In 1968 FATAH
1945 to foster Arab unity. Originally head- delegates joined the Palestine National
quartered in Egypt, its headquarters was Council that then elected Arafat chairman
moved to Tunis, Tunisia, after the Egypt- of the Executive Committee of the Pales-
Israeli peace treaty in 1979 and returned tinian Liberation Organization (PLO).
to Egypt in 1990. There are twenty-two The PLO militant strategy to escalate con-
member states. flict with Israel, resulting in Black Septem-
ber 1970, in which clashes with Jordanian
Arab Nationalism in the Interwar forces led to the expulsion of Arafat and
Period the PLO from Jordan to Lebanon, where
Nationalism in the Arab world between they began operating. In 1982 Israel's inva-
World War I and World War II. With sion of the PLO in Lebanon and inter-
the demise of the Ottoman Empire after national pressure led to the PLO's exile to
World War I, Arab communities lost Tunisia. In 1994 Arafat and his forces were
their traditional supralocal political struc- permitted to enter Gaza, and he became
ture. Between World Wars I and II a president ofthe Palestinian Authority and
League of Nations-sanctioned mandate shared a Nobel Prize for Peace with
system of European colonial domination Shimon Peres and Yitzhak Rabin. By 2000
emerged in key sectors of the Arab world. Arafat as leader of the PLO was isolated
A number of political possibilities for and held almost in house arrest in his
these communities emerged under the compound by Israeli forces. He died in
heading of Arab nationalism during the December 2004.
mandate period that lasted through World
War II. These possibilities included most Arbenz Guzman, Jacobo (1913-1971)
of the nations of the contemporary President of Guatemala (1951-1954) who
Middle East and a number of unrealized focused on economic development and
alternatives such as Greater Syria and agrarian reform. He was eventually over-
other pan-Arab and pan-Islamic national thrown because his nationalist economic
proposals. The distinguishing feature policies antagonized the United States
of each political agenda and framework and Guatemalan landowners (all large
was the contentious question of what landowners in Latin America have been es-
the Arab nation would include and sentially conservative). Arbenz's efforts to
exclude. tax a U.S.-owned fruit company and
expropriation of some of their land led
Arafat, Yasser (1929-2004) to alarm in the U.S. government, and Ar-
Palestinian leader. Born in Cairo to a Pal- benz's friendly relations with communists
estinian father with Egyptian ancestry and were used against him. The U.S. Central
a Palestinian mother from Jerusalem, in Intelligence Agency helped organize an
1955 Arafat received an engineering de- army that invaded Guatemala and forced
gree from a university in Cairo, Egypt. He Arbenz to resign. He went into exile,
served briefly as an engineer in the Egyp- lived in Uruguay and Cuba, and eventually
tian army before moving to Kuwait to died in Mexico.
24 ARCH
creation of more effective means of deliv- President John F. Kennedy committed the
ering nuclear weapons, leading to the de- United States to landing a man on the
velopment of intercontinental bombers moon by 1970. On July 21, 1969, Neil
and of missiles launched from ground, air, Armstrong, commander of the mission,
and sea of up to intercontinental range. By walked on its surface.
the 1960s both sides possessed nuclear
stockpiles numbering in the tens of thou- Arouet, Francois-Marie. See Voltaire
sands and were attempting to develop
various means of active defense against Articles of Confederation (1781-1788)
nuclear attack. Arms-control agreements American colonial document drafted in
have provided some limits on the nuclear 1777 to provide a legal framework for co-
competition, and stockpiles have been ordinating the American Revolution and
reduced since the fall of the USSR. How- ratified in 1781. The document created a
ever, all nuclear powers continue to seek confederation in which ultimate sover-
qualitative improvements in their nu- eignty rested in the states. The Congress
clear weapons. More broadly, the arms established by the articles provided a weak
race includes efforts to obtain a qualitative national government with treaty-making
or quantitative edge in all categories of ability and diplomatic authority but
weapons, nuclear and nonnuclear. no authority to levy taxes or regulate
commerce.
Armstrong, Louis (1901-1971)
Revolutionary jazz musician, trumpeter, Art of War (Bingfa)
soloist, singer, bandleader, and film star Chinese classic of war and military strategy
also known for incorporating humor into reputedly by Sunzi (Sun-tzu) (fl. early
his work. Armstrong was nicknamed fourth century B.C.E.). Treasured as an im-
"Satchel Mouth" as a child, shortened to portant guide for generals and statesmen
"Satchmo" as he became famous. Growing throughout Chinese history, it stressed
up in extreme poverty in New Orleans, the importance of taking political factors
Louisiana, he was influenced by the early into consideration in war and in having
jazz music that had its foundations in his a good knowledge of the enemy. Sunzi
hometown. World famous by 1929, he also advocated the use of deception to
became the first great jazz soloist and avoid battle until conditions favored the
toured the United States and Europe to per- attacker. His ideas had great influence on
form throughout his career. As the premiere Chinese and, more recently, Western mili-
influence on the swing era he influenced all tary strategists.
jazz horn players as well as singers like Bing
Crosby and Billie Holiday. Armstrong had Arusha Declaration (1967)
many movie, radio, and television roles as a Socialist policy proposed by Tanzanian
comedic entertainer. Constantly successful president Julius Nyerere. The first presi-
throughout his career, Armstrong urban- dent of Tanganyika and, later, Tanzania,
ized jazz music and made sure jazz would Nyerere proposed in the Arusha Dec-
last past his lifetime. laration the creation of a socialist, egal-
itarian society where land would be
Armstrong, Neil (1930-) collectively farmed. It also called for uni-
American astronaut and the first human versal education, a mass literacy campaign,
to set foot on the moon (1969). In 1961 and economic growth to make Tanzania
26 ARYANS
for their fighting ability and cruelty. with Mustafa Kemal as president. Forceful
Assyria was destroyed by the Medians in and dramatic modernization brought him
609 B.C.E. the title Ataturk ("Father ofthe Turks").
Atatiirk pushed Turkey to become a
Aswan Dam modern secular state and maintained a
Egyptian dam on the Nile River, funding policy of neutrality between communist
for which precipitated major interna- and Western democratic states.
tional conflict. In 1955, with Gamal Abdel
Nasser in power in Egypt, relations shaky Athena
with Britain and the United States, and Ancient Greek goddess of war and patron
continued Israeli military incursions, deity of Athens. Athena was daughter of
Egypt attempted to buy arms from the Zeus, who swallowed her mother and had
West unsuccessfully and so turned to East- to be split open to birth Athena. Athena is
ern Europe for arms. Then in 1956 Egypt usually depicted with her attributes as a
tried to negotiate funding from the West to war goddess, helmet, spear, and shield, but
build the High Dam at Aswan. The United she was also patroness of women's house-
States withdrew its support and Nasser re- hold arts, especially spinning and weaving.
sponded by declaring the Suez Canal in In Ovid's account Athena becomes the
Egyptian hands, precipitating the Suez Roman goddess Minerva.
Crisis with Britain and France. Egypt
turned to the Soviet Union for aid in Athens
building the dam. The shift from west- Capital of modern Greece and center of
ern to eastern Europe in Egyptian rela- ancient Greek culture. Athens was a polis
tions caused great concern in the Cold and a major city in ancient Hellas (Greece).
War. Construction of the second Aswan The center of philosophy, arts, science, and
High Dam, four miles to the south of the mathematics, it marked the origin of de-
first, began in 1960 and was substantially mocracy in 508 B.C.E. Athens defeated the
completed in 1971. The Aswan High Dam Persians in a stunning upset in 480 B.C.E.
annually produces 10 million kilowatts of that opened the classical period in ancient
electricity and has a reservoir 310 miles Greek history. In the late fifth century B.C.E.
long known as Lake Nasser that holds of Athens was nearly ruined by the protracted
5,544 billion cubic feet (157 billion cubic Peloponnesian War with Sparta, which
meters) of water. It has been criticized for Athens eventually lost in 404 B.C.E.
the ecological problems it has created such
as silt buildup and downstream erosion. Atlantic, Battle of the
Anglo-American effort during World
Atatiirk, Kemal (Kemal Pasha) War II to defeat the German submarine
(1881-1938) (U-boat) menace in the Atlantic Ocean.
Turkish president (1923-1938), general, German success at sinking a substantial
and statesman born Mustafa Kemal. After portion of Allied shippinga sailor in the
World War I the Ottoman Empire was merchant marine was more likely to be
dissolved by treaty and the Anatolian pen- killed in World War II than was a soldier
insula was to be partitioned, but armed re- in the navy, army, or air forcethreatened
sistance commanded by Mustafa Kemal the United States' ability to send war mate-
led to the Treaty of Lausanne and the 1923 riel, foodstuffs, and soldiers across the At-
establishment of the Republic of Turkey lantic to keep Britain fighting and to build
ATTILA 29
up supplies for the invasion of Europe. By the atomic bomb was used by the United
May 1943, however, a combination of im- States to speed the end of the war and try
proved detection technology, superior in- to avoid a massive land invasion of Japan.
telligence-gathering capability, long-range The first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima
air patrols, and an increase in convoy- August 6, 1945, instantly killing about
escort ships allowed British and U.S. forces 80,000 Japanese. A second bomb was
to win the Battle ofthe Atlantic. dropped on Nagasaki three days later.
See also Ultra Japan surrendered September 3, 1945.
Debate continues on whether the use of
Atlantic Slave Trade the atomic bomb on Japan was justified.
Primarily the west African slave trade from
the 1440s to the 1870s. Slaves have been Atomic Theory
traded in other regions of the world Scientific understanding of the properties
throughout history, but the Atlantic Slave of the atom discovered in the twentieth
Trade from the Slave Coast (Congo to century. Starting with the discovery ofthe
Nigeria), the Ivory Coast (Ivory Coast), electron at the end of the nineteenth cen-
and Gold Coasts (Ghana), and Angola tury, rapid changes in understanding came
across the Atlantic to the Americas and the about with Albert Einstein's 1905 the-
Caribbean between roughly 1650 and 1850 ory of relativity and Einstein and Max
exported as many as 15 million people. Planck's experimental and mathematical
Most were between fifteen and thirty years proofs of quanta. In 1939 Einstein wrote
old. The slaves went in very large num- to President Franklin D. Roosevelt to
bers to plantations supporting the Carib- explain that work by Enrico Fermi and
bean sugar and rum-production industries Leo Szilard had raised the possibility of
and to South American plantations and splitting atoms and releasing enormous
mines. Approximately 10-20 percent died amounts of energy in the form of a bomb.
in the four-to-six-week transportation ac- Six years later the Manhattan Project had
ross the Atlantic. The Atlantic slave trade produced such an atomic bomb, and the
declined in the nineteenth century as United States dropped it on Hiroshima.
Britain outlawed it and other nations fol-
lowed suit. Attica
The territory of ancient Greece often cal-
Atman led Athens and with the city of Athens at
In Hinduism, the concept of a self, soul, or its center. Attica, ruled from the city of
essential part of a person that transmi- Athens, became the most important polis
grates into another body upon death. First in Hellas (Greece). Most leaders and intel-
elaborated in the Upanishads, the ultimate lectuals of Attica lived in Athens.
goal for an individual should be to escape
the cycle of births and rebirths, an event Attila (d. 453)
called moksha, and merge one's atman Fifth-century warrior-king of the Huns.
with the universal soul or essence, called Attila led the Huns from their homeland in
Brahman. Central Asia westward into Hungary and
the Balkan region of the Roman Empire
Atomic Bomb, World War II and invaded as far west as France and
Nuclear bomb dropped on Japan to end Italy. The Huns became an almost unstop-
World War II. Initially tested in July 1945, pable military force, pushing Germanic
30 ATTLEE, CLEMENT, FIRST EARL ATTLEE
groups such as the Goths, Franks, and Great sent Augustine from Rome to
Vandals into the middle of the Roman England in 597 with some thirty monks
Empire, severely disturbing imperial to convert the Anglos and the Saxons. He
order. At Attila's death the Hun influence established his headquarters at Canter-
disappeared. bury and built Christ Church Cathedral
and an abbey. England was simultaneously
Attlee, Clement, First Earl Attlee being converted to Christianity from
(1883-1967) Ireland by Saint Columba of Iona (d. 597),
British Labour prime minister (1945- and Augustine failed to resolve differ-
1951) following Winston Churchill at the ences with the Celtic Christian Church in
end of World War II. His surprising land- England.
slide victory against Churchill enabled
Attlee to enact legislation creating a Augustine of Hippo, Saint (354-430)
modern welfare state in Britain and wide- Leading early theologian of the Christian
spread nationalization of industries such church. Born in North Africa of a Chris-
as coal, gas, and electricity. Attlee also pre- tian mother and a pagan father, Augustine,
sided over the dismantling of the British after a restless life, settled on Christianity
Empire as colonies began to withdraw. and became a voluminous writer of works
including 500 sermons, hundreds of let-
Augsburg, Peace of (1555) ters, and many treatises defending Chris-
Reformation resolution between Luther- tianity against heretical beliefs. Augustine
ans and Catholics. The Peace of Augsburg believed that all truth is spiritual and
allowed princes and lords to choose to derived from God, and that acceptance of
follow either the Lutheran Augsburg truth is dependent upon God's grace.
Confession (1530) or Catholicism and Within each person is a spark of the
to determine the faith of their subjects. divine truth. His most famous work, City
It was never fully accepted by either side of God, is a struggle between believers
but averted further violence for several and nonbelievers.
decades.
Augustus, Caesar. See Octavian, Julius
Augustan Age Caesar
Movement in eighteenth-century English
literature. Also called the Neoclassical Age, Aung San (1915-1947)
the Age of Reason, and the Enlightenment, Leader of Burma's independence move-
it is called the Augustan Age because ofthe ment. Aung San's rise to leadership began
self-conscious imitation of the original when he led a student movement against
Augustan writers Virgil and Horace. the British in 1936. During World War II
Major writers of the Augustan Age are he formed the pro-Japanese Burmese In-
Alexander Pope, John Dryden, Jonathan dependence Army but then turned against
Swift, and Joseph Addison, all of whom the Japanese. At the end of the war he
strove for harmony and precision in their negotiated an agreement with Britain for
writing. Burmese independence in 1948, but he
was assassinated the year before it. He is
Augustine of Canterbury, Saint (d. c. 604) Burma's most revered national hero and
Missionary to England and first arch- the father of human rights leader Aung
bishop of Canterbury. Pope Gregory the San Suu Kyi.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 31
problem of any dynastic empireit con- Russia came in to defend its Slavic breth-
tained many ethnic groups. In 1867 the ren and brought in its ally France. Britain
compromise created a dual monarchy, also entered the war on the side of France
with Austria containing Germans, Czechs, and Russia after Germany invaded neutral
Poles, and Slovenians, and the Kingdom Belgium. Thus Europe quickly became
of Hungary containing Hungarians, Roma- embroiled in World War I. The war went
nians, Slovaks, Croatians, and Serbs. The badly for Austria-Hungary, and during the
two countries had some autonomy over war Emperor Francis Joseph, the source of
their internal affairs while the imperial gov- imperial unity, died. At war's end in 1918,
ernment controlled foreign and economic the victorious leaders President Woodrow
affairs. This provided some solution to the Wilson ofthe United States, Prime Minis-
internal problems, although the early twen- ter David Lloyd George of Britain, and
tieth century witnessed ethnic groups Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau of
moved by nationalism alienated from France met in Paris, and in 1919 they drew
Austria-Hungary. This situation, called the up a peace settlement dividing Austria-
Balkan Crisis, was the catalyst for the out- Hungary into four nations, Austria, Hun-
break of World War I and led to the gary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, and
breakup of Austria-Hungary. enlarged Romania.
conquests and were considered nearly period from 800 to 200 B.C.E. when many
invincible until the 790s when Charle- of the world's great religious and philo-
magne destroyed them, almost without a sophical systems emerged. It was a period
fight, and confiscated all their wealth. when ethical and reflective thought flour-
ished independently in different parts
Avignon of the Old World Afro-Asiatic belt of
City in southern France where the popes large, complex societies. Among the impor-
resided from 1309 to 1377, rather than in tant religious thinkers and philosophical
Rome. In 1309 a French pope, Clement V, system builders from the Axial Age were
was elected and chose to remain in France Confucius, Mencius, Laozi, Socrates,
at Avignon. Subsequent popes resided Plato, Zoroaster, Siddhartha Gautama,
there, in the period sometimes called the Mahavira, and the major Hebrew proph-
Avignon Captivity (also known as the Bab- ets. They established the belief systems that
ylonian Captivity), until the Great Schism framed most of the Eurasian civilizations,
of 1378, when a pope was elected who re- Judaism, Hellenic philosophy, Zoroastri-
sided in Rome and then another was anism, Buddhism, Jainism, Confucian-
elected in opposition who resided in Avig- ism, and Daoism, and laid much of the
non. In 1409 an attempt to resolve the basis for modern Hinduism, Christianity,
schism led to the election of yet a third and Islam. Many historians argue that this
pope. The schism ended in 1417 with the is merely coincidental and that there was
election of one pope, who resided in Rome. no Axial Age.
Empire for control ofthe region. Axum ex- and leader of the National Convention of
ported ivory, frankincense, myrrh, brass, Nigeria Party. After serving in several po-
and slaves. Axum became Christian in the litical posts he was elected as the first presi-
fourth century and was renowned for the dent of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
type of stele, or tower, erected to mark a and ruled until displaced by military rule
royal tomb. Cut off from its trade by the ad- in 1966. He remained active when military
vance of Islam, Axum declined in the eighth rule was lifted until his retirement in 1986.
century and was bypassed commercially.
Ayatollah Khomeini. See Khomeini, Aztecs (c. 1200-1521)
Ayatollah Ruhollah Mesoamerican civilization in the Valley
of Mexico. People who called themselves
Ayudhya (Ayutthaya) Mexica built a great empire in central-
Thai state (1351-1767) that controlled southern Mexico with the capital at Tenoch-
most of what is now central Thailand. titlan built in Lake Texcoco. Tenochtitlan
Founded by U Thong, the state was had a population of 200,000-300,000 peo-
named after the capital city in the Menam ple with huge civic buildings of temples
Valley. It brought Khmer (Cambodian) and palaces. In many ways the Aztecs
dominance over much of Thailand to an were heirs to the Toltec, Teotihuacan,
end and in 1432 forced the Cambodians to and Olmec Civilizations. The civilization
abandoned their capital at Angkor. After a was hierarchical and authoritarian. The
Burmese invasion in 1569, it went through Aztecs were a warring people who exacted
several changes of name; the best known tribute from those conquered, including
is Siam, which became the name by which human sacrifice on an enormous scale.
Thailand was known to Westerners. After Victims had their hearts cut out while
a second sacking by the Burmese in 1767 alive. Many thousands, including chil-
the capital was moved to Bangkok under a dren, were sacrificed each year to please
new dynasty. Huitzilopochtli, the god of sun and war;
to avoid disaster; and to keep the sun
Azikiwe, Benjamin Nnamdi rising. In 1519 approximately 400 Spani-
(1904-1996) ards under Hernando Cortes with alli-
First Nigerian president (1963-1966) and ances of Aztec enemies marched on
author. Educated in the United States, Tenochtitlan, and by 1521 they had de-
Azikiwe became an editor of newspapers feated the Aztecs.
b
the Jews to Babylon. This Babylonian Cap- The Great Instauration. Baconian science
tivity inspired the writings of Isaiah and a as others followed it became more of
Jewish revival. A second temple was con- an encyclopedic accumulation of facts.
structed in 515 B.C.E. after Cyrus the Great Bacon also wrote of a fictional land in New
released the Jews from Persia. Atlantis, in the vein of Sir Thomas More's
Utopia. Bacon died impoverished.
Babylonian Captivity (C.E.)
Term (coined by Petrarch) for the papal Bactria
residence in Avignon (1309-1377), in ref- Historic Central Asian land between the
erence to the Babylonian Captivity of the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya River
Israelites in the sixth century B.C.E. The (ancient Oxus River), with its capital Bactra,
term implied that the papacy, having now part of Afghanistan, Uzbeskistan, and
moved to Avignon from Rome, was cor- Tajikistan. In ancient times Bactria was a
rupt and that the French cardinals were very important crossroads of trade, reli-
holding the church captive. gion, and culture. Part of the Achaeme-
nian empire of Cyrus the Great in the
Bach, Johann Sebastian (1685-1750) sixth century B.C.E., it was conquered by
German music composer and organist. Alexander the Great in the fourth
Bach studied predecessors such as Dietrich century B.C.E. After Alexander it became
Buxtehude, Girolamo Frescobaldi, and part of the Seleucids' empire, bringing
Johann Pachelbel. He composed stun- strong Greek, or Hellenistic, influence to
ningly innovative cantatas, chorales, toc- the region. Variously under the sway ofthe
catas, concertos, arias, oratorios, and Tocharoi, Kushans, Sasanids, Turks, and
masses and was a renowned organist at (in the seventh century C.E.) Muslims,
Weimar and Leipzig. Bach composed for Bactria was a central part of the Silk
the organ and violin as well as for orches- Road trade between the East and the West.
tral, choir, and chamber groups. Bach's
work was rediscovered in the mid- Baganda. See Ganda
nineteenth century, and he is considered
among the most influential composers ever. Baghdad
Capital of modern Iraq founded in 762 C.E.
Bacon, Francis (1561-1626) as the center of the Abbasid caliphate.
English philosopher, statesman, and scien- Baghdad became a great cultural city and
tist. A member of Parliament from 1584 is the setting ofthe Arabian Nights. In 1258
and knighted by James VI and I in 1603, the Mongols conquered Baghdad, but by
Bacon held numerous high offices includ- the sixteenth century the city had become
ing lord chancellor. In 1618, he became part of the Ottoman Empire.
Lord Verulam and in 1621 became Viscount
Saint Alban. Complaints of his acceptance Baha'i Faith
of bribes brought about his downfall. Religion founded in Persia (Iran) in 1863.
Bacon encouraged a new approach to the The Baha'i Faith teaches that there is truth
natural world in which hypothesis would and unity in all revealed religions of the
drive the collection of evidence in a sys- world and that Baha' u' Hah (born Husayn
tematic way with experimentation to Ali) was the latest in a long line of prophets
verify facts. This method of science is laid that includes Moses, Jesus of Nazareth,
out in his Advancement of Learning and and Muhammad. Baha'i Faith also teaches
BANDARANAIKE, SIRIMAVO 37
that there is one god and that humans outbreak of World War I, although the
should worship by serving humankind. unification of Germany had upset the bal-
ance by 1870.
Bajin(b. 1904-)
Chinese writer best known for his trilogy Balboa, Vasco Nunez de (1475-1519)
novel Family (1931), which depicted the Spanish explorer and the first European
younger Chinese generation's break with to see the Pacific Ocean on the west coast
tradition. Born Li Feigan, he became part of the Isthmus of Panama. Balboa com-
of the anarchist movement and adopted manded a Spanish settlement on Darien,
the pseudonym Ba, Jin derived from the on the isthmus, and in 1513 led a twenty-
Chinese pronunciation of the names of five-day march to the west coast, viewing
anarchists (Mikhail) Bakunin and (Pyotr) the Pacific.
Kropotkin. He was persecuted during the
Balfour Declaration (1917)
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
Pledge to establish a national home for the
(1966-1976), but the communist govern-
Jewish people in Palestine. Briton Lord
ment has mostly honored Ba Jin.
Balfour announced British support in a
letter to Zionist Lord Lionel Walter
Bakufu (literally "tent government")
Rothschild. At the same time, the British
Name given to the governments ofthe mil-
were encouraging Arab nationalism in the
itary samurai in Japan from the twelfth to
Middle East to destabilize the Ottoman
the nineteenth centuries. There were three
Empire because of World War I. The
bakufu: the Kamakura (1192-1333), es-
Balfour Declaration forced Britain into a
tablished by Minamoto Yoritomo; the
dilemma of maintaining these conflicting
Muromachi or Ashikaga (1339-1573);
positions as the British mandate in the
and the Tokugawa (1603-1868). Under
Middle East until 1947, when the United
the bakufu Japan had a dual government
Nations voted to partition the Palestine
with an emperor and court in Kyoto and a
separate military government that wielded mandate into two states, one Jewish and
actual authority. The military government one Arab.
was headed by a military hegemon known Balkans Crisis of World War I
as the shogun, who ruled through great Breakup of the Ottoman Empire in the
military lords who were his vassals in a Balkans that led to confrontations that
system similar to European feudalism. triggered World War I. Austria-Hungary
feared that the growth of nationalism,
Balance of Power which was splintering the Ottoman Empire,
Principle of international diplomacy es- would do the same to it. When Serbian
tablished at the Congress of Vienna in nationalists assassinated Austrian arch-
1815. The principle of balance of bower duke Francis Ferdinand in 1914, Austria-
was that no one country in Europe would Hungary declared war on Serbia, forcing
be powerful enough to overwhelm the Russia to begin mobilizing its army and
others. By establishing counterbalancing triggering Germany to declare war on Russia
countries with agreements to support and France.
weaker nations threatened by stronger
ones, no country would be willing to go Bandaranaike, Sirimavo (1916-2000)
to war with another. Balance of power Sri Lankan stateswoman and prime min-
worked to some degree until 1914 and the ister (1960-1965, 1970-1977, 1994-2000).
38 BANGLADESH WAR
She succeeded her husband, S. W. R. was a noted writer and scholar who com-
Bandaranaike, after his assassination to pleted the history.
become the world's first woman prime
minister in 1960. Her daughter Chandrika Bank ofthe United States
Bandaranaike Kumaratunga became U.S. bank established in 1791 under a
prime minister and then president in 1994, twenty-year charter to serve as a repository
being succeeded as prime minister by her for federal funds. Alexander Hamilton
mother. proposed the bank as part of his "Hamil-
tonian program" to establish a strong
Bangladesh War (1971) commercial national economy. Thomas
Conflict between Pakistan and India that Jefferson and his followers opposed it
led to the creation of the independent because they feared it would be a source
Bangladesh nation. Known since the of corruption for republican institutions,
partition of India in 1947 as East Pakis- and they succeeded in preventing the re-
tan, the predominantly Muslim, Bengali- newal of its charter in 1811.
speaking region, one of the most densely
populated in the world, suffered from Bank War (1832)
poverty and political domination by the U.S. conflict between national bank advo-
slightly less populous West Pakistan. In cates and anti-national bank forces led
1966 the Awami League demanded greater by President Andrew Jackson. Jackson
autonomy and won a sweeping victory in vetoed the rechartering ofthe Bank ofthe
the 1970 elections. The demand for au- United States, claiming that it represented
tonomy was denied by Pakistan's military the big-money business interests of the
government, leading to civil war. India East and unduly consolidated the control
aided the East Pakistan guerillas, which of money in the hands of the federal gov-
led to war between India and Pakistan ernment to the detriment ofthe states.
in December 1971. The war ended with Bannerman
India's victory and the declaration of inde- Military system developed by the Man-
pendence of East Pakistan, renamed chus in the early seventeenth century that
Bangladesh. enabled them to conquer China and, later,
to maintain control under the Qing dynasty.
Ban Gu (Pan Ku) (c. 32-92) The bannermen (in Chinese, qibing) were
Chinese historian, author of Han Shu divided into eight (later expanded to twenty-
(History ofthe Former Han Dynasty), and four) companies, each with a distinctive
literary figure. Ban Gu, after serving as a banner. During peacetime the bannermen
court official, spent a number of years lived with their families but were called
writing the history begun by his father. It to duty when needed. They consisted of
follows the work of Sima Qian but makes Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese banners.
some innovations that became the model The system declined in effectiveness
for the official dynastic histories that during the late Qing. In Silla Korea there
Chinese scholars compiled after each dy- was a similar type of military organization,
nasty. Ban Gu also perfected a new liter- called the "oath banner system."
ary genre, the rhapsody (fu). His brother
was the distinguished general Ban Chao, Banpo
who brought much of Central Asia under Village near modern-day Xi'an in the
Chinese authority, and his sister Ban Zhao Yellow River basin of northern China that
BAPTISM, CHRISTIAN 39
is the site of a neolithic village discovered in 1994 the Bantustan were all reincorpo-
in 1952. Exploration ofthe site led to the rated into South Africa.
further discovery ofthe Yangshao culture,
a matriarchal society that flourished in Ban Zhao (c. 45-115)
China between 4500 and 3000 B.C.E. and is Distinguished Chinese poet, essayist, and
noted for its fine painted pottery. Banpo historian. A young widow who never re-
was the first Yangshao site to be exca- married, she devoted herself to writing and
vated extensively. scholarship and completed the influential
history Han Shu (History of the Former
Bantu Han Dynasty) started by her brother Ban
Term used for African languages and peo- Gu. She also wrote the influential Nujue
ples. The Bantu are a group of over 150 (Lessons for Women), which promoted
million central and southern African the ideal of an educated woman who was
peoples with related languages. There are obedient to male superiors and devoted to
about 600 Bantu languages or dialects, and her children.
speakers of each generally consider them-
selves to be a separate people, including Baojia
the Zulu, the Swahili, and the Kikuyu. Al- System for controlling the population of
though they share the same basic gram- imperial China by combining ten house-
mars and vocabularies, most dialects are holds to form a bao and ten bao to form
not mutually intelligible. The Bantu peo- a jia. Heads appointed for each unit were
ples originated in what is now Cameroon made responsible for the conduct of the
and spread eastward and southward. households under them. Developed in
Much of sub-Saharan Africa is populated the Song, the baojia system came into
with Bantu peoples, comprising perhaps widespread use under the Ming and Qing
one-third ofthe African population. dynasties as a way of maintaining order
with minimal use of officials. It created a
Bantustan sense of mutual surveillance and collective
Ten former territories of white-dominated responsibility, especially in the country-
South Africa that were designated as black side. It was also used for the administra-
states, or homelands. Essentially, the tion of the corvee labor system.
Bantustan were enclaves for black South
Africans so that most ofthe country could Baptism, Christian
remain white controlled and blacks could Symbolic washing away of sins in Chris-
be excluded from the political system, tianity. The concept of baptism predated
apartheid. None of the states was recog- Jesus of Nazareth but became an integral
nized by foreign governments. As early as part of Christianity with John the Baptist's
1913, black South Africans were placed immersion of Jesus in the river Jordan and
on reserves; in 1959 the homelands were Jesus's instructions for his disciples to bap-
designated; and in 1970 residents of the tize all nations. Baptism is central to all
Bantustan were forbidden South African Christianity, making the baptized individ-
citizenship and civil rights. In the 1970s ual a participant in the religion. Catholi-
and 1980s South Africa declared four of cism had moved to infant baptism by the
the states independent, although all re- fourth or fifth century C.E. During the
mained entirely dependent upon South Reformation some groups returned to
African aid. When apartheid was abolished adult baptism because it was biblical.
40 BARBARY COAST
Barbary Coast. See Barbary States to a somewhat lighter and more playful
variation of the baroque. Great rococo
Barbary States artists include Watteau, Fragonard, and
North coast of Africa from modern-day Gainsborough.
Morocco to Libya, known for its pirates
from the sixteenth to the nineteenth cen- Barrangay
turies. Pirates would attack any shipping A community of families under a local
traversing the Mediterranean Sea. From chieftain in the Philippines prior to the
1795 to 1801 the United States paid the Spanish conquest. In the twentieth century
Barbary States to protect its ships from the term was used for a local administra-
the pirates, and starting in 1801 the United tive unit.
States fought first Tripoli and then Algeria.
In 1815 it gained promises to stop acts of Barth, Karl (1886-1968)
piracy against U.S. ships. Swiss Protestant theologian and major
critic ofthe twentieth century. Barth, writ-
Bardi and Peruzzi ing after World War I, criticized the weak
Florentine banking companies ofthe four- theology ofthe church, which had become
teenth century. Each of these companies more concerned with social ethics than
dwarfed the size of the later Medici bank, with Tightness between mankind and its
with branches or agents in many of the god. His many writings include The Word
major trading towns of Europe. The Bardi of God and the Word of Man (1918) and
was the most powerful. Enormous loans Against the Stream (1954).
granted to English king Edward III to fight
the Hundred Years War were defaulted Bartok, Bela (1881-1945)
upon in 1345, bankrupting the Bardi and Hungarian pianist and music composer.
Peruzzi banks. Bartok was one of the leading composers
of the twentieth century, and his works
Baroque-Rococo include string quartets, concertos, an
Period of art, architecture, and literature opera, and hundreds of piano pieces.
from approximately 1600 to the mid- Bartok moved to New York City during
1700s. The baroque response to the Refor- World War II and taught at Columbia
mation in Europe was architecture by the University.
Roman Catholic Church and, later, secu-
lar rulers that emphasized power through Barton, Clara (1821-1912)
building in a grandiose style, to revive the Founder of the American Red Cross.
grandeur of ancient Rome. The baroque Barton nursed soldiers in the American
also elaborated exteriors and interiors with Civil War (1861-1865); went to Switzer-
organic-looking ornamentation as an ex- land in 1869; and served as a nurse in
pression of the mystery of the Catholic the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871),
Church. Baroque sculpture emphasized where she observed the International
extreme emotions. Great artists of the ba- Committee of the Red Cross. After re-
roque include Bernini, Caravaggio, and turning to the United States, Barton
Van Dyck. Secular rulers found the effect founded the American Red Cross in 1881
useful in the seventeenth-century attempt and later convinced the Red Cross to pro-
to establish order and stability. Rococo, vide relief in natural disasters as well as
meaning "pebbled" or "fretted," refers in wars.
BEAUVOIR, SIMONE DE 41
the Liao dynasty. It became the primary Benedict, Saint (c. 480-550)
capital of the Jin dynasty as Zhongdu Italian monk who outlined the most effec-
("Central Capital"). The Mongols sacked tive plan for monasteries. Benedict, born
Zhongdu in 1215, but Khubilai Khan es- in Nursia, Italy, and hence called Benedict
tablished Dadu ("Great Capital") near the of Nursia, came from a middle-class family
site as his imperial capital in 1274 and it but spent a few years living as a hermit.
served as the Yuan (Mongol) dynasty capi- Around 529 Benedict took some followers
tal until 1368. In 1420 the Ming moved to Monte Cassino and built a monastery.
their capital from Nanjing to the site of Monte Cassino became famous for its order,
present-day Beijing, because of its strategic the devotion of its monks, and its library.
location near the northern frontier, and Benedict designed a plan, later known as
gave it its present name. It has remained the Benedictine Rule, to organized the
the capital since except for 1928-1949, lives ofthe monks at Monte Cassino. The
when the Guomindang governed from rule was effective for its moderation,
Nanjing and Chongqing. Under the Ming, evenly distributing the activities of prayer,
Beijing became a model of Chinese urban study, and work. The Benedictine Rule has
planning and architectural splendor. guided most monastic orders ever since,
Many of its palaces and temples survived especially the Benedictines.
Mao Zedong's destruction of the nation's
heritage and are tourist attractions today. Benedictines
Beijing surrounds the Forbidden City, An order of Christian monks and nuns
where the imperial palace is situated. who follow the Benedictine Rule of Saint
Benedict. The first Benedictines were the
Bell, Alexander Graham (1847-1922) monks at Monte Cassino who followed the
Scottish-born American teacher, scientist, rule set down by Saint Benedict (c. 480-
and inventor ofthe telephone in 1876. Bell 550). Use ofthe rule spread across Europe
was born and educated in Scotland and in the centuries that followed. Benedic-
moved to Canada in 1870 and then the tines became very influential in medieval
United States in 1871, were he trained political, economic, and intellectual affairs.
teachers of hearing and speech-impaired Benedictines were sporadically accused of
students. Bell invented the telephone and corruption or lack of spirituality, and new
exhibited it at the Centennial Exposition orders would then arise, such as the Cister-
in Philadelphia in 1876. cians, the Dominicans, and the Franciscans.
German Democratic Republic (East West Berlin. At the end of World War II
Germany), consisting of the Soviet zone. in 1945, troops of Russia, France, Britain,
Berlin, deep in the heart of East Germany, and the United States occupied the city of
was also split into West Berlin and East Berlin. The Allied zones were united as
Berlin. In 1948 Joseph Stalin's Union of West Berlin, and the two sectors clashed
Soviet Socialist Republics cut off access over governance. The Soviets tried to drive
to Berlin, hoping to use the city as a chip to the Allies out, but the 1948 Berlin Airlift
balance power in Europe. A campaign led foiled their plan. In 1958 the Soviets again
by the United States to airlift supplies to tried to drive the Western powers from
the city forced the Soviets to back down. Berlin, but instead a steady exodus of East
In 1958 Nikita Khrushchev threatened Germans to West Berlin caused Khrush-
to end Berlin's status as a free city in- chev to order the East German police to
side communist East Germany. In 1961 begin construction of a wall to seal exits.
Khrushchev had a wall constructed sepa- Eventually the Berlin War was ninety-six
rating West and East Berlin to stop the miles long, averaging twelve feet in height
flow of East Berliners into West Berlin. In and surrounding West Berlin. The Berlin
1989 the Berlin Wall was destroyed and Wall became a Cold War symbol of com-
Berlin reunited. In 1990 East and West munism's failure in having had to wall in
Germany were reunited. its people. In November 1989 the wall was
opened, and by the end of 1990 it had been
Berlin, Occupation of torn down.
The occupation and division of Berlin by
the Soviet Union, the United States, Brit- Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint (1090-1153)
ain, and France at the end of World War Cistercian monk, founder of Clairvaux,
II. Nearly destroyed by the war, Berlin was and church reformer. Bernard reinvigo-
occupied by Soviet troops in May of 1945. rated the Cistercian order, making it the
American and British troops arrived in most popular monastic order of the
July; the French, in August. The Division twelfth century, and founded Clairvaux
of Berlin into four sectors, one for each of and other monasteries. Bernard, a French
the occupying nations, led to disagree- Cistercian monk, was a friend and sup-
ments and a long-term divide between porter of Abbot Suger, who built the
Soviet East Berlin and Allied West Berlin. Gothic Church of Saint-Denis near Paris.
He was active in church reform, helping
Berlin Air Lift (1948) end a papal schism. Bernard preached sup-
The dispensing of supplies to blockaded port for the Second Crusade, attacked the
West Berlin. After the Soviet invasion of scholar Peter Abelard for his rationalism,
Germany at the end of World War II and helped found the Knights Templar.
and the USSR's subsequent prevention of
land access to the western sector of a di- Bernini, Lorenzo Giovanni (1598-1680)
vided Berlin on June 24, 1948, the United Prolific Italian baroque sculptor, painter,
States organized the airlift of supplies to and architect. Bernini spent most of his
the isolated sector ofthe city. life in Rome. He became a master of the
baroque style, as evident in statues like
Berlin Wall the Rape ofProserpina (1621-1622), David
Wall between East Berlin and West Berlin (1623), and Apollo and Daphne (1622-
constructed in 1961 to end movement to 1625). Their realism evokes movement
46 BESSEMER, SIR HENRY
and emotion, and they are designed with often bhakti centered around Rama or
the viewer's perspective in mind. Bernini's Krishna. The bhakti-marga ("way of devo-
dramatic Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1645- tion") contrasted with earlier Hinduism
1652) is a combination of sculpture, paint- that focused on achieving salvation or lib-
ing, and architecture, as is Throne of eration from the cycle of rebirths by ritu-
Saint Peter in Saint Peter's Cathedral. als, study, or ascetic discipline. Some
Bernini designed several fountains in Rome, historians have pointed out the similarities
including The Fountain of the Four Rivers of bhakti to Mahayana Buddhism and
(1648-1651) in Piazza Navona. The artist Christianity, which also center around the
is best remembered for his tremendous worship of a loving deity who promises
bronze canopy (baldachino) over the high salvation to followers.
altar of Saint Peter's Basilica (1633) and for
designing the colonnade in the piazza in Bhubaneswar
front of the basilica, which symbolizes the City in the eastern Indian province of
"embracing arms ofthe Catholic Church." Orissa famous for its Hindu temples.
About 7,000 temples and shrines were re-
Bessemer, Sir Henry (1813-1898) ported to have been built between the
English inventor of a process used to make third century B.C.E. and the sixteenth cen-
steel on a large scale. The process, known tury C.E., of which about 500 survive.
as the Bessemer converter and invented Among the best known is the Lingaraja
in 1856, made steel by passing a blast of Temple. They are excellent examples of
air through molten iron. The Bessemer Hindu architecture.
converter greatly accelerated steel pro-
duction and made the later nineteenth- Bhutan
century Industrial Revolution possible. Predominantly Buddhist Himalayan king-
dom between China to the north and
Bhagavad Gita (Sanskrit for "Song ofthe India to the south. The state has existed
Lord") since the seventeenth century, although
Indian philosophical treatise incorporated not much is known about its early history.
in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. In the In the nineteenth century the British gov-
Bhagavad Gita, Krishna, in the guise of ernment in India recognized Bhutan as a
the warrior Arjuna's charioteer, instructs self-governing state, with Britain in charge
Arjuna in his dharma (duties) and ex- of its external affairs. Later a fully indepen-
plains the basic ethical teachings of Hindu- dent state, Bhutan has closely adhered to
ism. It has become one ofthe most famous its traditional culture, retaining its monar-
and popular religious texts in Hinduism. chy and limiting outside access and cultural
influence, but has suffered ethnic clashes as
Bhakti a result of an influx of Tibetan refugees and
Devotional Hinduism that usually fo- Nepalese immigrants after 1950.
cused worship on a personal deity who re-
ciprocated the devotee's love. Bhakti, Bhutto, Benazir (1953-)
strongly influenced by South Indian tra- Pakistani political leader and daughter
ditions, emerged in the first millennium of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. After her father's
C.E. as an important aspect of Hinduism. execution in 1979 she succeeded him as
Although Shiva and other gods were leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party
sometimes the object of devotion, most and served as Pakistan's prime minister
BISMARCK, OTTO VON 47
A war hero, Bismarck incited the Franco- in consolidating landholdings and raising
Prussian War (1870-1871). He unified wages it increased the wealth and power of
liberals, royalists, and socialists and insti- the rising middle class. Bubonic plague ex-
tuted many social reforms, although he isted before the Middle Ages and contin-
ensured that power continued to reside ues to exist today.
with the aristocracy and the emperor.
Bismarck used shrewd manipulation in di- Black Friars. See Dominicans (Black
plomacy and warfare to unite Germany Friars)
and to increase its influence in Europe. He
resigned in 1890 over a conflict with the Black Hole of Calcutta (1756)
emperor. Place of imprisonment of British soldiers
in India. In a 1756 conflict between the
Black Death local ruler of Bengal and the British East
Epidemic diseases of bubonic, pneumonic, India Company, the local ruler occupied
and septicemic plagues that encircled the Calcutta, a major trading center under
globe from the twelfth century through British control. One hundred forty-six
the sixteenth century encompassing British men were arrested and imprisoned
much of the Inter-Communicating Zone, in a small, lightless room, and forty-three
including large parts of Asia, Africa, the of them died of suffocation. Later, John
Middle East, and Europe. The Black Death Zephaniah Holwell, a British official, wrote
(Pasteurella pestis) appeared in Europe in an account of the event that brought on
1347 (some historians now believe that the outrage in Britain and led to increasing
medieval European plague was not bubo- British military involvement in India and,
nic). It swept across Europe, killing be- ultimately, Britain's domination of the
tween one-third and one-half of the entire Indian subcontinent.
entire population within a few years. The
bubonic plague (the most common type), Black Panthers (1966-1972)
carried by fleas on the black rat, caused Revolutionary black nationalist organiza-
fever and nausea and attacked the lym- tion. Founded in 1966 in Oakland, Califor-
phatic system first, rupturing blood vessels nia, by Bobby Seale and Huey P. Newton
and raising large black swellings (buboes). as a response to charges of police bruta-
It then attacked the nervous system, caus- lity, the Black Panthers became the lead-
ing death in 50-80 percent of cases within ing black militant organization of the
seven days. The pneumonic plague was late 1960s. Cultivating a confrontational
passed via air, while the septicemic plague image that led to numerous violent clashes
was an overwhelming infection of the with local and federal authorities, the
bloodstream. Initially, the Black Death Black Panthers also sponsored self-help
caused chaos because people at all levels of programs such as free clinics, schools, and
society died and there was no effective food banks. Police attention and factional
medical treatment. In Europe it led to the disputes led to the decline of the party
massacre of many Jewish communities as after 1972.
rumors spread that the Jews had poisoned
wells. Eventually the Black Death brought Black Ships
about the decline of feudalism by reduc- Name the Japanese gave the eight ships of
ing the available peasant workforce. It also Commodore Matthew Perry's fleet that
reduced the power of the aristocracy, but arrived off the Japanese coast in 1853.
BOLIVAR, SIMON 49
Pharaoh to let the people go, the institu- Borgia, Cesare (c. 1475-1507)
tion of the Passover meal, the crossing of Italian Renaissance duke and son of Pope
the Red Sea, the provision of "bread from Alexander VI. A master of political ma-
heaven" (manna), and the journey to neuvering, Cesare Borgia was used by
Mount Sinai. Chapters 20-24 contain the Niccolo Machiavelli as an example of
Ten Commandments and various regula- a new princeone who allowed ends to
tions for civil life. Chapters 25-40 include justify means. With papal and French
instructions for the ritual life of Israel, backing, Borgia was feared throughout
including the tabernacle, priesthood, and Italy. He became a cardinal in 1493 and
offerings. captain-general of the papal armies in
1499, controlling much of central Italy.
Book of Odes (Shi Jing)
Bormann, Martin (1900-c. 1945)
Also known as the Book of Poetry, a Zhou
German Nazi Party leader. Bormann
dynasty collection of 305 poems, reputedly
became part of Adolf Hitler's personal
edited by Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) but
staff of storm troopers in 1928. In 1941
dating from the early Zhou period. It
Bormann was appointed head of the ad-
became one of the "Five Classics" of an- ministration of the Nazi Party, making
cient China and a model of poetic expres- him one of the most powerful men in
sion for later generations of Chinese. Germany, controlling legislation, promo-
tions, and access to Hitler. Bormann was
Book of the Dead one of the strongest advocates of the ex-
Ancient Egyptian writings on papyrus termination of Jews and Slavs. He disap-
that were placed in graves. The writings peared at the end of World War II, was
were to assist the dead in passing examina- presumed dead in 1945, and was declared
tions that would take place to enable them dead in 1973 with the identification of his
to enter the afterlife. Collectively, the writ- skeleton in Berlin. He was indicted for war
ings are known as the Book ofthe Dead. crimes in absentia at the Niirnberg Trials
in 1945.
Booth, John Wilkes (1838-1865)
Famous actor, Confederate sympathizer, Borobodur
and assassin of President Abraham Lin- Massive Buddhist temple in Java,
Indonesia, about twenty-six miles (forty-
coln. Booth slipped into the presidential
two km) northwest of Yogyakarta. It was
box and shot Lincoln at Ford's Theater in
constructed between 778 and 850 C.E. by
Washington DC on April 14, 1865.
the Sailendra dynasty. The structure is
meant to resemble the mythical Mount
Borges, Jorge Luis (1899-1986) Meru of Hinduism, but the many relief
Argentine writer noted for his elaborate carvings depict the story and lessons ofthe
and complex stories that mix reality and Buddha. Borobodur reflects the influence
fantasy in an intricate, mazelike ambigu- of Gupta and Indian culture on Javanese
ity. Borges's The Garden of Forking Paths artistic traditions.
(1944) begins as a spy story but becomes a
labyrinth of paths where the stories double Bose, Subhas Chandra (1897-1945)
back and reflect one another and reality is Indian nationalist who began his political
never clear. career in Calcutta, serving as leader of the
52 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
left wing of the Indian National Congress pass the Coercive Acts and close Boston
party. He was forced to resign as president Harbor.
of the party in 1939 after a dispute with
Mohandas K. Gandhi. Jailed by the British Botha, Pieter Willem (P. W.) (1916- )
for his Axis sympathies in World War II, South African statesman, prime minister
he escaped in 1941 and fled to Germany. In (1978-1984), and state president (1984-
1943 he organized the Japanese-sponsored 1989) who initiated limited reforms and a
Indian National Army in Singapore. He at- new constitution for South Africa. Botha's
tended the Japanese-sponsored Greater reforms angered many South African
East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere conference whites, and his resistance to more progres-
as the representative of Free India. He was sive reforms and support of apartheid lost
killed in an airplane crash at the end of him favor with the African majority.
World War II, in 1945.
Botticelli, Sandro (c. 1445-1510)
Bosnia-Herzegovina Italian Renaissance artist whose legacy is
Territory removed from the Ottoman founded on his distinct style. He utilized
Empire and granted to Austria-Hungary bold lines; brilliant color; and graceful,
by the Congress of Berlin in 1878. As the fluid, representations of the flimsy gar-
Ottoman Empire deteriorated, nationalist ments that covered his subjects. This
movements spread through the Balkans. Florentine produced religious scenes such
Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria became as Adoration ofthe Magi (1475) under the
independent. Bosnia-Herzegovina was de- patronage ofthe Medici as well as pictures
clared a crown land under the protection with mythological subjects like The Birth
of Austria-Hungary. In 1908 Austria- of Venus (1485) and The Primavera (1478),
Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, which show his interest in antiquity and
causing resentment. When the Young Neoplatonist scholarship. Recognized as
Turks took control ofthe Ottoman Empire one ofthe leading artists of his day, Botti-
in 1909 Muslim Bosnians were sympa- celli was called to Rome by Pope Sixtus IV
thetic. When the heir to the Habsburg in 1481 to be a painter of the Sistine
throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Chapel.
Francis Ferdinand, traveled to Bosnia he
was assassinated by Bosnian nationalists, Boudicca (Boadicea) (c. 20-62)
sparking World War I. Briton queen of East Anglia who led a
major rebellion against the Romans. When
Boston Tea Party (1773) her husband, Prasutagus, king ofthe Iceni,
Attack by American colonial patriots op- died in 60, he left his kingdom to his
posed to British taxes. In 1773 the British daughters, but it was claimed by Rome.
Parliament enacted a tax on tea to bale out Boudicca protested and was flogged and
the bankrupt East India Company by her daughters raped by Roman soldiers.
granting it a monopoly on the tea trade. A She raised a rebellion that nearly drove
party of men dressed as Native Americans the Romans from Britain, destroying the
boarded three ships, broke open casks Roman settlements at Camulodunum,
containing 90,000 pounds of tea, and London, and Verulamium. In a final
dumped the tea into Boston Harbor. This battle, the Romans defeated the Britons
act proved to the British that the colonies and massacred as many as 80,000 men,
were serious and caused Parliament to women, and children.
BRAHMAN 53
that there is a trinity of gods: Brahma, the Years' War as it became Brandenburg-
creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva, Prussia. When Elector Frederick III was
the destroyer. granted the title King of Prussia, Branden-
burg became a province of the Prussian
Brahmin Caste (Brahman Caste) kingdom. The city is now a major steel
The highest of the four varna, the major producer and has an inland shipyard that
delineation of caste in the Hindu caste builds fishing boats.
system. The Brahmins were the priests of
Hinduism, with exclusive authority to Brandt, Willy (1913-1992)
carry out necessary religious rituals. In an- German statesman, leader of the German
cient India they were the scholars, and Social Democratic Party (1964-1987),
writing was primarily confined to their chancellor of the Federal Republic of
group. The high social status and special Germany (1969-1974), and Nobel Prize
privileges of Brahmins was justified be- winner (1971). During World War II
cause they had earned good karma in Brandt's political activities forced him to
previous lives. The Brahmins formed a dis- flee Germany, first to Norway and then
tinctive social class in India by at least late to Sweden. He achieved fame as mayor
Vedic times. They dominated Indian po- of West Berlin (1957-1966), resisting the
litical leadership in the twentieth century, Soviet Union's attempt to control the
but after 1947 they no longer had legal city. As chancellor of West Germany he
privileges, and their political dominance concentrated on foreign affairs and, es-
has gradually eroded. pecially, on improving relations with com-
munist Eastern bloc countries. For these
Brahmo Samaj (Sanskrit for "Society efforts, especially the reconciliation be-
of God") tween West Germany and East Germany,
Indian religious movement founded in Brandt was awarded the Nobel Prize for
1828 by Ram Mohan Roy to promote reli- Peace.
gious and social reform. Influenced by
ideas of monotheism and Western secular Bretton Woods Conference (1944)
thought, Roy and his successors wanted to Meeting in Bretton Woods, New Hamp-
remake Hinduism by rejecting polytheism shire, to plan economic arrangements for
and the caste system, prohibiting child the postwar world near the end of World
marriage, and permitting widows to re- War II. The resultant plan to provide
marry. The movement never attracted nu- economic stability and capital for the
merous followers but had an important reconstruction of war-ravaged countries
influence on Indian social thought. It was included the International Monetary
part of the effort to combine the Indian/ Fund (IMF) and a world bank known as
Hindu inheritance with Western social the International Bank for Reconstruction
concepts. and Development (IBRD).
Central Committee and the Politburo. overland transport until the coming of
At Khrushchev's removal, Brezhnev and railroads in the 1840s.
Alesksey Kosygin jointly led until Brezh-
nev emerged as the dominant figure. He Brinksmanship
controlled foreign affairs, establishing the Policy of nuclear threats by the United
Brezhnev Doctrine, and invaded Czecho- States implemented by Secretary of State
slovakia in 1968. He attempted to ease in- John Foster Dulles during President
ternational tensions through detente with Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration
the West, including the United States, yet (1953-1961). Brinksmanship used threats
he built up the Soviet military, especially of nuclear attack to prevent the Soviets from
nuclear weapons capabilities and the continuing their aggressive expansionism.
navy, and overtook the United States' The threats were never acted upon.
space program. In 1977 Brezhnev became
the first person to hold leadership of both Britain. See Great Britain
the Communist Party and the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics. He attempted Britain, Battle of (1940)
to suppress dissent in the Soviet Union World War II attempt by Germany to gain
and Poland and invaded Afghanistan in air superiority over Britain to enable
1979. His foreign and military focus Germany to invade in Operation Sea-Lion.
drained and stagnated the Soviet econ- In June 1940 France fell to Germany, and
omy, leading to the country's gradual Britain stood alone in resistance. Adolf
decline. Hitler decided to prepare an invasion, but
it required air superiority over the English
Brezhnev Doctrine Channel. As many as 1,800 German air-
Western name for the Soviet policy craft flew daily over Britain, bombing and
devised under Leonid Brezhnev that as- strafing. London was bombed repeatedly.
serted the right of the Union of Soviet Outnumbered four to one, British fighter
Socialist Republics to intervene in foreign planes kept the Germans from gaining
affairs in cases where the interests of control of the channel and thwarted the
socialist countries were threatened. It invasion.
was used as justification for the invasions
of Czechoslovakia in 1968 and Afghani- British East India Company. See East
stan in 1979 as well as for support of India Company (English)
wars of national liberation in developing
countries. British North American Act (1867)
Act of British Parliament uniting Quebec,
Bridgewater, Francis Egerton, Third Ontario, and the Maritime Provinces as
Duke of (1736-1803) well as, prospectively, the western prov-
Originator ofthe British canal system. He inces into the federal self-governing
built the first great canal in modern Britain Dominion of Canada. It acted as Canada's
by 1761, from Worsley to Manchester, to constitution until 1982.
move coal from his own estate. Between
1760 and 1800 there was a network of British Raj
3,000 miles of canals and 1,000 miles of Term for the British colonial govern-
navigable rivers throughout England, ment in India, derived from the Hindi raj
moving goods more cost-effectively than ("rule"). British rule began gradually from
56 BRONZE AGE
the seventeenth century under the East produced a variety of splendid bronze
India Company. The term Raj, however, is works. The art of bronze casting may
often more narrowly used for the period of have been transmitted to China from west-
direct rule that was established in 1858 ern Asia, but the Shang casting was unique.
after the Sepoy Mutiny and lasted to inde- The Chinese excelled all ancient peoples in
pendence in 1947. At its peak the British their ability to cast large and intricate ritual
ruled nearly the entire Indian subconti- vessels. The largest vessels and cauldrons
nent as well as Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and weighted up to 1,500 pounds (680 kg) and
Burma. A viceroy appointed by the crown were made in several sections from clay
governed a huge bureaucracy, the Indian molds and then fitted together. Bronze
Civil Service, made up of British and weapons, armor, and chariot fittings were
Indian officials, and the Indian army, con- also produced.
sisting mostly of Indian troops and British
officers. Administration was direct over Brown, John (1800-1859)
three-quarters ofthe country and indirect Abolitionist leader involved in antislavery
in about 500 princely states, where indige- violence in Kansas and a raid on the federal
nous rulers were given autonomy over in- arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. After
ternal affairs. In 1877 Queen Victoria was becoming involved in the abolitionist
named empress of India. In the first half of cause in the 1830s, Brown led an antislav-
the twentieth century Indians successfully ery guerrilla force in the Kansas Territory
agitated for a greater role in governing in a series of violent confrontations with
India and eventually pressured the British proslavery forces from 1855 to 1857. He
to turn over complete control their sub- later sought to sponsor a slave rebellion in
jects. In 1947 British India became the in- the South. To obtain arms for this purpose,
dependent nations of India and Pakistan, Brown led twenty-one followers in a raid
and in 1948 Ceylon and Burma became on the federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry in
independent. October 1859. Captured after briefly hold-
ing the arsenal, Brown was quickly tried
Bronze Age and hanged in December. The raid on
A period of history, varying from region to Harper's Ferry further increased sectional
region, between 4000 and 1000 B.C.E., when tensions and made compromise between
humans learned to make implements out North and South less likely.
of metal instead of stone, especially using
bronze (an alloy of copper and tin). Bruegel, Pieter (1525-1569 C.E.)
Bronze can be cast into whatever shape is Versatile artist from Flanders who painted
needed and is a hard metal, good for landscapes, scenes of religious and allegor-
making weapons. It is a difficult metal to ical subjects, and representations of peas-
work with, however, and has limited ten- ant lifestyles. His technical style, use of
sile strength (ability to stress or flex). The humor, and portrayal of popular culture
wide-scale production of iron, when that inspired by folk life were often imitated in
metal became readily available, signaled the Netherlands and beyond.
the advent of the Iron Age.
Brunelleschi, Filippo (1377-1446)
Bronze Casting in Shang Italian Renaissance architect best re-
Ancient Chinese artwork. During the membered for the egg-shaped dome on
Shang dynasty (1766-1122 B.C.E.), China Florence's cathedral (completed in 1436).
BULGARS 57
Brunelleschi was a leading Florentine engi- ("Enlightened One") in the fifth century
neer/architect whose innovative, crisp, clas- B.C.E. Buddhism offered a way to salvation
sical designs utilized columns and arches. from the miseries of life and the cycle of
Brunelleschi was also the sculptor who lost births and rebirth that did not rely on the
a famous contest to design the bronze doors caste system and the elaborate ritual of Hin-
on Florence's baptistery to Lorenzo Ghib- duism. The key was understanding the
erti. Among his other architectural accom- Four Noble Truths: that all life is full of suf-
plishments in Florence are San Lorenzo fering; that the cause of suffering is desire;
(1419) and the Pazzi Chapel (1430). that the way to end desire is to end suffer-
ing; and that the way to end suffering to
Bruni, Leonardo (1369-1444) follow the Eightfold Path, which involved
Italian humanist who laid the intellectual a moral and disciplined life, the practice of
foundation ofthe Renaissance. Bruni pre- meditation, and self-reflection. With the
scribed the studia humanitatis (the study of conversion of Mauryan emperor Ashoka in
grammar, rhetoric, oration, history, moral the third century B.C.E., it became a major
philosophy, and poetry) as the foundation religious force carrying out missionary ac-
for an active civic life of political service to tivity throughout most of Asia. Two basic
the Florentine Republic. Interested in the forms of Buddhism were Theravada (or
political and literary activities of Cicero, Hinayana), "Lesser Vehicle," which
he wrote a biography of the Roman's life became the dominant religion of Sri Lanka,
titled New Cicero. Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia,
and Mahayana, "Greater Vehicle," which
Brutus, Marcus (Iunius) (85-42 B.C.E.) predominated in East Asia. By the end of
Roman administrator, general, and writer. the first millennium C.E. Buddhism had
Brutus's father was murdered by Pompey
declined to a minor sect in India but was
the Great, and Brutus resisted Pompey's
the most popular religion in most of East
attempt to become a dictator. He was
and Southeast Asia. Buddhism today is
made a pontifex under Julius Caesar and
widespread in China, Japan, and Southeast
governed part of Gaul. He led the conspir-
Asia and is practiced throughout the world.
acy to assassinate Caesar and became one
of the major opponents of Octavian and Bukhara
Mark Antony. Brutus raised a major army City in Uzbekistan located in the fertile
that defeated Octavian, but in a second Zerafshan Valley. From the early first mil-
battle Brutus was defeated and commit- lennium C.E. Bukhara was one ofthe major
ted suicide. As a writer he was admired by cities on the Silk Road and an important
Cicero, but none of his literary work has cultural center of Central Asia. As such,
survived. it attracted the attention of Genghis Khan,
who captured it in 1220, and Timur, who
Bubonic Plague. See Black Death seized it in 1370. In the sixteenth century it
became the capital of the Uzbek Shaybani
Buddha. See Buddhism; Siddhartha state, and later ofthe Khanate of Bukhara.
Gautama It became part of Russia's empire in the
late nineteenth century.
Buddhism
Major world religion that developed out of Bulgars
Hinduism through the teachings of Siddh- Turkic people from Turkestan who settled
artha Gautama, known as the Buddha in the Balkans in the sixth century. The
58 BULGE, BATTLE OF THE
Bulgars overwhelmed the Slavs living in popular art and entertainment form
the region and in 681 were recognized as during the Tokugawa period (1603-1868).
a Bulgar state by the Byzantine emperor. Puppet theater was popular throughout
They became Christian in the ninth cen- East Asia, but in Japan it achieved a pres-
tury, following the Eastern Orthodox tige and popularity that it had never
Church. The Bulgars adopted the Slavic attained in China or Korea. In the eigh-
language and developed a brilliant culture teenth century, Chikamatsu Monzaeo-
in the early Middle Ages. In 1393 Bulgaria mon (1653-1725), generally regarded as
was absorbed into the Ottoman Empire. Japan's greatest playwright, wrote many
plays for Bunraku.
Bulge, Battle ofthe (1944-1945)
World War II German offensive on the Burckhardt, Jakob (1818-1897)
Western Front. After the Allied invasion of Swiss historian who established the study
Europe in June 1944, the Allies moved of the Renaissance. Educated in history
rapidly through France and Belgium. In and art at the University of Berlin from
December 1944 the Germans surprised 1839 to 1843, Burckhardt emphasized the
General Dwight D. Eisenhower and the study of culture and the arts in history. In
Allied forces by counterattacking and forc- The Civilization ofthe Renaissance in Italy
ing a huge bulge in the Allied lines around (1860) he labeled the Renaissance as a dis-
the Ardennes region of Belgium. The tinct cultural period born in Italy that
Germans hoped to retake the port of Ant- was based on individualism, a revival of
werp. By early January 1945 the United antiquity, and secular values. He played a
States army made its own counteroffensive large role in creating the concept ofthe Re-
and forced the Germans to retreat. The naissance as the birthplace of the modern
Battle of the Bulge was the last major of- world.
fensive that the German army was able to
mount. Burgundy
Region of eastern France that has waxed
Bumiputra ("Sons ofthe Soil") and waned in importance in history. First
Name given to the indigenous ethnic established as a kingdom in the fifth cen-
Malay peoples of Malaysia. During British tury by the Burgundians, one of the
colonial rule many Chinese and Indian la- Germanic tribes that infiltrated the
borers came to work in the mines, timber Roman Empire, Burgundy was absorbed
camps, and commercial centers of the into the Carolingian empire and, later, the
areas that became Malaysia. Upon its in- Capetian kingdom of France. In the elev-
dependence in 1957, the ethnic Malays enth century it was made a duchy, with the
feared being overwhelmed by these emi- Duke of Burgundy the son of the king.
grants and their descendants. The Malay- Burgundy reached its greatest importance
sian government provided preferences in in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
government and industry for the Bumipu- when it was again enlarged. At that time
tra to ensure their political domination of the Duchy of Burgundy rivaled the French
the country. monarchy itself in wealth and influence.
During the latter part of the Hundred
Bunraku Theater Years War, in the fifteenth century, the
Japanese puppet theater that emerged in Burgundians even sided with the English
the late sixteenth century and became a against the French crown.
BUSH, GEORGE W. 59
the World Trade Center and the Penta- bushi, or samurai. It emphasized martial
gon as well as for naming and fighting the skills, especially swordplay; duty and loy-
"War on Terror" by invading Afghanistan alty to superiors; and a sense of personal
and Iraq. During his presidency record honor symbolized in the practice of sep-
deficits plagued the economy. In 2004 puku (ritual suicide, often incorrectly
Bush won reelection over Massachusetts called hara-kiri). Bushido incorporated
senator John Kerry. Bush's second term ideas from Confucianism, Buddhism,
started with commitments to deal with and Shinto and served as an ideal in
deficits in Medicare and Social Security, during the Tokugawa period. Later, the
but by late 2005 was absorbed with ideals of bushido were borrowed and
continuing troubles in Iraq, the appoint- adapted by various modern Japanese, from
ment of two Supreme Court justices, pre-World War II ultranationalists to
and the monumental natural disaster post-World War II businessmen.
of hurricane Katrina devastating New
Orleans. Byron, Lord (George Gordon)
(1788-1824)
Bushi
English lord, Romantic poet, and hero-
Warriors of Japan who grew from pro-
martyr for Greek independence. Byron
vincial warriors in the late Heian period
was well known for his poetry when he left
to become the dominant class from the
England in 1823 to fight for Greece in its
twelfth into the nineteenth centuries. The
struggle for independence from the Otto-
bushi, also known as samurai (warriors/
man Empire. In 1824 he died from fever
retainers), developed an ethos that em-
during a botched military assault at Misso-
phasized courage, loyalty, and discipline.
longhi. Byron became a hero-martyr for
Unlike the warrior class of feudal Europe,
Philhellenes (lovers of ancient Greek cul-
the elite bushi also valued learning and
ture) throughout Europe, who sent money
the arts, especially poetry. They were pa-
and volunteers to aid the Greeks. Byron's
trons of Zen Buddhism and the tea cere-
masterpieces include The Vision of Judg-
mony, as well as prizing skill with the
ment and Don Juan.
sword. During the Tokugawa period
(1603-1868), two centuries of peace made
their warrior role obsolete, and many Byzantine Empire
became civil servants and teachers. Be- Eastern half of the Roman Empire after the
cause of their military training and their collapse of the empire's western half.
often broad learning, some bushi were The Eastern Roman Empire continued
swift to appreciate the need for sweeping after the western half collapsed under the
reform in the face of the Western incur- pressure of Germanic invasions and
sions in the mid-nineteenth century and became known as the Byzantine Empire
led the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The new to later historians (people in this region
Meiji leaders abolished legal recog- called themselves Romans). It flourished
nition of the class. from 476 to 1453 C.E., with its capital at
Constantinople (formerly Byzantium).
Bushido (meaning the "way ofthe Until the thirteenth century it enjoyed
warrior") a period of imperial brilliance, synthe-
Japanese code of training and behavior for sizing Greco-Roman and Christian cul-
the ruling warrior class of Japan known as ture. Emperor Justinian led a revival
BYZANTINE EMPIRE 61
within the Byzantine Empire that con- the remnants of the Byzantine Empire
solidated power; expanded its bound- were conquered by the Ottoman Turks,
aries; and extended codified law, the who battered down Constantinople's re-
Corpus Juris Civilis. After 800 years of nowned defensive walls with enormous
conflict with the Islamic world, in 1453 cannons.
c
cannons. The use of cannons spread to the after the collapse of the Han Dynasty. His
Middle East, and the Ottoman Turks used son established the Wei Dynasty, one ofthe
German engineers to manufacture enor- Three Kingdoms. Later, Cao Cao and his
mous cannon bombards to batter down military campaigns became the subject of
the defensive walls of Constantinople in plays, operas, and the classic novel The Ro-
1453. The largest fired a cannonball of mance ofthe Three Kingdoms.
1,000 pounds (454 kg) using several hun-
dred pounds of gunpowder. Europeans Cao Dai
found that small, maneuverable cannons Vietnamese syncretic religion that draws
were much more effective. By the sixteenth from Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity,
century, warfare was heavily determined and other religious traditions. It was
by cannons. founded in 1926 by Ngo Van Chieu, a Viet-
namese official in the French colonial gov-
Canterbury Tales ernment. It combines a belief in karma with
A group of poems written by the English a pantheon of saints that include Jesus,
author Geoffrey Chaucer in the 1380s and Muhammad, Victor Hugo, Pericles, and
1390s. The poems, fictional tales of pil- Sun Yat-sen. During World War II the
grims told to one another on their way to Cao Dai organized an army to resist the
the holy site of Canterbury, England, range Japanese. Although it never claimed more
from classic tragedy to raw sexual comedy. than 2 million adherents, it was a force in
They criticize the clergy as well as all classes South Vietnamese politics up to 1975.
of society.
Cape of Good Hope
Canton (Guangzhou) Promontory on the southern tip of Africa.
Chinese city in the southern Guandong The first European sighting was by the
province. Strategically located at the head Portuguese sailor Bartolomeu Dias in
of the Pearl River estuary, a city has ex- 1488, as he returned from rounding Africa
isted on the site of Canton since at least the for the first time. Dias named it Cape of
second millennium B.C.E. Under the Tang, Storms for the severe weather he experi-
Canton became a major port and a center enced. Portuguese king John II renamed it
of international commerce with a large Cape of Good Hope for its good fortune in
foreign community of Arab and Southeast the Portuguese attempt to reach India. The
Asian merchants. From the sixteenth to name Cape of Good Hope was applied to
the nineteenth centuries it was the princi- the major province of southern and west-
pal port for trade with Western merchants. ern South African, also known as Cape
Discontent with the "Canton system," Province.
which restricted Westerners to the port
and to trading with authorized Chinese Capet, Hugh (r. 987-996)
merchant houses, led to the Opium Wars, King of France and founder of the Cape-
which opened other ports. Canton re- tian dynasty. Very little is known of Hugh,
mained one of China's most important but as founder of the Capetian line he
commercial centers. holds great significance in French history.
Robert II (r. 996-1031); Philip I (r. 1060- Cardenas was a popular and successful
1108); Philip II, "Augustus" (r. 1180- Mexican politician. He was president of
1223); Saint Louis IX (r. 1226-1270); and the National Revolutionary Party in 1930,
Philip IV, "the Fair" (r. 1285-1314). minister ofthe interior in 1931, and minis-
ter of war and marine in 1933 before be-
Capitalism coming Mexico's chief executive. He
Economic system based on private owner- became the symbol of Mexican national-
ship ofthe means of production and distri- ism after his expropriation of U.S.- and
bution, free trade, open competition in British-owned petroleum firms in 1938.
both products and labor, and motivation After his presidency he was made com-
by profit. Capitalism has existed through- mander of Mexico's Pacific Coast forces
out history, and regional elements of during World War II.
capitalism may have connected in a world
economy in the thirteenth century Cardinals, College of
spreading, from China to Europe. Capital- The Roman Catholic Church's body that
ism became common in Italian cities in the acts as assistants and advisers to the su-
fifteenth century during the Renaissance, preme pontiff, or pope, and selects the
and later spread with European hegem- next pontiff. The College of Cardinals
ony. In capitalist systems, workers are paid dates from the twelfth century, although
there were cardinals even before then. The
a wage for their labor but do not own what
pope chooses cardinals from among the
they produce, and prices are based on
Catholic clergy.
supply and demand rather than being set
by a political authority. Carnegie, Andrew (1835-1919)
American industrialist and philanthropist.
Caracalla. See Aurelius, Antoninus Born in Dunfermline, Scotland, Carnegie's
family emigrated to Pittsburgh, Pennsyl-
Carafa, Giovanni Pietro (Pope Paul IV) vania, in 1848. Carnegie founded a steel
(1476-1559) company, Carnegie Steel (later, U.S. Steel)
Powerful Renaissance pope. Born into a that became the largest in the world. He
noble Neapolitan family, he became a gave enormous amounts of money to
cardinal in 1536 and was elected pope of institutions in the United States and Brit-
the Roman Catholic Church in 1555. Hot- ain, ranging from public libraries and
tempered, Carafa gave church positions to universities to peace institutes and edu-
relatives who often turned out to be incom- cational foundations.
petent and became involved in a disastrous
war with Philip II of Spain. His legacy in- Carolingian. See Charlemagne (Charles
cludes reforming the church to cut down the Great)
expenses, and leading the harsh Roman
Inquisition (1542) to combat heresy. Carranza, Venustiano (1859-1920)
Mexican revolutionary and president of
Cardenas, Lazaro (1895-1970) Mexico (1917-1920). Carranza played a
Mexican president (1934-1940) who im- major role in shaping both the Mexican
plemented the ideals of the Mexican Revolution after 1913 and the constitu-
Revolution, including nationalizing in- tion of 1917. As a moderate president,
dustries, land reform, secularizing edu- Carranza angered the more radical Emi-
cation, and offering loans to peasants. liano Zapata and Pancho Villa, who
66 CARTER, JIMMY
fought to overthrow him. Driven from Caesar. Commander of part ofthe Roman
office, Carranza was then assassinated. navy, a magistrate, and imperial legate,
Cassius led the conspirators who assassi-
Carter, Jimmy (1924-) nated Caesar (44 B.C.E.). Mark Antony, in
Thirty-ninth president of the United retaliation, defeated Cassius (42 B.C.E.),
States (full name: James Earl Carter Jr.). and Cassius ordered his own freed slaves
Elected in 1976, Carter sought to restore to slay Antony.
trust to government following the Wa-
tergate scandal. His domestic accomplish- Caste
ments were few, and his programs suffered A social ranking based on birth. In Hindu-
from a lagging economy. In foreign policy, ism, birth into a caste is based on the
Carter sought to emphasize human rights, notion of reincarnation. Hindus maintain
returned the Canal Zone to Panama, brok- that a person is born into a caste because
ered the Camp David Accords for the of good or bad deeds in an earlier life. An-
Middle East, and continued arms-control thropologists refer to the notion of purity
negotiations with the Soviet Union. His and pollution as the fundamental premise
administration was crippled by the Iran of a caste system.
hostage crisis, and it suffered further with
the collapse of detente following the Soviet Castiglione, Baldassare (1478-1529 C.E.)
invasion of Afghanistan, both in 1979. He Italian author of The Courtier (1528), one
was defeated by Ronald Reagan in 1980. of the most influential writings of the
By the 1990s Jimmy Carter had established Renaissance. Castiglione used his experi-
himself as a world statesman. ence as diplomat to write this guide. De-
scribing the "perfect" courtier and court
Carthage lady, it was a popular guide for social rela-
Phoenician colony and, later, a major tions. It illustrates a concern with outward
Roman city on the Mediterranean coast of appearance and reputation, offering a
North Africa. Founded probably in the glimpse into the sixteenth-century Italian
eighth century B.C.E., Carthage became a court of Urbino.
very important trading center. By the sixth
century B.C.E. it had its own ruling oligar- Castle
chy and controlled mercenary armies, but, Fortified building occupied in most in-
most importantly, Carthage controlled sea stances by a nobleman and his family. A
trade routes. It came to control Sardinia, royal castle was often a large building or a
parts of Sicily, and Spain. Carthage and set of connected, fortified buildings in-
Rome had treaties in 508 and 348 B.C.E. but cluding the central keep or donjon, a sur-
came to blows in 264 B.C.E. in the first rounding wall with defensive towers, and a
Punic War. The Punic Wars eventually courtyard, occupied by numerous knights
brought the destruction of Carthage in 146 and support staff. A castle provided a de-
B.C.E. By the second century C.E. Carthage fense against almost any attack, enabling
was the second city after Rome in the west- the nobleman to maintain control over a
ern Roman Empire. region of land.
revolution that in 1958 drove out the cor- of metal, arrows, or flammable or explo-
rupt dictator General Fulgencio Batista. sive matter. The Romans were very effec-
He declared himself prime minister, a title tive at catapult construction. Catapults
he held until 1976, and then became presi- have been used in most civilizations, often
dent ofthe Council of State and the Coun- as siege machines to attack fortifications.
cil of Ministers. Castro transformed Cuba
into one of the leading countries of Latin Cathedral
America in terms of health, education, and The church of a diocese in the Roman
welfare and the first communist nation in Catholic Church. Whatever church a
the Western Hemisphere. Since coming to bishop resides as administrator ofthe dio-
power Castro has been in conflict with the cese is considered a cathedral. Therefore
United States and its presidents from John size does not make a church a cathedral;
F. Kennedy to George W. Bush, who re- however, most diocesan churches would
fused to allow a socialist country in their need to be large.
backyard. Castro allied with the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics after the Bay Catherine of Aragon (1485-1563)
of Pigs invasion of Cuba in 1961 and al- Spanish princess, daughter of Ferdinand
lowed missiles to be placed on Cuban of Aragon and Isabella and the first wife
soil, leading to the Cuban Missile Crisis of Henry VIII of England (1509). Married
in 1962. Since the collapse of the Soviet first to Henry's older brother Arthur, at
Union in 1990, Castro has led Cuba Arthur's death the pope granted a dispen-
through severe economic crises. He has sation to allow Catherine to marry Henry.
moved to embrace market forces at the be- Catherine bore Henry a daughter, the
ginning of the twenty-first century, as a future Mary I, but no male heir. When
way of forestalling national bankruptcy. she was beyond childbearing years, Henry
sought to annul his marriage to Catherine
atal Hiiyiik (atal Hayiik or on the grounds that he should not have
Catalhuyuk) married his brother's wife but in reality to
Neolithic site in south-central Turkey, first gain a male heir. The ensuing conflict over
excavated by British archaeologists (1961- the annulment (1533) led to the English
1965). Dated circa 7250-6150 B.C.E., the church's split from the Roman Catholic
town's as many as 8,000 inhabitants lived Church.
in brick houses, which were entered from
the roof via ladders and contained ovens Catherine of Siena, Saint (born
and sleeping and working platforms. The Caterina Benincasa) (1347-1380)
surrounding land supported an agrarian Italian mystic and patron saint of Italy. A
society cultivating plants and rearing tertiary (member of a monastic order who
livestock. The residents of atal Hiiyiik takes simple vows but may remain outside
manufactured baskets, leather goods, metal a convent), Catherine of Siena gained a
tools, pots, and jewelry. They also produced reputation for her holiness. She helped to
refined wall paintings. resolve a conflict between the papacy and
the city of Florence in 1376, played a role
Catapult in resolving the conflict known as the
Machine for throwing objects through the Avignon Captivity (Babylonian Captiv-
air in warfare. Catapults have been used ity) in 1378, and helped to reorganize the
since ancient times to throw stones, pieces church under Pope Urban VI.
68 CATHERINE II, "THE GREAT"
Catherine II, "the Great" (1729-1796) polished verses of love, often very vivid
Empress of Russia (1762-1796) and "En- poems about his girlfriend.
lightened Despot." German-born Cather-
ine organized the assassination of her Caucasus
husband, Tsar Peter III, and seized the Geographic region between the Black and
throne. She was notorious for her sexual the Caspian seas that has produced many
appetites and her ruthlessness. Oriented peoples and languages. Caucasian or Cau-
toward the West, Catherine read the En- casoid peoples have spread throughout
lightenment writers and attempted social Europe, North Africa, the Middle East,
and political reform for Russia, mostly and India. This is also the region from
unsuccessfully. Two wars with Turkey, a which the Indo-European languages may
Cossack rebellion, and entrenched aris- have originated and spread.
tocratic resistance ended her interest in
reform. In Catherine's later life she banned Caudillos
Enlightenment writings in Russia. Latin American local strongmen from the
nineteenth century onward who filled a
Catholic Church. See Roman Catholic Church vacuum left by the collapse of colonial
authority. As countries became indepen-
Catholic Counter Reformation. See Cath-
dent from Spain, these military strongmen
olic Reformation
seized power, took control ofthe state, and
Catholic Reformation perpetuated their power by controlling the
Movement to reform the Roman Catholic masses and protecting the power of the
Church in the sixteenth century. The Ref- elites.
ormation began with individuals within
the church attempting to bring about re- Cavour, Camillo, Conte di (1810-1861)
forms, with some of them breaking away Italian statesman and leader of the uni-
from the Catholic Church to form Protes- fication of Italy. Cavour pushed for uni-
tant churches. In response, or counter to fication from the 1840s, founding the
the Protestant reforms (hence the alterna- newspaper II Risorgimento. He became
tive term Counter Reformation), and premier of Piedmont and established an
with the establishment of the Society of alliance with France, fighting in the
Jesus or Jesuits (1540), reforms within Ca- Franco-Austrian War, all the while work-
tholicism gained momentum. The Coun- ing for Italian unification. In 1861 Cavour
cil of Trent (1545-1563) corrected many became premier of a united Italy under the
of the problems of the Catholic Church. newly crowned king Victor Emmanuel.
By the second half of the sixteenth cen-
tury the Catholic Church had become Celts
reinvigorated and Catholic missionaries Members of an Indo-European linguistic
were active in reconverting Protestants in group widespread in western and central
Europe and gaining new converts in Asia, Europe in the first millennium B.C.E. Ar-
Africa, and the New World. chaeological sites, like that in La Tene,
Switzerland (c. 450-50 B.C.E.), give clues to
Catullus (c. 87-54 B.C.E.) (Gaius Valerius the Celts' polytheistic mythology, skilled
Catullus) metalwork, and their village-based hierar-
Roman poet of the new school of poetry chical society (headed by nobles and
of the first century B.C.E. Catullus wrote priests called Druids). The Celts did not
CHACO WAR 69
keep written records, so early literary ac- to the attack on Pearl Harbor, the wartime
counts come from Greek and Roman writ- experience of the Office of Strategic Ser-
ers (like Julius Caesar). Powerful enough vices, and the growing need for intelli-
in 390 B.C.E. to sack Rome, they were con- gence that came with the onset ofthe Cold
quered by the Romans (who called them War. The CIA's principal role is to collect
Gauls) and the Germanic tribes by the first and assess intelligence in support of U.S.
century B.C.E. and pushed into Ireland, foreign policy, but it has also been in-
Brittany, Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall. volved in numerous covert operations
The Celtic culture came to embrace and against unfriendly governments, parties,
spread Christianity. and individuals. The exposure, failure, or
questionable nature of a number of these
Central Asia covert operations led to congressional in-
Term used to designate the central region vestigations in the 1970s and 1980s and
ofthe Eurasian landmass, also called Inner sporadic criticism since then, which has
Asia. The boundaries of Central Asia are often obscured the CIA's many analytical
vague, but the region is usually defined successes.
as including grassland steppe from the
Urals to Manchuria, the Gobi Desert, and Centuriate Assembly
the deserts and river valleys of Turkestan. Originally a group of 100 within the
Some people include Afghanistan and the Roman army, a unit of a legion composed
Tibetan Plateau as well. Some ofthe valleys of sixty centuries. The Centuriate Assem-
are especially suitable for agriculture. bly, dating from the fifth century B.C.E., was
Central Asia has been important as a cross- made up of centuries of cavalry and foot-
roads linking the civilizations and cul- soldiers and some centuries of noncomba-
tures of Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. tants. Reforms to the Centuriate Assembly
The Silk Roads traversed it. The region in the third century B.C.E. left 193 century
also gave birth to many formidable voting units.
nomadic-warrior confederations. With the
conquest of most of the region by Russia Cervantes, Miguel de (1547-1616 C.E.)
and China in the eighteenth and nine- Spanish writer best known for the novel
teenth centuries and the decline and disap- Don Quixote (1605, 1615). This play-
pearance of the overland caravan trade, wright, poet, and novelist produced in-
Central Asia lost some of its former im- novative literature in sixteenth-century
portance; however, as the Afghan War Spain. Cervantes used irony in his work to
(2001- ) demonstrated, it still is of strate- challenge the traditional values in Spain
gic importance. with Renaissance ideals.
victory. A treaty was signed in 1938, with to be the origin of "Champa rice," a quick-
Paraguay receiving three-quarters of the ripening variety that led to an increase
Chaco and Bolivia the remaining one- in population growth and prosperity in
quarter. southern China when introduced there in
the eleventh century. Champa also played
Chalukyas an important role in the South China sea
Ruling dynasties in the Deccan Plateau of trade.
India from the mid-sixth to the mid-
eighth century, and from 973 to the late Chandra Gupta (r. c. 320-330)
twelfth century. In the seventh century, Third ruler of the Gupta Empire, who es-
the Chalukyas under Pulakesin II (r. 608- tablished it as the dominant power in
662) checked the southern advance of northern India for two centuries.
Harsha's empire. The backbone of the
Chalukya states was the Western Ghats; Chandragupta Maurya (r. c. 325-297
their northern capital was visited by the B.C.E.)
Chinese Buddhist traveler Xuanzang. Founder of the Maurya Empire, the first
After suffering a defeat by Chola in 642 to extend its rule over most of the Indian
they were replaced by the Rashtrakutas as subcontinent. He overthrew the Maga-
the dominant power in the Deccan, but a dha kingdom in northeastern India and
second Chalukya dynasty arose in the established his capital at Pataliputra
tenth century. (now Patna, in Bihar state) and extended
his empire to the Indus River and
Chamberlain, Neville (1869-1940) Afghanistan.
British prime minister (1937-1940) who
signed the Munich Pact (1938) as a policy Chandragupta II (r. c. 375-415)
of appeasement toward Nazi Germany. Gupta emperor, son of Samudra Gupta
Chamberlain traveled to Munich, Ger- and grandson of Chandra Gupta, whose
many, to reach an agreement allowing reign marked the cultural apogee of the
Adolf Hitler's Germany to gain control of Gupta Empire. He extended the empire,
western Czechoslovakia, the Sudetenland, adding Gujarat in the east and Malwa in
in return for Hitler's halt to further expan- the west. Reputed to be an able ruler, he
sion. He returned to Britain proclaiming earned the title Vikramaditya ("Sun of
"peace for our time," but only five months Valor"). His court in Ayodhya included
later German forces marched into the rest the Sanskrit playwright Kalidasa and the
of Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain resigned Chinese pilgrim Faxian.
when Germany invaded Belgium.
Chang'an. See Xi'an (Hsi-an)
Champa
Kingdom in what is now the southern part Chanson de Geste
of Vietnam established by the Chams, a Song of praise of heroic deeds. A type of
people speaking a language related to Old French epic poem of the twelfth cen-
Malay. Probably established in the second tury, the Chanson de geste was popular
century C.E., Champa was conquered by among the aristocracy in the Middle Ages.
Annam in the fifteenth century, although a One of the earliest and greatest of the
small state survived until the seventeenth Chansons de geste is Song of Roland
century. A center of trade, it was reputed (Chanson de Roland).
CHARLES THE BOLD 71
Chanson de Roland. See Song of Roland of Charles I, and a Stuart (royal family
from Scotland that ascended the throne of
Charlemagne (Charles the Great) England in 1603), he attempted to take the
(742-814) crown by military force after his father's
King of the Franks and builder of a great execution but was defeated. At the fall of
empire. Charles ruled jointly with his the protectorate republic (after the execu-
brother Carloman in 768, but following tion of Charles I, England became a repub-
Carloman's death in 771 Charles ruled lic and in 1653 Oliver Cromwell was
alone until 814. On December 25, 800, made Lord Protector or virtual dictator),
Charlemagne was crowned emperor of Charles was invited to return as king in
the Romans by the pope, though what 1660. He supported the establishment of
this meant is not exactly clear because the the Royal Society, a scientific organization.
western Roman Empire no longer ex- Following his death, his brother, James
isted. Under Charlemagne, the Frankish II, ruled.
"empire" was expanded to incorporate
much of the old western Roman Em- Charles V (1500-1558)
pire. The capital was at Aachen, where Holy Roman emperor (1519-1556), king
Charlemagne gathered scholars from all of Spain (as Charles I, 1516-1556), and
over Europe. He instituted numerous re- archduke of Austria (1519-1521). At-
forms in what is known as the Carolingian taining the rule of the Netherlands at age
Renaissance, including legal reforms; the fifteen, Spain at sixteen, and the Holy
spread of a new script (the Carolingian mi- Roman Empire at nineteen, Charles ruled
nuscule); church reforms; a new currency over much of Europe as well as Spanish
of pounds, shillings, and pence; and, espe- America. He struggled against the rise of
cially, intellectual reforms that invigorated Protestantism in the Reformation, antag-
scholarship. Under his leadership books onism in the west with France, and antago-
were gathered and copied, libraries were nism in the east with the Ottoman Turks.
built up, great illuminated manuscripts Charles declared war on Protestantism, a
were produced, and great churches with movement that after his death would
innovative new features were built. Char- break up his empire in the Netherlands. In
lemagne forged a strong alliance with the 1527 Charles's imperial troops opposed
papacy of the Roman Catholic Church. France and marched into Italy against
the pope, sacking Rome. Charles tried to
Charles I (1600-1649) reform the Roman Catholic Church,
King of England, Ireland, and Scotland and in 1545 the Council of Trent was
(1625-1649) whose conflicts with Parlia- called, which eventually brought about re-
ment brought about the English Civil War. forms. Charles, worn out by conflicts and
Charles I's belief in the divine right of kings wracked by physical pain, abdicated his
and absolute monarchy ran up against the role in the Netherlands and Spain to his
growing authority of Parliament. War son Philip II and his title of emperor to
broke out in 1642, and in 1649 Charles was his brother Ferdinand I. Charles retired
convicted of treason and beheaded. to a monastery in Spain for his last years.
expanding his territories into the Rhine- estimated period during which Chavin
land and nearly establishing a kingdom in- culture flourished is 900-200 B.C.E.
dependent of France, aligning himself with
the Holy Roman Emperor. Charles was Cheng Ho. See Zheng He (Cheng Ho)
killed in battle with the Swiss, and his
dukedom was divided between the king of Chiang Ching-kuo (Jiang Jingguo)
France and the emperor. (1910-1988)
President of the Republic of China
Charles the Great. See Charlemagne (Taiwan) from 1978 to 1988. The son of
(Charles the Great) Guomindang (Nationalist Party) leader
Chiang Kai-shek, he served in many posi-
Charon
tions in the government and became the
Ancient Greek mythological boatman of
party leader when his father died in 1975.
the passage to the underworld. Charon
Although a loyal supporter of his father, he
(pronounced "KAY-run") ferried the dead
carried out democratic reforms during his
across the River Styx to Hades. The dead
presidency and brought many Taiwanese
had to pay with a copper coin, so in Greek
into positions of power, including Lee
burials a coin was put under the tongue of
Tung-hui, whom he made his successor.
the dead. Otherwise, souls were forced to
wander for years before Charon would
Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi)
ferry them across to their rest.
(1887-1975)
Chaucer, Geoffrey (c. 1342-1400) Chinese leader who gained control of the
English medieval writer, author of the Guomindang (Nationalist Party) in 1926
poems the Canterbury Tales. Chaucer and headed it until his death forty-nine
wrote in Middle English (related to years later. From 1928 to 1937 his govern-
modern English) at a time when vernacu- ment in Nanjing established its rule over
lar English was beginning to replace Latin most of China. From 1937 to 1945 he led
and French as the language of literature the nationalist resistance to the Japanese,
and of literate English people. He traveled but he was defeated by the communists in
to France and Italy, where he was in- the civil war that followed and fled with the
fluenced by the literature, especially remnants of his regime to Taiwan in 1949.
Giovanni Boccaccio's The Decameron. Although his rule on the Chinese main-
Chaucer wrote numerous other poems. land was ultimately a failure marred by
Canterbury Tales satirizes many of the in- corruption and brutality, in Taiwan he
stitutions of medieval society such as the promoted reforms and presided over an
church, clergy, knighthood, and marriage. impressive economic transformation of
the island state. Until his death, he claimed
Chavin Culture that the Republic of China on Taiwan
Early, highly developed culture in pre-Co- was the legitimate government of all China
lumbian Peru named after Chavin de Hu- and that it would eventually return to oust
antar, the archaeological site where most the communists. His wife Soong Mei-ling
of the culture's religious iconography was was a prominent figure who helped him
found. The site, located in northern Peru, gain U.S. support for his regime on the
is one of several centers of Andean civili- mainland and Taiwan. He was succeeded
zation that were unified for the first time as head of the Guomindang by his son
by a common religion or culture. The Chiang Ching-kuo.
CHIVALRY 73
sixth centuries, and when the Franks con- continue fighting Germany and Italy.
verted they began a long tradition of Churchill served as a member of Parliament
collaboration between church and state almost continuously from 1901 to 1963.
in Europe. In the eleventh century the
Eastern Orthodox and western Roman Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106-43 B.C.E.)
Catholic churches split. In the sixteenth Roman statesman, defender ofthe Roman
century European Christianity further di- Republic, and one of the greatest writers
vided during the Reformation. Christian- in Roman literature. Cicero refused to join
ity is found worldwide and along with the dominant political powers and turned
Islam is one of the largest world religions. to writing philosophy, political theory,
and oratory. Nearly 1,000 of his letters sur-
Chulalongkorn (1853-1910) vive. Cicero was condemned to death by
King of Siam (Thailand) who reigned as Octavian, Marc Antony, and Marcus Lepi-
Rama V from 1868-1910. After traveling dus and was assassinated for his support of
abroad early in his reign, he pursued a Julius Caesar's murder. Cicero's Latin
number of modernizing reforms and ap- prose style became the standard in West-
pointed technical advisors from several ern literature.
Western countries. His most important
achievement resulted from his astute di- Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius
plomacy, which he used to play the colo- (c. 519-439 B.C.E.)
nial powers Britain and France against Roman statesman and general known for
each other to preserve Thailand's indepen- his willingness to take command of the
dence. He was forced to cede some south- Roman army, achieve victory, and then
ern territory to the British in Malay and resign his post and return to his farm. In
to surrender claims in Laos to France. In 458 B.C.E. Cincinnatus was commander in
the process of consolidating his kingdom chief for sixteen days and upon completing
and making concessions to the colonial his job stepped down.
powers, Chulalongkorn established the
present boundaries of Thailand. Cinque Ports
Five medieval English port towns. Has-
Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard tings, Dover, Sandwich, Romney, and
Spencer (1874-1965) Hythe were required to provide ships an-
British statesman, prime minister, and nually for the king in return for certain
author. Born at Blenheim Palace to Lord privileges. The Cinque Ports (pronounced
Randolph Churchill and Jeannete Jerome "sink" ports) were essential to the defense
and educated at Harrow School and Sand- ofthe English realm.
hurst military academy, Churchill served in
the military and as a civilian correspondent. Ciompi Revolt (1378)
During World War I Churchill served as Revolt ofthe lowest cloth workers (ciompi)
first lord ofthe Admiralty. At the outbreak in Florence, Italy. The Ciompi Revolt was
of World War II he was recalled to the Ad- an indication that the social orders were
miralty. Then, as the war began and Britain shifting in the late Middle Ages, as also
was in dire straits, Churchill was appointed seen in the 1381 Peasants' Revolt in
prime minister by King George VI. England. The immediate result was the es-
Churchill's brilliant grasp of the English tablishment of a ciompi guild and a tem-
language rallied the British people to porary sharing of municipal power.
76 CIRCUS MAXIMUS
practice in Western countries in the Eastern Roman Empire between her and
nineteenth century. her children, but Octavian declared war
on her in 32 B.C.E. and at the Battle of
Civil War, American. See American Civil Actium defeated the Egyptian forces and
War Roman forces under Antony. Cleopatra
was taken prisoner, and in 30 B.C.E. com-
Ci Xi. See Empress Dowager (Ci Xi) mitted suicide. Egypt became part of the
Roman Empire.
Cleisthenes (c. 570-507 B.C.E.)
Ancient Greek founder of Athenian de- Climatic Change
mocracy. After a period of tyranny by Pei- Scientifically noted changes in the earth's
sistratus and Hippias, civil war broke out weather and temperature. The earth's cli-
in Athens in 510 B.C.E. The aristocracy mate is subject to periodic variations, some
tried to reestablish an oligarchy, but Cleis- lasting many millennia and others lasting
thenes, an aristocrat, opposed this plan. only centuries. These variations have had
To gain support, he went to the Athenian a profound impact on human history that
people, known as the demos. In 508 Cleis- is only beginning to be understood. Exam-
thenes created an assembly of all male citi- ples of climatic change in history are rain-
zens that legislated for Athens; hence fall patterns from 6,000 years ago that led
Athens became the first democracy. to the increasing aridity and expansion of
the Sahara, and the "Little Ice Age." Cli-
Clement VII (1478-1534) matic change may have contributed to the
Roman Catholic pope (1523-1534) dur- decline of many civilizations and states.
ing the Reformation. Clement VII aligned
himself with the French king Francis I Clive, Robert, First Baron Clive of
and brought on the wrath of the Holy Plassey (1725-1774)
Roman emperor Charles V. Charles's im- British general and colonial administrator
perial troops attacked and sacked Rome in in India. In 1745 he joined the East India
1527 and temporarily imprisoned Clem- Company and fought against the French.
ent. Clement also refused to grant English He avenged the Black Hole of Calcutta in-
king Henry VIII a divorce from Catherine cident and at the Battle of Plassey (1757)
of Aragon, which led to the English church defeated a vastly superior Indian army
splitting from Rome and the spread ofthe largely by bribing Indian officers and sol-
Reformation to England. diers to defect to the British side. After sev-
eral years of rule in India, Clive returned
Cleopatra VII (69-30 B.C.E.) to Britain, entered Parliament, and was
Last Ptolemy ruler of Egypt. Cleopatra was made a baron (1762). In 1765 he returned
joint ruler with Ptolemy XIII in 51 B.C.E., to India to reform the civil service and the
was driven from power in 48 B.C.E., and was military, but his measures were so drastic
restored by Julius Caesar in 47 B.C.E. She that he was forced to return to Britain,
had a son by Caesar (by her claim) and ac- where a government inquiry into his ac-
companied him to Rome. Following his tions brought about his suicide in London.
assassination in 44 B.C.E., Cleopatra re-
turned to Egypt, met Mark Antony in 41 Cloud Messenger
B.C.E., and gave birth to his twins. In 34 A work by the fourth-century Indian
B.C.E. Antony and Cleopatra divided the writer Kalidasa, considered one of the
COLD WAR 79
masterpieces of Sanskrit literature. A need for wood as fuel and increased the
poem of about 100 verses, it tells a roman- production of iron and the need for coal.
tic story of an exiled man who sends a mes- Abraham Darby III built the famous
sage via a cloud to the wife he misses. The Coalbrookdale iron bridge across the
Cloud Messenger (Meghaduta) is one of Severn River, the first major iron bridge.
the most popular Sanskrit poems.
Code of Justinian. See Corpus Juris
Clovis I (c. 466-511) Civilis; Justinian (Justinian the Great)
First Christian Merovingian king of the
Franks (481-511). Clovis established the Coffee
Franks as a leading Germanic kingdom in Drink consumed in Islamic civilizations
the collapsing western Roman Empire. by the fifteenth century and brought to
His conversion to Catholicism allied him Europe in the seventeenth century. Coffee
with the Roman Catholic Church. The was first introduced to Muslims centuries
Merovingian kingdom survived for more earlier, probably by Yemeni Sufis, but it
than 200 years and was taken over by a was not popular before the fifteenth cen-
Merovingian mayor, creating the Carol- tury. In the middle of the seventeenth
ingian Dynasty. century, coffee, along with tea, chocolate,
and tobacco, entered the European main-
Cluny stream, and by the eighteenth century
Medieval monastery in central France coffee became very fashionable. Coffee cul-
that led a reformation of Christianity in tivation spread from Yemen to tropical
the tenth century. The Abbey of Cluny, parts ofthe Americas and elsewhere to meet
founded in 909, attempted to reform and the demands of European and American
revive declining monasticism. Soon other consumption.
monasteries attached themselves to Cluny,
and the Cluniac order was created. The Cola. See Chola (Cola)
movement spread, and many Benedictine
monasteries and convents accepted the re- Colbert, Jean-Baptiste (1619-1683)
forms and adopted the Cluniac way of French controller-general of finance and
life as many new Cluniac houses were chief minister to King Louis XIV. Colbert
founded. By the middle ofthe twelfth cen- brought about economic, administrative,
tury Cluny was the "motherhouse," or and naval reforms that made France the
center, of an order of more than 300 mon- dominant power in Europe and made it
asteries or "daughter houses" and its possible for the king to rule as absolute
influence was Europe-wide. The Cluniac monarch. However, the wars of Louis XIV
order was the first true order or organiza- drained the treasury, and Colbert spent his
tion of monasteries and hence became the last years in disappointment.
model for later orders such as the Domini-
cans and the Jesuits. Cold War
Competition between the United States
Coalbrookdale and the Union of Soviet Socialist Re-
Town in Shropshire, England, where publics (USSR) and their allies. The Cold
Abraham Darby I founded iron-smelting War began almost immediately after
works in 1709 using his new method of World War II and ended with the collapse
coke as the fuel source. This eliminated the of Soviet-supported regimes in Eastern
80 COLOSSEUM
Europe in 1989 and the USSR itself in with the church founded in England
1991. It was both a great-power rivalry by Saint Augustine of Canterbury
between the two superpowers and an (d. c. 604).
ideological conflict between the market
economy and liberal democratic ideals Columbian Exchange
espoused by the United States and the Term for the global diffusion of plants,
communist system of the USSR. It was a food crops, animals, human populations,
called a "cold" war because, armed with and disease pathogens that took place after
nuclear weapons, the two powers were European contact with the Americas,
careful to avoid direct military conflict starting with Christopher Columbus's
with each, Instead, they fought proxy wars 1492 voyage. Because the Americas were
between client states and by competing for separated by oceans from the lands of the
influence, especially in the third world, Old World, their flora and fauna were rad-
ically different. The biological exchange
through economic aid, military support,
that took place was therefore dramatic. For
and propaganda. Many conflicts during
thousands of years the various species ofthe
this time, including the Korean War, the
Eastern Hemisphere, the Western Hemi-
Vietnam War, and the first Afghan War,
sphere, and Oceania had evolved sepa-
were part of the Cold War.
rately. By linking these biological zones, the
European voyages set up a round of biolog-
Colosseum
ical exchange that permanently altered the
Roman amphitheater or stadium built
world's human geography and natural
72-80 C.E. for sporting events. It seated
environment.
50,000 and had multicolored awnings to
protect spectators from the elements. A Columbo Plan
great feat of engineering, the Colosseum
Short name for the Colombo Plan for
had highly organized entrance and exit
Co-operative Economic Development in
stairs to ensure a smooth flow of traffic.
South and Southeast Asia, an organiza-
Entertainment included fights to the death tion established at a meeting in Columbo,
between gladiators or between humans Sri Lanka, in 1950 to promote economic
and animals. The Romans tried flooding development in Asia. Originally intended
the arena for mock naval battles, but it did for the British Commonwealth nations of
not work well. The Colosseum was the sta- the region, its membership grew to twenty-
dium for the city of Rome, but most major six, including many non-Commonwealth
cities had a stadium and a circus (such as states. The United States and Japan were
Rome's Circus Maximus) for entertaining its principal financial contributors, in part
the urban masses. as an effort to stem communist influence
in the region.
Columba of Iona, Saint (d. 597)
Irish missionary to Scotland. Born to a Columbus, Christopher (1451-1506)
noble Irish family, Columba established Explorer who discovered the New World
many monasteries in Ireland and Scot- for Europe. Born in Genoa (present-day
land. The most renowned was founded Italy), by age twenty-four Columbus was a
on the island of Iona in 563 off the west chart-maker in Lisbon, Portugal. He re-
coast of Scotland. Columba founded ceived sailing experience in Genoese and
the Celtic Christian church in Scotland, Portuguese fleets. In 1479 Columbus mar-
which spread to England and competed ried Dona Felipa Perestrello e Moniz and
COMPASS 81
received her father's maps and charts to society is completely without private prop-
the Madeira Islands off the coast of erty or class distinction. Marx and Engels's
Europe. Around 1485 Columbus con- idea was adopted by Vladimir Ilyich
ceived the idea of sailing west to the Indies Lenin, who thought that the working class
and proposed it to the Portuguese king needed encouragement from a powerful
John II. The idea was rejected and Colum- party; this led to the creation of the
bus took it to the Spanish king Ferdinand Bolshevik Party in Russia in the early
and queen Isabella. Initially rejected, it was twentieth century. Lenin's ideas were
accepted and sponsored by the queen in brought to fruition in the Union of Soviet
1491. On September 6, 1492, Columbus Socialist Republics and adopted by
sailed westward from the Canary Islands Joseph Stalin, who added the role of an
with three shipsthe Nina, the Pinta, and absolute dictator and rule through fear
the flagship Santa Maria. By underesti- and violence to the idea of communism.
mating the circumference ofthe earth and Communism quickly spread from Russia
overestimating the length of the Eurasian and throughout eastern Europe to
continent (both calculations accepted at Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany,
the time), Columbus expected to hit land Hungary, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia,
at about the meridian of modern-day and Albania. In Asia, a communist regime
Cuba. On October 12, 1492, land was was established in China in 1949 by
sighted, probably in the Bahamas. Colum- revolutionary leader Mao Zedong. Com-
bus returned to Spain believing he had munism spread through Asia to North
reached Asia. Three subsequent trips were and South Vietnam, North Korea, Laos, and
inconclusive in proving whether he had Cambodia throughout the 1960s and
reached Asia or instead discovered new 1970s. On the other side of the world,
continents. Columbus's seamanship is communism became Cuba's form of gov-
generally considered remarkable. ernment in 1958. Several wars were fought
over communism, including the Korean
Common Market. See European Eco- War and the Vietnam War. Communism
nomic Community (EEC) began to crumble in the late 1980s largely
because of Mikhail Gorbachev, then presi-
Communism dent of the Soviet Union. Communism,
Political and economic system in which after the fall ofthe Berlin Wall in 1989, is
property is owned by the state and wealth is considered moribund.
equally shared by all members ofthe state,
creating a classless society. The idea of Compass
communism was introduced by Karl Instrument using a floating magnetic
Marx and Friedrich Engels in The Com- needle to point to magnetic north. The
munist Manifesto. According to Marx and compass was known in Europe by the
Engels, history is composed of constant eleventh century, possibly introduced by
struggles between the workers and the cor- Arabs who got the idea from the Chinese.
rupt people who own the means of pro- Magnetic polarity was understood in
duction. Eventually the workers will revolt China from the first century C.E. and was
and overthrow the corrupt owners, estab- used as a compass on Chinese ships by at
lishing a "dictatorship by the proletariat." least the tenth century. The compass en-
This step, called socialism, will eventually abled sailors to find an absolute direction
lead to authentic communism, in which a anywhere on the globeespecially useful
82 COMPRADOR
on the open seas. In the twelfth century after losing the fight. The early victory
in Europe, the compass was made more committed the colonies to an armed rebel-
useful by combining it with markings of lion against Britain.
directions (North, South, East, and West).
To the superstitious, the mysterious move- Confederate States of America
ment of the compass needle suggested Eleven states that seceded from the United
occult powers, and ship's pilots often had States of America before and during the
to hide their use of a compass. By the time American Civil War. The seceding states
of Christopher Columbus the compass believed that the only way to protect their
was in common use. liberties was to leave the Union. The pro-
cess began with six states (South Carolina,
Comprador Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia,
Term for Chinese merchants who worked and Louisiana) declaring their withdrawal
with Western traders in the nineteenth from the Union between December 20,
and early twentieth centuries, derived 1860, and February 1, 1861, and organiz-
from the Portuguese term meaning "to ing an autonomous government. They
buy." Compradors played an important were followed by Texas, Virginia, Arkansas,
role in internationalizing China's econ- Tennessee, and North Carolina. The presi-
omy but came to be viewed by Chinese dent of the Confederate States of America
communists and nationalists as collabora- was Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, with
tors with Western imperialists, and the Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia as his
word still has bad connotations to Chi- vice president. The Confederate States of
nese today. It is used by economic histo- America ceased to exist in 1865.
rians to refer to the "shop-keeping" or
"bazaar" class anywhere. Confucianism
Western term for the east Asian ethical,
Compurgation social, and political philosophy founded
Method of determining guilt or innocence by Confucius. Confucianism placed em-
employed throughout the Middle Ages in phasis on obligations to family and society
Germany and in ecclesiastical courts until and on the importance of each person car-
the fourteenth century. The defendant rying out his or her proper role in their re-
swore an oath of innocence and then had lationship to others. Society ideally should
compurgators, or "oath helpers," swear to be government by men of virtue who
the validity ofthe original oath. lead others by their moral example. The
most important virtues were filial piety
Concord, Battle of (April 19, 1775) and loyalty to rulers. Subordinate mem-
Continuation of the first battle of the bers of society, such as children and sub-
American Revolution begun at Lexing- jects, were bound to be obedient and loyal,
ton. American militia got word of the and parents and rulers were obligated to
shots fired in Lexington and assembled at be benevolent and responsible. Confu-
the nearby town of Concord. While three cianism viewed society as hierarchical,
British companies searched for colonial with the young subordinate to the old,
arms and ammunition caches, three other women to men, and subjects to rulers.
companies encountered the colonial mili- Most Confucianists valued learning, deco-
tia, armed with the very weapons being rum, and the proper performance of ritu-
sought. The British retreated to Boston als. Confucianism was promoted by the
CONGO CRISIS 83
Han Dynasty rulers and was officially populated the region. In the fourteenth
sponsored by subsequent Chinese dynas- century the Bakongo established a power-
ties. It was adopted by Korea, Japan, and ful kingdom in central Africa known as the
Vietnam and is still influential in East Kingdom of Kongo. When the Portu-
Asia today. guese appeared along the coast, they
traded with the Kingdom of Kongo. The
Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) Portuguese influenced a dynastic change
Latinized form of name ofthe Chinese phi- in the sixteenth century and introduced
losopher and moral teacher known as Christianity and slavery. In the seven-
Kongzi. Long after his death he was known teenth century the Kingdom of Kongo dis-
as Kongfuzi, westernized to Confucius. No integrated. Another kingdom, the Teke,
writings by him exist, but after his death his arose in the fourteenth century and be-
followers collected his sayings in the Ana- came major traders into the nineteenth
lects (Lun). Confucius, who lived during the century, using the Congo River as their
Warring States period, was concerned main supply line. When Europeans arrived
about the need to establish an orderly and in the nineteenth century, the Congo was
harmonious society. His main message was economically thriving but politically frag-
that this could be accomplished if people in mented. The Congo was explored by
positions of authority and responsibility, David Livingstone and Henry Stanley
such as rulers, government ministers, and in the middle to late nineteenth century.
heads of households, would pursue virtue It was named Congo Free State in 1885
and lead by moral example. Confucius and renamed Belgian Congo in 1908.
believed in moral standards, such as propri- It became the Democratic Republic of
ety, benevolence, and compassion, as the Congo in 1960 and was again renamed, as
source of order. Confucius also believed that Zaire, in 1971. In 1997 the name was re-
these qualities could be taught; hence educa- turned to Democratic Republic of Congo.
tion created a person who was concerned
about what was right. He taught respect for Congo Crisis (1960-1965)
authority and superiors as part of order and Political and economic turmoil in the
harmony. Confucius began a line of teach- Democratic Republic of Congo after it
ings (later elaborated upon by others such as became independent from Belgium in
Mencius) that eventually became the domi- 1960. The Congo became a Belgian terri-
nant system of thought about government, tory in 1885 and was named Belgian
society, and ethics in East Asia, making him Congo in 1908. As the movement for
China's single most influential thinker and colonial independence gained momentum
one ofthe world's most influential. after World War II, Belgium did little to
provide for the Congo's self-governance.
Congo Pressure in 1959 led to Belgium's almost
Name of a region and a river in central immediate withdrawal from the Congo in
equatorial Africa. The river, including the January 1960. Fighting erupted between
Lualaba River, is 2,720 miles (4,377 km) rival tribes, and much of the economic
long, the second longest in Africa. It drains infrastructure, built by Belgium, was
1,425,000 square miles (3,690,000 sq km) destroyed. The government requested
and is a great source of hydroelectric po- United Nations forces, which were sent,
tential. Before the nineteenth century but a coup by Colonel Sese Seko
two kingdoms and several chiefdoms Mobutu overthrew the prime minister in
84 CONGRESS, INDIAN NATIONAL
1961, and in 1965 Mobutu and the army Conservative Party, Great Britain
declared Mobutu president. Political party. In the 1830s political par-
ties became more formalized with the Tory
Congress, Indian National and Whig parties. The Tory, or Conserva-
Major political party in India. Founded in tive, Party generally stood for the rights of
1885 as means for western-educated Indi- landowners, the Church of England, and
ans to gather and lobby for a greater role in the monarchy, patriotism, and existing
the government of British India, after 1920 laws. By the late nineteenth century the
under the leadership of Mohandas K. Tory Party embraced many social and po-
Gandhi it became a centrally organized litical reforms in the face of the Liberal
mass movement for Indian independence. Party (founded 1859). Prominent Conser-
Under the leadership of Jawaharlal vative Party prime ministers include
Nehru and, later, his daughter Indira Benjamin Disraeli and Winston Chur-
Gandhi and grandson Rajiv Gandhi, it chill. In 1979 Margaret Thatcher rein-
was the ruling party of India for three de- vigorated the Conservatives, who held power
cades. After its defeat to the Janata Party in in Parliament until 1997.
1977 it lost its dominance of Indian poli-
tics, but in 1980 the party regained power Constantinople
and continued to rule until 1989. In 1996 Second capital ofthe Roman Empire. Built
the party lost the election and was out of as the "New Rome" ofthe Roman Empire
power for nearly a decade. In 2004 the it became the capital of the Byzantine
Indian National Congress formed a new Empire and one of the most important
government in India. cities of the Middle Ages. Originally the
polis of Byzantium, the city was made the
Conquistadors second capital of the Roman Empire by
Spanish class of soldiers developed during Emperor Constantine in 324. As the west-
the Middle Ages to fight for the recon- ern Roman Empire fell to Germanic in-
quest of Spain from Muslims who turned vaders, the eastern half of the empire
into overseas adventurers in the sixteenth survived as the Byzantine Empire. Con-
century. These soldiers were turned stantinople withstood hundreds of years of
loose in the newly discovered lands of the attacks by the Ottoman Turks, but finally
Americas and in Asia. With their gun- fell to continuous siege in 1453 and was re-
powder, organization, and especially the named Istanbul by Mehmet II.
diseases they carried, the conquistadors con-
quered many peoples and empires rather Constituent Assembly. See National
easily. Hernando Cortes conquered the Assembly
powerful Aztecs of Mexico, and Francisco
Pizarro conquered the Incas of Peru. Constitution, United States. See United
States Constitution
Conrad HI (r. 1137-1152)
German king, duke of Franconia, and first Consul
Hohenstaufen king. Conrad joined Louis The Roman Republic's top executive
VII of France on the Second Crusade and office. The office consisted of two magis-
lost most of his army to the Seljuk Turks. trates from the patrician class, elected to
Conrad designated as his successor Fred- serve one-year terms (they could be re-
erick I, "Barbarossa." elected up to ten times) as consuls and
CONVENTION 85
share control over the military and civil It was officially disbanded on November
issues. During the Roman Empire the 2, 1783.
consul was no longer elected because the
emperor either served as consul himself or Continental Congress
appointed a favorite to the post. American group of delegates sent by the
colonies to Philadelphia and who made
Consumer Society decisions during the time ofthe American
Post-World War II mentality of material- Revolution. The First Continental Con-
ism initiated by Western countries, espe- gress met in 1774 and discussed the colo-
cially the United States. The economy of nial response to the Intolerable (Coercive)
capitalism in the West began to feed itself Acts passed by the British Parliament. De-
after the war. The more people bought, the spite many varying opinions of the indi-
more the economy grew. The more the vidual colonial representatives, it was
economy grew, the more money people generally agreed that the colonies desired
were paid, enabling them to buy more. affairs to return to the status quo of 1763
Simultaneously, the growth of industry and did not seek open rebellion. By the
often lowered the price of manufactured time of the Second Continental Congress
goods, making it easier for people to buy in 1775, however, the war had begun, and
them. Relentless advertising campaigns such a peaceable route was no longer pos-
using various psychological techniques sible. The congress, therefore, worked on
helped convince people to buy goods. war issues and the American Declaration
Consumer society is the view that people of Independence. The Second Continental
in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries Congress met from 1775 to 1781.
have become more interested in acquiring
possessions than in more serious intellec- Continental System
tual or spiritual pursuits. French Napoleonic attempt to control
world trade. As Napoleon Bonaparte built
Continental Army his Grand Empire, controlling nearly all of
American army organized by the Second Europe, he attempted in 1806 to close all
Continental Congress to fight the British ports of the empire to British commerce,
during the American Revolution. The both British ships and British goods on
army was placed under civilian control at neutral ships. The British countered with
the highest level, and the U.S. military has their own blockade and attacks upon
remained that way ever since. The initial French ports and French shipping. Al-
force of fewer than 17,000, commanded by though the Continental System strained
George Washington, eventually reached Britain, it did not break it. It was also im-
a height of about 35,000 in November possible to enforce tightly.
1778, but continually suffered from seri-
ous shortages of men and supplies. Army Convention
regulars were supplemented by local mili- French legislative body during the French
tias, but those forces faced issues of relia- Revolution. On June 17, 1789, the Na-
bility and discipline and made forming an tional Assembly formed from the Estates
organized fighting force difficult. Never- General. On July 7 the body changed its
theless, the Continental Army, with the name to Constituent National Assembly,
help of the French, was ultimately able to and from this point is often referred to
defeat the well-disciplined British army. as the Constituent Assembly, or simply
86 CONVENTS
Christian cathedral in the thirteenth cen- Nathanael Greene, but suffered great
tury following the Castilian reconquest. losses. Cornwallis had acted without con-
The mosque remains one ofthe most cele- sulting his superior, General Henry
brated examples of Spanish and Islamic Clinton, and he was ordered to march his
architecture. wrecked army to Virginia and attempted
to recover in the safe location of York-
Corinthian Order town. The French fleet under Admiral
Architectural order of design in ancient Francois Joseph Paul Comte de Grasse
Greece. The Corinthian Order followed trapped the British army, leaving it with-
the Doric Order and the Ionic Order and out prospect of relief by sea. General
was characterized by an ornate capital with George Washington and the Comte de
acanthus leaf design and a column on a Rochambeau abandoned plans to take
complex base. New York and brought the siege
of the British that led to Cornwallis's sur-
Corn render. The British sought peace terms
Grains such as wheat, oats, barley, rye, with their former colonies, ending the
and maize. In the tenth century Europe American Revolution.
moved to a heavily grain-oriented agricul-
ture wherein most of the population was Corpus Juris Civilis
directed through manorialism to produce Codification of Roman law drawn up un-
corn. Bread and ale became the dietary der Emperor Justinian (527-565). There
staples. were four parts to the law corpus, includ-
ing enactments dating back to Emperor
Corn Laws Hadrian (117-138), interpretations by ju-
British regulations of 1815 restricting the rists, an introductory law manual, and
importation of grain, struck down in 1846. laws enacted during Justinian's reign.
The Corn Laws were intended to increase
domestic production and control prices, Cortes
but in the nineteenth-century movement Spanish legislative assembly composed of
toward the abolition of trade restrictions nobles, clergy, and elected representatives.
in response to Adam Smith's Wealth of Similar to the English Parliament, the
Nations, the Corn Laws were seen as aristo- Cortes evolved in the various kingdoms
cratic misrule causing artificially high that became Spain as early as the twelfth
food prices. The Anti-Corn Law League century. Convened when summoned by
pressed for repeal, but the Irish potato the king, it considered royal proposals and
famine of 1845-1848 forced the issue of petitions brought forward from the repre-
cheaper food, and the laws were repealed. sentatives. Once proposals were accepted
The repeal of the Corn Laws became a by the Cortes and signed by the king, they
symbol of free trade. became law.
emperor, Moctezuma, and with enemies failed. In 1408 cardinals and bishops from
of the Aztecs conquered the empire both parties revolted. They met and called
using gunpowder, organization, and dis- a general council, which convened in
ease and hunger as the capital, in Lake Pisa with four patriarchs; twenty-two
Texcoco, was cut off from the mainland. cardinals; eighty bishops; and doctors of
Cortes then established Mexico City, capi- theology and canon law from the universi-
tal of New Spain, on the site of the old ties of Paris, Oxford, and Cologne. Both
capital. sitting popes, Gregory XII and Benedict
XIII, were found doubtful, and a new pope
Cossack (meaning guerrillas) was elected in their place, Alexander V.
Powerful military people, especially cav- This resolved some ofthe division, but not
alry, often allied with the Russians against all of it. Historians of the church claim
the Turks in the seventeenth through the that the council was improperly convoked
nineteenth centuries. The Cossacks were and that its decisions therefore had no
an Orthodox Christian group who left claim to represent the church.
Poland and Muscovy in the seventeenth
century because of religious persecution Council of Trent (1545-1563)
by Roman Catholics and settled in south- Council of the full Roman Catholic
ern Russia. There the Cossacks developed Church in response to the Protestant Ref-
a tribal society and played a large role in ormation. The reforming pope Paul III
Ukrainian history. called a council to be held in the city of
Trent, on the border between Italy and the
Holy Roman Empire. The council met in
Cottage Industry three long sessions. Some major conclu-
Seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Eu- sions ofthe Council of Trent were that jus-
ropean small-scale domestic manufacture tification (salvation) is by faith and good
method and forerunner of the Industrial works, hope, and love; that the church is
Revolution. Increased population led based on scriptures and tradition; that the
many peasants to manufacture textiles sacraments are seven; that mass would be
and other products to supplement their in Latin, not the vernacular; and that
agrarian incomes. In the eighteenth cen- priests would remain celibate. The Coun-
tury middlemen began to organize the cil of Trent gave an enormous boost to
cottage industries into the putting-out Catholicism, which began to regain sup-
system, whereby wool was delivered to port lost to the Protestant movement. It
weavers, collected, and delivered to other opened what is known as the Catholic
stages ofthe process. Increased production Reformation.
led to the idea of collecting workers into
one site (a factory) and, eventually, to Counter Reformation. See Catholic
powering the looms or other machines by Reformation
water and, later, steam.
Cranmer, Thomas (1489-1556)
Council of Pisa (1409) English archbishop of Canterbury who in-
Roman Catholic Church council to re- itiated the Protestant Reformation in
solve the Great Schism that had divided England. Cranmer was appointed arch-
the papacy in two since 1378. Previously, bishop by Henry VIII in 1532, and in 1533
all attempts to resolve the division had he granted an annulment of the marriage
CROMWELL, OLIVER 89
army and then helped organize the execu- different cultures. Cross-cultural encoun-
tion of King Charles I in 1649. After the ters occur most commonly through trade,
war Cromwell became lord protector of such as the famous Silk Roads or the
the Commonwealth from 1653 until his trans-Saharan trade routes, but they also
death in 1658 (he refused Parliament's occur as a result of invasions, migrations,
offer of the crown) as England became a religious pilgrimages, and exploration.
republic. He was also known for his brutal Cross-cultural encounters have taken
suppression of Catholics in Ireland. place throughout history and continue to
do so as people of various lands meet in
Crop Rotation various ways. They spread new ideas and
Agricultural method of leaving a portion technologies and are a major cause of
of land fallow (unplanted) to renew itself historical change.
and alternating crops planted from field to
field. In two-field rotation, half the land is Crusades
planted and half is left fallow. The next Military expeditions from western Europe
year the fields are switched. In three-field to the Middle East between 1095 and 1270
rotation, one-third is left fallow, one- to drive the Muslims from the Holy Land
third is planted in one crop, and one-third of Palestine. In 1094 an appeal by the Byz-
is planted in another crop. The next year antine emperor to Pope Urban II for assis-
the three fields are rotated. Crop rotation tance against the Seljuk Turks led to a
keeps the soil fertile, but one-third to one- papal call for a crusade in 1095. Addition-
half of the land is always out of use. By ally, pilgrimages from the West to the Holy
the seventeenth century the use of alfalfa Land had increased, and pilgrims were
or clover added nitrogen to the soil and occasionally mistreated, so Europeans felt
overcame the need for leaving land fallow. that something must be done. Conse-
Use of this method is known as the agricul- quently, the First Crusade reached Con-
tural revolution. stantinople in 1096 and took Jerusalem
in 1099. All subsequent crusades (the
second through the eighth plus the Chil-
Crossbow dren's Crusade and the Peasant Crusade)
Weapon of a short bow fixed horizontally were generally unsuccessful. The Crusades
on a wooden stock with a groove to hold a were a disaster for the Near Eastern econ-
missile. The crossbow had a range of about omy, but they provided a stimulus to the
300 yards and was very powerful but inac- economy and trade of Europe and between
curate. At close range the crossbow was Europe and Byzantium. The Crusades fed
armor piercing. The crossbow's complexity the growth of many trade towns such
made it difficult to construct and slow to as Venice, Genoa, and Pisa. They also
fire, however. The longbow had the advan- brought about intellectual interaction be-
tages of simplicity, accuracy, and rapid fire. tween Europe and the Middle East and
The crossbow was used by the late twelfth probably resulted in the transfer of
century in Europe and may have been devices such as windmills and possibly
brought back from the Crusades. paper. Near Eastern Christians often suf-
fered at the hands of their coreligionist
Cross-Cultural Encounters Crusaders, but the Crusades strengthened
Term used to describe the historically the hold of the western Christian church,
significant encounters of peoples from especially the papacy, in Europe. At the
CYRIL OF JERUSALEM, SAINT 91
same time, the Crusades accelerated the Khrushchev removed missiles from Cuba
development of royal powers in several in exchange for the removal of U.S. mis-
countries. siles from Turkey.
Cyrus the Great (r. 559-529 B.C.E.) the Jews to return to Jerusalem from their
Founder of the Persian Empire. Cyrus led Babylonian Captivity.
an army against his grandfather, became
king of Media and Persia, and later con- Czechoslovakia and Germany. See
quered Croesus and Babylon. He allowed Sudetenland
d
understand the world around him via sci- pire (c. 1347-1565), and the home ofthe
entific investigation. He established a new Hindu Marathas, who controlled much of
era of classical monumentality with an the region until defeated by the British in
ideal harmony and balance in works such the nineteenth century.
as the Last Supper (1494-1498) and Mona
Lisa (1503-1505). Leonardo's drawings Declaration of Independence (1776)
confirm his scientific brilliance, with Document declaring the independence of
subjects including an embryo in the the American colonies from British rule.
womb and aflyingmachine. His legacy in- Written predominantly by Thomas Jeffer-
cludes written commentaries on art as well son, the Declaration of Independence is
as artwork from many genres. Leonardo an excellent example of Enlightenment
was also interested in experimental tech- thinking, declaring that humankind has
niques, Renaissance classicism, and human natural rights and that humans are created
anatomy. equal and have the right to rule them-
selves. It declared abuses by George III and
Death Camps, German the right ofthe colonists to be free of those
German Nazi extermination camps. At the abuses and was signed by fifty-six of the
beginning of World War II, Adolf Hitler leading colonial statesmen.
began almost immediately to create con-
centration camps such as Bergen-Belsen to Declaration of Rights (England) (1689)
incarcerate Jews, Gypsies, and any other English statement protecting existing
"enemies of the state." Part of the "Final rights, primarily ofthe landed classes from
Solution" to eliminate all of these people the monarchy. After James II proved
was the building of death camps, extermi- himself to be incompetent and married a
nation centers where approximately 6 mil- Catholic, producing a Catholic son and
lion people were systematically murdered heir, an assembly of peers and commons
between 1942 and 1945. The death camps was called (only the king could call Parlia-
include Treblinka, Auschwitz-Birkenau, ment). The assembly agreed to remove
Dachau, Chelmno, Belzek, Majdanek, James and replace him with Mary, the clos-
Sobibor, and others. Some, like Auschwitz est Protestant heir, and her husband
and Majdanek, served first as concentra- William as dual monarchs. On February 13,
tion camps and then as extermination 1689, William and Mary signed the Decla-
centers. Many methods of killing were ration of Rights, which listed previous
used, including shooting and gassing. abuses of the crown and thirteen "ancient
rights and liberties," including Parliament's
Deccan Plateau rights to exist and to execute law and levy
Large, triangular geologic plateau covering taxes, limits on a standing army, subjects'
much of the interior of southern India. rights to bear arms, and freedom of speech
The name is derived from the Sanskrit in Parliament. Many of those rights appear
word daksina ("south"). The region's low in the American Declaration of Indepen-
rainfall has made it poor and somewhat dence and the U.S. Bill of Rights.
less densely populated than most of the
subcontinent. Historically, it has been a Declaration of the Rights of Man
difficult region for empire builders to and Citizen (1789)
control. It was the home of the last Preamble to the future constitution writ-
major Hindu state, the Vijayanagar em- ten by France's National Assembly at the
DEMOCRACY 97
opening of the French Revolution on center of their rule. In 1905 the British
August 27, 1789. The declaration codified moved their administrative center for
the basic ideas of the eighteenth-century India to Delhi from Calcutta. In 1947
Enlightenment, such as liberty of con- Delhi became the capital of independent
science, property, and press and freedom India.
from arbitrary imprisonment. The Decla-
ration of the Rights of Man and Citizen Delhi Sultanate
effectively ended the ancien regime. A series of Muslim dynasties that gov-
erned much of northern India from Delhi
De Gaulle, Charles (1890-1970) during the twelfth to sixteenth centu-
French general, leader ofthe French resis- ries: the Ibaris (1206-1290), the Khaljis
tance in World War II, and president of (1290-1320), the Tughluqs (1320-1414),
France (1959-1969). General De Gaulle the Sayyids (1414-1451), and the Lodis
escaped to London at the fall of France to (1451-1526). All military regimes, they
Germany in World War II and led the Free were established following Muhammad of
French armed forces. At the end ofthe war Ghur's and his chief lieutenant Qutb ud-
De Gaulle became interim president ofthe din Aibek's victory over Hindu forces in
Fourth Republic but later resigned. He was 1192. The Delhi Sultanate was important
elected president of the Fifth Republic for establishing Muslim rule and influence
in 1959 and 1965. De Gaulle withdrew over much of India.
France from Algeria and from the North
American Treaty Organization (NATO) Delian League
and blocked the United Kingdom's entry Modern name for the Greek Athenian-led
into the European Economic Commu- alliance formed in 478 B.C.E. against Persia.
nity (EEC). After Sparta pulled out of leadership ofthe
eastern campaign, Athens took the lead
Deism and forged an alliance of Greek Pelopon-
Belief in a god who created the universe nesian poleis. The alliance's headquarters
but who exerts no influence on it. Deism were established on the sacred island of
existed in seventeenth- and eighteenth- Delos, hence the name Delian League, and
century Europe among people who believed Athens determined the share of participa-
in the truths of the scientific revolution tion of each polis with Athens in com-
and the Enlightenment and saw no need mand. With the Delian League's success at
for a god who interfered in physical actions driving the Persians out of Thrace and
of the universe. God was described as a coastal regions, the league grew to include
"great clock-maker" who created the uni- nearly 200 members, but Athens gradually
verse, wound it up, and let it run. forced it into becoming its empire. This
eventually led to the Peloponnesian War
Delhi between Athens and Sparta and the deteri-
Capital of India and one of its largest cities. oration ofthe entire Greek civilization.
Located on the Jumna River, Delhi has a
strategic position on the northern part Democracy
of the Gangetic Plain near the northern From the Greek for "rule by the people"
region of the subcontinent. For this rea- (demos). Greek democracy, first estab-
son it was chosen by Muslim rulers from lished in Athens in 508 B.C.E. by Cleis-
the twelfth to the sixteenth century as the thenes, was a true democracy of direct
98 DEMOCRACY WALL
participation. Each citizen had equal rights Party (CCP) that was critical of Mao Zed-
to sit in the assembly, and all decisions ong's Great Leap Forward. In the early
were made by the assembly and consid- 1960s he was one of the principal figures
ered to have been made by the people. in trying to aid in China's recovery follow-
With English democracy in the form of ing that disastrous policy. Twice purged
parliamentary government and since by Mao, he emerged shortly after Mao's
the founding of the United States and the death in 1976 as the preeminent leader of
French Revolution, democracy has spread China. From 1978 to the early 1990s he
around the world, mainly in the form of was the single most influential leader
representative governments (republics) in China, although often wielding power
where citizens vote for representatives who from behind the scenes. Deng pushed for
then make the decisions. an economic program known as the Four
Modernizations that called for opening up
Democracy Wall China to foreign investment, privatizing
Chinese wall of protest posters. In late 1978, agriculture, and allowing for private in-
inspired by hints of political change, stu- dustries and businesses. Despite greater
dents and others in Beijing began putting freedom of movement, travel, and eco-
up posters in public places protesting the nomic decision making, he insisted on
existing conditions in China and expressing tight political control by the CCP and or-
their views on the Great Proletarian Cul- dered the crackdown on students in Tia-
tural Revolution. The most radical posters nanmen Square in 1989. He spent his last
were put on a wall near the Forbidden City years securing his policies of promoting
that became known as Democracy Wall. economic growth through pragmatic eco-
Authorities shut down the wall fairly soon nomic policies and placing Jiang Zemin in
after postings began. power as his successor.
See also Imperial City
Depression, Great
Demosthenes (384-322 B.C.E.) Worldwide depression ofthe 1930s. After
Athenian statesman whose orations called a post-World War I slump, the economy
for the defense of Athens against Philip II in the United States and parts of Europe
of Macedonia. Demosthenes attempted to picked up. In the United States, there was
unite the Greek poleis militarily, but the unprecedented prosperity from interna-
Greeks were defeated in battle by the tional trade and domestic development of
Macedonians in 338. After a failed revolt industry. Growth produced unwarranted
by the Athenians, Demosthenes com- confidence, however. People bought stocks
mitted suicide. and products on credit, leading to specula-
tion. In October 1929 the U.S. stock
Deng Xiaoping (Teng Hsiao-p'ing) market collapsed, with a domino effect on
(1904-1997) the rest of the U.S. economy and on Eu-
Chinese communist leader who studied rope's economy. Soon, banks failed, cor-
with Zhou Enlai in France in the early porations halted production, and markets
1920s, participated in the Long March, dried up. Unemployment soared and de-
and became an important official in the moralization set in. The Great Depression
People's Republic of China after 1949. lasted through the 1930s until World War
Deng became associated with the prag- II and led to extreme measures and, in
matic wing of the Chinese Communist several countries, extreme governments.
DHAKA 99
East Pakistan. With Bangladesh's indepen- sailing up the east coast of Africa. They re-
dence in 1971 it became the capital of that turned around the tip, naming it the
new nation. Cape of Storms. (It was later renamed
Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese
Dharma king John II.) Dias returned to Lisbon in
In Hinduism, right or proper conduct; in December 1488.
Buddhism, universal truth. In Hinduism,
each caste follows its own dharma. If one's Dickens, Charles (1812-1870)
actions are in line with one's dharma, English novelist and social critic. Dickens
karma is increased, leading to reincar- began writing sketches in monthly maga-
nation as a higher form or, ultimately, zines, and his first major work was Pickwick
moksha, or release from earthly suffering. Papers (1837), followed by Oliver Twist
In Buddhism, dharma signifies the teach- (1838) and then nearly yearly novels. Most
ing of the Buddha and is one of the Three of his novels were written as monthly in-
Jewels (Triratna). stallments in magazines. Dickens is known
for his combination of humor, social satire,
horror, and character portrayal.
Dhow
Ship type that plied the waters ofthe Medi-
Diderot, Denis (1713-1784)
terranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Persian
French writer, author of the monumental
Gulf, and the Indian Ocean during the
Encyclopedia published from 1751 to 1772.
Middle Ages and beyond. The dhow (from
It incorporated all the new knowledge of
Swahili, daw) was a very effective commer-
the Enlightenment world known to Did-
cial ship, double ended (pointed front and
erot. The work was very contentious and
back), made of sewn teak or coconut
was even suppressed by the French gov-
wood, and having one or two masts and
ernment in 1759, but it continued to in-
lateen sails. Dhows sailed from Africa to
fluence thinking in France and elsewhere
India.
in Europe.
maintains constant pressure in the engine Diodorus wrote a history of the world in
using no igniting mechanism. Diesel did forty books, only part of which has sur-
not live to see the possibilities of his inven- vived. He wrote a famous description of
tion fulfilled. Alexander the Great's funeral procession.
Diffusion Dionysus
Term for the process by which innovations Greek god of wine and festivals also called
such as ideas, technologies, food crops, Bacchus. Dionysus was born of Zeus and a
and so forth begin in one place and then human mother. The importance of Diony-
spread. Diffusion occurs with cross- sus is seen in Euripides' The Bacchae. The
cultural encounters. In the past, most Dionysia were festivals in honor ofthe god
historical changes, including the develop- where followers clothed themselves in
ment of agriculture and the idea of civiliza- fawn skins and ivy and carried musical
tion itself, were thought to have had instruments and phalli. Dionysian religion
one place of originsouthwestern Asia became important and were associated
from which they diffused, but now most with fertility, with Dionysus representing
historians recognize independent origins the sap of life and the excitement of
and developments for both. naturethe god of ecstasy.
classical, scriptural, and medieval sym- art contained both elements of classical
bolism. idealism and realistic depictions. Among
his most influential works were the bronze
Dome ofthe Rock (Qubbat al-Sakkrah) David (1425), possibly thefirstfree-standing
Sacred Muslim shrine in Jerusalem. After bronze nude to be created since classical
capturing Jerusalem in 637 C.E., the Mus- antiquity, and the harshly realistic wooden
lims built a mosque, al-Aqsa, and shrine, Mary Magdalene (1455).
Dome of the Rock (692), on the site of
the ancient Hebrew Temple, and Jerusa- Donne, John (1572-1631)
lem became a holy site for adherents to English poet and cleric. Donne, a contem-
Islam. The structure occupies a very large porary of William Shakespeare (1564-
section of the Old City. Muslim tradition 1616) and Ben Jonson (1573-1637), wrote
holds that Muhammad was divinely trans- most of his best poetry before age twenty-
ported to Jerusalem and commissioned five and went on to become one of the
there, despite the lack of specific reference most famous and esteemed preachers and
to this event in the Quran. Muhammad is poets in England. One ofthe metaphysical
also said to have ascended to heaven from poets, Donne is sometimes given his own
this location. The first domed mosque, it category, as the "school of Donne." One of
contains a rock believed to be the place his better-known poems is "Death Be
where Abraham offered his son as a sacri- Not Proud."
fice before God intervened (Genesis 22).
Dorian Greeks
Dominicans (Black Friars) A division of classical Greeks. The four
Order of mendicant (begging) friars divisionsDorians, Aeolians, Ionians,
founded by Saint Dominic in 1216. The and Achaeanspopulated the Pelopon-
Dominicans were substantially different nese, the southern part of the Greek
from the traditional Benedictines and the peninsula. The Dorians are usually consid-
mendicant Franciscans. The Dominicans ered conquerors of the earlier Greeks, the
maintained the traditional prayer and lit- Ionians and the Achaeans.
urgy of monasticism but added poverty,
preaching, and teaching as emphasis. Con- Doric Order
sequently, the Dominicans emphasized Architectural order of design in ancient
education and became leaders in Euro- Greece. Doric is the earliest and simplest of
pean education in the thirteenth century, the orders, followed by Ionic Order and
with members such as Thomas Aquinas. Corinthian Order, and is characterized by
The Dominicans also became active in the a simple capital with a cushionlike design
Inquisition as defenders of Christian and a column without a complex base.
orthodoxy.
Douglass, Frederick (1818-1895)
Donatello (c. 1386-1466) Abolitionist leader, antilynching and
Italian sculptor (full name Donato di Nic- woman's suffrage spokesperson, orator,
colo di Betto di Bardi) ofthe early Renais- editor, and writer. Douglass ranks as the
sance who used a variety of materials most influential African American leader
including bronze, marble, terra-cotta, and of the nineteenth century. He penned
wood to create works commissioned for three important autobiographies describ-
secular and religious purposes. Donatello's ing slavery and race in the United States.
DU BOIS, W. E. B. 103
Dravidians Druze
Speakers ofthe languages ofthe Dravidian Middle Eastern religious sect. Located pri-
family such as Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, marily in Lebanon, the Druze have main-
and Kannada. Dravidian speakers live tained cohesion and loyalty with few
primarily in southern India, where they conversions into or out of the sect and
predominate today. Historians believe few intermarriages. The sect was founded
that these languages were once spoken in 1017 in Egypt as an offshoot of Islam
throughout most of the subcontinent and its members have held their sect under
prior to the coming ofthe Indo-European- a cloak of secrecy. They believe their
speaking Aryans in the second millen- founder did not die but vanished and will
nium B.C.E. The builders of the Indus one day return to inaugurate a golden age.
Valley civilizations were most likely The Druze played a prominent role in Leb-
Dravidians. Hinduism is an amalgam of anon into the twenty-first century.
Aryan and Dravidian religious beliefs and
practices. Dryden, John (1631-1700)
English poet and dramatist. Writing in
the Restoration period, Dryden was re-
Dreadnaught, HMS (for "His Majesty's
nowned for social and political state-
Ship")
ments in his literature, although many
British battleship developed in 1907.
of his works were also extremely witty.
Completely revolutionizing naval warfare,
His best-known work is the play All for
it had ten twelve-inch guns (more than
Love (1677). As poet laureate Dryden
twice the firepower of any other ship),
defended James II and the church of
greater speed than other ships (its steam
England, but after the Glorious Revolu-
turbines ran on coal or oil), and heavy
tion removed James and replaced him
armor. The Dreadnaught made other ships
with William and Mary, Dryden lost favor
obsolete. Its creation forced Germany to
with the crown.
begin constructing similar battleships, fol-
lowed by France and the United States
and, eventually, Japan. Germany's greater Duarte, Juan Pablo (1813-1876)
steel-manufacturing capabilities gave it Father of Dominican independence. In
the edge and forced an arms race between 1843 Duarte attempted to oust Haitian
Britain and Germany that contributed to rule from the eastern part of the island of
the outbreak of World War I. Hispaniola. Although he failed and fled,
the revolt revived and succeeded in 1844,
when the Dominican Republic proclaimed
Dreyfus Affair independence. Duarte returned, but when
Accusation, trial, and imprisonment of military dictator took power he was exiled
Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935) that caused a to Venezuela.
crisis in French society. Dreyfus, of Jewish
descent, was falsely accused in 1894 of Du Bois, W. E. B. (1868-1963)
passing military secrets to Germany. In the African American writer and father of
wake of its defeat in the Franco-Prussian Pan-Africanism. W. E. B. (William Ed-
War, the French military wanted someone ward Burghardt) Du Bois earned a doctor-
to blame. Anti-Semitism clashed with mil- ate from Harvard in 1896. He became an
itarism and antimilitarism, exposing wide advocate for equalrightsfor American blacks
rifts in French society. and founded the National Association for
104 DU FU
company traded large quantities of pepper seventeenth century and with France in
and other spices. The Dutch East India the eighteenth century brought about a
Company was a competitor of the British rapid decline, and in 1795 the republic col-
East India Company during the seven- lapsed in the wake of a French invasion
teenth century. The company was dis- during the French Revolution and the Na-
solved in 1798. poleonic Wars.
See also East India Company (English)
Dyula
Dutch Republic (formally Republic of Mande-speaking people of western Africa
the United Netherlands) (1588-1795) in the Congo region. The Dyula were
State ofthe northern Low Countries along major gold traders during the ancient
the North Sea. Seven Netherlands prov- kingdoms of Ghana and Mali. They acted
inces fought a war for independence from as a link between the gold-producing lands
Spain known as the Dutch Revolt (1559- in the south and the trading routes to
1609), and out of the Union of Utrecht north Africa and the Mediterranean Sea.
(1579) they became the Dutch Republic in Although gold was its most distinctive
1588. For the next two centuries the Dutch trade commodity, the Dyula also traded in
Republic was a major power in Europe kola nuts. They were also known as expert
with its golden age in the seventeenth cen- crafters. Today, the Dyula live mostly
tury producing great wealth and brilliant in towns as merchants in Ivory Coast,
arts. Long wars with England in the late Burkina Faso, Mali, and Ghana.
e
Eastern Orthodox Church with each maintaining its own court. The
Christian church of eastern Europe, two halves of the empire became increas-
Russia, Greece, and western Asia. The ingly separate and different. With the
Eastern Orthodox Church split with the decline of the western Roman Empire,
Roman Catholic Church in 1054 over a Constantinople and the east became the
phrase in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan bastion of the empire, with a flourishing
Creed (381) claiming that the Holy Spirit economy and culture. As the west crum-
proceeds from the Father (the Eastern bled, the Eastern Roman Empire remained
view) rather than from the Father and and became known as the Byzantine
the Son (the Western view), and also over Empire. Under Justinian, in the sixth cen-
the pope's claim to authority over all tury it expanded into north Africa, Italy,
churches. The patriarch of Constanti- and Spain. As the Byzantine Empire, the
nople holds the position of greatest honor Eastern Roman Empire gradually declined
but does not have authority over other under pressure from Islam until Constan-
churches. The Eastern Orthodox Church tinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
has seven major sacraments similar to
Roman Catholicism. East India Company (English)
English trading corporation for the Far
Eastern Roman Empire East. Founded on the last day of 1600,
Eastern half of the Roman Empire ruled England's Honorable East India Company
from Constantinople and after 476 re- was the greatest of the joint stock-trading
ferred to by historians as the Byzantine firms formed to bring the wealth of Asia to
Empire (referring to themselves as Europe. Starting with a few trading posts
Roman). The Roman Empire's expansion established along the east and west coasts
to the eastern Mediterranean in the first of India in the mid-1600s, by the end ofthe
century B.C.E. added vast regions, including eighteenth century "John Company," as it
Greece, Egypt, and much of the Middle was called, had effectively supplanted the
East (called Asia), that were markedly dif- Mughals and other competitors as rulers
ferent from the west. Linguistically, the of the subcontinent.
east spoke Greek instead of Latin as the East India Company, Dutch. See Dutch
universal language. In 330 Emperor Con- East India Company
stantine established a second capital at By-
zantium, called Constantinople, giving the East Timor
empire two administrative centers. In the Formerly Portuguese Timor and now an
late fourth century, under Emperor Valen- independent state sharing the island of
tinian in the west and his brother Valens Timor with Indonesia. When the 450-
in the east, the empire was divided in two, year-old colony declared its independence
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION 107
from Portugal in 1975, Indonesia invaded cultural center as well as the seat ofthe To-
and annexed it as the province of Timor kugawa shogunate, with its population of 1
in 1976. The action by Indonesia, done million making it perhaps the largest city in
with the implicit acceptance ofthe United the world. In 1868 during the Meiji Resto-
States and Australia, began a long, bloody ration the emperor was moved from
guerilla war with the FRETILIN (Revolu- Kyoto to Edo, which was then renamed
tionary Front of Independent East Timor) Tokyo ("Eastern Capital").
in which as many as 200,000 died in a
country of less than 1 million. In 1996 the Edward I (1239-1307)
Nobel Prize for Peace was award jointly to English king (1272-1307 who laid the ad-
Jorge Ramos-Horta, a FRETILIN activist ministrative foundation of the English
living in exile, and Bishop Carols Belo of nation. Known as Edward "Longshanks,"
East Timor for their efforts at freedom and he strengthened the crown and govern-
human rights. After its forces committed a ment including Parliament. Parliament
number of atrocities Indonesia withdrew, met with commoners for the first time in
and East Timor achieved independence 1295. Edward subdued Wales and at-
in 2002. tempted to subdue Scotland, but at the
Battle of Stirling Bridge (1297) William
Edict of Milan. See Milan, Edict of Wallace and the Scots defeated the English.
Edward was noted for his administrative
Edict of Nantes. See Nantes, Edict of and judicial efficiency and reforms as well
as his military prowess.
Edict of Worms. See Worms, Edict of
Edward III (1312-1377)
Edison, Thomas Alva (1847-1931) English king (1327-1377) at the opening
American inventor. With almost no ofthe Hundred Years War (1338-1453).
formal education, Edison invented many Grandson of Edward I, Edward III fol-
devises, mostly electrical, and is most lowed his inept and weak father, Edward
famous for the phonograph (1877) and the II. Edward III claimed the French throne
electric light (1879). Edison built a work- but also wanted to regain Gasgony and its
shop and laboratory in Menlo Park, New wine trade, leading to the war. Two of the
Jersey, and took out more than 1,000 pa- great battles of the Hundred Years War
tents. Edison's inventions have become were fought during Edward's reignthe
some ofthe most important contributions Battle of Crecy (1346) and the Battle of
to modern society. Poitiers (1356). Also during Edward's
reign, the Black Death (bubonic plague)
Edo broke out all across Europe. His descen-
Ancient Japanese name for the modern city dants include members of the two noble
of Tokyo. Centrally located in the agricul- houses of Lancaster and York who later
turally rich Kanto plain, it remained a fought for the throne in the Wars of the
small village until the Japanese warlord To- Roses, which took its name from the rose
kugawa Ieyasu established his headquarters symbols of each house.
there in the late sixteenth century. In 1603,
when he made himself shogun, it became Egyptian Civilization
the center of government. By the eighteenth Ancient Middle Eastern civilization along
century Edo was a great commercial and the Nile Valley, known as Lower Egypt and
108 EIGHTFOLD PATH
reelected in 1956. As president, Eisen- was a patron of the arts and encouraged
hower did not fundamentally alter the ex- troubadours, poets, and artists at her court
panded federal government he inherited in Poitiers.
from Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry
S Truman, although he opposed public El Greco (Domenikos Theotocopoulos)
power and aid to farmers. He later used (1541-1614)
federal troops to enforce the desegregation Spanish artist ofthe mannerist movement.
of pubic schools in Little Rock, Arkansas. El Greco (Spanish for "the Greek") was
In foreign policy, he obtained an armistice born in Crete, studied in Italy, and moved
in Korea and generally stabilized relations to Spain during the 1570s to become a
with the Union of Soviet Socialist Repub- church painter in Toledo. Like other
lics. Cold War tensions increased at the mannerists, his figures where elongated,
end of his administration, with a renewed contorted, and painted in unusual colors.
crisis over Berlin and the downing of a The stormy backgrounds of his works re-
U-2 spy place over Soviet territory in 1960. flects the religious tension and upheaval in
Europe during the Catholic Reformation.
Ejidos El Greco produced not only religious
Spanish term for communally held village works but also depicted psychological
lands in Mexico. Land reforms of 1856 had questions (Cardinal-Inquisitor Fernando
the result of taking much of these lands Nino de Guevara); landscapes of Toledo;
away from small villages, especially indige- and mythological subjects, such as Laocoon,
nous villages, despite the fact that the with spirituality and intense emotion. His
intent of the reforms was to dissolve huge style would influence abstract artists ofthe
church estates. Emiliano Zapata, among late nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
others, fought in the Mexican Revolution
to recover these ancestral lands. The con- Elizabeth I (1533-1603)
stitution of 1917 restored the ejidos to English monarch. Born to King Henry
landless villages. Ejidos comprised 55 per- VIII and Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth ascended
cent ofthe cultivated land in Mexico in the the thrown in 1558 after her half brother
1980s, but their number has been shrink- Edward VI and half sister Mary I and ruled
ing yearly as a result of privatization. until her death in 1603. When she became
queen England was in a sad state in the
Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204) midst of religious turmoil and economic
Queen of France and wife of Louis VII decline. Most held little hope for Elizabeth's
from 1137 to 1151. She accompanied her leadership, but she turned out to be one of
husband on a crusade. Their marriage was England's greatest monarchs. Elizabeth
annulled in 1151, and the same year she chose advisors very wisely. During her
married Henry, Duke of Normandy and reign England became a world power and
Anjou, who became Henry II of England. produced some of its greatest intellects
As queen of England Eleanor bore Henry and leaders: William Shakespeare, John
three daughters and five sons, two of Donne, Francis Bacon, Robert and William
whom became kings of England: Richard Cecil, Sir Francis Drake, Sir Walter Raleigh,
I and John I. Eleanor was placed under and Sir John Hawkins. Elizabeth never
house arrest from 1174 to 1189 for con- married, but she used the prospect of
spiring with her sons to revolt against her marriage as a diplomatic tool. She died
husband. Independently wealthy, Eleanor childless but left England secure. Her
110 ELLORA, ROCK TEMPLES OF
cousin Mary, Queen of Scots's son James She remained the power behind the throne
VI of Scotland followed Elizabeth as and regent for the remainder ofthe latter's
James I of England. reign. Generally regarded as capable and
intelligent but ignorant of the changing
Ellora, Rock Temples of world situation, she became associated
Thirty-four Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain with the conservatives at the Qing court,
cave temples carved out of rock in the who opposed attempts at reform. After
Maharashtra state of India. They were fleeing foreign forces in the Boxer Rebel-
carved between the mid-sixth and the tenth lion in 1900, she made some concessions
centuries. The most famous is the Kailasa to reformers but tried to delay the creation
temple, dedicated to Shiva and carved to of a constitutional monarchy.
look like a free-standing structure.
Encomienda
E-maki Spanish sixteenth-century colonial exploi-
Japanese horizontal handscrolls used for tation of native peoples. The encomienda
pictorial purposes. Derived originally system, as sanctioned by the Spanish
from China, they were employed by the crown, was taken from medieval practice:
Japanese from at least the twelfth century A group of Indians in the colonies was
to create a major art form that blended granted to a Spaniard, who had the right
scenes to create a narrative. The most to use them as forced labor or to provide
famous include the Genji Scrolls, telling tribute. The Spaniard was supposed to
the Tale ofGenjh and the Heiji Scroll, de- protect his Indians, provide a priest, and
picting a conflict in 1159 between the defend the colony. The encomienda
Minamoto and Taira families. proved so devastating that native popu-
lations dwindled. The repartimiento was
Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803-1882) an extension of the encomienda in which
American poet and essayist. With a strong Indians had to provide tribute or occa-
New England Puritan background, Emer- sionally provide some work for shorter
son became a Unitarian minister. He was periods.
influenced by the Romantic poets and be-
lieved that God is in every person. Emer- English Calvinists (Puritans). See Calvin-
son became the central figure among a ism; Pilgrims; Puritans
group of New England intellectuals known
as the Transcendentalists that included English Civil War (1642-1649)
Henry David Thoreau. They believed in a War fought between pro-Royalist forces,
free, deep, harmonious life transcending known as Cavaliers, and pro-parliamentary
the mundane and connecting each indi- forces, known as Roundheads. Issues of
vidual with God. Emerson became an the conflict were complex, including com-
ardent abolitionist. plaints against the king, Charles I; the
role of the monarchy; and the role of
Emile. See Rousseau, Jean-Jacques Parliament, as well as social, economic,
and religious differences. The Royalists
Empress Dowager (Ci Xi) (1834-1908) tended to be aristocrats or other old,
Mother of the Chinese emperor Tongzhi landed families or the peasantry, reli-
(r. 1862-1874) and regent for his succes- giously conservative, and from the mid-
sor, Emperor Guangxu (r. 1874-1908). lands or the north and west of England.
EQUIANO, OLAUDAH 111
The Parliamentarians tended to be gentry method. Immanuel Kant called the En-
(middling landowners) or ofthe merchant lightenment mankind's coming of age.
class, religiously Calvinist or Puritan, Trying to understand human institutions
better educated, and from the south and in the same way that Isaac Newton had un-
east of England. The English Civil War derstood the physical universe, Enlight-
ended with the defeat ofthe Royalists, the enment writers, primarily French and
execution of Charles I, and the establish- Scottish, established "natural laws" and prin-
ment of a republic headed by Oliver ciples by which humans think and form
Cromwell, one ofthe generals ofthe army society. Important writers of the Enlight-
for the parliamentary forces. The republic enment include Diderot, Voltaire, Baron
lasted until 1660, when the monarchical Montesquieu, David Hume, and Jean-
line was returned with Charles Fs son Jacques Rousseau. The Enlightenment
Charles II in the Restoration. ideas were put to political effect for the
first time in the establishment ofthe United
English Peasants' Revolt (1381) States and soon afterward in the French
Uprising by peasantry and some urban Revolution. The Declaration of Inde-
laborers. Tensions between landlords and pendence is a prime example of Enlighten-
tenants from changes brought on by the ment thinking.
Black Death starting in 1348; the Statutes
of Laborers of 1351, which froze wages; Enuma Elish
poll taxes imposed between 1377 and Mesopotamian mythological cosmologi-
1381; and losses in the Hundred Years cal text. The Enuma Elish describes the
War with France triggered a revolt in origins of the world as a watery chaos, of
Essex and Kent that moved to London the sea and fresh water under ground. Out
lasted scarcely a month. When the rebels of the mingling of the waters were born
reached London concessions were made to the first gods: Lahmu and Lahamu, the
them, and they were then tricked, their gods of the silt, and Anshar and Kishar,
leaders arrested and executed. The result the gods ofthe horizon. They created Anu,
was a long-lasting dread of peasant upris- the god of heaven, and he created Ea, the
ings in England. god of fresh water. The Enuma Elish estab-
lishes human authority in monarchy as
Enigma the source of order and stability on earth.
German World War II code machine used
to scramble messages sent to and from Epicurus (341-270 B.C.E.)
German U-boats. In a campaign known as Greek philosopher. His philosophy, Epicur-
Ultra, the British captured an Enigma ma- ianism, emphasizes hedonism, or achiev-
chine and broke the code through pains- ing pleasure and avoiding pain, although
taking work at Bletchley Park. Cracking mental pleasure is more highly valued
the code enabled the British to know the than physical pleasure. The ultimate
position of U-boats and win the Battle of pleasure is avoidance of anxiety, fear, and
the Atlantic. grief.
Critics of Eurocentrism argue that it has European Parliament and moved beyond
resulted in a false dichotomy between the EC in agreeing to share foreign policy
East and West that characterizes much and security. Trade barriers among mem-
thought about the world and exaggerates bers have been dropped, and in 1999 the
the importance of Europe and the West in euro replaced the individual currencies of
world history while failing to recognize eleven EU countries. The fifteen original
the achievements and influence of non- member countries are Austria, Belgium,
Western societies. Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Por-
European Community (EC) tugal, Spain, Sweden, the Netherlands, and
Organization of European countries estab- the United Kingdom. In 2004 Cyprus, the
lished in 1967 out of the European Eco- Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,
nomic Community (EEC), the European Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and
Atomic Energy Commission, and the Slovenia were added to the EU, for a total
European Coal and Steel Community. The of twenty-five countries.
EC was committed to the economic and po-
litical union of its member states, Belgium, Exodus. See Book of Exodus
Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, and
the Netherlands. In 1973 Denmark, Ireland, Expressionism
and the United Kingdom were added to the Artistic movement of the early twentieth
EC. In 1981 Greece joined, and in 1986, century. Expressionism stresses the artist's
Portugal and Spain. In 1993 the EC became emotional attitude toward the world,
the European Union (EU). shown through use of vibrant color and
bold distortions of image. Some of the
European Economic Community (EEC) leading expressionist artists were Henri
Organization of six European countries es- Matisse (1869-1954), Georges Rouault
tablished in 1957 by the Treaties of Rome. (1871-1958), and Wassily Kandinsky
(The European Union claims a birth date (1866-1944). After World War I several
of May 9, 1950, the date ofthe first talks of German artists followed the path of ex-
the six countries.) The six countries ofthe pressionism, including George Grosz
EEC were Belgium, Germany, France, (1893-1959) and Max Beckmann (1884-
Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. 1950).
Their areas of cooperation were in agricul-
ture, industry, and trade, with a goal of po- Eyck, Jan van (c. 1390-1441)
litical union. In 1967 the functions ofthe Northern Renaissance Flemish naturalis-
EEC merged with two industrial oversight tic painter. Van Eyck worked in Bruges (in
organizations to form the European Com- modern-day Belgium) using the newly
munity (EC). developed technique of oil painting,
which allowed him to produce paintings
European Union (EU) of greater detail and subtlety. His best-
Political, legal, and economic organization known paintings include the Ghent Altar-
of fifteen countries established in 1993. piece (1432) and Arnolfini Wedding(1434).
The EU replaced the former European Van Eyck's paintings incorporate a great
Community (EC), which in turn had re- number of symbolic items and show
placed the European Economic Com- great detail, such as individual stitches on
munity (EEC). The EU absorbed the clothing or reflections in a mirror.
f
the Sudan from Gabon, and a British force helped to encourage other Chinese as well
under H. H. Kitchener, moving up the as Korean and Japanese Buddhists to make
Nile to recover Khartoum, met. The stand- the pilgrimage to India. He wrote an ac-
off created tensions between the two colo- count of his travels that provides valuable
nial rivals that was resolved when Britain information about conditions in India at
and France reached an agreement demar- that time and some information on South-
cating the Nile and Congo watersheds as east Asia, through which he returned.
their respective spheres of influence.
Fazenda
Fatimid Caliphate Large plantations in Brazil. In the six-
Shia Islamic caliphate that ruled in east- teenth to eighteenth centuries plantations
ern North Africa from 909 to 1171 C.E. worked by slave and free labor were devel-
The Fatimids claimed descent from the oped in Brazil, similar to the plantations of
prophet Muhammad's daughter Fatima, the United States. The owners were typi-
who was the wife of Ali, the fourth caliph. cally of Portuguese descent, and the slaves
The Fatimids formed a rival Shia Islamic were typically black Africans. The crop
caliphate to the Sunni Abbasids, who were most commonly produced in the six-
centered in Baghdad from 763 to 1258. teenth to eighteenth centuries was sugar, re-
The Fatimids conquered Cairo in 969 and placed by coffee in the nineteenth century.
built the al-Azhar mosque and madrassa (a
center for Islamic education; in this case Feltre, Vittorino de
a university) complex that is a highly Humanist and educator of the Italian
renowned locus of Islamic learning. They Renaissance. The humanist vision of a
oversaw the growth of the Nile Valley as classical education was exemplified in
a major trans-hemispheric route between institutions such as the school founded by
the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Vittorino de Feltre in fifteenth-century
Sea and expanded the caliphate to Pales- Italy. The liberal education of the Renais-
tine, Syria, and Arabia. The Fatimids were sance taught students a comprehensive in-
themselves overthrown by Saladin. tellectual curriculum, based on study of
the humanities and the art of rhetoric and
Favelas persuasion. Humanists believed in the
Poorly built shantytowns on the edges of ability of humans to be educated, and
Brazilian cities such as Rio de Janeiro many intellectuals produced tracts dis-
and Sao Paulo. Uncontrolled population cussing educational philosophy. When
growth and industrialization from the Feltre founded his school at Mantua in
1940s saw the beginnings of favelas, but 1423, under the patronage ofthe Gonzaga
they expanded due to a huge population family, it educated the elites of the small
explosion in the 1960s and 1970s during state based on the teachings of classical au-
the industrialization encouraged by the thors such as Cicero and Quintilian.
Brazilian military regime. They continue
to be a problem today. Feminist Movement
Women's rights movement of the 1960s
Faxian (Fa-hsien) (fl. 399-414) and later. Commonly viewed as a reaction
Chinese Buddhist monk and pilgrim to the decreased economic opportunities
noted for his travel to India via Central available to women after the World War II
Asia to study Buddhist sutras. His trip demobilization and the conformity of the
FICINO, MARSILIO 117
1950s, and inspired by the struggle for civil tions westward across the Atlantic. They
rights, the feminist movement has sought had a son and three daughters, including
equality for women in all aspects of Catherine of Aragon, who married Henry
American society. Often dated from the VIII of England and produced Mary I
publication of Betty Friedan's The Femi- (Bloody Mary) of England.
nine Mystique in 1963, the movement pro-
ceeded on several levels. Moderate fem- Fertile Crescent
inists sought improving status through Region of the Middle East that produced
legislation, the courts, and regulatory some of the earliest civilizations. The arc,
action, or through organizations such as or crescent, of territory runs from the Nile
the National Organization for Women delta through Palestine and the Levant
(NOW, formed in 1966). Much effort was westward into Anatolia and southeastward
devoted to the failed attempt to add the through Mesopotamia slightly east of the
Equal Rights Amendment to the U.S. Con- Tigris River. The Fertile Crescent pro-
stitution, and to abortion rights. In the late duced the Egyptian civilization by 3000
1960s more radical feminists sought equal- B.C.E., the Sumerian by 2800 B.C.E., the
ity through the altering ofthe political-eco- Akkadian by 2300 B.C.E., and the Hittite by
nomic system by revolutionary action and 1700 B.C.E., as well as the later Babylo-
by challenging traditional gender relation- nian, Assyrian, and Hebrew civilizations.
ships. Radical feminism faded with a Although now mostly arid, the crescent
conservative backlash ofthe late 1970s and once had plentiful rainfall and fertile, pro-
1980s. Since then, the feminist movement ductive soil. The region had forests; the
has become more global in nature, with precursors of later cereal grains, such as
the United Nations holding four World wild barley and wheat, that became the first
Women's Conferences in the 1980s and cultivated grains by 7000 B.C.E.; and wild
1990s, focusing on political empowerment, sheep and goats that became domesticated.
an end to violence against women, and an
end to poverty. In the United States, the Feudalism
movement has operated largely within The decentralization of power and au-
mainstream politics since the 1980s, making thority into a severe hierarchy of nobil-
progress toward full equality but thus far ity where the subordinate noble (vassal)
falling short of its goals. owed military service to another noble
(lord) in return for protection and land (a
Ferdinand of Aragon (1452-1516) feud or fief). This is known as the lord-
King of a united Spain and initiator ofthe vassal relationship. Feudalism provides
Spanish Inquisition. Ferdinand married security and a structure for gathering a
Isabella, future monarch of Castile, in military force. Because of the many varia-
1469; became king of Aragon in 1479; tions and nuances to the political, social,
united Castile and Aragon in 1481; and and economic relationships of medieval
became king of Castile at Isabella's death Europe, some historians no longer use the
in 1504. He added Granada in 1492 and word feudalism, believing that it leads to
Navarre in 1515. In 1478 Ferdinand re- simplistic views of a complex situation.
ceived a Bull from the pope authorizing a
separate Spanish Inquisition to combat Ficino, Marsilio (1433-1499)
heresy. Ferdinand and Isabella funded Italian Renaissance philosopher, theolo-
Christopher Columbus on his explora- gian, and musician who played a major
118 FIEF
role in the rediscovery of classical learning. northern China at this time. It is also
Ficino translated the works of Plato from known as the Ten Kingdoms period, after
Greek to Latin. A Neoplatonist, he be- the small contemporary regional states that
lieved that philosophy and religion shared ruled southern China. Despite its political
views of good, love, immortality, and instability, the Five Dynasties period was
humanity. Ficino, whose patrons were a time of literary and artistic creativity,
the Medicis, is credited with converting especially in poetry and painting.
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola to Neo-
platonic study. Fincino believed there was Five Nations. See Iroquois; Iroquois,
a hierarchy of beings in the universe. His League of
1482 work Theologia Platonica combined
Platonic philosophy and Christian theology. Five Pillars of Islam. See Islam
Fief Flanders
Land granted as the economic component Region of Northern Europe with highly
within a feudal relationship, given by a developed trade centers in the late Mid-
lord for the military service of his vassal. In dle Ages. Flanders extends along the En-
addition to the fief, the lord provided the glish Channel from present-day France
vassal protection. The vassal was able to through Belgium to the Netherlands. Its
provide a living from the fief by renting rich soils; wool and linen production; and
out parcels of the land to serfs who trade, especially with England, made Flan-
worked it. ders one of the leading trade centers and
most densely populated areas of Europe
Filial Piety in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
One of the three cardinal virtues of the with major Flemish cities of Bruges,
Confucian tradition of East Asia, the other Ghent, Antwerp, and Ypres. Flanders's
two being loyalty between subject and wealth produced a highly developed cul-
ruler, and distinction between men and ture of Flemish art, music, architecture,
women. Of the three, filial piety is gener- and literature. Flanders was ruled by
ally considered the most fundamental to a counts until absorbed into France by
moral order. The bond between parent Napoleon Bonaparte.
and child and the obligation of a person
to a parent was central to ethical teachings Floating World (Ukiyo)
and was often used as a metaphor for the Name for the pleasure and entertainment
ties of mutual obligation that held the quarters of the cities of Japan during the
larger society together. Duty to one's par- Tokugawa period (1603-1867). Ukiyo was
ents was reinforced in China, Korea, and a medieval Japanese Buddhist term de-
Japan with elaborate mourning rituals. scribing the fleeting and sorrowful exis-
tence that is life, but it came to be used
Firearms. See Guns for the Yoshiwara district of Edo (Tokyo),
the Shinmachi district of Osaka, and the
Five Dynasties Shimabara district of Kyoto, which bus-
Period of Chinese history from the fall of tled with brothels, theaters, teahouses, pub-
the Tang dynasty in 907 to the establish- lic baths, and restaurants. These districts
ment of the Song dynasty in 960, named became important centers for Japanese
for the five brief dynasties that ruled culture that produced the dramatic form
FOUR MODERNIZATIONS 119
national defense, and science and technol- and his wife, Battista Sforza, against the
ogy. It was proclaimed by Deng Xiaoping landscape of their dukedom.
after he secured power in 1978 and implied
a rejection or at least a modification of Franciscans (Friars Minor or Grey
Mao Zedong's more ideologically rigid Friars) (f. 1209)
approach to development. Guided by Religious order of Christian monks, origi-
the Four Modernizations, the Chinese nally evangelists, founded by Saint Francis
government pursued a more pragmatic of Assisi. The Franciscans, also known as
approach to development, encouraging Friars Minor or Grey Friars, wandered
foreign investment, privatizing agricul- around Europe preaching a gospel of love,
ture, promoting technical training, and caring for the sick, and begging for their
permitting private businesses and indus- food. They avoided organization, hi-
tries. These policies inaugurated a period erarchy, and buildings of their own. How-
of rapid economic growth in the 1980s ever, the Franciscans were so popular that
and 1990s. they were given money, lands, and build-
ings, making them much like other mo-
Four Noble Truths nastic orders. They became known for
Buddhist premises. In Buddhism there are their scholarship, notably in the fields of
four Noble Truths: (1) the problemthat theology and science.
all is bound up with pain and suffering; (2)
analysis ofthe problemignorance ofthe Francis Joseph (Franz Josef)
fundamental nature of reality is the cause (1830-1916)
of suffering; (3) hope of overcoming the Emperor of Austria (1848-1916) and king
problemcontrol of the senses relieves of Hungary (1867-1916). He became em-
one from the suffering of dying and being peror at age eighteen during the European
reborn to suffer again; and (4) the course revolutions of 1848 and worked to sup-
to followthe Eightfold Path to the elimi- press growing nationalism within his
nation of suffering. The goal in accepting realm. Defeated by the Prussians in 1866,
the Four Noble Truths is nirvana, or he lost influence over Germany, estab-
escape from suffering and reabsorption lished the dual monarchy of Austria-
into the spiritual infinite. Hungary in 1867 to meet Hungarian
nationalist demands, lost territories to
Francesca, Piero della (c. 1420-1492) Italy in its nationalist aspirations, and
Renaissance artist. He was inspired by the aroused Slav resentment in the Balkans.
realism of classical style, and, unlike artists Francis Joseph opposed most social re-
of the Florentine school, whose style ac- forms within his country. The attack on
centuated sweet emotions, rich decora- Serbia after the assassination of the Aus-
tion, and fine detail, Piero focused on trian archduke Francis Ferdinand precipi-
human dignity and the beauty of nature, tated World War I.
which he depicted with a mathematically
accurate perspective. He was popular in Francis of Assisi, Saint (c. 1181-1226)
the courts of Rimini and Urbino, where he Religious leader and founder of the Fran-
was commissioned to paint a portrait of ciscans. Francis was born into a wealthy
the Duke and Duchess of Urbino, which family but gave up his wealth and dedi-
painting ofthe same name depicted the re- cated himself to a life of poverty and ser-
alistic profiles of Federigo da Montefeltro vice to the sick and poor, which brought
FREDERICK II, "THE GREAT" 121
him great honor and respect. In 1209 the modern France and Germany, in the third
pope approved the founding of the Fran- century C.E. and were ruled by the Mero-
ciscans, a monastic order committed to vingian dynasty in the sixth and seventh
following the life of Jesus of Nazareth in centuries and by the Carolingian dynasty
service and simplicity. Francis's life of from the eighth century.
chosen simplicity created a legend of his
friendship with animals. In 1228, only two Franz Josef. See Francis Joseph (Franz
years after his death, Francis was declared Josef)
a saint.
Frederick I, "Barbarossa"
Francis I(1494-1547) (c. 1123-1190)
French king (1515-1547) and authoritar- German king (1152-1190), Holy Roman
ian Renaissance ruler. During his rule Emperor (1155), and leader ofthe Third
France was frequently at war (often in con- Crusade, against Saladin. One of the
tention with the Holy Roman Emperor greatest kings of Germany, Frederick Bar-
Charles V). Francis was an avid patron of barossa ("Red Beard") was a Hohens-
the arts, well illustrated by his support of taufen through his father and a Guelf
Leonardo da Vinci's move to France and through his mother. He was designated to
his project to rebuild the Louvre in Paris. become king of Germany by Conrad III
Much of his reign is also remembered for before his death. Frederick's reign was a
its excesses and heavy spending. constant struggle at home and abroad. He
drowned during the Third Crusade.
Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790)
American diplomat and prominent figure Frederick II (1194-1250)
in the American Revolution; also inter- Holy Roman Emperor (1220-1250) and
nationally known as a scientist, inventor, wonder of the world. Frederick II,
and author. Franklin's inventions include grandson of Frederick I, "Barbarossa,"
the lightning rod and bifocal lenses. His expanded the power of the Holy Roman
Poor Richard's Almanac, written under the Empire and led a Crusade (1228-1229) to
pseudonym Richard Saunders, was ex- the Holy Land that gained Jerusalem,
tremely popular in America. Franklin's Nazareth, and Bethlehem. A brilliant ad-
contributions as a statesman were also ministrator and military leader, Frederick
great; his relations with the French during was in almost continuous conflict with the
the American Revolution had the result of papacy and parts of Italy, and by the
securing France's financial and military time of his death German states were in
assistance. He also was a member of the revolt. He left a legacy of disintegration.
Second Continental Congress, a signer of
the Declaration of Independence, and Frederick II, "the Great" (1712-1786)
served as the first postmaster general ofthe King of Prussia (1740-1786) and devotee
United States. of French culture. Frederick centralized
government, promoted progress in agri-
Franks culture and industry, and became known
Germanic tribe that moved into the as an enlightened despot. He expanded
Roman Empire and established an endur- Prussia through wars with Austria and
ing kingdom. The Franks first moved into allied with Britain and Hanover against
Gaul in the Roman Empire, between France, Russia, Austria, Spain, Sweden,
122 FREDERICK WILLIAM
and Saxony in the Seven Years' War 1717 to form the Grand Lodge, and the
(1756-1763). Frederick, an intellectual, Freemasons spread around the world.
promoted religious toleration at home, Many prominent men have been Freema-
although he ruled as absolute monarch. sons, such as George Washington and
However, Frederick the Great did not be- Benjamin Franklin. Fear that the Freema-
lieve in the divine right of kingship but, sons were involved in the American Revo-
rather, in being the first servant of the lution and the French Revolution led to
state. anti-Masonic movements in the nine-
teenth century.
Frederick William (1620-1688)
The "Great Elector" (1640-1688) of Bran- French and Indian War. See Seven
denburg who laid the foundations for the Years' War
military greatness of Prussia. He came to
power during the last eight years of the French Revolution (1789-1815)
Thirty Years' War, fighting Louis XIV of Revolution that began in France with the
France and Charles XI of Sweden. After the overthrow of the Bourbon monarchy
war he rebuilt ruined Brandenburg, im- and spread throughout Europe. Financial
proving its infrastructure and military. At problems; conflict between the aristoc-
his death his son became Frederick racy and the crown for control of the
William I, king of a prosperous and well- parlements (courts); and the spread of
run Prussia. bourgeois ideas of the Enlightenment,
such as broadening the electorate, all put
Frederick William I (1688-1740) pressure on the crown. When the king
First king of Prussia (1713-1740) and called the Estates General in 1789, the fail-
builder of Prussian power. An absolute ure to grant the Third Estate wider powers
ruler, Frederick William I dominated an led to the establishment of the National
efficient government and a large, pow- Assembly. When people of Paris stormed
erful, and well-trained military. Son of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, the French
Frederick William, the "Great Elector," Revolution had begun. Its motto became
Frederick William I made Prussia a major "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity." In
military player in European politics. August the ancien regime was dismantled;
in September Louis XVI was reduced to
Freemasons a constitutional officer; in 1790 church
Fraternal organization called the "Free and lands were confiscated; in 1791 a constitu-
Accepted Masons." The Freemasons are tion was passed; and in 1792 France de-
known for their secrecy and elaborate ritu- clared war on Austria and the Reign of
als. Probably originating as a guild of free Terror began, in which thousands were ex-
(independent) masons in the Middle Ages, ecuted as enemies of the revolution. In
by the seventeenth century the fraternity 1793 the king was guillotined and France
included "accepted" masonsindividuals was ruled by the Convention and the
who had no training as masons. They Committee of Public Safety while the
were interested in Neoplatonic mysticism, war against France expanded to include
which may have had ties to the Knights Austria, Prussia, Britain, Spain, and Portu-
Templar or the Rosicrucians. The organi- gal. In 1795 the Convention was dissolved
zation was influential during the Enlight- and replaced by the Directory. In 1799
enment. Four lodges in London merged in Napoleon Bonaparte made himself first
FROISSART, JEAN 123
consul of a three-man consulship, and the state remaining Catholic, thereby ending
wars continued successfully for France. the Wars of Religion.
Between 1801 and 1803 there was peace,
while in 1802 Napoleon declared himself Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939)
first consul for life. In 1804 Napoleon Austrian physician, psychologist, and
crowned himself emperor of the French founder of psychoanalysis. Freud's view of
and defeated most ofthe European powers the human psycheof the id, ego, and
and built his Grand Empire with Napole- superegohas influenced all subsequent
onic law and the Continental System. In psychology. His psychoanalysis created the
1812 Napoleon's French army invaded understanding that humans can become ill
Russia, but the fierce winter thwarted them. psychologically, be treated with therapy,
In 1814 Napoleon was defeated and exiled and be healed. He built his fame on the
to the island of Elba. In 1815 he escaped, treatment of psychiatric disorders, es-
returned to France, and raised an army that pecially on the belief that most behavior
was defeated by a coalition army under the is the result of primitive desires such as sex.
duke of Wellington at Waterloo. Napoleon These desires in the id are mediated by the
was exiled for life to the south Atlantic ego, which struggles to control the desires
island of Saint Helena. Historians now within the constraints of society. The
sometimes extend the French Revolution to struggle between the id and the ego can
include the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 cause physical and mental problems. In
because the 1789-1815 revolution failed to recent years Freud's theories have been
produce a republican government. criticized, but his influence has changed
the understanding of human nature and
French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) human interactions.
Series of civil conflicts between French Friars
Huguenots (Calvinists) and Catholics Term meaning "brothers" applied to the
during the Reformation. The conflicts had mendicant, or begging, orders of Chris-
as much to do with the possible successors tian monks. Materialism in the thirteenth
to the French throne as with religion. In century among traditional monastic or-
1559 the French Calvinists met in their ders led to the establishment of orders
first general synod. Eventually the religion such as the Franciscans, Dominicans, Au-
spread to 2,000 churches. In 1560 the new gustinians, and Carmelites who adopted
king, Charles IX, was only ten years old, the practice of poverty and begging for
and in 1562 he was unable to halt the their food to renounce worldly posses-
country's slide into civil war. The Hu- sions. This simplicity caused mendicants
guenots were outnumbered and losing to be known as friars rather than as monks.
battles but remained on the offensive. In
the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre Froissart, Jean (c. 1337-1410)
of 1572 Catholics throughout France French historian and poet. Author of The
killed thousands of Huguenots because of Chronicles of France, England, Scotland,
the fear of a Huguenot takeover of govern- and Spain, describing the period from
ment. In 1594 the French king Henry IV 1325 to 1400. Froissart's firsthand and re-
converted to Catholicism, and in 1598 he searched history of the Hundred Years
issued the Edict of Nantes, a compro- War is still used by historians although
mise allowing the Huguenots freedom of often inaccurate. Froissart is best in his
worship (except in Paris), but with the descriptions of personalities.
124 FROND
conventions in 1907, 1929, and 1949 have lady, that depicts life and mores in the
been ratified by the majority of world Heian court of Japan. A work of great psy-
states and other organizations, while the chological subtlety, it has been considered
1977 convention has been ratified by far by Japanese critics as Japan's greatest liter-
fewer states (the United States has not rati- ary masterpiece and is one of the world's
fied it). The Geneva Conventions address first novels. It represents and depicts the
the treatment of prisoners of war and the refinement of the small imperial court-
protection of civilians and prohibit depor- centered elite in Japan at that time, and the
tation, torture, hostage-taking, collective unique role of women, who produced
punishment, and the use of chemical or bi- much of the best literature of the period.
ological weapons.
Genro (Japanese for "Senior
Genghis Khan (Chinggis Khan) Councillors")
(c. 1162-1227) Seven Japanese advisors from Satsuma and
Warrior who united the Mongol and Choshu who unofficially became the chief
Turkic tribes and created the Mongol advisors to the Emperor Meiji and there-
empire. Born Temuchin, in 1206 he was fore were the power behind the throne.
given the title Genghis Khan ("Universal The Genro alternated as ministers in the
Ruler") by a kuriltai ("assembly") of all first several cabinets (1890-1917). They
the tribes. He then conquered the Xi Xia include Inoue Kaoru, Ito Hirobumi,
state in Central Asia, partially conquered Kuroda Kiyotaka, Matsukata Masayoshi,
the Jin in northern China by 1215, and by Oyama Iwoa, Saigo Tsugumichi, and Ya-
1221 had brought Khorezm in Turkestan magata Aritomo. They were joined by
under his rule, thus ruling most of north- Katsura Taro and Saionji Kinmochi, who
ern China and the eastern and central were called the Later Genro.
steppe. Genghis Khan was the greatest
steppe empire builder up to his time and a Geography/Topography
master military strategist who made effec- Important factor in shaping history.
tive use of military intelligence and psy- Some historians emphasize geographical
chological terror to defeat his enemies. His determinismthe idea that geography is
success was also due to his remarkable or- the single most important factor in shap-
ganizational genius and his willingness to ing world history. Strict geographic deter-
borrow and adapt skills and methods from minists believe that "geography is destiny,"
his neighbors. He developed administra- but this extreme stance is no longer
tive and taxation systems partly based on common. In recent years environmental
Chinese models and employed Chinese geography (ecology or climate as single
siege devices. Genghis Khan established a most important factor) and biogeography
system of laws and an alphabet for writing (physical geography plus germs and genes)
Mongolian. After he died his empire was have become more popular variants of
divided into four khanates. Genghis's geographical determinism.
grandson Khubilai Khan conquered all of
China in 1279. George III(1738-1820)
King of the United Kingdom of Great
Genji, Tale of Britain and Ireland during the American
Japanese novel written around the year Revolution, the French Revolution, and
1000 by Lady Murasaki Shikibu, a court the Napoleonic Wars. George was also
GHAZNI, KINGDOM OF 129
elector, and later king, of Hanover. English Berlin. They wanted free access to infor-
to the core, he tried to restore authority mation, the right to dissent with the gov-
and respectability to the crown. The ernment, the right to travel, and the right
American Revolution was a blow to his to affect politics. These demonstrations
hopes; however, the Napoleonic Wars forced East Germany to open the wall on
proved Britain's naval might. Bouts of in- November 9, 1989. Chancellor Helmut
sanity hindered George's reign, and in Kohl of West Germany announced his Ten
1810 the insanity became permanent. His Points Plan for the eventual unification of
son, the future George IV, was proclaimed Germany. In March 1990 East Germany
prince regent in 1811. held free elections. On July 1, 1990, East
and West Germany formed a monetary,
Germania. See Tacitus, P. Cornelius social, and political union and ended all
travel restrictions. Reunified Germany con-
Germanic Tribes tinues to struggle with residual problems.
Linguistically related tribes including Unemployment in eastern Germany is twice
the Alemmani, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, as high as unemployment in the west, and
Burgundians, Franks, Ostrogoths, Visi- technology and education lag behind.
goths, and Vandals who invaded the West.
Germanic tribes began to enter the Roman Ghana
Empire in the second and third centuries Kingdom ofthe western Sudan grasslands
C.E., some being absorbed into the empire. of Africa in the sixth to thirteenth centu-
By the fifth century the Germanic tribes ries. Ghana was to the north and west of
had helped to break up the empire in the the present-day state of Ghana (and unre-
West, and several of them, such as the lated historically). It was a major inter-
Franks and the Visigoths, had established mediary in the trans-Saharan trade route
their own kingdoms. of gold and ivory from the upper Senegal-
Niger region to the Mediterranean Sea. Its
German Peasants' War. See Peasants' War capital and major commercial center was
Kumbi-Saleh. Islam was introduced to
German Reunification Ghana by the eleventh century, but tradi-
The uniting of East Germany and West tional religions remained important. In
Germany. On October 3, 1990, East and 1076 the Almoravids invaded Ghana,
West Germany officially reunited after de- sacked Kumbi-Saleh, and imposed control
cades of existence as two separate nations, over the kingdom. This weakened Ghana,
one communist and the other democratic. and as it declined it was replaced by the
From the beginning, West Germany had a empire of Mali in the thirteenth century.
better economy than East Germany, and in
the 1950s East Germans began leaving for Ghazni, Kingdom of
the West by the thousands through di- Large but not well integrated medieval
vided Berlin. East Germany began build- Islamic principality centered on the city of
ing the Berlin Wall in 1961. This state Ghazna (or Ghazni) in eastern Afghani-
of enforced separation lasted until 1989. stan. It originated with a Turkish slave
That May Hungary opened its borders to garrison led by Sebuktegin (r. 976-997)
Austria, and East Germans began moving that became independent of the Iranian
to Hungary. By October millions of people Samanid dynasty. Sebuktegin's son Mahmud
were demonstrating in the streets of East (r. 998-1030) was responsible for greatly
130 GHENGHIS KHAN
expanding the empire's boundaries and from the city of Uruk in Sumer was written
prestige by repeatedly invading north around 2000 B.C.E. Gilgamesh is the first
India. The wealth gained in these forays hero in world literature. In the epic a great
attracted a number of Persian literati to flood obliterates the human race except for
Ghazna, such as Firdawsi, who wrote the a favored family who survive it by building
epic Shahnama. In addition to beginning an ark, similar to the biblical flood of Noah.
the Islamization process in north India, As in the Bible story, this family is the
the Ghaznavids bequeathed the Persian source of all subsequent people. The Epic of
language as a means of cultural expres- Gilgamesh, although placed in history, is
sion and bureaucratic recording, refined not a history ofthe time, but rather a sym-
by later Muslim rulers in South Asia such bolic or creation story.
as the Mughals.
Giotto (Giotto di Bondone)
Ghenghis Khan. See Genghis Khan (1267/75-1337)
(Chinggis Khan) Tuscan painter and architect who was a
student of Cimabue and contributed
greatly to the artistic development of the
Ghent
early Renaissance. The naturalistic style
Prominent medieval commercial city in
Giotto used in his narrative cycles to depict
Flanders. Ghent was the residence of the
human drama, emotion, realism, and per-
counts of Flanders and by the thirteenth
spective (by using architecture, color, and
century became the major textile center of
light) represented a milestone in regard to
Europe and one of the largest cities in
the stylistic changes that would come to
northern Europe along with Bruges and
define the art of the Renaissance period.
Antwerp. In the fifteenth century Ghent's
independence and commercial promi-
Giza, Pyramids of. See Pyramids of Giza
nence were curtailed.
(Egypt)
slaves but sometimes volunteerswho James II in 1688 and crowned his daugh-
were paid to fight. ter Mary II and her husband William
III, prince of Orange and stadholder of
Gladstone, William Ewart (1809-1898) the Netherlands, as the joint monarchs
British prime minister (1868-1874, 1880- William and Mary. James was a Catholic
1885,1886, and 1892-1894) and statesman. and William and Mary were Protestants.
Gladstone was a member of the Liberal James fled to France, ending the Stuart
Party who occupied the office of prime monarchy. In 1689 the Bill of Rights was
minister for most ofthe late nineteenth cen- passed. It obligated the monarchy to
tury. His archrival was Benjamin Disraeli. govern with Parliament; prohibited the
Gladstone and the Liberals stood for the monarchy from arbitrarily taxing and from
middle class and fought for social and polit- keeping a standing army; and provided for
ical reforms including the introduction of free speech, free elections, and regular
elementary education. He pushed unsuc- meetings of Parliamentprimarily rights
cessfully for Irish Home Rule. ofthe nobility and upper class.
argued for education and equality for writer, Goethe was Europe's most cele-
women. Her ideas were radical for their brated writer in the early nineteenth
time. She left England for France during century.
the French Revolution because of its call
for equality. She married William Godwin, Golden Age
an English social reformer. An imagined period of ease and peaceful
life in the distant past; or, a term meant
Goebbels, Joseph (1897-1945) to designate a historical peak. Both the
German Nazi politician and head of pro- Greeks and the Romans wrote of a golden
paganda for the Nazi government. Goeb- age when people did not have to work for
bels joined the Nazi Party in 1926 and their food and lived together in harmony.
became one of Adolf Hitler's strongest The concept of a golden age was used to
supporters. He designed the means to contrast with the struggle for existence in
spread the Nazi philosophy and to manip- contemporary life and to suggest that if
ulate the masses into support for anti- problems were solved the golden age could
Semitism and war. He and his wife killed be regained. In historical literature, the
their six children and then committed sui- term golden age indicates a period when a
cide in a bunker in Berlin in 1945. civilization or culture was at a peak, such
as the seventeenth-century golden age of
Goering, Hermann Wilhelm Dutch history.
(1893-1946)
German Nazi who was second in com- Golden Horde
mand to Adolf Hitler. Goering became Mongol khanate of the western Kipchaks
Reich Marshal and commanded the (1242-1480) who ruled the region from
Luftwaffe (the German air force) and the the lower Volga River to the Dnieper River
German armaments industry. He at- and claimed control over all of Russia. The
tempted to have the Luftwaffe subdue name is derived from the Mongol word
Britain in the Battle of Britain but failed, ordos (meaning "army" or "camp"), and
and he again failed in his attempt to thwart "golden" refers to the magnificent camp of
an invasion of the Continent by Allied the khanate's founder, Batu Khan. The
forces. At the end of World War II nomadic-warrior state was governed by a
Goering was found guilty of war crimes at mix of Mongols and Turkic-speaking
the Niirnberg Trials, but he committed Kipchaks and eventually established its
suicide with poison just before he was headquarters at Sarai, on the Volga River.
scheduled to be hanged. It required the princes of Russia to pay
tribute until it was defeated by Ivan III of
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von Moscow in 1480. The Russians refer to the
(1749-1832) period when they were forced to pay trib-
German writer and scientist. Goethe's ute to the Golden Horde as the "Tartar
play Faust (1832) is one ofthe most influ- Yoke."
ential in modern literature. A brilliant
poet, Goethe became a major writer ofthe Gold Standard
German Romantic movement. His novel Monetary system in which a fixed amount
The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774) made of gold is the standard by which other
him famous. He also completed studies of currencies are set. The gold standard was
geology, botany, and zoology. A prolific first used by Great Britain in 1821, followed
GOTHS 133
by France, Germany, and the United New Testament written by Jesus's disci-
States in the 1870s. The gold standard can ples or their immediate followers between
work when gold is relatively plentiful. 60 and 90 C.E. The first threeMatthew,
The gold standard was dropped several Mark, and Lukeare so similar that they
timesduring World War I, the Great are called "synoptic Gospels" because
Depression, and World War IIbut re- they can be viewed together. The gospel of
established afterward. In the 1970s most John, though following the same general
countries moved away from the gold chronology, possesses a distinctive style
standard. and content. (2) The basic Christian mes-
sage, centering on the life, teachings,
Gold Trade death, and resurrection of Jesus of Naza-
The movement of gold from one region of reth and the offer of forgiveness and eter-
the world to another. Often referring to nal life to those who believe in him.
the enormous movement of gold from the
New World to Europe in the sixteenth and
Gothic Architecture
seventeenth centuries, the gold trade was
European medieval design begun in the
also important throughout the Middle
twelfth century by Abbot Suger at Saint-
Ages, from western Africa in the south to
Denis (1137-1144) near Paris; one ofthe
the Mediterranean coast. European ex-
great achievements of the Middle Ages.
ploration in the fifteenth and sixteenth
Gothic architecture incorporated ribbed
centuries was driven by the desire for gold.
vaulting, pointed (rather than rounded)
In Roman times the gold trade was from
arches, flying buttresses, and large stained
southern France and Spain to Italy until
glass windows. The buttressing supported
the first century, when most of the gold
the tall buildings and enabled the walls to
trade was from the Balkans. Greece was
be opened into windows that brought in
always short of gold, and much of its gold
more light. The total effect was of soaring
trade was from Macedonia. With the
inspirationthe eyes of a viewer move
European exploration and conquest of
upwardsuggesting an earthy manifesta-
the New World, the gold trade moved
tion of God's heaven. Even the exterior was
from the Western Hemisphere to Europe
symbolic of the heavenly realm, with soar-
and Asia.
ing towers, spires, and pinnacles. By the
thirteenth century Gothic design had spread
Good Emperors (96-180)
to the rest of Europe, as seen in brilliant ex-
Roman emperors following the Flavians,
amples such as Notre Dame Cathedral
known for their outstanding abilities. The
(Paris), Westminster Abbey (London), and
emperors Nerva (96-98), Trajan (98-117),
Cologne Cathedral. Many Gothic cathedrals
Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus (138-
took 50 to 100 years to build.
161), and Marcus Aurelius (161-180)
were related as adopted sons, one after
the other. Goths
Germanic tribe that moved into the Black
Gospel Sea region around 200 C.E. and in the third
From Old English godspell ("good news"), century C.E. moved to the edges of the
a translation ofthe Latin evangelium, itself Roman Empire. In the fourth century the
a Greek word meaning "good news." (1) Goths accepted Arian Christianity. They di-
One of four books at the beginning of the vided into East Goths (Ostrogoths), who
134 GOVERNMENT/POLITICS
settled in lower Russia, and West Goths by an alliance of England, the United
(Visigoths). The Ostrogoths were overrun Provinces ofthe Netherlands, the Austrian
by the Huns in the late fourth century, Habsburgs, Sweden, Spain, Savoy, and
but the Visigoths moved westward into several German principalities. The Neth-
the Roman Empire, destroying a Roman erlands stood in the way of French aggres-
army in the Battle of Adrianople (378) sion, and in 1688 William of Orange,
in Dalmatia. The Visigoths, under King stadholder of the Netherlands, became
Alaric, sacked the city of Rome (410) King William III of England in the
and then moved westward and established Glorious Revolution. He brought England
a kingdom stretching from southern into continental affairs by coalition with
France through Spain. Shortly after 711 those states and thus began a protracted
Muslims of the Umayyad Caliphate off-and-on struggle between France and
conquered the Visigothic kingdom in England that would last for 125 years.
Spain.
Grand Canal
Government/Politics
1,100-mile (1,700-km) canal in China, the
A basic subject of study by world histori-
world's longest. The southern part of the
ans. A government can be broadly defined
canal was completed about 610 by the Sui
as a system of authority of a people and ter-
dynasty rulers to transport grain from the
ritory not based entirely on kinship units.
fertile Yangtze River to their capitals of
Politics is an activity related to the struc-
Kaifeng and Luoyang in the Yellow River
ture and distribution of power within a
basin. The northern section of the canal
state. In recent decades historians have
fell into disuse, but in the later thirteenth
tended to focus more on nonpolitical
century the canal was extended to the
subjects such as technology, economics,
Yuan (Mongol) capital of Beijing. The
family, and gender but continue to be con-
canal greatly facilitated interregional trade
cerned with government and politics.
in China, contributing to what has become
known by some historians as China's medi-
Granada
eval "commercial revolution." It is still in
Province of southern Spain that was the
use today.
last European region of Islam in the fif-
teenth century. As the Moorish kingdom
of Granada, it was the final stronghold of Grand Empire
the Moors in Spain, falling to the Catholic French Napoleonic empire after 1804. In
monarchs Ferdinand II and Isabella in 1804 the Empire of France was pro-
1492. When Granada fell, the reconquest claimed and Napoleon Bonaparte made
of Spain for Catholicism was complete, its emperor, with the crown to descend to
and Ferdinand and Isabella could put their male heirs. Having already annexed
energies and money elsewhere. In that Tuscany, Piedmont, Genoa, and the
same year they supported the expedition Rhineland into France, Napoleon made
by Christopher Columbus to attempt to his brother Louis king of Holland, his
reach the East by sailing west. brother Jerome king of Westphalia, his
stepson Eugene Beauharnais king of
Grand Alliance, War ofthe (1689-1697) Italy, and his brother Joseph king of
The third major French war of Louis XIV. Spain, and he granted the Grand Duchy
France's expansionist plans were blocked of Warsaw to his ally the king of Saxony.
GREAT POTATO FAMINE 135
When Napoleon divorced Josephine and Great Depression. See Depression, Great
in 1810 married the Austrian princess
Marie-Louise, nearly all of Europe was in
Great Exhibition of 1851
his grasp.
The first world's fair. The Great Exhibition
of the Works of Industry of All Nations
Great Awakening was held in Hyde Park, London, where the
An evangelical revival of religion, begun in Crystal Palace was constructed to hold ex-
England and which spread to America. In hibits from around the world. The Great
England the movement's leader was John Exhibition was really held to show off
Wesley, who founded Methodism out of Britain as the workshop of the world, al-
the Anglican Church. One of the move- though there was technology from many
ment's greatest preachers was George countries, such as the sewing machine
Whitefield. They carried the movement to from the United States. Britain did have
America, where in the 1730s and 1740s more than half the 13,000 exhibits. The
(the First Great Awakening) and the later entire exhibition was planned and the
nineteenth century (the Second Great enormous Crystal Palace erected of iron
Awakening) the Great Awakening trans- and glass within one year.
formed the religious climate. Starting with
Jonathan Edwards and exploding with
George Whitefield in 1739, evangelical Great Fear
"fire and brimstone" sermons were Mass hysteria in France after the start of
preached across the colonies with moving the French Revolution on July 14, 1789. A
descriptions of damnation and God's rumor spread throughout much of France
grace. The First Great Awakening split the that "brigands" were coming as part of
colonists between two religious camps, some counterrevolutionary plot to save
one based upon Enlightenment logic, and the aristocracy and feudal order.
the new, evangelical one, on emotions.
The Second Great Awakening started
Great Leap Forward (1958-1961)
around 1800 and began at colleges in the
Name of China's failed five-year economic
eastern United States, such as Yale, and
plan launched by Mao Zedong to rapidly
spread to the South and the West, The first
develop the Chinese economy. It empha-
camp meetings were held in Kentucky by sized organizing the countryside into com-
Presbyterians and were soon imitated by munes in which peasants would greatly
Methodists and Baptists. increase agricultural production and
would produce steel in backyard steel mills
in both the countryside and cities. The
Great Britain
policy attempted to rely on revolutionary
Name used for England and Scotland after
fervor and socialist and nationalist ideals
the Act of Union in 1707. The two nations
to achieve feats of production rather than
were amalgamated into the Kingdom of
on technical expertise. It was a disastrous
Great Britain, and the Union Jack (merg-
failure that resulted in a famine in which
ing the flags of Saint George and Saint
an estimated 20-30 million people died,
Andrew) became its flag. Ireland was
temporarily discrediting Mao's policies.
added as a separate Act of Union in 1800
(and the flag of Saint Patrick was added to
the Union Jack). Great Potato Famine. See Potato Famine
136 GREAT PROLETARIAN CULTURAL REVOLUTION
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution tribal peoples. During the Zhou period a
(1966-1976) number of fortified walls were constructed
Decade-long attempt by Mao Zedong to by northern Chinese states. These were
purify the Chinese Communist Party and unified and extended by the Qin emperor
Chinese society. Mao used the Cultural Shi Huangdi in the late third century B.C.E.
Revolution to remove leaders who he There was never a single wall, as widely be-
thought had nonrevolutionary tendencies. lieved, but elaborate fortifications and
Schools were closed, and millions of young protective walls that were built and rebuilt
men and women were organized as Red by various dynasties over the next 2,000
Guards. Drilled in the ideas of Mao as pre- years. Some dynasties did not use protec-
sented in the Little Red Book of his selected tive walls at all. The present Great Wall was
quotations they attacked so-called bour- largely constructed by the Ming rulers in
geois and revisionist elements in society. the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. After
Mao apparently sought to recapture the the expansion of the Chinese empire into
fervor ofthe early years ofthe revolutions. Mongolia by the Qing rulers in the seven-
The most violent phase ended in 1969, but teenth and eighteenth centuries, the Great
the attempt to promote his radical policies Wall ceased to have any useful function.
continued to his death in 1976. His suc- It has served, perhaps inaccurately, as a
cessors quickly abandoned the campaign, symbol of China's isolation.
which had resulted in a setback in China's
efforts at modernization and the loss of Great War. See World War I
much ofthe nation's cultural heritage.
Great Zimbabwe (1100-1450)
Great Pyramids of Giza. See Pyramids of Capital of medieval Zimbabwe and largest
Giza (Egypt) Iron Age site in southern Africa. A huge
enclosure, 31 feet (9.5 m) high and more
Great Schism (1378-1415) than 800 feet (245 m) in circumference, of
Division ofthe papacy ofthe Roman Cath- granite blocks is the most distinctive
olic Church with two and even three popes feature of Great Zimbabwe. The name
concurrently. When Urban VI was elected Zimbabwe means "houses of stone."
pope in 1378 his actions were so abusive Stone towers, entrances, and numerous
that they precipitated the Great Schism artifacts indicate a civilization of con-
wherein a second pope was elected but siderable importance. The economy
Urban remained. Urban resided in Rome included farming and cattle raising. Great
while the other pope was in Avignon, Zimbabwe was an important part of the
France. This continued until 1409, when a gold trade. Imported items from as far
council met to resolve the situation and away as Ming China have been found
elected yet a third pope. In 1415 a council there, indicating that Zimbabwe was con-
accepted the resignation of one pope, de- nected with trade routes on the east coast
posed the other two, and elected one new of Africa. Great Zimbabwe was also a reli-
pope. gious center. Other smaller complexes of
stone buildings are scattered throughout
Great Wall the Zimbabwe plateau and surrounding
Term for the series of fortifications along areas. Great Zimbabwe, with a popula-
the northern border of China built as a tion of approximately 10,000, was occu-
protection against warlike Central Asian pied between the eleventh and fifteenth
GREGORY OF TOURS 137
centuries, although settlement there can (states) ending the classical period in
be traced back as far as 200 B.C.E. It was 338 B.C.E.
abandoned due to a long drought, warfare,
and an influx of and plundering by a war- Greece, Dark Ages (c. 1100-776 B.C.E.)
like people. Period after the collapse of Mycenaean
Greece. The period witnessed a near col-
Greece, Archaic (776-479 B.C.E.) lapse of Greek culture including literacy,
Period of ancient Greek revival. Homer hence the term Dark Ages. Writing as evi-
wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey approxi- dence of Greek civilization disappeared.
mately 750 B.C.E., but 776 B.C.E. is the con- However, during this period the popula-
ventional date for the beginning of historical tion expanded with new settlements, and
Greece, the date ofthe first Olympic Games. Greeks discovered the use of iron.
Around this time Greek Iron Age civiliza-
tion began to recover and expand. Coloni- Greece, Hellenistic (323-31 B.C.E.)
zation spread Greeks throughout the Period of Greek history after the death of
Mediterranean region. Towns contained Alexander the Great and before rule by the
civic buildings, an agora (an open meeting Romans. It was not a unified period but
place that doubled as a market), and an was marked by a succession of rulers and
acropolis (a citadel for defense), all indi- empires. The Ptolemies and the Seleucids
cating the importance ofthe people ofthe ruled for much of this period, until the
community even though each polis (state) Romans conquered the region in 146 B.C.E.
was ruled by an aristocracy. In archaic and supervised Greece through governors
Greece wealthy commoners struggled for of Macedonia.
political participation. After a lengthy civil
war (545-508) Cleisthenes established Greece, Mycenaean (c. 1400-1100 B.C.E.)
democracy. Aristocratic, Bronze Age civilization in the
southern Greek peninsula (Peloponnese)
Greece, Classical (480-323 B.C.E.) and Aegean Sea. The Iliad and the Odyssey
High point of ancient Greek civilization. of Homer tell stories of Mycenaean Greece
In 480 B.C.E., Persia, under Xerxes I, at- (although written around 750 B.C.E.). The
tacked Athens with an army of 150,000 Mycenaean period was noted for its aristo-
transported in 700 ships. The Athenians cratic society and warfare (as in the Iliad)
raised a navy of 200 ships and an army of and for its palace-fortresses. The Mycenaean
9,000. With little chance of success, the era came to a fairly abrupt end from either
Athenians outsmarted the Persians and internal warfare or invasions.
won the Persian War. The Athenians re-
built their city with great exuberance Greek and Persian Wars. See Persian
because of the new faith in humankind's Wars; Plataea, Battle of; Salamis, Battle of
ability to accomplish great things if people
worked together and used their intelli- Greek Orthodox. See Eastern Orthodox
gence. Buildings were monumental, sculp- Church
ture celebrated the glory of humankind
(primarily men), and Athens exploded Gregory of Tours (d. 594)
into a golden age. The Athenians' later Bishop and author of a history of the
conflict with Sparta would lead to the Franks. Gregory helped to maintain the
eventual deterioration of both poleis Roman Catholic Church during a difficult
138 GREGORY I, "THE GREAT"
time in European history. He wrote several fought against capitalism and free mar-
works of history and on church functions kets. He tried to establish a common cause
and is renowned for his History of the among peoples struggling against imperi-
Franks, about a period otherwise little alism and wanted to influence the Cuban
documented. population to desire moral rather than
material incentives. Due to the revolu-
Gregory I, "the Great" (540-604) tion's success in Cuba from the use of gue-
Pope (590-604), encourager of monasti- rilla tactics, Guevara hoped to spread the
cism and missionary work, and refor- idea of revolution using the same type of
mer ofthe Roman Catholic Church. Greg- strategies to other countries.
ory sent Augustine of Canterbury as a
missionary to convert Britain, spread mo-
nasticism throughout Europe, and Guild (Gild)
changed much ofthe liturgy ofthe church, Organization or grouping of individuals in
which became the standard for the rest of a specific craft or for religious and social
the Middle Ages. Gregory also wrote sev- purposes. Guilds first developed in Europe
eral important books that served as guides in the thirteenth century and in Japan in
for pastoral care and a history of the the sixteenth century. Craft guilds set reg-
church. Gregory is known as one of the ulations, determined who could join by re-
church fathers. quiring apprenticeships, and required that
to become a master a member had to
Guerrilla (Spanish for "little war") complete a masterpiece. These regulations
A person fighting in irregular fashion, limited the number of members and en-
often independently, instead of in an orga- sured the quality of products so that incomes
nized massed army with traditional maneu- were protected. The larger the town, the
vers; also, or the warfare of these people. more specialized the trades and the more
The term was coined during the Napo- guilds there were. Goldsmiths, weavers,
leonic War in Spain (1807-1814), when the dyers, fishmongers, brewers, and wheel-
Spanish citizenry fought minor confronta- wrights were typical guilds. Paris in the late
tions and harassed the French armies to Middle Ages had more than 120 guilds.
keep them from gaining a complete victory.
The technique was used before that time, Guillotine
but it later became a recognized form of Execution device that decapitates; devel-
warfare that was effective when fought on
oped by Joseph Guillotin, a revolutionary
the guerrillas' home territory against an
during the French Revolution and a
otherwise overpowering enemy.
member ofthe Constituent Assembly. Al-
though similar devices had been used in
Guevara, Ernesto "Che" (1928-1967)
Scotland and elsewhere, the guillotine was
Avid supporter of the Cuban revolution-
adopted in France in 1791 as the most
ary Left during the 1950s. In 1956 he
humane method of execution. After some
joined Fidel Castro in his takeover of the
initial problems, the guillotine became
Fulgencio Batista regime in Cuba. During
the 1960s, Guevara created the Four-Year the most used instrument, including on
Plan, which called for industrialization of King Louis XVI.
Cuba to diversify away from sugar, but the
end goal was never accomplished. He also Gulf War. See Iraq War (1991)
GUO 139
B.C.E.)it referred to the six or seven states (1617) and warred with Poland (1626-
that contended for power. 1629). In 1630 he led Lutheran Sweden
into the Thirty Years' War in Germany,
Guomindang (Kuomintang) opposing the Catholic powers. His ar-
The Nationalist Party of China (also called mies won a major victory at Breitenfeld,
the KMT) founded by Sun Yat-sen and and Gustavus met and defeated General
Song Jiaoren in 1912. It replaced Sun's ear- Albrecht von Wallenstein in the Battle of
lier Revolutionary Alliance. The party ide- Liitzen but was himself killed in battle.
ology was the Three People's Principles: Gustavus, with his chancellor Oxenstierna,
nationalism, democracy, and "people's reformed Swedish politics and made
livelihood." After Sun Yat-sen died in 1925 Stockholm the capital of Sweden.
his successor as party leader, Chiang Kai-
shek, launched the Northern Expedition Gutenberg, Johannes (c. 1400-1468)
from the party's southern stronghold in German credited with being the first Euro-
1926 and by 1928 had established a loose pean to print with a movable-type printing
control over most of China. Following press, around 1445. Gutenberg cast type,
the Guomindang's defeat by the commu- or individual letters, in metal and arranged
nists in 1949, Chiang Kai-shek and the the letters in a case from which a page
Guomindang leaders fled to Taiwan, could be printed with a press. By 1455 he
where they ruled until defeated in a presi- produced a spectacular Bible, known as
dential election in 2000. the Gutenberg Bible, which looked hand-
written.
Gupta Empire
Dynasty that ruled much northern India Gutenberg Bible (c. 1455)
from the mid-fourth to the mid-sixth cen- The first substantial printed book in the
tury. At its peak it had direct control over West, printed in the German city of Mainz
the Gangetic plain and some measure of by Johannes Gutenberg, who developed
control or dominion over much of central a printing press with movable type. The
and eastern India. The Gupta empire ex- Gutenberg Bible was a two-volume Latin
perience a golden age of culture, with a version of the Bible. About 180 copies
number of great poets, playwrights such as were printed, and 48 whole copies survive
Kalidasa, and philosophers flourishing. today, some of which have been digitized
Advances were made in science and mathe- by the museums or libraries that own them
matics; for example, the zero may have so that each page can be viewed on the
come into use at this time. The dynasty World Wide Web. The printing industry
declined in the sixth century. spread rapidly across Europe, and the new
availability of printed materials, which had
Gustavus II (Adolphus) (1594-1632) previously been painstakingly copied by
Swedish king and general who built Sweden hand, had revolutionary effects on the Eu-
into a major European power in the Thirty ropean Renaissance. The new availability
Years' War. Gustavus successfully ended of texts promoted literacy, the exchange of
wars with Denmark (1613) and Russia scholarship, and commerce.
h
had reached its greatest extent under must undertake at least one pilgrimage to
Trajan, his predecessor. The farthest north Mecca during their lifetime, expressed in
the Roman Empire reached was northern the Quran and in the sharia, Islamic holy
Britain, where the Romans met the Picts, law. A pattern of pilgrimage rites was
a fierce Celtic people. After visiting the established by Muhammad, but many pil-
area, Hadrian decided to have a large grims to Mecca visit sites out ofthe proper
defensive wall with mile-castles (castles order. The Hajj serves to unify Islam by
built into the wall every mile) and fortifi- bringing together Muslims of diverse
cations built to keep the Picts out of backgrounds.
Roman territory. The wall, 73 miles (117
km) long, was largely ineffective and even- Hajra. See Hijra
tually was abandoned, in 383.
Hamilton, Alexander (1755-1804)
Hagia Sophia (Greek for "Holy Wisdom")
Early American political figure. Hamilton,
Church in Constantinople (modern-day
the New York delegate to the Constitu-
Istanbul, Turkey) built under Justinian
tional Convention (1787), and a major
532-537 C.E. As a centerpiece ofthe eastern
contributor to the Federalist Papers, was
capital of the Roman Empire, the design
chosen by George Washington to be the
was intended to both replicate and surpass
first secretary ofthe treasury for the United
the architecture of Rome. An architectural
States (1789-1795). He is known as the
wonder with an enormous dome, Hagia
main voice for a strong central government,
Sophia became a mosque after the Turkish
opposing the Democratic Republicans'
conquest of Constantinople in 1453.
desire for decentralized power. Hamilton
was killed in a duel with Aaron Burr on
Haiku
July 12, 1804.
Poetic form popular in Japan during the
Tokugawa period (1603-1868) that con-
sists of three lines, the first of five syllables, Hammurabi (c. 1792-1750 B.C.E.)
the second of seven syllables, and the third King of Babylon. Hammurabi, an Amor-
again of five syllables. It developed in the ite, was the first ruler to unify all of
seventeenth century from the initial line of Mesopotamia, ruling Sumer, Babylon, Ni-
a type of "short poem." Because of its brev- neveh, Nimrod, and Mari. He established
ity it had to be highly suggestive. Masters a code of law known as the Code of Ham-
of haiku, the greatest being Matsuo Basho murabi.
(1644-1694), were admired for their skill.
Haiku were especially popular among the Hammurabi, Code of
urban middle class and represent the in- Set of laws established by Hammurabi,
creasing cultural sophistication of that king of Babylon, around 1770 B.C.E.
group during the prosperous Tokugawa Articles of the Amorite law code of
period. 282 dealt with a wide range of issues in-
cluding wages, fees, and social relations
Haile Selassie. See Selassie, Haile such as slavery and marriage. Hammu-
rabi assembled the laws and had them
Hajj carved on stones and placed at all tem-
Muslim pilgrimage. Of the Five Pillars of ples, but he did not legislate or originate
Islam, the fifth is that those who are able the laws.
HANNIBAL 143
3000 B.C.E., and by 2600 a complex, urban Muslim practice of secluding and veiling
society emerged. Harappan society em- women. Harems were often places of in-
braced most of what is now Pakistan and tense scheming, sometimes influencing
parts of western India, an area much royal politics. Large harems were common
greater than its contemporary Egyptian in Arab countries until the mid-twentieth
and Mesopotamian civilizations. It was an century; today only rulers or the most con-
agricultural civilization based on raising servative or immensely wealthy Muslims
wheat, barley, and other crops and also en- continue the practice.
gaged in domestic and foreign trade with
Mesopotamia and elsewhere. Harappan Hargreaves, James (c. 1722-1778)
cities were mainly constructed of brick and English inventor of the spinning jenny
had one of the most sophisticated water (1770). The jenny enabling one person to
and sewage systems of the premodern spin many different threads at one time.
world. The inhabitants were most likely This, along with the flying shuttle, in-
Dravidian speaking, but because their creased cloth production dramatically.
script has never been deciphered our When steam power was later added to the
knowledge of the Harappan civilization is loom and the jenny the Industrial Revolu-
limited. Its collapse around 1500 B.C.E. tion took off.
was once believed to have been the result
of Aryan invasions, but historians now Harsha (606-647)
question this view and suspect ecological North Indian ruler who restored much of
crises as the possible cause. Judging by the Gupta empire. He converted to and
such evidence as art motifs, some elements promoted Buddhism and hosted pilgrims,
of Harappan culture appear to have been most famously the Chinese pilgrim Xuan-
incorporated into later Indian civilization. zang. His reign was celebrated by the poet
Bana. Shortly after he died Harsha's em-
Hara Takeshi (Hara Kei) (1856-1921) pire disintegrated.
Japanese prime minister (1918-1921) and
leader of the Seiyukai Party. Hara Takeshi, Harun al-Rashid
as a member ofthe lower house ofthe Diet, Muslim caliph who ruled in Baghdad
was called the first commoner to become from 786 to 809 during the height of the
prime minister, although he came from a Abbasid caliphate's power. His reign is in
bushi family background. He was consid- many ways idealized by Muslims for its
ered a reformer who supported stronger expanse and general tranquility that led
parliamentary government and opposed a to a cultural and scientific fluorescence.
military intervention in Siberia, but he also Harun al-Rashid is remembered for the
suppressed the independence movement opulence of his court; institutional and
in Korea. He was assassinated while in bureaucratic innovations; and his vigor-
office. ous recruitment and lavish patronage of
intellectuals and scientists, which led to
Harem (Harim) (from Arabic haram, advances in many areas including paper
meaning "forbidden") making, optometry, and irrigation.
Private quarters of multiple wives and
concubines of wealthy or royal men. Harvard University
Harems existed in many cultures but The oldest and one ofthe most prestigious
spread with Islamic expansion due to the American institutions of higher learning.
146 HARVEY, WILLIAM
Founded in 1636 in Cambridge, Massa- marched south 240 miles (386 km) to Has-
chusetts, and named for John Harvard, the tings, where, exhausted and depleted, they
college was originally under church spon- gained the tactical advantage by taking the
sorship. The university has produced high ground. The Battle of Hastings was
many distinguished graduates who have won by the Normans because Harold was
influenced U.S. history and world events. killed by a random arrow fired in a high arc
that went through his eye into his brain, not
Harvey, William (1578-1657) because the Norman military was superior
English anatomist who first discovered to the Anglo-Saxons. The battle cleared the
that blood circulates through the body. way for the Norman conquest of England
Previously, it was believed that blood and the crowning of William I.
flowed in one direction, much like the sap
of plants. Harvey performed experiments Hatshepsut (c. 1540-1480 B.C.E.)
that proved that the amount of blood Queen ofthe ancient Egyptian civilization
pumped by the heart in one hour was more who ruled in her own right. Hatshepsut,
than all the blood in an animal's body. the daughter of King Thutmose I, married
Therefore, the blood was being circulated. her half brother Thutmose II. When her
This was one of the most important dis- husband and her other brother both died,
coveries in medicine during the scientific her husband's son by another wife, Thut-
revolution. Harvey's quantifiable methods mose III, succeeded to the throne as a
set a standard for research in biology. minor. Hatshepsut became regent for the
boy and then had herself crowned as pha-
raoh. With the help of good advisors she
Hashimite (Hashemite)
brought about expansion of the economy
Arab descendants ofthe prophet Muham-
and trade and administrative innovations.
mad who founded the twentieth-century
Hashimite dynasty. The Hashimites de- Hatshepsut ruled for twenty years and
scended through Muhammad's daughter was succeeded by Thutmose III.
Fatima and eventually became emirs of Hattusha
Mecca, and in the twentieth century one, The ancient capital of the Hittites, in
Husayn ibn Ali, became king of Hejaz. His modern-day Turkey. The Hittites were an
sons became the kings of Iraq and Jordan, ancient Indo-European-speaking people
the modern Hashimite dynasty.
who established powerful kingdoms in
western Asia in the Fertile Crescent. The
Hastings, Battle of (1066) Hittites moved into Anatolia (the Asian
Battle in which Normans defeated Anglo- part of modern-day Turkey) around 2700
Saxons. In 1066 the new king, Harold II of B.C.E., rose to great power around 1700
England, had two competitors, both B.C.E., and disappeared by 1190 B.C.E.
claimants to the throne of England: Harold
Hardrada, king of Norway, and William, Hausa States
duke of Normandy. Hardrada invaded Region of west African savanna states. Be-
England in the north, and Harold was tween the Niger River and Lake Chad,
forced to rush an army to meet him. roughly in the southern region of modern
Harold, surprisingly, won at Stamford Niger and northern Nigeria, the Hausa
Bridge on September 25, only to hear three states first arose around 1300 as petty
days later that William had invaded to kingdoms or city-states of urban Hausa-
the south at Hastings. Harold's army speaking peoples. The flowering of the
HEBREW TEMPLE 147
region came first by 1650, as a major son, many descendants, and the land of
trade crossroad neighboring the Songhay, Israel. (2) The covenant with Israel, com-
and later as the region became Muslim. By municated through Moses, by which
the early nineteenth century the Sokoto earthly and spiritual blessings were guar-
caliphate from the north came to domi- anteed if Israel obeyed the moral and cere-
nate the Hausa states. monial laws revealed at Mount Sinai
(found in the books of Exodus, Leviticus,
Hawkins, Sir John (1532-1595) and Deuteronomy). (3) The covenant with
English admiral who revolutionized the David, promising a continuous succession
English navy that met the Spanish Armada of descendants to sit upon his throne,
in 1588. Hawkins convinced the navy to again with obedience as a condition (2
build longer, faster, more seaworthy ship Samuel 7). (4) The New Covenant, given
that were more heavily gunned with through the prophets Jeremiah and
longer-range cannons. Hawkins also Ezekiel, promising the Jews restoration to
helped demonstrate the profitability of the land of Israel after the Babylonian
the slave-based Triangle Trade between Captivity and inner renewal of individu-
Europe, Africa, and the Americas in his als. Each ofthe covenants follows a partic-
1562 voyage. ular form that emphasizes the sovereign
action of God.
Haydn, Franz Joseph (1732-1809)
Austrian music composer. Sometimes
Hebrews, Early
called "the father of the symphony,"
Nomadic people descended from the
Haydn developed the symphony into a
patriarch Abraham, according to the
longer form, his later ones consisting of
Hebrew Bible. Hebrew tradition tells of
four movements, and expanded the or-
the Hebrews' subsequent bondage in Egypt
chestra into one similar to the modern
after their migration from Mesopotamia to
symphony orchestra. Haydn composed
Ancient Palestine (and subdivision into
more than 100 symphonies as well as more
twelve tribes), and of being led to freedom
than 80 string quartets, operas, and choral
by Moses. They eventually conquered much
pieces. He was a friend of Wolfgang
of Palestine. The tribes were united into a
Amadeus Mozart. Haydn's early and later
kingdom under David (c. 1000 B.CE.).
works are in the classical style, while his
middle works are often Romantic. Al-
Hebrew Temple
though most renowned during his lifetime
One of three structures erected in Jerusa-
for his instrumental pieces, today Haydn is
lem on Mount Moriah for the worship of
known for his oratorios The Creation
the God of Israel. The first, constructed by
(1798) and The Seasons (1801).
King Solomon circa 950 B.C.E., was de-
Heavenly Mountains. See Tianshan stroyed by the Babylonians in 586 B.C.E.
(T'ien-shan) The temple was rebuilt circa 515 B.C.E.,
after the Jews returned from their Babylo-
Hebrew Covenant nian Captivity. The third and grandest
Any one of several covenants, or binding temple was begun by King Herod the
agreements, that, according to the Bible, Great (37-4 B.C.E.) and was completed
Yahweh (God) made with Israel. (1) The only in 64 C.E. One ofthe seven wonders of
covenant with Abraham, recorded in Gen- the ancient world, Herod's temple in-
esis, in which God promised Abraham a cluded a large temple area (26 acres, or
148 HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH
around 2900 B.C.E. Not until the discovery from 1941 he oversaw the systematic ex-
ofthe Rosetta stone in 1799 was it possible termination of Jews and others. In 1944,
to decipher much of the Egyptian hiero- during World War II, he became com-
glyphics. mander in chief of the German home
forces. In 1945 he was captured by the Brit-
High Renaissance ish, but he committed suicide before he
The culmination of Renaissance artistic could be put on trial.
features of realism, classicism, harmony,
and balance in the works of Leonardo da Hindenburg, Paul von (1847-1934)
Vinci, Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, German soldier and statesman. During
Raphael, Giorgione, and Titian, working World War I Hindenburg was commander
roughly from 1485 to 1520 (later for ofthe German army. From 1925 until his
Michelangelo and Titian). In music, the death he was president of Germany. In that
High Renaissance produced Josquin des capacity, but against his own wishes, he
Pres, while Niccolo Machiavelli's The appointed Adolf Hitler as chancellor of
Prince set a new direction in political anal- Germany in 1933.
ysis comparable to scientific perspective
in painting. Hinduism
Term of nineteenth-century British ori-
Hijra gin used to describe a group of complex
Escape of Muhammad from Mecca to and varied yet related religious beliefs
Medina in 622. This event became known and practices of south Asia. Hinduism
as the Hijra ("migration"), the date of emerged in the second and first millennia
which became the first day ofthe first year B.C.E. out of a combination of Aryan and
of the Muslim calendar. pre-Aryan religions. The earliest sacred
texts of Hinduism are the Vedas, which
Himiko (Japanese for "Sun Princess") date to before 700 B.C.E. The basic concepts
(third century) adhered to by almost all Hindus are sam-
Aged virgin woman recognized by the Wei sara, the law of reincarnation; atman, the
dynasty as queen of the Wa (Japan) after individual soul; and Brahman, the univer-
she had sent a tributary embassy to China. sal soul. They were spelled out in the
Reputed to be a shaman who ruled through Upanishads, composed around 700-500
sorcery and possibly matriarchy, she was B.C.E. Hindus seek to escape the cycle of life
succeeded by a thirteen-year-old girl (Iyo) and to achieve a spiritual liberation by
after her death and after a man had been uniting their atman with the brahman.
repudiated by the warrior clans (uji). She Traditionally a tolerant faith, Hinduism
was buried with pomp in a large, keyhole- incorporated a variety of religious prac-
shaped tomb (kofun). tices, thereby developing a highly varie-
gated religion whose adherents worshiped
Himmler, Heinrich (1900-1945) one or more of thousands of deities. The
German Nazi political leader and chief most commonly recognized are Brahma,
o f t h e SS (1929-1945). Himmler turned Vishnu, and Shiva, including various
Adolf Hitler's personal bodyguard into incarnations, or avatars, of Vishnu such
the SS and made it a powerful and influ- as Krishna and Rama. Hindus generally
ential organization. In 1936 he became the adhered to the caste system as a matter of
head of the secret police (Gestapo), and religious duty, recognizing the high social
152 HIPPIAS
status of the Brahmins. Both Buddhism she started a movement for the emancipa-
and Jainism grew out of Hinduism to tion of women with Yosano Akiko and Ito
become generally recognized as separate Noe. With Ichikawa Fusae she founded the
faiths. A number of converts to Hinduism New Women's Society, and after World
were made in Southeast Asia, but for the War II she founded the Federation of
most part Hinduism was not a missionary Japan Women's Organization (Fudanren),
religion. From the twelfth century onward in 1953.
its dominance in India was challenged by
Islam, but it has remained the faith of the Hirohito (1901-1989) (posthumously,
majority of the Indian subcontinent to Showa)
the present. In recent years a more militant Emperor of Japan from 1926 to 1989, and
form of Hinduism has appeared in India the longest reigning Japanese emperor. He
and has become a political force in that was appointed regent in 1921 to his men-
country. tally incompetent father, the Taisho em-
peror, and succeeded to the throne in
Hippias (r. 527-510) 1926. His early reign saw the expansion of
Tyrant of ancient Athens. After a period of Japanese military aggression abroad, in-
severe strife in Athens the tyrant Peisistra- cluding the invasions of Manchuria in
tus (c. 600-527 C.E.) took control. At Pei- 1931 and China in 1937 and the attack
sistratus's death, his son Hippias took on U.S. and British forces in the Pacific in
over. After Hippias's rule a period of civil 1941. After World War II General
war broke out, followed by the first estab- Douglas MacArthur decided to maintain
lishment of democracy, led by Cleisthenes. Hirohito on the throne, although he was
required to renounce his divine status. He
Hippodrome was generally absolved of any responsibil-
Roman stadium for horse-and-chariot ity for World War II as a figurehead ruler.
races. Many cities had hippodromes, but Recent research, however, suggests that he
the one in Constantinople, completed by played an active role in supporting the mil-
Constantine in 330, was the most famous. itary during the Chinese invasion and
Organizations, in Constantinople known World War II.
as the Blues and the Greens, provided the
charioteers and other entertainers for the Hiroshige (Ando Hiroshige)
populous. Even the emperors often at- (1797-1858)
tended. The Hippodrome, along with One of the last and greatest of Japan's
Hagia Sophia and the palace, were the cen- woodblock artists principally famous for
ters of Byzantine life. The Hippodrome his city scenes and his landscape series
existed in the city that would become Istan- Fifty-Three Post Stations on the Tokaido.
bul into the nineteenth century. Along with his older contemporary
Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849), he com-
Hiratsuka Raicho (1886-1971) bined Western concepts of perspective
Japanese feminist author and social critic. with Japanese color and line to produce
After graduating from college she entered paintings that had a great influence on
the Narumi Women's English School, European art in the late nineteenth
where she founded Seito, a feminist jour- century, although neither artist was fully
nal, as well as the Seito-sha ("Bluestocking appreciated by their contemporaries in
Association") in 1911. As editor of Seito Japan.
HO CHI MINH 153
Determined to see the reunification and downfall when many rallied to Go-Daigo's
communization of all Vietnam, Ho sup- efforts to restore imperial rule. In 1333 a
ported the Viet Cong in South Vietnam vassal, Ashikaga Takauji, took power.
and in the 1960s began sending North
Vietnamese troops in large numbers to Hojo Masako (1157-1225)
fight the South Vietnamese and U.S. forces, Japanese woman known as "the Nun-
subordinating economic development to Shogun." Widow ofthe shogun Minamoto
his goal of reunification. After his death Yoritomo who became a Buddhist nun and
in 1969 his followers continued the war served as a power behind the throne for
with the United States and the Saigon her sons, she briefly placed her father, Hojo
regime until reunification was completed Tokimasa, under house arrest and led a
in 1975. They then renamed Saigon Ho coalition to put down an attempted impe-
Chi Minh City. rial restoration in 1221.
Hohenstaufen Hokkaido
Aristocratic German family that held the Northernmost of the four main islands of
throne as Holy Roman Emperors 1138 Japan. Until the late nineteenth century it
1254 (except for 1208-1212). Frederick I, was a frontier region of Japan inhabited
"Barbarossa" (1152-1190) was a Hohens- by the aboriginal Ainu people. From the
taufen. The family competed for power 1870s the Japanese government rapidly
with the Welf (or Guelf) family. This developed the island in order to secure the
became the famous Guelf and Ghibelline northern boundaries ofthe country and to
competing Italian parties of the High expand agricultural production.
Middle Ages. The name Ghibelline comes
from Weibelungen, one of the Hohen- Holocaust
staufen castles. Literally, a sacrificial offering, the whole of
which is consumed byfire.The term Holo-
Hojo caust is often used to refer to the murder
Branch of the powerful Japanese warrior of more than 6 million Jews as well as
Taira family. Its members serving as re- gypsies and others by the German Nazis
gents for puppet shoguns were the effec- during World War II, many of them by
tive rulers of Japan from 1219 to 1333, fire. Adolf Hitler gave orders for what he
during the Kamakura period. After called the Final Solution in early 1941.
Minamoto Yoritimo's death, power fell
to his wife Masako and her Hojo family. Holy Roman Empire
The Hojo regency marked an extreme in Political institution originated in 800
the Japanese tendency of indirect rule be- when Charlemagne was crowned emperor
cause they were only regents to puppet ofthe Romans by the pope. The name Holy
shoguns who in turn were supposedly Roman Empire was first used in 1254.
ruling on behalf of puppet emperors. The German princes elected the Holy Roman
Hojo regents refused to pay tribute to Emperor, yet he was crowned by the pope.
Khubilai Khan and executed his envoys, This provided the emperors with a pater-
bringing about two Mongol invasions of nalistic attitude toward all of Christendom
Japan. The invasions failed, but the Hojo in the West and a position of leadership
were unable to reward their vassals, lead- in Europe, although by the fifteenth cen-
ing to discontent that brought about their tury the Holy Roman Empire was largely
HONG XIUQUAN 155
German in political affairs. The title of to Britain as a result of the Opium War.
Holy Roman Emperor existed until its ab- More territory was added in 1860, and in
olition by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1806. 1898 the adjacent New Territories were
leased for ninety-nine years. The colony
Homer (c. 700s B.C.E.) emerged after World War II as a major fi-
Ancient Greek author of the Iliad and the nancial and industrial center. In the 1984
Odyssey. The dating of Homer and his two Sino-British Declaration, Britain agreed to
epic poems is very rough, but a date of return Hong Kong to China following the
somewhere in the eighth century B.C.E. is expiration of the New Territories lease in
most probable. Authorship ofthe Iliad and 1997. China has maintained Hong Kong's
the Odyssey has been questioned, but tra- separate economic system and some polit-
dition and most evidence favors a single ical autonomy in what it calls "one coun-
author named Homer. The Iliad deals with try, two systems."
the Trojan War, Achilles, and Hector,
while the Odyssey deals with Odysseus's Hongwu (1328-1398)
return from the Trojan War. Ming dynasty founder born Zhu Yuanz-
hang who reigned as Hongwu (1368-
Homo Erectus ("upright man") 1398). Born to a poor peasant family, he
Hominid primate distinguished by a bipe- was orphaned at sixteen, became a monk,
dal, erect stance, believed by some to be joined a rebel gang, and led a rebel army
the direct ancestor of Homo sapiens. against the Yuan dynasty (Mongol
Homo erectus had a smaller brain than Empire). Hongwu established a capital at
Homo sapiens. Homo erectus was pre- Nanjing in 1356 and drove the Mongols
ceded by Australopithecus. There is some out of China twelve years later, freeing
doubt whether Homo erectus is a direct China from non-Chinese rule. Hongwu
ancestor of Homo sapiens. Homo erectus was an able ruler but ruthless. In 1380 he
ranged over much ofthe earth 1.6 million executed his prime minister and governed
to 250,000 years ago, with fossils found in directly. While he resumed the civil ser-
Africa, Asia, and Europe, yet extinction vice examinations and built institutions
may have occurred as recently as 28,000 that successfully laid the foundations for
years ago. the Ming state, he also executed thousands
in bloody purges and instituted the prac-
Homo Sapiens ("thinking man") tice of publicly beating officials, consol-
Bipedal, erect primate distinguished by a idating autocratic trends in Chinese
highly developed brain. Homo sapiens have imperial rule that had been underway
the ability to reason, produce language, since the Song. He left a legacy of despo-
and manipulate tools. Through language tism and cruelty.
Homo sapiens can share accumulated and
transient knowledge. HongXiuquan (1814-1864)
Founder of the Taiping ("Great Peace")
Hong Kong religious sect and leader of the Taiping
Former British crown colony consisting Rebellion (1850-1864). Hong had failed
of a small peninsula and some islands, in- several times to pass the Chinese civil ser-
cluding Hong Kong Island, on the south vice examinations when he encountered
coast of China's Guangzhou province. In Christian missionary activity in southern
1842 China ceded the island of Hong Kong China. Influenced by Christian as well as
156 HOOVER, HERBERT C.
traditional Chinese religious and philo- There are approximately 6,000 Hopi still
sophical ideas, he saw himself as a messiah living in typical pueblo dwellings.
for a new religious and political order. He
quickly gained a number of followers by Hoplites
promising a Utopian society. His followers Military soldiers of ancient Greece who de-
seized Nanjing, which they made their veloped by the seventh century B.C.E. Hop-
capital, and attempted to create a new dy- lites were not aristocratic (as soldiers of
nasty. After initial military success the Mycenaean Greece in the Illiad and Odys-
Taiping army began to lose. Nanjing was sey were), but because they bought their
put under siege from which Hong believed own equipment they were usually well-to-
God would save him. He turned leadership do. Hoplites not only revolutionized mili-
of the rebellion over to others and com- tary tactics by fighting as an organized,
mitted suicide in 1864. Hong's Taiping tightly formed block called a phalanx, but
Rebellion is estimated to have cost 20 mil- the importance of this nonaristocratic
lion lives and contributed to the decline of class put pressure on the political structure
the Qing dynasty. that eventually brought popular reforms
and, eventually, even democracy.
Hoover, Herbert C. (1874-1964)
Thirty-first president of the United States. Horace (65-8 B.C.E.)
A highly successful mining engineer, Roman Latin poet and satirist, second
Hoover headed relief programs during in fame only to Virgil. Horace gained Oc-
World War I and was later named U.S. tavian's favor and became one ofthe pop-
food administrator. Following service as ular poets ofthe Roman upper classes. His
secretary of commerce under Warren G. poetry dealt with the delights and plea-
Harding and Calvin Coolidge, Hoover was sures of life, although in later life he wrote
elected president in 1928. His administra- more on good company and philosophy.
tion was soon overwhelmed by the eco- His works include Satires (30 B.C.E.) and
nomic collapse following the stock market Epistles (20 B.C.E.).
crash of October 1929. Hoover's firm belief
in the limited functions of the federal gov- Houphouet-Boigny, Felix (1905-1993)
ernment crippled his ability to effectively First president of Ivory Coast (1960-
confront the Great Depression. While he 1993). Educated in the French colonial
supported efforts at recovery of the private system, from the dominant ethnic group,
sector, his reluctance to provide adequate and with high social status, Houphouet-
relief for the unemployed led to the rapid Boigny, a doctor by training, worked to
decline of his reputation. He was defeated end the colonial institution of forced labor
by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932. and other inequities. He held numerous
political positions, including prime min-
Hopi ister and president of an independent Ivory
Group of Pueblo Amerindians in Arizona. Coast. He was one of the most influential
Their origin myth has them climbing up political leaders in Africa and built Ivory
through four underground chambers and Coast into one ofthe most prosperous Af-
living in many locations. Archaeologists rican countries. Economic decline took a
suggest that they did in fact occupy vari- toll starting in the 1980s, but Houphouet-
ous locations. The Hopi, a farming and Boigny was reelected to a five-year term in
herding people, were relatively peaceful. 1990. He died in office in 1993.
HUGUENOTS 157
House of Lords
In the United Kingdom, the upper cham- Huang Kung-wang (1269-1354)
ber of Parliament. The House of Lords Yuan dynasty Chinese master of landscape
originated in the Middle Ages as a gather- painting. His most famous work, Dwelling
ing ofthe barons and clergy (only the arch- in the Fuchun Mountains, painted in his
bishops, bishops, and abbots) ofthe realm old age, has been one ofthe most admired
of England to consult with the king. This and copied paintings in China. He also au-
gathering was called Parliament (from the thored an influential treatise on painting.
French for "to speak"), and no common-
ers were invited. With the establishment Huguenots
of a House of Commons, the barons, French Calvinist Protestants of the six-
predominantly hereditary lords, and the teenth and seventeenth centuries. (Origins
158 HUITZILOPOCHTLI
and meaning of the word are uncertain, ability of the individual. Humanism is
but it was in use by the 1520s.) From the often seen as beginning with the poetry
1550s Calvinism spread through France of Petrarch (b. 1304). This intellectual
and was organized on a federated or movement was based on the study of the
regional plan (without a top-heavy struc- Greek and Roman texts that were the
ture). By 1562 their numbers had increased, foundation of the educational goals of
so Catholics, under the Due de Guise, at- studia humanitatis ("humanistic stud-
tacked and killed many Huguenots, begin- ies"). Although humanism was concerned
ning the Wars of Religion. Civil war largely with secular ideas and had a great
between Huguenots and Catholics contin- influence on the politics ofthe Italian city-
ued until 1598, when the Edict of Nantes states (civic humanism), many humanists
declared Huguenots legal. Their numbers such as Niccolo Machiavelli and Desider-
further increased until 1685, when the ius Erasmus were devout Christians.
treaty was revoked and Huguenots were
persecuted, driving many of them to leave Humayun
for England, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Second Mughal emperor who ruled most
and even America and South Africa. Since of northern India 1530-1540 and 1555-
Huguenots were often crafters, the exodus 1556. He lost his throne to an Afghan, Sher
was welcome in all those lands. Shah, in 1540. After years of exile, mainly
in Iran, he regained power in 1555, rees-
Huitzilopochtli tablishing the Mughal Empire, but he died
Aztec god of war and the sun. When the the following year.
Aztecs, or Mexica, arrived in the Valley of
Mexico around 1200 they brought their Hume, David (1711-1776)
tribal god Huitzilopochtli with them, but Scottish philosopher and historian during
with the fifteenth-century Aztec conquest the Scottish Enlightenment. Hume influ-
of the Valley of Mexico Huitzilopochtli enced the modern philosophical schools
was elevated above the nature gods, and of skepticism and empiricism. He wrote
human sacrifices to him were emphasized. about morality, politics, and natural reli-
gion and emphasized knowledge through
Hukbalahap experience. He described forceful experi-
Peasant resistance movement in the Phil- ence as perception and lesser experience as
ippines. It began during World War II as beliefs. Hume argued that the existence of
the Anti-Japanese People's Army but was God could not be proven and remained
directed as much at the rich Filipino land- an agnostic throughout his life. Hume's
lords as it was against the Japanese. Based works include A Treatise of Human Nature
in central Luzon and led by Luis Taruc, (1739), Philosophical Essays Concerning
the "Huks," who were denied representa- Human Understanding (1748), and His-
tion in parliament, led a rebellion against tory of Great Britain (1754, 1756), a publi-
Manila that was crushed with U.S. sup- cation that made him wealthy.
port by the Philippine government be-
tween 1950 and 1954. Hundred Days Reform (1898)
Chinese imperial reforms directed toward
Humanism political, administrative, and educational
Philosophy developed during the Italian institutions in 1898. Defeat in the Sino-
Renaissance emphasizing the worth and Japanese War (1894-1895) prompted the
HUS, JAN 159
young emperor Guangxu to heed the pro- Years War resulted in the growth of bu-
gressive suggestions of Confucian scholar reaucracy and administrations in both
Kang Youwei. The emperor's Hundred countries as well as increased royal power
Days Reform encouraged some Western- and the creation of nationalism.
style changes to compete with Japan and
the West. Guangxu's aunt, the Empress Hungarian Revolt (1956)
Dowager (Ci Xi), the real power at the Revolt against the Union of Soviet Social-
court, repealed the reforms in an anti- ist Republic's control of Hungary during
Western reaction as a threat to her power the Cold War. After Joseph Stalin's death
and to the ways of rich conservative Chi- Soviet-controlled Eastern bloc nations
nese. She used her military influence to such as East Germany, Poland, and
imprison the emperor and kill leading re- Yugoslavia began to push for reforms.
formers. Kang Youwei escaped abroad. Concessions given to others and re-
pression within Hungary led to demon-
Hundred Flowers Movement (1956-1957) strations in Budapest, the Hungarian
Movement launched by Mao Zedong to capital. The Soviets moved in tanks to
allow constructive self-criticism of the control the demonstrations, and a full-
Chinese Communist government. It drew scale revolt broke out. France, Britain, and
its name from a classical Chinese phrase the United States hinted that help would
meaning "let a hundred flowers bloom, let a come, but they were distracted by the Suez
hundred schools of thought contend." With Crisis. The Soviets crushed the revolt, exe-
official encouragement, a number of Chi- cuting more than 2,000 people. More than
nese intellectuals and others began to ex- 200,000 Hungarians fled to Western
press criticism of the Chinese Communist Europe and the United States. The crush-
Party and state institutions. Mao responded ing of the Hungarian Revolt sent a signal
to this criticism with an antirightist cam- to other Eastern European countries not to
paign that sent many of the nation's edu- push reforms too far.
cated people to remote rural areas.
Hungarians. See Magyars
Hundred Years War (1337-1453) Huns
War between England and France. A long Central Asian people, probably Turkic
but not continuous series of wars that speaking, who moved westward in the
were initially dynastic conflicts between fourth century and by the fifth century,
Edward III, king of England, and Philip VI, under the leadership of Attila, pushed
king of France, over feudal jurisdictions. Germanic groups such as the Goths (both
England won many of the battles (Crecy Visigoths and Ostrogoths), Franks, and
in 1346, Poitiers in 1356, and Agincourt in Vandals into the Roman Empire. The
1415), partly because of the use of a new Huns were aggressive and vicious yet great
weapon, the longbow, but France won the warriors, and they were nearly unstoppa-
war. England had approximately one- ble. They established no state or political
third the resources of men and wealth of structure, and at Attila's death their influ-
France. By the fifteenth century France ence disappeared.
had gained the advantage, including the
inspiration of Joan of Arc. In 1453 the Hus, Jan (John Huss) (c. 1372-1415)
French had taken nearly all English land- Czech preacher, theologian, and precursor
holdings on the Continent. The Hundred ofthe Reformation. Hus preached against
160 HUSAYN
corruption of the clergy in the Roman opposition, including torture and execu-
Catholic Church and questioned the tions and created a towering personality
power ofthe clergy. At the Council of Con- cult. He built up the military and tried to
stance, Hus was condemned and burned build weapons of mass destruction. After
for heresy. Many Czechs considered Hus the 1990 invasion of Kuwait and the 1991
a martyr, rebelled from the Church, and Iraq War the United States and its coali-
established a Hussite church, which incorpo- tion thought that Hussein would be top-
rated reforms in the Articles of Prague (1420) pled, but he survived and rebuilt his
such as granting of both elements (wine and military. In 2003 the United States and
bread) at communion, punishment of clergy Britain, deeming Hussein a threat, in-
for sins, freedom of preaching, and an end vaded Iraq and overthrew his government.
to worldly power by clergy. The Hussites Weapons of mass destruction were never
fought and won several battles against found. In 2004 Hussein was captured and
armies of the Holy Roman Empire. In held for trial.
many ways the Hussite church foreshad-
owed the Reformation of Martin Luther Hussite Wars. See Hus, Jan (John Huss)
in the sixteenth century.
Hyderabad
Husayn (Hussein) (c. 635-680) City in the Deccan plateau region of India
Grandson of Muhammad and heir to lead- and capital of Andhra Pradesh state. It was
ership for the Shia Muslims. Husayn was founded in 1591 as a new capital for the
the son of Ali, the son-in-law of Muham- Golconda kingdom, incorporated into
mad. While some Muslims elected the Mughal empire, and in the eighteenth
caliphs and became known as Sunni Mus- century became the capital of a kingdom
lims, others wanted a direct family line and of Muslim rulers who called themselves
became known as Shias. Husayn and a Nizam. Under the British Raj it was the
small band of followers were defeated at largest of the autonomous princely states.
Karbala by a vastly superior force sent In 1948 the Hyderabad kingdom came
from Damascus by the Umayyad caliph under Indian control, and in 1956 in
Yazid in 680. That event is commemorated response to popular regional movements
annually by Shias during the first ten days it was broken up into three parts along lin-
ofthe month of Muharram and provides a guistic lines.
foundation for the Shia ethos of mar-
tyrdom. Hyksos
Semitic Asians who ruled the Egyptian civ-
Huss, John. See Hus, Jan (John Huss) ilization as the fifteenth dynasty (c. 1630-
1521 B.C.E.). The Hyksos migrated into
Hussein, Abdullah ibn. See Abdullah ibn Egypt in the eighteenth century B.C.E., in-
Hussein troducing the horse and chariot and supe-
rior weapons. An old theory was that the
Hussein, Saddam (1937-) Hyksos were the Hebrews, but modern
Iraqi president (1979-2003), prime minis- analysis does not support this. Although
ter, and head of Iraq's armed forces. foreign, the Hyksos became thoroughly
Hussein took part in the 1968 coup that re- Egyptianized. After their dynasty the pha-
turned the Ba'ath Socialist Party to power. raoh-queen Hatshepsut denounced the
He used his position of power to suppress Hyksos as illegitimate.
i
second also arose from the dispute over Sea. The area drained by the Indus and its
Kashmir, by then an Indian state with a four major tributaries has been one ofthe
Muslim majority that was claimed by world's major agricultural areas since at
Pakistan. Accusing Pakistan of supporting least the third millennium B.C.E. and was
Muslim separatists, India attacked it on home to the ancient Harappan civiliza-
September 1,1965. A cease-fire was arranged tion, also known as the Indus Valley civili-
three weeks later. In the third conflict, in zation. The Indus River is in the western
December 1971, India intervened in a sepa- part of the Indian subcontinent, and
ratist war in East Pakistan and won a clear influences there from western Eurasia
military victory over Pakistan. The war re- and Central Asia have often been marked.
sulted in the creation of an independent The name comes from the Sanskrit sindhu,
Bangladesh. India and Pakistan came close meaning "river." The modern name India
to conflict in 2001 over Pakistan's continued is derived from it.
support of Muslim separatists in Kashmir.
Industrialization
Indra The process of change from an agricultural
Chief of the gods in the Vedic religion of economy to one based on the production
the Aryans. A warrior god associated with of manufactured goods and services. Most
lightning bolts, Indra played only a minor scholars consider industrialization to have
role in later Hinduism. Indra also appears in first taken hold with the Industrial Revo-
the mythology of Buddhism and Jainism. lution that started in Britain in the eigh-
teenth century and then began in the
Indulgence United States and continental Europe in
In Catholic theology, a decrease in pen- the first half of the nineteenth century.
ance or forgiveness of sin granted by a Industrialization occurred later in eastern
priest for good work done by the sinner. Europe, Asia, Latin America, and Africa.
An indulgence would lessen the sinner's Industrialization is often equated with
time spent in purgatory. The Roman
modernization and is accompanied by a
Catholic Church sold indulgences in the
shift from a largely rural society to one
late Middle Ages (1300-1500) on the
where much of the population is concen-
grounds that the "gift" of money was a
trated in urban centers. It also results in
good work in its use by the church. In real-
generally higher standards of living and
ity, indulgences raised money for the
complex changes in social and cultural
church. This was viewed as a corruption
patterns.
by sixteenth-century reformers because it
allowed the rich to escape punishment
Industrial Revolution
for sins. Martin Luther attacked the sale
of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses The transformation of first Britain and
(1517); it became a major point in the start then other societies from agrarian to
ofthe Reformation. industrial-based economies in the eigh-
teenth and nineteenth centuries. A num-
Indus. See Harappan Civilization; Indus ber of breakthroughs in the production of
River goods and services occurred: the use of
coal as fuel; the harnessing of steam power;
Indus River improvements in transportation such as
1,800-mile (2,900-km) river that begins in canals, sealed roads, steamships, and rail-
the Himalayas and flows into the Arabian roads; and improvements in agriculture.
INQUISITION 165
All of these together greatly increased pro- 1949 it has been the Inner Mongolia
ductivity. The Industrial Revolution first Autonomous Republic, with an area of
occurred in Britain around the middle of 454,000 square miles (1,177,500 sq km).
the eighteenth century with developments The region formerly was ethnically Mon-
such as the usable steam engine, invented golian, but after 1949 the Chinese gov-
by James Watt in 1769, and it spread to ernment encouraged settlement by ethnic
other western and central European coun- Chinese, who soon became the majority.
tries and the United States in the first half Traditionally, the area was contested be-
ofthe nineteenth century. A second Indus- tween the Chinese empire and Central
trial Revolution took place after 1870 in Asian nomadic peoples.
which steel, chemical, and a variety other
industries replaced textiles as the domi- Innocent III (c. 1160-1216)
nant industry; petroleum replaced coal as Pope (1198-1216) whose term brought
the most important energy source; and the the medieval papacy to the pinnacle of its
electric generator and the internal com- power. Innocent III oversaw the Fourth
bustion engine replaced the steam engine Crusade, led a crusade against the Albi-
as the key mechanical device. Germany gensians, and legitimized the practice of
and the United States replaced Britain as itinerant preaching by Saint Francis of
the leading industrial innovators during Assisi and Saint Dominic and their follow-
the second Industrial Revolution. ers. He made efforts at expansion in much
of Europe and strongly protected Catholic
Indus Valley. See Harappan Civilization; doctrine from heresy.
Indus River See also Dominicans (Black Friars)
was used to refer to the "inquiring" into "structural adjustment facility" to provide
the beliefs of a person to determine if they assistance to low-income countries. The
were orthodox or heretical. Pope Gregory IMF has been praised for keeping the inter-
IX in 1233 established a court for the pur- national economic order stable. However,
pose of eradicating the Waldensian and IMF loan-restructuring requirements have
Albigensian heresies. Originally, the pun- resulted in pressures on the governments of
ishment for heresy was excommunica- economically troubled countries to make
tion, but later, when heresy was a crime painful cuts in social services that hurt their
against the state, it was death. The courts poorest citizens.
of inquisition were usually run by Domini-
Investiture Controversy
cans or Franciscans. The Spanish Inqui-
Conflict between the Roman Catholic
sition, which was authorized by Pope
Church and secular authorities over who
Sixtus in 1478 and persecuted Muslims
has the authority to appoint (invest) bish-
and Jews, was distinct and separate from
ops and abbots. Bishops and abbots car-
the medieval court of inquisition.
ried great power and influence within the
Institutes ofthe Christian Religion church and as secular leaders at the time,
Expansive work by John Calvin defining so appointments were important. In 1075
Reformation theology in the sixteenth Pope Gregory VII was challenged by
century. The treatise was first published in Henry IV of Germany. The issue was
Latin in 1536, then revised and eventually tentatively settled by the Concordat of
translated into French by Calvin, with the Worms in 1122, giving the church author-
final content appearing in 1559. Extremely ity over its affairs and secular rulers au-
influential to French writing style and thority over theirsa modest separation
thought (it was the first work of its kind of church and state.
published in French as well as in Latin),
Ionians
Calvin's Institutes stressed the sovereign
Greek civilization of the Ionian region
and redemptive roles of God and hu-
along the west coast of Asia Minor. Ex-
mankind's utter dependence on God's
posed to attack by Lydia and the Persian
saving grace. The Institutes provided Cal-
Empire, Ionians attempted to free them-
vinists clear guidance on the organization
selves from Persian control in the 490s
ofthe church.
B.C.E., leading to war between Persia and
International Monetary Fund (IMF) Athens when Athens came to the aid of
Economic institution based in Washing- the Ionians.
ton DC proposed at Bretton Woods in See also Croesus; Persian Wars
1944 and established in 1945 as part ofthe
Ionic Order
post-World War II effort to promote
Architectural order of design in ancient
international prosperity and economic
Greece. The Ionic Order followed the
stability. Strongly influenced by John
Doric Order and preceded the Corinthian
Maynard Keynes, the purpose of the IMF
Order. Ionic is characterized by a capital
is to stabilize exchange rates, encourage in-
with a volute, or winding, design and a
ternational monetary cooperation, and
column standing on a complex base.
eliminate foreign-exchange restrictions.
As part of this effort it makes loans to assist Iqbal, Mohammad (1877-1938)
countries with balance-of-payments dif- Indian, poet, philosopher, and political
ficulties. In 1986 the IMF established a leader. In 1930, while serving as president
IRAQ WAR (1991) 167
of the Muslim League, he proposed the negotiated, but only after weakening Car-
creation of a separate Muslim state in the ter's status so severely that he lost the pres-
predominantly Islamic northwestern idency to Ronald Reagan. The hostages
region of India. This idea led to the cre- were released early in Reagan's first term.
ation of Pakistan.
Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)
IRA. See Irish Republican Army (IRA) Border conflict turned into a major ex-
tended war. Iraqi president Saddam
Hussein negotiated a deal granting land
Iran-Contra Affair (1986) to Iran in return for a halt in Iranian sup-
U.S. political scandal involving the illegal port for Iraqi Kurds, then backed out of
sale of missiles to Iran by the presidential the deal. Iraqi troops attacked a disputed
administration of Ronald Reagan to se- region and then invaded Iranian oilfields.
cure the release of hostages in Lebanon. Iran retaliated, and the war gradually ex-
The hostages were held by groups friendly panded to include attacks by air and on
to Iran, and the U.S. National Security shipping in the Persian Gulf. The West, es-
Council felt that the sale of missiles to Iran pecially the United States, supplied Iraq
might influence their release. Some of the while Iran's war materials ran low. In 1988
$48 million proceeds from the sale was di- the United Nations negotiated a cease-fire
verted to the Contras, a U.S.-backed Nica- between Iran and Iraq, and the countries
raguan rebel group fighting to overthrow reached a complete peace agreement in
the Marxist Sandanista government of August of that year. No land was gained by
Nicaragua. The U.S. Congress had banned either side, but an estimated 1.5 million
the sale of arms to Iran and to the Contras. lives were lost.
Congressional hearings and interroga-
tions of Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, Iraq War (1991)
the intermediary of the arms-for-hostages U.N.-led conflict with Iraq in response to
deal, were inconclusive as to who had orig- Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. Iraq invaded
inated or authorized the deal. Kuwait in 1990 to gain control of Kuwaiti
oilfields and declared Kuwait a province
Iran Hostage Crisis (1979-1981) of Iraq. The United Nations responded by
Conflict between Iran and the United imposing economic sanctions and gave an
States. When the shah of Iran was over- ultimatum to Iraq to leave or suffer mili-
thrown in the Iranian Islamic Revolution, tary retaliation. A coalition of U.N. forces
the United States was accused of support- from twenty-nine countries, primarily the
ing the shah and of complicity in his United States, invaded Kuwait in 1991.
crimes against the Iranian people. Stu- After a fierce air strike using high-
dents participating in the revolution technology electronically guided bombs,
stormed the U.S. embassy and took sixty- Operation Desert Storm launched a
six hostages on November 4, 1979. The massive land invasion and pushed Iraqi
hostages were moved to various locations forces out of Kuwait and well into Iraq. A
and held until January 20,1981, despite all "no-fly zone" was established in northern
the efforts of the United States and Presi- Iraq after Saddam Hussein ordered the
dent Jimmy Carter. An attempted rescue massacre of thousands of Iraqi Kurds,
by the U.S. military ended in complete fail- and another no-fly zone was set up
ure. The release ofthe hostages was finally over southern Iraq to protect Kuwait.
168 IRAQ WAR (2003- )
active political parties. From 1905 to 1909 Hanseatic merchants, drove the Lithua-
he served as the first resident-general of nians west, and moved the church admin-
Korea, which had become a Japanese pro- istration from Kiev (the former capital of
tectorate in the Russo-Japanese War. Al- Russia) to Moscow. Ivan married the niece
though a moderating influence among ofthe last Byzantine emperor and claimed
Japanese imperialists, he was assassinated to be the successor of the Roman Caesars
by a Korean nationalist shortly after re- when Constantinople fell in 1453.
signing his post. Ito came to be regarded Ivan IV, "the Terrible" (1533-1584)
as one of Japan's greatest modern leaders First tsar of Russia (1547-1584). He was
despite the controversy over his support of unpredictable, autocratic, and "awe-in-
imperialist policies. spiring" (the literal translation of his nick-
name). Ivan expanded Russian territory
Ito Noe (1895-1923) and ruthlessly pushed through laws and
Japanese anarchist, social critic, author, reforms to extend his power. He mur-
and feminist. After graduating from Ueno dered his own son and heir, Ivan, and al-
Girl's High School she joined the Seito- though he was succeeded by another son,
sha (Bluestocking Society) in 1912; wrote Fyodor, the power vacuum created by
social criticism in the society's literary Ivan IV's death was filled by a favorite
organ, Seito; and translated the writings of and nearly as ruthless a magnateBoris
Emma Goldman. She lived and worked Godunov. His reign saw large steps taken
with anarchist Osugi Sakae, with whom to centralize the Russian political ad-
she was arrested during the chaos of the ministration system and to strengthen
Great Kanto earthquake of 1923. She and the monarchy.
her nephew were abducted and killed
Iwakura Tomomi (1825-1883)
by an army lieutenant in the Amakasu
Japanese court noble who supported the
Incident.
Meiji Restoration and became a minister
of state (1871-1883). In 1871 he headed a
Itzamna mission to Europe and the United States
Most important Maya deity. Itzamna that failed to secure abolition of the Un-
("lizard house" or "iguana house") was the equal Treaties (a series of treaties imposed
ruler of heaven, day, and night and en- on China and Japan by the United States
compassed or encased the earth. This god, and Britainthe United States continued
according to the Maya, also gave humans to maintain extraterritorial rights in Japan
writing, the calendar, and medicine. until 1911), but brought back much useful
information on foreign institutions and
Ivan III, "the Great" (1440-1505) technology. He returned to Japan in
Grand prince of Moscow (1462-1505) and 1873 to forestall the threat of war with
founder of the modern Russian state. Korea. From 1873 until his death, Iwakura,
Ivan consolidated Russia, expanded its a conservative, was a leader of Japan's
boundaries, expelled the Mongols and the moderate political forces.
j
extent, covering much of what is now armies have besieged, plundered, and de-
Thailand and southern Vietnam as well as stroyed parts or all of Jerusalem, including
Cambodia. He added many buildings to the the armies of Babylon in 586 B.C.E. and
Angkor area, including the Angkor Thorn Rome in 70 and 130 C.E. The present walls
temple. were built in 1540. The city became a
center for Christian pilgrims during the
Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826) fourth century C.E. and has remained one
Third president of the United States, first ever since because of its intimate connec-
Secretary of State under George Washing- tion with the last days of Jesus's earthly
ton, vice president under John Adams, career. After the capture of Jerusalem in
and main author of the Declaration of 637 C.E., Jerusalem became a holy site
Independence (1776). Jefferson was a del- for Muslims. An effort by Europeans to
egate to the Continental Congress (1775- recapture the city to make it safe again
1776), and after his two terms as president for Christian pilgrims began the era of
became the leader of the Democratic- the Crusades. The city was divided until
Republican Party. He contributed much to 1967, when Israel occupied all of it, leav-
the political philosophy of his day and ing only the area ofthe Dome ofthe Rock
made the Louisiana Purchase (1803), under Muslim control.
which more than doubled the territory of
the United States. Jefferson also initiated Jesuits. See Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
the Lewis and Clark expedition to ex-
plore that new purchase. Jesus Christ. See Jesus of Nazareth
and on the third day he rose from the tomb It was not legal for Jews to set foot on
and appeared to his followers. His follow- Spanish soil until the edict was repealed
ers hold Jesus Christ to be the Son of God, in 1858.
one with God, and the Holy Spirit
together known as the Trinity. Jiang Jieshi. See Chiang Kai-shek
Jinnah, Muhammad Ali (1876-1948) studied under Peter Abelard; was em-
Indian political leader and founder of Pa- ployed at the archbishopric of Canterbury;
kistan. He worked toward ensuring that was sent on missions to Rome, where he
Muslims would have adequate representa- wrote about the papal court; and was in
tion in an independent India, but, becom- the cathedral at Canterbury when Becket
ing disillusioned with the Indian National was assassinated. He became bishop of
Congress, he assumed leadership of the Chartres in 1176.
Muslim League in 1913. In 1940 he led his
party into supporting an independent Pa-
John I(1166-1216)
kistan state for Muslims. After working in
King of England (1199-1216). John gained
the negotiations for the partition of India,
the throne under dispute, with some
he served as Pakistan's first governor-
barons preferring his nephew Arthur. John
general (1947-1948) and as resident of its
antagonized the Roman Catholic Church
constituent assembly.
by refusing to acknowledge Stephen
Langton as archbishop of Canterbury.
Jizya (Jizyah)
This action, along with John's failure to
Tribute tax paid by non-Muslims insti-
defeat the French in battle and his attempts
tuted by the Arabs during the time of
to force financial penalties upon the ar-
the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates.
istocracy, finally provoked the barons into
Although intended and serving as an
revolt. Civil war broke out, and John was
important source of revenue for the
forced to sign the document known as the
caliphates, it also served as an incentive for
Magna Carta ("Great Charter") in 1215.
many to convert to Islam to avoid its
John has gone down in history as one of
burden. Many Muslim governments after
the most unpopular kings.
the Abbasid caliphate fell continued to
levy this tax.
John Paul II (born Karol Wojtyla)
Joan of Arc (c. 1412-1431) (1920-2005)
French mystic and heroine who inspired Roman Catholic bishop of Rome (pope)
the French army during the Hundred 1978-2005. John Paul, of Poland, was the
Years War. Joan of Arc, known as the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. He
Maid of Orleans, as a young girl heard campaigned against political oppression
the voices of Saint Catherine and Saint worldwide, first against communism in his
Margaret, who told her that Charles native Poland and later by traveling more
should be crowned king and lead the army widely and speaking out more than any
to victory. Joan never led the armies her- previous pope. John Paul also attempted
self, but she rode with them in men's to build bridges with other branches of
clothing and armor. She was captured Christianity and with other world reli-
by the Burgundians, turned over to the gions, notably Judaism and Islam. He was
English, tried, convicted of heresy, and conservative in his theology and resisted
burned at the stake. Joan of Arc was can- reforms beyond Vatican II (1962-1965),
onized (made a saint) in 1920. especially on the issues of ordination of
women, marriage of the clergy, birth con-
John of Salisbury (c. 1120-1180) trol, and homosexuality, and yet he was
Medieval scholar, secretary of Thomas vocal in his insistence on individual
Becket, and bishop of Chartres. John human rights.
178 JOHNSON, LYNDON BAINES
the installation (by French forces) of the the Persians of Cyrus the Great, the He-
Austrian archduke Maximilian in 1864 as brews were allowed to return in 515 B.C.E.
emperor of Mexico, but he had the arch- and rebuild Jerusalem. Judah later came
duke executed in 1867 and returned to under the authority of Alexander the
office. He achieved reelection in 1867 and Great, then the Ptolemies, and then the
1871, although the 1871 election was Seleucids. Opposition to the Seleucids led
contested. to the rise of the Jewish Maccabees, who
reestablished Judah as Judaea. In 63 B.C.E.
Judaea (Judea) the Romans conquered the region, and
The name, successively, of a province of they installed Herod the Great as king of
the Persian, Ptolemaic, and Seleucid em- Judaea in 37 B.C.E. A Jewish revolt in 66 C.E.
pires; a Jewish kingdom; and a Roman led to the Roman destruction of Jerusalem
province. Judaea occupied the same land in 70 C.E.
as its predecessor, the Kingdom of Judah.
Because most of those whom the Persian Judaism
king Cyrus the Great allowed to return The religion of the Jews, as distinct from
from the Babylonian Captivity were from that of the Hebrew Bible, from which it
the tribe of Judah, the land was named derives and to which it adds. Though some
after them and the people called Jews. elements of Judaism appear during the
Jerusalem was always its religious, if not Babylonian exile (597-532 B.C.E.), its main
political, capital. Conquered by the features flower after the destruction of Je-
Roman general Pompey the Great in 63 rusalem and the Hebrew Temple by the
B.C.E., Judaea was ruled thereafter either by Romans in 70 C.E. With no access to their
Roman officials or by puppet kings like temple, Jews in Babylonia began to center
Herod the Great. Two revolts, in 70 and their religion around the Torah (Penta-
130 C.E., brought devastating Roman re- teuch), which they saw as mostly instruc-
pression and ended the independent exis- tion for all aspects of living. The synagogue
tence of Judaea. replaced the Temple as the primary place of
worship, and teaching by rabbis replaced
Judah sacrifice as the central act of worship. Ex-
Southernmost ofthe three divisions of an- planations ofthe Torah and other parts of
cient Palestine. During the ninth century the Hebrew Bible were compiled into the
B.C.E. the twelve Hebrew tribes in Palestine Targum and various commentaries. Juda-
split to follow different leaders, preci- ism stresses the uniqueness of God; the
pitated by the death of King Solomon, who special status ofthe Jews; and the necessity
had consolidated royal power and of obedience to God's revealed will, espe-
strengthened central government. Two of cially keeping the Sabbath. In medieval
the tribes settled in southern Palestine with Europe Judaism split into two major
their capital at Jerusalem, as the Kingdom branches, Ashkenazic and Sephardic.
of Judah. The other divisions were Galilee, Mysticism also developed. Later devel-
in the north, and Samaria, in the center. opments include changes arising as a
Judah became a tributary state of Assyria. result ofthe eighteenth-century Enlighten-
With the rise of Babylon under the Chal- ment; nineteenth-century reform move-
deans, Judah was conquered in 587 B.C.E. ments; and, in response to anti-Semitism,
and the Hebrews were deported to Baby- Zionism. Modern Judaism is made up of
lon (in the Babylonian Captivity). Under four major groups of Jews: Orthodox,
180 JULIAN CALENDAR
the empire. His most important contribu- 1453 and is the basis of the legal systems
tion was the codification of Roman laws of continental Europe even today.
in the Corpus Juris Civilis (Body of Civil
Law), which remained the basis of law in Justinian Law. See Corpus Juris Civilis;
the Byzantine Empire until its collapse in Justinian (Justinian the Great)
k
Kaifeng Kamakura
Chinese city in Henan province. In the City southwest of Tokyo, Japan, that served
fourth century B.C.E. the city, then known as the headquarters of the Kamakura
KANAGAWA, TREATY OF 183
other Western powers, ending Japan's After the establishment of the Republic of
period of isolation and setting in motion a China in 1912, Kang devoted his efforts to
series of events that led to the Meiji Resto- restoring the monarchy in China.
ration of 1868. Kanagawa is known today
as Yokohama. Kanishka (r. c. first or second century
C.E.)
Kanchipuram (Kanchi) Great king ofthe Kushan kingdom, which
Town in northern Tamil Nadu state in ruled northwestern India and part of Cen-
India also known as Conjeeveram, consid- tral Asia. He is believed to have reigned
ered in modern times as one of the seven sometime between 78 and 144 C.E. (some
major sacred cities of Hinduism for its scholars suggest a later date). Kanishka is
many temples. It served as the capital of best known as a patron of Buddhism and
the Pallava dynasty of southern India from convened the fourth great Buddhist coun-
the fourth to the ninth century. cil, important for marking the beginnings
of Mahayana Buddhism. His court at-
Kangxi (K'ang-hsi) (1654-1722)
Reign of the Qing (Manchu) emperor of tracted many writers and scholars includ-
China from 1662 to 1722. An able ruler, ing Ashvaghosa, whose Buddha Charita is
Hsiian-yeh extended the Qing empire to one of the earliest examples of classical
Outer Mongolia and Taiwan. He elimi- Sanskrit poetic literature.
nated the last Ming loyalist threats to
Manchu rule; brought a final end to the Kant, Immanuel (1724-1804)
nomad threat from Mongolia; and opened German philosopher whose ideas heavily
diplomatic relations with Russia, which influenced subsequent philosophy of
the Chinese empire now bordered. He was reason. Kant did extensive writing in the
famous for his frequent inspection trips areas of the theory of knowledge, ethics,
around the empire and his patronage of and aesthetics, and he questioned pure
literature and scholarship. Although the reason, replacing it with human instinc-
Manchu rulers of the Qing dynasty were tual reason. The schools of thought of
considered by many Chinese as barbarian Kantianism, idealism, and even transcen-
outsiders, his skillful rule and patronage of dentalism are closely drawn from his ideas,
Chinese culture did much to lessen resent- which challenged some of the views of
ment over their rule. the Enlightenment.
Pakistan's support for Muslim separatists scholars now date at least parts ofthe work
led to the Indo-Pakistan wars of 1948- after Kautilya's lifetime, but it is thought
1949 and 1965 and contributed to the 1981 to reflect his views.
war. Since 1989 Kashmir has seen violent
fighting between Muslims seeking either Kemal, Mustafa (Kemal Pasha). See
independence or union with Pakistan, and Atatiirk, Kemal (Kemal Pasha)
Indian forces. Pakistan's support for these
groups has kept relations with India tense, Kempis, Thomas a (1379-1471)
with occasional military clashes along the Medieval monk, priest, and author of Of
cease-fire line agreed to by Pakistan and the Imitation of Christ (c. 1441). Thomas is
India in 1972 and which divides Kashmir an example of the devout, pietistic flow-
between the two powers. ering of Christianity in the late Middle
Ages. His writing influenced the Brethren
Kaunda, Kenneth (1924-) ofthe Common Life, with whom Desider-
Zambian statesman and first president of ius Erasmus trained. Imitation was in-
Zambia (1964-1991). He was a member tended as an introduction to the devout
of the African National Congress and life, but it gained wide appeal in Europe as
became its president in 1959. The leader many people questioned the clergy and
of a nonviolence movement, Kaunda was church structure, but not religion.
imprisoned by the British in 1959 until
January 1960. In 1964, at Zambia's inde- Kennedy, John F. (1917-1963)
pendence, he was elected as the country's Thirty-fifth president ofthe United States.
first president. Progressively concerned A naval hero during World War II, mem-
with opposition, in 1972 he made Zambia ber of Congress, and U.S. senator from
a one-party state. After several reelections Massachusetts, Kennedy was elected presi-
he legalized opposition parties, in 1990. dent in 1960, narrowly defeating Richard
In 1991 he was defeated by Frederick M. Nixon in a campaign that featured the
Chiluba, and in 1992 he stepped down first televised debates. He was the first
from office. In 1997 Kaunda was put Catholic to serve as president. Kennedy's
under house arrest by Chiluba for allegedly legislative accomplishments were few,
inciting a coup, and in 1999 there was an though he came to be an important sup-
assassination attempt on him. He lives porter ofthe civil rights movement and the
in Zambia in retirement with his wife. space program. Cold War issues dominated
his presidency, including the failed inva-
Kautilya (fl. fourth century B.C.E.) sion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs; the Berlin
Brahmin prime minister of Chandragupta Crisis of 1961, leading to construction of
Maurya credited with the authorship the Berlin Wall; and the Cuban Missile
of the Arthashastra (Science of Material Crisis, in which he compelled the Soviet
Gain), a textbook on statecraft. He advised Union to withdraw nuclear-armed mis-
the young Chandragupta Maurya, who es- siles from Cuba. Kennedy was assassinated
tablished the Maurya empire, and is re- by Lee Harvey Oswald in Dallas, Texas, on
garded by some scholars as the genius November 22, 1963.
behind the ruler's military and political
successes. The Arthashastra gives ruthless Kennedy, Robert F. (1925-1968)
but realistic advice somewhat similar to Attorney general of the United States
that of Niccolo Machiavelli's Prince. Most and senator from New York. A younger
186 KENT STATE
brother of John F. Kennedy, Robert newly independent Kenya and a year later,
Kennedy served on Senate committee as its president. Kenyatta maintained a
staffs before managing his brother's presi- pro-Western and pro-British policy until
dential campaign in 1960. He served his death, making Kenya one of the most
as attorney general in the Kennedy ad- stable African countries.
ministration, focusing on organized crime
and civil rights. Following his brother's Kepler, Johannes (1571-1630)
assassination, Kennedy won election to Mathematician and a major figure in the
the Senate from New York. Running for scientific revolution. Kepler proved that
president as a liberal, antiwar Democrat the universe could be mathematically un-
in 1968, he was assassinated by Sirhan derstood. He discovered three basic math-
on June 5, 1968, just after winning the ematical laws of planetary motion. The
California Democratic primary. first law is that planets move in an ellipse.
The second is that there is a force emanat-
Kent State ing from the sun (Isaac Newton later
Anti-Vietnam War protest at Kent State proved this as gravity) that moves planets
University that ended with the shooting of in a mathematically explainable rate; that
student protesters by members ofthe Ohio is, "a line from the sun to a planet sweeps
National Guard. President Richard M. out equal areas in equal times." The third
Nixon's April 1970 announcement ofthe is that there is a mathematical relationship
invasion of neutral Cambodia prompted between a planet's distance from the sun
intensified antiwar protests on numerous and its rate of revolution around the sun.
college campuses. In response to civil
disorder on the Kent State campus, Na- Keynes, John Maynard (1883-1946)
tional Guard troops were dispatched to the British economist. His most important
university. On May 4,1970,2,000 students work is The General Theory of Employ-
took part in a banned rally, which the ment, Interest, and Money (1935). Keynes
troops attempted to break up. Without proposed a government-planned econ-
warning twenty-eight guardsmen fired on omy and recommended that governments
the crowd, killing four students and invest by deficit spending in order to re-
wounding nine others. The shootings start the economy. His views strongly in-
prompted student protests on an unprece- fluenced President Franklin D. Roosevelt
dented scale across the country. in the United States. In 1942 Keynes re-
ceived a seat in the House of Lords. He
Kenyatta, Jomo (c. 1894-1978) led the British committee at the Bretton
Kenyan statesman, first prime minister of Woods Conference in 1944 and was
Kenya (1963-1964), and that country's influential in the establishment of the
first president (1964-1978). Born in what International Monetary Fund. His eco-
was then British East Africa, Kenyatta was nomic views held sway in Britain and the
active in the politics of independence from United States until the Margaret Thatcher
the late 1920s. He helped to organize the and Ronald Reagan eras.
fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester,
England, with W. E. B. Du Bois. Im- KGB (Komitet Gosudarstvennoy
prisoned on charges of involvement with Bezopasnost) (1953-1991)
the Mau Mau insurrection, Kenyatta was Committee for State Security ofthe Union
nonetheless chosen as prime minister of a of Soviet Socialist Republics. One of the
KHMER ROUGE 187
Soviet Union's two secret police forces, War I. The movement began in 1919 under
responsible for both internal and external the leadership of brothers Muhammad
security. The KGB was renowned and and Shaukat Ali. It became a political
feared for its espionage, surveillance, and movement in alliance with the Indian Na-
subversion. With the breakup ofthe Soviet tional Congress, directed at the British. It
Union in 1991 the offices and records was important in mobilizing anti-British
(those that were not destroyed) ofthe KGB sentiment among Indian Muslims. When
were opened for the first time. Kemal Atatiirk abolished the caliphate in
1924 the movement collapsed. Mohandas
Khajuraho K. Gandhi extended his support but
Capital of the Chandella rulers of central withdrew it when the movement became
India from the ninth to eleventh centuries, violent. This caused bitterness between
famous for its Hindu temples. They are Hindus and Muslims and contributed to
best known for the sensual and sexually ex- the rise of Muslim nationalism that culmi-
plicit nature of their sculptures. Preserved nated with the establishment of Pakistan.
from Muslim destruction by their remote-
ness, the temples of Khajuraho have pre- Khitan People
served much ofthe rich artistic heritage of Altaic- (related to Mongolian or Turkic)
medieval India. speaking people who controlled much of
Manchuria and northeastern China from
Khayyam, Omar. See Rubaiyat the tenth to the early twelfth century. The
Khitans destroyed the state of Parhae in
Khazars the early tenth century and then estab-
Turkic tribal peoples who created a state lished their own Liao dynasty based in
in the seventh and eighth centuries that southern Manchuria. They then forced
stretched from the Caucasus Mountains to first Korea and then Song China in the
the lower Volga River. Originally part of early eleventh century to pay them trib-
the Turkic federation, the Khazars broke ute. In the 1120s the Song allied with an-
free in the early seventh century and in 727 other Central Asian people, the Jurchens,
established a capital, Itil, on the lower to destroy the Liao state, whereupon the
Volga. Around 740 the ruling elite con- Jurchens replaced the Khitans as the rulers
verted to Judaism. A few scholars believe of Manchuria. Some Khitans established
many eastern European Jews are partially the Central Asian state of Kara-Khitai,
descended from these converted Khazars. which was destroyed by the Mongols in the
The Khazars fought a series of inconclusive thirteenth century.
wars against Arabs in the Caucasus region
in the early eighth century that prevented Khmer Rouge
the expansion of Islam into southeastern Cambodian communist movement that
Europe. In 965 a prince of Kiev, Syatoslav, led a successful rebellion against the U.S.-
defeated the Khazars; thereafter they backed Lon Nol regime from 1970 to 1975.
ceased to be a power in the region. The Khmer Rouge under their leader Pol
Pot adhered to an extreme concept of rev-
Khilafat Movement olution that sought to completely remake
Indian Muslim movement that arose in re- Cambodian society by destroying the
action to the treatment of the Ottoman country's urban middle class, its religious
sultan and caliph at the end of World institutions, and most traditional and
188 KHOISAN
Java, and Japan, but the first two were only policy" sought to reduce tensions between
partly successful and the last two ended North and South Korea. Kim Dae Jung
in failure. In 1281 Khubilai attempted a received the Nobel Prize for Peace in 2000
conquest of Japan, but his fleet of 4,500 for this effort.
ships and 150,000 men was, according
to Japanese tradition, blown back by a Kim II Sung (born Kim Song-ju)
kamikaze ("divine wind"). (1912-1994)
North Korean communist leader. Kim
Khyber Pass fought the Japanese in the 1930s as a guer-
Mountain pass between Afghanistan and rilla fighter leading a small band that was
Pakistan. Control of the Khyber Pass, forced to retreat to the Soviet Union
which is thirty-three miles long and as during World War II. In 1945 he was re-
narrow as ten feet, has been contested for turned to the Soviet-controlled northern
thousands of years. The pass has been tra- half of Korea by the Soviet occupation
versed by armies from the invasion of the forces. He established the Workers Party
Aryan people into the Indus River basin in 1946 and effectively ruled the northern
in the sixth century B.C.E. to the British half of the country from 1945 to 1948.
in the twentieth century. When North Korea became independent
as the Democratic People's Republic of
Kiev Korea, he governed it through his position
Capital of Ukraine and ancient capital of as head of the ruling Workers Party. Kim
Russia. Founded in the ninth century by II Sung persuaded the Soviets and the Chi-
Oleg according to tradition, Kiev had nese to support an invasion of South Korea
Russia'sfirstchurch andfirstbishop and was in 1950 in an effort to reunite the country
known as Holy Kiev for the great number of under his rule. After suffering defeat in the
churches within the city. Kiev remained an war he continued a hostile posture toward
important cultural center even after the cap- South Korea and its ally the United States
ital of Russia was moved to Moscow. It while remaining an ally of both the Soviet
became one of the largest and most im- Union and China, which provided eco-
portant industrial cities ofthe Soviet Union. nomic support for his regime. At home, he
established a thoroughly totalitarian state
Kim Dae Jung (1925- ) and an extreme cult of personality. He was
South Korean political opposition leader praised as not only a political and military
and president of South Korea (1998- genius but a great thinker whose juche
2003). From the southeastern province of ("self-reliance") thought virtually sup-
Cholla, a stronghold of antigovernment planted Marxism-Leninism as the official
sentiment, Kim Dae Jung ran unsuccess- ideology of the state. He groomed his son
fully for president again Park Chung Hee Kim Jong II as his successor.
in 1971 and was then forced into exile. His
kidnapping by Park's agents from a hotel Kim Jong 11(1942-)
in Japan in 1973 caused an international North Korean who succeeded his father,
incident. Kim's return to Korea and rear- Kim II Sung, as paramount leader of
rest in 1980 sparked a bloody uprising in North Korea (the Democratic People's Re-
Kwangju that year. Following the democ- public of Korea) in 1994. Kim Jong II was
ratization of South Korea he was elected the son of Kim II Sung by his second wife
president in December 1997. His "sunshine and was probably born in the Soviet
190 KING, MARTIN LUTHER, JR.
Union. Starting in the early 1970s the elder speech, broadening support for the 1964
Kim began grooming his son to be his Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting
heir. Upon his father's death the "Dear Rights Act. While in Memphis, Tennessee,
Leader," as Kim Jong II is called, assumed supporting striking sanitation workers,
power and carried on his father's policies King was shot and killed on his hotel's bal-
of highly centralized totalitarian control cony on April 4, 1968, by James Earl Ray.
over his people and confrontation with the
United States and South Korea. In 2000 Kipchak
he met with President Kim Dae Jung of Central Asian nomadic group of mostly
South Korea, who visited him and began Turkic-speaking peoples that were a major
some small steps at increasing contact and military presence in the western Eurasian
cooperation between the two Koreas, but steppe from the eleventh century. Called
his missile program and his 2002 decision Polovtsy by the Russians and Cumans by
to openly resume the development of nu- the Byzantines, the Kipchaks gained mas-
clear weapons created tensions with the tery over much of the area north of the
United States, Japan, and the international Black Sea in the eleventh century, making
community. In September 2005 North direct contact between Kievan Russia and
Korea announced that they would end Byzantium difficult. They were defeated by
their nuclear weapons program. the Mongols in 1237. Afterward, their ter-
ritory and many of their people became
King, Martin Luther, Jr. (1929-1968) absorbed into the Golden Horde. Others
Baptist minister at the forefront ofthe U.S. were sold as slaves, some becoming
civil rights movement of the 1950s and Mamluk slave warriors in Egypt.
1960s. After Rosa Parks, an elderly African
American woman, was arrested for refus- Kirghiz
ing to give up her seat on a Montgomery, Speakers of a Turkic language who mostly
Alabama, bus on December 1, 1955, King reside in Kyrgyzstan, a landlocked Central
organized a Montgomery bus boycott to Asian state bordered by Tajikistan, Uzbek-
place economic pressure on the bus sys- istan, Kazakhstan, and China. Kyrgyzstan
tem's practices. As a result segregation was colonized by Russia in 1864, became
was outlawed on Montgomery buses. After the Soviet Socialist Republic of Turkmen,
the successful bus boycott King formed and in 1991 joined the Commonwealth of
the Southern Christian Leadership Con- Independent States. In the 1990s Kyrgyzstan
ference in 1957. Using Mohandas K. had an estimated 4,851,000 residents, ap-
Gandhi's idea of nonviolent resistance, so proximately 1,678,000 living in towns and
successful at Montgomery, King helped roughly 3,144,00 in the countryside. Bish-
to organize protests throughout the South. kek, in the north, is the capital city, but
Sit-ins occurred at white-only lunch the southern part of Kyrgyzstan is more
counters, the first in Greensboro, North populous than the north. Kyrgyzstan, like
Carolina, in 1960. In 1963, while pro- other states in Central Asia, is a demo-
testing civil rights violations in Bir- graphically fluid environment with the
mingham, Alabama, King was jailed. From following breakdown in the 1990s: 64 per-
his cell King defended his policy of civil cent Kirghiz; 13 percent Uzbek; 12 percent
disobedience. He led a 250,000-person Russian; and the remainder Uighur, Tajik,
march for civil rights on Washington DC, Kazakh, Ukrainian, Tatar, German, and
giving his famous "I Have a Dream" Jewish. The Kirghiz consider themselves
KONOYE FUMIMARO 191
to be composed of forty tribes. The most It emerged in the first century C.E. with its
notable groups of Kirghiz outside of base in the Yalu River valley but eventually
Kyrgyzstan are those in China, where they shifted its center southward with its capital
are one of fifty-six ethnic groups recog- at Pyongyang. A powerful state, at its peak
nized by the Chinese government, and Koguryo controlled most of Manchuria
in the Wakhan corridor of Afghanistan, and northern Korea and defeated Sui
where a community of approximately and Tang dynasty attempts to subdue it.
30,000 Kirghiz was counted in 1979. It succumbed to a joint Silla-Tang inva-
sion in 660.
Kitalkki(d. 1937)
Japanese political thinker and radical ac- Kokutai
tivist who contributed to the rise of ultra- Japanese theory of government and society
nationalist violence in Japan in the 1930s. (often translated as "national polity") that
A member of the Kokuryokai (Black was used from the Meiji period to World
Dragon Society), an imperial group that War II to describe the basic and unique
sought to expand Japan's frontier to the character of the Japanese state. Always
Amur River, he abandoned his earlier so- vague, it combined traditional Japanese
cialism to accept a concept of Japan ruled values, especially Confucian loyalty to the
by a selfless military in which the state ruler and filial piety, with more modern
would own all industry and the entire pop- ideas of emperor worship and racial and
ulation would be dedicated to national cultural nationalism. After 1945 the idea
greatness. He was executed in 1937 for his of kokutai was associated with the ultra-
alleged involvement in the February 26, nationalism and militarism that was dis-
1936, incident, in which a small group of credited by Japan's defeat in World War II,
radical soldiers attempted a coup. and it is no longer part of mainstream
Japanese political thought or rhetoric.
Knight
Medieval cavalryman, heavily depended Kongo
upon in warfare during the Middle Ages, African kingdom of the fourteenth to sev-
who came to exemplify the chivalric code of enteenth centuries, located in west-central
honorable behavior in love and war. Knights Africa on the Congo River. In the four-
were an integral part of feudalism, some- teenth century the Bakongo established a
times receiving dominion overfiefsof their power kingdom as a confederation of sev-
own on the condition that they remain loyal eral smaller units in central Africa, known
to their feudal lord. As weaponry changed as the Kingdom of Kongo. The Portuguese
in the late Middle Ages and weapons using came in contact with the Kingdom of Kongo
gunpowder became more important, in 1482 and established a close diplomatic
knights declined in military importance, relationship with its kings. The kings con-
though they still fought at tournaments. verted to Christianity, but in 1665 slaving led
the Portuguese to go to war with Kongo,
Knossus Culture. See Minoan Civilization defeat it, and decapitate its king, and the
Kingdom of Kongo disintegrated.
Koguryo
One of three states that contended for su- Konoye Fumimaro (1891-1945)
premacy in Korea during the Three King- Called the last of the Japanese Fujiwara
doms period (fourth century to 676 C.E.). noble family. Long a liberal politician, he
192 KORAN
became a proponent of imperial expansion and the deaths of 4 million Koreans, mostly
when he became Japan's prime minister civilians, and 33,000 U.S. troops and perhaps
in 1937. He was in that position several 150,000 Chinese troops.
times, including at the beginning of the
Sino-Japanese War (1931-1945) as it Koryo
expanded from Manchuria to war with Name of the Korean state from 935 to
China (also known as World War II). He 1392, and sometimes the name ofthe dy-
concluded an alliance with the Axis nasty that ruled it. Wang Kon reunified
Powers in 1940 and founded the Impe- Korea and married into the former ruling
rial Rule Assistance Association to re- Kyongju Kim dynasty. He renamed it from
place Japan's political parties. He was Silla to Koryo, a name derived from the
slated to stand trial as a war criminal fol- ancient tribal state and people of northern
lowing World War II, but he committed Korea. Koryo's nearly five centuries saw
suicide in December 1945. the introduction of Chinese-style civil
service examinations, the transition from
Koran. See Quran (Qur'an or Koran) a warrior to a civil aristocracy, and the
growth in popularity of Zen ("Son")
Korean War (1950-1953) Buddhism. After a series of destructive
Conflict that began June 25, 1950, when Mongol invasions, the state became a
North Korea under Kim II Sung invaded Mongol vassal (1270-1356) and then re-
South Korea in a bid to reunify the coun- gained full independence. In the late four-
try. The intervention of the United States, teenth century General Yi Song-gye seized
which entered under the banner of the power and established the new Yi dynasty.
United Nations, resulted in the defeat of He renamed the state Choson but carried
North Korea. A number of other nations, on many of institutions of Koryo. Koryo is
such as Britain and Turkey, sent small still used as a name for Korea. The English
numbers offerees under the UNflag.After name Korea is derived from it.
General Douglas MacArthur's Inchon
landing in September 1950, U.S., South Kowtow (Ketou)
Korean, and other UN forces swiftly moved Chinese court protocol, an act of supplica-
north ofthe thirty-eighth parallel, which di- tion originally used in religious ceremon-
vides the two countries, but they were ies and adopted by the Ming and Qing
stopped and driven back by China, which emperors as the appropriate way to ap-
sent troops to defend North Korea in No- proach their imperial presence. All foreign
vember. By early 1951 the war was at a stale- and domestic visitors ofthe emperor were
mate along the border, and in July 1953 required to kneel and knock their heads on
a cease-fire took place after truce talks be- the floor three times as a sign of respect for
gan at Panmunjom. A demilitarized zone the emperor. In 1793 the British represen-
(DMZ) separating the two Koreas was estab- tative Viscount George Macartney re-
lished. The cessation of hostilities was only a fused to kowtow, and the requirement was
truce, and the Koreas remained technically abolished for Western diplomats after the
at war. U.S. troops continue to be stationed Opium War.
along the DMZ to reinforce South Korean
forces. The conflict resulted in massive Koxinga (1624-1662)
bombing of North Korea; widespread de- Western name for the pirate Zheng Chen-
struction throughout the Korean peninsula; ggong, who fought the newly established
KUSH 193
Qing (Manchu) rulers of China from his disgruntled Confederate veterans of the
base in Taiwan. Born to a Chinese father American Civil War, the Ku Klux Klan
and a Japanese mother, Koxinga remained (KKK) began as a social club. Deriving its
loyal to the Ming dynasty after its fall in name from the Greek word kuklos
1644 and led a resistance to the Manchus. ("circle"), the KKK was noted for its se-
Initially fighting along the southern Chi- crecy, hooded costumes, and elaborate rit-
nese coast and leading troops along the uals. It quickly moved to a campaign of
lower Yangzi River, he went on to cap- intimidation and violence directed against
ture Taiwan from the Dutch in 1661. African Americans and supporters of radi-
Koxinga died a year later, but his son con- cal Reconstruction (especially voters) in
tinued the Ming loyalist resistance until an effort to restore the prewar social order
Qing forces invaded and conquered in the South. Crushed by federal action
Taiwan in 1683, incorporating the island through the Force Acts in the early 1870s,
into the Chinese empire. the KKK reemerged in 1915 at Stone
Mountain, Georgia. The second incar-
nation of the klan, which directed its ire
Krupp, Alfred (1812-1887)
(and violence) at immigrants, Catholics,
German industrialist, armaments maker,
and "immorality" in addition to African
and driving force in German steel and indus-
Americans, grew to include millions of
trialization. He was the son of Friedrich
members and extended its reach into the
Krupp (1787-1826), who founded iron-
Midwest and the West, dominating poli-
and steelworks at Essen. Alfred Krupp
tics in several states. The klan declined rap-
invested in steam power to produce high-
idly after 1925 amidst factional fighting,
quality steel. By the 1870s Krupp's steel-
corruption, and the conviction ofthe Indi-
works were among the largest in Europe.
ana Klan leader on charges of rape and
Krupp steel cannons helped Prussia de-
murder. Small groups remained, and the
feat France in 1871 in the Franco-Prussian
Klan reemerged in a much more diffuse
War, and his steelworks also built many
form after World War II in the South and
German armaments in World War I and
the Midwest. While the third incarnation
World War II.
of the klan temporarily grew in strength
in response to the civil rights move-
Kshatriya ment, it remains faction-ridden and a
Second highest of the four varna status marginalized part of the extreme political
groups in Hinduism. The Kshatriyas were right.
generally rulers and warriors, and they
rank below the Brahmin priestly group in
Kuo. See Guo (Kuo)
the caste system. Many subgroups of vari-
ous socioeconomic statuses exist within
Kush
the Kshatriya. Most of India's rulers have
Ancient African kingdom in Nubia along
been identified with this caste.
the upper Nile south of Egypt. Recent re-
search suggests that the region may have
Kublai Khan. See Khubilai Khan preceded the Egyptian civilization as an
agrarian region and a kingdom. Nubia,
Ku Klux Klan (KKK) during the height of Egyptian power from
White supremacist terrorist organization. 2700 B.C.E., became a tributary, send-
Founded in 1866 in Pulaski, Tennessee, by ing goods to Egypt but also borrowing
194 KUSHAN KINGDOM
lands, latifundia were granted to upper- and absorbed into the Roman state with
class Romans for their service in the mili- full citizenship.
tary or politics. They were run as nearly
self-sufficient communities with a wide League of Arab States. See Arab League
range of economic activity and division of
labor. By the third century C.E. the latifun- League of Iroquois. See Iroquois, League
dium had become the agricultural unit of of
much of the western Roman Empire, and
with the decline of the empire the latifun- League of Nations
dia played not only a major economic role International organization established in
but also a political and cultural role. They 1919 by the Versailles Treaty to main-
are sometimes claimed as the basis of the tain peace and security by arbitrating in-
medieval manor. ternational disputes. First formulated by
President Woodrow Wilson ofthe United
Latin American Wars of Independence. States, the organization included the vic-
See Wars of Independence, Latin American tors of World War I, except for the United
States, and most neutral countries and
Latitude was headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.
Angular measurement of the earth on a Germany joined in 1926 and the Soviet
meridian, now measured in degrees from Union in 1934, but Germany and Japan
the equator to the North Pole and to the withdrew in 1933 and Italy in 1936. The
South Pole. Navigators had some idea of League of Nations proved ineffective in
latitude, as measured by the stars, before stopping the expansion and aggression
the fifteenth century, but in that century of Japan, Germany, and Italy in the 1930s.
implements were devised to make calcula- In 1946 league functions were absorbed
tions easier and more accurate. Europeans by the United Nations.
calculated latitude by altitude ofthe North
Star. Longitude was much more difficult Leakey, Louis and Mary (1903-1972;
to reckon, and not until the mid-eigh- 1913-1996)
teenth century was it possible to do so British-Kenyan archaeologists and anthro-
accurately. pologists. Leakey, his wife Mary, and their
son Richard made key discoveries regard-
Latium ing human origins in the Olduvai Gorge of
Ancient region of the Italian peninsula of Kenya. In 1959 Mary Leakey found early
the Latini people roughly bordered by the primate fossils that turned out to be 1.75
Tiber and Anio rivers to the northwest, million years old. In 1975 she found homi-
the Apennine hills to the east, and Cam- nid footprints of two adults and a child
pania to the south. Octavian combined that were 3.5 million years old.
Latium and Campania to form the first
region of Italy in the Roman Empire. Lebensraum
Latium is a coastal plain inhabited by an German word meaning "living space,"
ethnic group with a common namethe used by the Nazis to refer to the need of
Latiniand languageLatin. This region, the German people for more land in
these people, and their language became which to live. First introduced in the
the center of Roman culture when, in the 1870s, the term and the principle behind it
fourth century, the Latini were defeated were used to justify Germany's aggressive
LEO I, SAINT 197
expansion prior to and during World (velites and hoplites) and cavalry. These
War II, especially in eastern Europe. legions were well organized and trained
and often fought in phalanx maniples, or
Lee Kuan Yew (1923-) waves of block formations. They enabled
Lawyer and political leader who served as Rome to conquer much of the ancient
prime minister of Singapore (1959-1990). world although they were at a disadvan-
During British colonial rule in the 1950s tage fighting against the loosely organized
Lee created the People's Action Party. He Germanic tribes.
led the negotiations that established Singa-
pore as a self-governing state within the Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich (1870-1924)
British Commonwealth in 1959, and in 1963 Russian revolutionary, originally sur-
he led it into the Federation of Malay- named Ulyanov. He studied law at Kazan
sia. When the Malaysian government ex- and Saint Petersburg, founded the Fight-
pelled Singapore from the federation two ing Alliance for the Liberation of the
years later, Lee concentrated on devel- Working Class in Saint Petersburg, and
oping his city-state into a dynamic eco- participated in underground revolution-
nomic power. By the time he resigned in ary activities for which he was exiled to
1990 Singapore had the highest standard Siberia (1897-1900). In exile Lenin wrote
of living in Southeast Asia and educational about Marxism. At the 1903 Russian
and social services comparable to the west- Social Democratic Labor Party Second
ern developed industrialized nations. He Congress Lenin caused a split into two
was widely admired for his skill as an ad- factions, Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. He
ministrator, his intellectual brilliance, left Russia and remained abroad (except
and his outspoken views but was criticized for the 1905 Russian Revolution) writing
for governing in a paternalistic and auto- until 1917, when he returned from Zurich,
cratic manner. Switzerland, to take leadership ofthe 1917
Russian Revolution. He garnered wide-
Legalism spread support with slogans such as "All
One ofthe One Hundred Schools of classi- power to the Soviets" and led the Bolsheviks
cal Chinese philosophy that emphasized to control of the revolution in October
the need for the authority of the ruler 1917. He became head ofthe Soviet gov-
and the power of the state to be asserted ernment, made peace with Germany, and
and strengthened in order to establish an defeated the White Russians (those op-
orderly, peaceful society. A number of posed to the Communists) in the ensuing
thinkers contributed to its development, civil war. Lenin died in 1924; his body
most importantly Han Feizi (c. 280-233 was embalmed and placed in the Kremlin,
B.C.E.). Legalist teachings about the need and Petrograd (Saint Petersburg) was
for strict laws, regulations, and punish- renamed Leningrad until 1991, when
ments had an important influence on the the name was changed back to Saint
Qin state and on subsequent Chinese Petersburg.
political thought.
Leo I, Saint (Leo the Great) (c. 390-461)
Legions Roman Catholic pope (440-461). Leo ex-
The Roman army's divisions. Legions con- panded and solidified the authority of the
sisted of between 3,000 and 6,000 men papacy. He successfully fought the Pela-
comprised of light and heavy infantry gian and Manichean heresies and in 451
198 LEO IX, SAINT
reached an agreement between the western with the Corps of Discovery, sailing up the
and eastern Christian churches on the Missouri River to the Dakotas, where they
relationship between God the Father and wintered. From there they crossed Mon-
Jesus the Son. In 452 Leo encouraged tana, Idaho, and the Continental Divide.
Attila to leave Italy, and in 455 he saved In 1805 they traveled down the Snake
Rome from the Vandals. and Columbia rivers, reaching the Pacific
Ocean. They returned in 1806. The Lewis
Leo IX, Saint (1002-1054) and Clark expedition opened up the
Roman Catholic pope (1048-1054) and Louisiana Territory to American set-
reformer. Leo reformed the issue of tlement and established the United States
simony (buying church office) and en- as a country stretching from the Atlantic
forced clerical celibacy. His interference to the Pacific ocean.
in south Italy created conflict with the Byz-
antine Empire. His excommunica- Lexington, Battle of (1775)
tion ofthe patriarch of Constantinople led First battle of the American Revolution.
to the schism of the Roman Catholic British troops secretly set out to destroy
Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church the stores of arms and ammunition held
in 1054. by colonial militia in Lexington, Massa-
chusetts. The mission was detected by the
Leonardo da Vinci. See Da Vinci, Leonardo Americans, who met the British troops on
the town green on April 19, 1775. After
Lepanto, Battle of (1571) being ordered by British major John
Sea battle near Greece between the Pitcairn to disperse, the colonists moved
Ottoman Turks and the Holy League of to obey until a shot rang out, followed by
Venice, Genoa, Spain, and the papacy. several volleys of fire. Debate remains as to
Lepanto was the last great naval confron- which side fired the first shot.
tation fought primarily with galleys, rowed
warships. Although it was first major Liang Chi-chao (1873-1929)
defeat of the Ottomans by the Europeans, Disciple of Kang Youwei, with whom
they did not take advantage of the victory he worked in the summer of 1898 in the
and it had little effect, other than as a boost Hundred Days Reform in late Qing China.
in confidence. Liang lectured to the Qing emperor
Kuang-hsu on educational and adminis-
Leviathan. See Hobbes, Thomas trative reform before the Empress Dowa-
ger (Ci Xi) and Yuan Shih-kai brought
Lewis and Clark Expedition an end to the reform efforts. He fled with
(1804-1806) Kang to Japan until after the 1911 revolu-
U.S. transcontinental expedition of explo- tion and then returned to China as a re-
ration. After President Thomas Jeffer- former, supporting Yuan Shi-kai against
son had the United States complete the Sun Yat-sen's Guomintang.
Louisiana Purchase from France in 1803,
more than doubling the size of the new Liberalism
country, Jefferson initiated the Lewis and Political view that individual liberty is of
Clark expedition to explore and docu- utmost importance. Liberalism became a
ment the territory. Meriwether Lewis and prominent belief in Britain in the nine-
William Clark left Saint Louis in 1804 teenth century; its greatest proponent was
LINGA 199
John Stuart Mill in his work On Liberty 1895, including the destruction of the
(1859). Liberalism arose in opposition modern Beiyang fleet, whose construction
to the power of the state as nationalism he had supervised.
spread in Europe but also came to be asso-
ciated with free-market theory. Later in Limpopo River
the nineteenth century liberalism attached River 1,100 miles (1,800 km) long origi-
to social reforms. nating as the Crocodile River and flowing
in an arch that forms the boundary of
Liberal Party South Africa, Botswana, and Zimbabwe
British political party founded in 1859. The and then flows through Mozambique to
Liberal Party generally represented the mid- the Indian Ocean.
dle class, labor, and the non-Church of
England denominations. For much of the Lin Biao (Lin Piao) (1908-1971)
late nineteenth century William Glad- Chinese military commander and com-
stone led the party, and he was prime min- munist leader. A participant in the Long
ister numerous times. The Liberal Party March, he later led Chinese forces in the
carried out many social and political re- Korean War (1950-1953). Mao Zedong
forms including instituting elementary made him minister of defense in 1959 and
education, child labor laws, and workplace designated him his successor in 1969. Lin
safety laws. The Factory Act of 1874 estab- supported Mao's radical policies during
lished a maximum work week of fifty-six the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
hours. The party was instrumental in mov- but was killed in a plane crash in Mongolia
ing toward Irish Home Rule. The Liberal in 1971 following his alleged involvement
Party was surpassed by the Labour Party in in a coup attempt.
the 1920s and merged with the Social
Democrats to form the Liberal Democratic Lincoln, Abraham (1809-1865)
Party in the 1980s. Sixteenth president of the United States
(1861-1865). His election on an anti-
Li Hongzhang (Li Hung-chang) slavery platform helped to precipitate the
(1823-1901) American Civil War. During the Civil War
Chinese statesman who formed the re- he asserted broad presidential powers to
gional Anhui army that helped put down direct the war effort of the Union. On
the Taiping Rebellion. Later he became January 1, 1863, he issued the Emanci-
one of the leaders of the Self-Strengthen- pation Proclamation, redefining the war
ing Movement, an attempt to bolster the as a struggle to end slavery. His 1863
Qing dynasty by implementing cautious Gettysburg Address is widely regarded as
reforms. Li served for more than four de- a preeminent expression of U.S. political
cades as the official most responsible for ideals. Lincoln was reelected in 1864 and
foreign affairs, negotiating the Treaty of was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth
Shimonoseki with Japan in 1895 His re- in 1865.
forms were intended to adopt certain
western institutions, especially military, Linga
without making any fundamental social, Hindu phallic symbol representing the god
economic, or political changes. His efforts Shiva. Its frequent representation reflects
were discredited by China's humiliating the importance of fertility and reproduc-
defeat in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894- tion in Hinduism.
200 LITTLE ICE AGE
in the physical world, concluded that the dang offensive to abandon their Jiangxi
unalienable rights of humankind are life, base, about 100,000 communists partici-
liberty, and property. Locke provided a pated, but only 6,000 survivors completed
foundation upon which the Enlighten- the trip after traveling 6,000 miles (9,700
ment was built. km) over rugged terrain by foot. Dur-
ing the march Mao Zedong became the
Loess leader of the Chinese Communist Party.
Silty or loamy soil, usually colored yellow- The Long March became a symbol of de-
ish brown, that is deposited by the wind termination for the communists, and
over much of China and elsewhere in the many of its survivors became prominent
Northern Hemisphere. Its rich, easily leaders after the communists came to
worked loess has made this region of China power in 1949.
an agriculturally productive one and con-
tributed to the fact that it was the heartland Long Parliament (1640-1660)
of Chinese civilization. The soils wash into English Parliament called by Charles I
the Yellow River (Huang He) giving the that continued to meet through the En-
river its characteristic color and name. glish Civil War (1642-1649), the execution
ofthe king (1649), and the establishment
Longbow of the Commonwealth. The Long Parlia-
In the Middle Ages, originally a hunting ment no longer regarded itself as a tempo-
weapon used by woodsmen. In the wars of rary body to advise the monarch, but as the
conquest in Wales the English discovered source of authority ofthe English govern-
the effectiveness ofthe weapon. It was easy ment. This conflict with the king brought
and quick to construct from readily avail- on the Civil War and the king's death. In
able ash trees, rapid to fire compared to the 1648 the Parliament was purged, and the
crossbow, and very accurate. The use of remnant was known as the Rump Parlia-
large numbers of longbowmen in the ment. In 1659 the Parliament was restored,
Hundred Years War (1338-1453) enabled and in 1660 it dissolved itself.
the outnumbered English to defeat the
French at the battles of Crecy, Poitiers, Longshan
and Agincourt. Term for a Neolithic culture that flour-
ished in the lower Yellow River (Huang
Longitude He) valley from 2500 to 1700 B.C.E., named
Measurement of the earth along an east- for a site in Shandong province in China.
west line. Whereas latitude was calculated The Longshan culture, which replaced the
from the stars by the fifteenth century, lon- earlier Yangshao culture, was an agricul-
gitude could not be accurately measured tural society based on the cultivation of
until 1759, when John Harrison built a millet and the raising of pigs and goats and
timepiece that could accurately measure is noted for its distinctive black pottery.
it, making navigation safer. It developed into the Shang civilization.
appointed minister of war and vice presi- Versailles. He and his family tried to
dent by his father, whom he succeeded escape but were captured. In 1792 the
to the presidency upon his death in 1862. monarchy was abolished, and in 1793
The War of the Triple Alliance (Brazil, Louis was executed by guillotine.
Argentina, and Uruguay), begun over border
disputes, nearly destroyed Paraguay. Louisiana Purchase (1803)
Sale of the vast Louisiana province by
Lord-Vassal Relationship. See Feudalism France to the United States. France had
held this territory, ranging from the Mis-
Louis IX, Saint (1214-1270) sissippi River to the Rocky Mountains and
King of France seen as the model of saintly from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada, until
kingship. Louis stabilized France espe- 1763, when at the Treaty of Paris it was
cially in its relations with England, bring- given to Spain. In 1800 France regained
ing great prestige to the Capetian dynasty; Louisiana, but Napoleon Bonaparte real-
built Sainte-Chapelle in Paris to house ized that he could not control it against an
relics; and led two Crusades. He died on antagonistic United States and a naval
the second Crusade, to Tunis. blockade from Britain, with which France
was at war. Louisiana was therefore worth-
Louis XIV (1638-1715) less to France and valuable to America.
Longest-reigning king of France (1643- France sold it to the United States for
1715). Louis became king as a child, while $15 million. In 1804 President Thomas
his mother was regent and Jules Mazarin Jefferson sent the Lewis and Clark expe-
chief minister. At Mazarin's death in 1661 dition to explore the new territory.
Louis took the reins of government. He
was able to maintain absolute rule by not Louis-Philippe (1773-1850)
calling the Estates General (parliament) King of France (1830-1848). Eldest son of
and ignoring the Parlement (courts) and the Duke of Orleans, at the outbreak ofthe
the aristocracy. Under Louis the French French Revolution father and son took
military expanded and many wars were the surname of Egalite ("Equality") and re-
fought, but after 1700 most ended in nounced their titles and estates. After the
defeat. Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes restoration ofthe French monarchy, Louis-
and persecuted the Huguenots (Protes- Philippe recovered his estates and was
tants), but he cultivated the arts at the elected king (called the "Citizen King") in
court at the Palace of Versailles. the wake of the 1830 revolution. By the
revolution of 1848 his support had disap-
Louis XVI (1754-1793) peared under pressure for greater reforms,
King of France at the outbreak of the and he abdicated the throne and escaped
French Revolution (1789). With pres- to England.
sure from the aristocracy to concede the
power of the courts, pressure from the Loyola, Ignatius, Saint (1491-1556)
middle class to grant it some participation Founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
in government, and pressure from the and prominent Catholic Reformation
lower classes to reduce taxation, Louis leader. Originally a soldier, while recuper-
called the Estates General in 1789. As the ating from an injury Loyola experienced a
revolution broke out Louis XVI was forc- revelation. He used his military training to
ibly brought to Paris from the Palace of live a regimented life committed to God.
LUTHERANISM 203
Loyola wrote The Spiritual Exercises and as His party won a sweeping victory in 1960
others followed he founded the Society of elections and was made prime minister. He
Jesus in 1540, committed to poverty, chas- worked with Kwame Nkrumah attempting
tity, and obedience to the pope. The Jesu- to form a union of Ghana and Zaire. Under
its became a powerful tool of the Roman enormous pressure from revolts, army muti-
Catholic Church and of the papacy in the nies, Belgium, and Belgian and United Na-
fight against the Protestants in the Refor- tions intervention, Lumumba was arrested
mation. The Jesuits were effective in re- and murdered in 1961.
converting Protestants in Europe to Cathol-
icism and in spreading Catholicism to Asia Luther, Martin (1483-1546)
and Latin America. German priest, monk, and university pro-
fessor who challenged the contemporary
Luddites views of the Roman Catholic Church on
Movement of workers during the English salvation. He argued that "justification
Industrial Revolution who opposed the [salvation] was by faith alone," meaning
increasingly mechanized workplace. Work- that humans did not have control over
ers led by Nedd Ludd broke stocking- their own salvation, therefore all they
frame machines in Nottingham in 1811 in could do was to believe. In 1517 Luther
hopes of saving manual jobs. This ef- wrote Ninety-five Theses, or complaints
fort spread to other workers throughout against the Catholic Church, and sent
England, who smashed machinery when them to the archbishop of Mainz, a power-
wages were cut or as a means to demand a ful church official. The story later devel-
raise. Luddites comprised only a small oped that he also posted them on the
minority of workers. cathedral door at Wittenberg, though
many historians now doubt that this hap-
Luftwaffe pened. When ordered to recant some of his
German air force established in 1935 in positions he refused and was excommuni-
contravention of the Versailles Treaty. cated; when others followed him, the Ref-
Hermann Goering headed the Luftwaffe ormation was under way. His movement
and built it into a formidable war ma- stated that priests were not a special caste
chine in World War II. However, in the of humans, but that there was a "priest-
Battle of Britain the Luftwaffe failed to hood of all believers." He also put the
overpower the British air corps and gain church service in the vernacular (local lan-
control of the English Channel for a guage), allowed priests to marry, and tried
German invasion. Germany's modern air to move religion to the purity of the early
force, also called the Luftwaffe, was re- Christian church.
established in 1956.
Lutheranism
Lumumba, Patrice (1925-1961) Christian denomination established by
Congolese political leader and first prime Martin Luther. Luther intended only to
minister of independent Zaire (1960-1961). reform Catholicism, but when he was
Lumumba worked his way up through excommunicated for his views others fol-
Belgian Congo society. He founded the lowed him. Lutheranism maintained an
Congolese National Movement, with Pan- episcopal structure and allowed churches
African interests, and became an impor- to reform at their own pace. It upholds the
tant leader in the independence movement. priesthood of all believers, the primacy of
204 LU XUN
the New Testament, and the importance stories and other works presented sharp
of all Christians reading the Bible. Luther- social criticism of China. He later became
anism believes in consubstantiationthat associated with the Chinese Communist
the bread and wine of communion be- Party.
come the body and blood of Christ and at
the same time are bread and wine. Luther- Lycurgus
anism became widespread in parts of Quasi-historical figure from ancient
Germany as well as Scandinavia. Sparta who purportedly wrote a legal code
known as the Lycurgus Constitution. The
LuXun (1881-1936) code of law was actually developed over a
Pseudonym for Zhou Shuren, a writer and long period of time rather than by one in-
a founder of modern Chinese literature. dividual, but the main framework proba-
Lu, trained as doctor, became one of bly dates from the seventh century B.C.E. It
China's most revered writers, whose short was the basis of Spartan law.
m
in Mozambique in 1975. She has cam- 1913). Madero led the Mexican Revolu-
paigned for children's and women's rights tion in 1910 and overthrew dictator
and education and served in related posi- Porfirio Diaz. Madero was elected presi-
tions for the United Nations. She has re- dent in 1911 and ruled for two years until
ceived numerous awards for her work. In he was deposed by an insurrection and
1998 Machel married South African presi- murdered two days later.
dent Nelson Mandela. She continues her
work in Mozambique and for the United Madison, James (1751-1836)
Nations. Delegate to the Continental Congress
during the American Revolution, major
Machiavelli, Niccolo (1469-1527) contributor to the United States Constitu-
Italian Renaissance humanist, political tion (known as the "Father ofthe Consti-
writer, and author of The Prince (1513). tution"), and fourth U.S. president.
Machiavelli, of Florence, was one of the Madison's proposal of a three-branch gov-
most influential authors of western politi- ernment (an executive branch, a bicameral
cal theory. In The Prince Machiavelli ex- legislative branch with state representa-
plored issues of morality in the politics of tion based on population, and a judicial
the Italian city-state, including the ideas branch) was, for the most part, adopted
that the end result of a political action into constitutional law. His political alli-
justifies the means, and that it is not realis- ance with Thomas Jefferson brought
tic to expect politicians to act based on about the Republican Party, with an em-
moral principles when trying to maintain phasis on strong central government.
their authority. Machiavelli also published Although his difficulties as president dur-
The Art of War (1520) and Discourses on ing the War of 1812 cost him popularity,
the First Ten Books of Livy (1518), an exam- he remained a successful politician and
ple of how the humanists were interested retired peacefully to his home, Montpelier,
in classical sources. Many of his ideas were in Virginia.
formed during his political career as a dip-
lomat of the Florentine Republic. Madras (Chennai)
Capital and largest city in the southern
Machu Picchu Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It was a fishing
Inca city in the Andes Mountains of Peru. village until the British East India Com-
Machu Picchu was built on a flattened pany established a factory and fortress
mountaintop with terraces, aqueducts, there in 1639. It grew into an important
and suspension bridges. The most im- commercial and administrative center. In
portant temple at Machu Picchu was the the 1990s the city's name was officially
Hitching Post of the Sun, built to be near changed to Chennai.
the sun god, where priests tried to "tie" the
sun to a stone to keep it from disappearing. Magellan, Ferdinand (b. c. 1480-1521)
Temples to the sun god were often covered Portuguese explorer for Spain. Born to a
in gold to reflect the sunlight. Impressive minor noble family and raised in the
ruins remain. household of King John II of Portugal, he
participated in trips to India for Portugal
Madero, Francisco (1873-1913) and moved to Spain, where he was fitted
Apostle ofthe Mexican Revolution, states- with five ships and 250 crew. Magellan set
man, and president of Mexico (1911 sail September 20, 1519, and reached the
MAHABHARATA 207
South American coast in December. Bad increased over time as the republic and,
weather, disease, and crew revolts slowed later, the empire expanded.
the progress, but after sailing through the
strait that would come to be called the Strait Magna Carta (Latin for "Great Charter")
of Magellan, the remnants of the fleet (1215)
were the first to sail westward all the way Document forced upon King John I of
to East Asia. En route the crew endured England in 1215 by his barons. It was
by eating rats and leather. In April 1521 signed on the island of Runnymeade in the
Magellan was killed by an island tribe. The Thames River outside London. Often seen
mission command was taken over by Juan as an early document of human or civil
Sebastian de Elcano, who brought the rights, it was originally written to force the
flagship Victoria back to Spain in Septem- king to abide by ancient rights ofthe nobil-
ber 1522 with only eighteen survivors ity and therefore was more traditional than
aboard but who was thus the first sailor to innovative. However, it was one ofthe first
circumnavigate the globe. This proved that documents limiting the power ofthe mon-
the entire world could be sailed in any archy and providing for courts and protec-
direction. tions of a free citizenry, the church, and
the merchant class. Over time it came to
Magistrate (China) be seen as the origin of the English Par-
Chinese official heading a local unit of liament, court structure, and legal pro-
government. From at least Tang dynasty tections of the common person.
times the Chinese countryside was gov- Magyars
erned by the local magistrate, a civil ser- People who settled in the Hungarian plain,
vant who possessed administrative, police, known today as Hungarians. The Magyars
and judicial powers. By late imperial times are a Finno-Ugric-speaking people. Mi-
most owed their position to success in grating from western Siberia in the fifth
highly competitive civil service examina- century C.E., they moved to the region
tions, giving them great prestige. By mid north of the Caspian Sea and then west-
Qing times the country magistrate admin- ward through Ukraine and by the ninth
istered, on average, about 250,000 people. century into Hungary. In the ninth and
Although magistrates were aided by a staff tenth centuries the Magyars were feared
of clerks and the informal assistance of throughout eastern Europe and the Byz-
local gentry, the fact that China ruled so antine Empire. In 1000 the pope crowned
many people with so few officials has been Stephen as the first king of Magyars. He
viewed as a remarkable achievement. introduced Christianity. Surrounded by
Slavs, Germans, and Romanians, the
Magistrate (Rome) Magyars have maintained a strong ethnic
Roman official. From the formation ofthe and cultural sensibility with indigenous
Roman Republic, the government was run art, music, and literature.
by magistrates. There were thirty-one
magistrates, elected annually by all citi- Mahabharata
zens. Their role was to keep the peace, col- Along with the Ramayana one of the two
lect taxes, and administer the law. Selected great Sanskrit epics of India and, with
from the magistrates were quaestors, 100,000 couplets, one of the world's
praetors, and eventually consulsall longest. Its central narrative relates the
considered magistrates. Their numbers struggle for power between two groups of
208 MAHARAJA
cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas. earth to assist his or her fellows to achieve
The Mahabharata is important for estab- salvation. Mahayana Buddhism developed
lishing much ofthe mythology of Hindu- into many different sects, often focus-
ism. One section ofthe epic, the Bhagavad ing on a particular sutra (sacred text).
Gita, stands on its own as one ofthe most It spread to Central Asia and to China,
important works in the Hindu tradition Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, becoming the
explicating the nature of dharma (duty). principal form of Buddhism practiced in
Although set in very ancient times, it was the latter lands.
probably completed in its present form
about 400 C.E. Mahdist Revolution (1882-1885)
Sudanese revolt and creation of a Mahdist
Maharaja state (1885-1898). Muhammad Ahmad of
Term meaning "great ruler," used in India Dongola, a Sudanese religious leader, pro-
by Hindu kings and princes from the early claimed himself Mahdi ("Divinely Guided
centuries C.E. Originally referring to great One") and led a jihad against the Egyptian
kings and lords, it became commonly used colonial government. After a number of
by petty princes. The feminine form is victories the Mahdists took the capital,
maharani. Khartoum. Five months later the Mahdi
died and was succeeded by a khalifa ("suc-
Mahavira (c. 540-468 B.C.E.) cessor"). The Mahdist state survived re-
Sanskrit title meaning "Great Hero," used volts, war with Ethiopia, and famine only
for Vardhamana, an important teacher in to be reconquered by the British in 1898
the Jain religious tradition. An older and see the khalifa killed in 1899. The
contemporary of Siddhartha Gautama, Mahdist movement, however, has sur-
the Buddha, he is considered in Jainism to vived as a political party in Sudan, headed
have been the last of the twenty-four Tir- by the great-grandson of the Mahdi.
thankaras ("Ford-Makers"), saints who
developed the faith. Mahavira's teachings Mahmud of Ghazni (969-1030)
emphasize the need for asceticism and the Muslim ruler of the Ghaznavid dynasty,
practice of ahimsa, or non-injury to living which controlled Afghanistan and parts of
things, and had great influence on Indian Turkestan. Mahmud is most famous for
thought. the seventeen raids, by mostly Turkic
forces, he led into India that in the name
Mahayana Buddhism of Islam that looted and destroyed many
Form of Buddhism meaning "the Greater Hindu and Jain temples.
Vehicle" to distinguish itself from Thera-
vada Buddhism, "the Lesser Vehicle." It Majapahit
was formulated in northern India between Empire based in Java that flourished from
the third century B.C.E. and the first 1293 to the later fifteenth century. At
century C.E. It differs from Theravada Bud- its peak under Hayam Waruk (1350-
dhism (also called Hinayana Buddhism) in 1389), it exercised some controlor at
that it supplements the Pali-language least influenceover much of the Malay
canon with texts written in Sanskrit, most Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi,
notably the Lotus Sutra. Central to its be- Bali, and other islands. Majapahit's rulers
liefs are the concept of the bodhisattva, were Hindus. Its greatness is extolled in
the enlightened being who remains on the epic poem Nagarakertagama (1365).
MAMLUK 209
Manchus Manichaeism
People from northeast Asia who con- Religious belief developed by Mani (d. c.
quered China in the seventeenth century 276) that the universe is composed of two
and established the Qing dynasty (1644- contending forces: good (light, spirit) and
1911). The Manchus were of the same evil (darkness, material). Mani, a Persian,
ethnic origins as the Jurchens, who had es- drew from his study of Buddhism, Zoroas-
tablished the Jin state in northern China. trianism, and Christianity. He believed
They were united by Nurhachi (1559- that the object of humankind is to release
1626), who took the title emperor in 1616. the light, stolen by Satan, that exists in each
His son Abahai adapted the name Qing human. This can be accomplished by fol-
("Pure") for his dynasty. The Manchus, lowing a course of asceticism. Manichae-
despite their subsistence lifestyle, had ism was strong during the third century,
MANSAMUSA 211
became the official religion of the ninth- the most famous artists of mannerism
century Uighur state, and declined with are Pontormo (1494-1556), Parmigianino
the growth of Christianity. Elements of it (1503-1540), Bronzino (1503-1572), Tinto-
were still prominent in groups such as the retto (1518-1594), and El Greco (1541-
Cathari and the Albigenses in the twelfth 1614). Parmigianino's The Madonna with
and thirteenth centuries and survived the Long Neck (c. 1535) and Bronzino's
in southeastern China into the seven- Allegory of Venus (c. 1546) are excellent
teenth century. Marco Polo mistook examples of mannerism.
Manichaeans for Christians.
Manorialism
Manila Galleon Medieval economic institution that inte-
A type of Spanish ship that sailed annually grated with the political-military struc-
from Acapulco, Mexico, to Manila, in the ture known as feudalism. In return for a
Philippines. From 1573 to 1815 the Manila vassal's commitment to fight for a lord, the
Galleons were the chief link between the vassal was usually granted a fief, or land.
Spanish colony in the Philippines and
This land was held by the lord and rented
Spain. They provided basic goods for the
out to peasants (serfs, when bound in ma-
Spanish community in the Philippines and
norialism) who worked it, paying both in
large quantities of Mexican silver that was
kind (goods produced) and in work (obli-
traded for Chinese goods. Until the eigh-
gations to cultivate the lord's portions of
teenth century, when Britain and other
land on the manor). Each manor was a
Western countries began to trade directly
with China, the vessels were an important nearly complete economic unit produc-
source of the silver used in East Asia for ing most of the food and goods required
currency and stimulated trade throughout by its occupants. Land in manorialism was
the region. worked as large common fields divided
into strips cultivated by each serf family in
two-field or three-field crop rotation.
Manioc
Plant (also known as cassava) native to
tropical areas of the Americas. Its leaves Mansa Musa (r. c. 1312-1337)
and shoots can be eaten, but its roots are Emperor of ancient Mali. The kingdom
a major source of carbohydrates. It pro- of Mali reached its greatest extent under
duces large amounts of food, even in poor Mansa Musa, but his reign is known for
soil. With the discovery of the Americas, the fact that he made a pilgrimage to
manioc was taken to Africa, where it has Mecca in 1324. When he reached Cairo
become a staple food in parts of central that year he dazzled its inhabitants with his
Africa. It is eaten in North America mainly enormous retinue, numbering more than
as tapioca. 10,000, and by his gifts of gold. According
to tradition his visit to Cairo created eco-
Mannerism nomic inflation by the influx of gold. He
Style in art in the period between the High returned to Mali with an Arab architect,
Renaissance and the baroque. Mannerism who designed numerous buildings in Gao
flourished from 1520 to 1600 with aes- and Timbuktu. A patron of learning and
thetic ideals of grace, refinement, elegance, the arts, Mansa Musa built libraries and
and sometimes bizarre exaggerations. Among gathered scholars and poets.
212 MANUMISSION
great revolutionary while criticizing his mit and receive signals across the Atlantic
personality cult and economic policies. Ocean. Marconi invented other devices
and was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Maratha Wars (1774-1782, 1803-1805, Physics in 1909.
1817-1818)
Three wars between the Marathas of India Marco Polo. See Polo, Marco
and the troops of the British East India
Company. In the eighteenth century the Marcos, Ferdinand (1917-1989)
Marathas were a confederacy of Maratha- Philippines president (1965-1986). Enter-
speaking warriors ofthe Deccan plateau of ing the Philippine Congress in 1949, he
Hindu religious background who fought became Senate leader in 1963 and was elect-
the Mughals and established control over ed president of the Philippines in 1965.
parts of central and northern India. Their Initially a reformer, he ruled in an increas-
attempt to revive a great Hindu empire in ingly dictatorial style, declaring martial
India suffered a setback when they were law in 1972. Although he lifted marital law
defeated by Afghans at the battle of Pani- in 1981, he continued to act ruthlessly.
pat in 1761. They remained an important After the assassination of opposition
power until they were subdued by the leader Benigno S. Aquino Jr. in 1983, op-
British. In the second war the British army position to Marcos intensified, and he was
was led by Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Duke forced into exile in Hawaii after a popu-
of Wellington). The wars made Britain larly supported military revolt took place
the dominant power in the Indian sub- in 1986. Ferdinand Marcos and his former
continent by 1818. beauty-queen wife, Imelda, left behind a
legacy of corruption and abuse of power
Marathon, Battle of (490 B.C.E.) that damaged the Philippines' reputation
Greek battle against the Persian army for democratic government.
under King Darius I. Darius ordered his
Maria Theresa (1717-1780)
generals to enslave the Athenians. The Per-
Archduchess of Austria and queen of Hun-
sians landed at Marathon, in Greece, but
gary and Bohemia (1740-1780), wife and
the Athenians rushed to Marathon and
empress of Holy Roman Emperor Francis
held a narrow mountain pass, pinning the
I, and mother of Holy Roman Emperor
Persians. The Persians lost the confronta-
Joseph II. Although a very capable ruler,
tion even though they greatly outnum-
her accession as archduchess and queen
bered the Greeks. An Athenian courier,
led to the War of the Austrian Succession
Pheidippides, ran 26 miles and 385 yards to
(1740-1748), followed by the Seven
warn Athens. The loss enraged the Persians
Years' War (1756-1763) and the War of
further and set up their return in 480 B.C.E.
the Bavarian Succession (1778-1779).
These wars reduced Austria's power and
Marconi, Guglielmo (1874-1937)
influence, affecting its performance later,
Italian inventor of the wireless telegraph.
in the Napoleonic Wars.
Others had experimented with the idea of
transmitting electrical signals, but Marconi Mark Antony. See Antony, Mark
was the first to devise the practical means
of doing so. In 1896 he took out a patent Marrakech (Marrakesh)
in England for a wireless telegraphy Moroccan city founded in the ninth cen-
machine. In 1901 he was the first to trans- tury that was a major commercial center
214 MARSHALL PLAN
Mary was constantly involved in intrigues, Ending the Jewish-Roman struggle, the
marriages, and affairs, and Elizabeth I of Jews ultimately opted to kill one another
England had her confined and then exe- rather than be subjected to torture and
cuted because of Mary's involvement in butchery by the Romans.
Catholic conspiracies against Elizabeth.
Mass
Mary, Virgin. See Virgin Mary Term for the entire service in the Roman
Catholic and High Anglican churches. The
Mary I (1516-1558) word mass originally referred to the Eu-
Queen of England and Ireland (1553- charist, or Lord's Supper, in the service
1558). Mary was the eldest daughter of and came from a word at the end of the
Henry VIII with his first wife, Catherine service to "dismiss." Since the fourth cen-
of Aragon. Mary became queen after her tury mass has referred to the entire service
younger half brother, Edward VI, died. in churches where the priest participates in
She was a devout Catholic (Edward was a the sacrifice of the body and blood of
devout Protestant) who married the Christtransubstantiation.
future Philip II of Spain (1554) and tried
to return England to Catholicism. Philip Massachusetts Bay Colony
left her to return to Spain after only one English Puritan religious settlement found-
year, and Mary remained childless, but her ed in 1630 under Governor John Winthrop.
connections with Philip and Spain turned King Charles I chartered the group of
many English against her. Between 1555 about 1,000 as the Massachusetts Bay
and 1558 nearly 300 Protestants were exe- Company in 1629. The settlement, one of
cuted, hence her sobriquet Bloody Mary. the original permanent colonies in Massa-
chusetts, merged in 1691 with Plymouth
Masaccio (1401-1428) Colony due to a growing severance be-
Italian early Renaissance painter. tween the colony and England. The settlers
Tommaso di Giovanni di Simone Guidi created a theocratic government that only
(known most commonly as Masaccio) was allowed church members to vote. The
one of the first artists to apply rules of colony was allowed to settle and trade
three-dimensional perspective and classi- between the Charles and Merrimack rivers
cal naturalism to his painting, as seen in his in New England, and Puritan stockhold-
Holy Trinity with the Virgin, St. John, and ers were allowed to control the colony in
Two Donors (1425). Masaccio died at age America instead of England.
twenty-seven.
Mau Mau
Masada Term for both a guerrilla group and an
Ancient fortress in southeastern Israel, site uprising in Kenya in the 1950s. The Mau
ofthe last holdout ofthe Jews (71-73 C.E.) Mau uprising (1952-1956) was an antico-
after the destruction of Jerusalem by lonial, mainly agrarian, guerrilla move-
Rome in 70 C.E. The fortress was built by ment against British control of Kenya.
Herod the Great and originally contained The term Mau Mau was used by the British
palaces as well as military fortifications. and not by the freedom fighters them-
Masada was accessed by a single well- selves, who went under various titles. The
defended entrance, but the Romans con- British accused the Mau Mau of being
structed a second route up the cliffs. communists, but they did not advocate
216 MAURYA EMPIRE
communism or socialism. Between 1952 into a system of months and weeks, begin-
and 1956 at least 12,000 Africans were ning on different days and thus adding to
killed, but Kenya became independent the calendar's complexity.
nonetheless in 1963.
Mayan Civilization (c. 400 B.C.E.-1300
Maurya Empire (c. 325-185 B.C.E.) C.E.)
First Indian empire to rule over most of Mesoamerican civilization in the Yucatan
the Indian subcontinent. It was founded Peninsula, Guatemala, and Honduras. The
by Chandragupta Maurya (r. c. 325-297), Maya were cultural heirs to the Olmec civi-
who overthrew the Magadha kingdom of lization and contemporaries of Teotihua-
northeastern India. The empire reached its can in central Mexico. The Maya reached
peak under Ashoka (c. 265-238), who re- their peak in the fourth to eighth centuries
nounced militarism and promoted Bud- C.E. and had a sophisticated writing system
dhism. Much of our knowledge of the and advanced mathematics (in some areas
empire comes from the account of Megas- they were ahead of any mathematics in
thenes, a Greek envoy to Chandragupta's Africa, Asia, or Europe). They cultivated
court, and from inscriptions on pillars maize, yams, manioc, and cacao; cacao
erected throughout the empire by Ashoka. was used to make a chocolate drink for the
The empire was important in creating a upper classes. The Maya had numerous
legacy of political unity in India and in urban centers with populations as large
helping to establish Buddhism as a major as 100,000 people, but Mayan civilization
religion. was only centrally administered circa the
ninth to eleventh centuries. Their sepa-
rate kingdoms constantly fought one an-
Maxwell, James (1831-1879) other. Human sacrifice by decapitation
Scottish physicist renowned for his elec- was practiced to appease the gods.
tromagnetic theory. Maxwell is considered
one ofthe most important physicists of all May Fourth Movement
time and strongly influenced twentieth- Chinese nationalist movement that began
century physics. His understanding of May 4,1919, in Beijing with a student pro-
electromagnetic radiation paved the way test against the decision at the Paris Peace
for Albert Einstein's Special Theory of Conference to give former German pos-
Relativity and for quantum theory. sessions in Shandong province to Japan
Maxwell's ideas are also integral to mod- rather than returning them to China. The
ern theories of atomic and molecular protest spread to other cities and led to a
structure. reexamination of Chinese culture and so-
ciety and is often considered to be the birth
Mayan Calendar of modern Chinese nationalism.
Complex dating system of the ancient
Mayan civilization. It was the most accu- Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal (1602-1661)
rate known calendar system until the Gre- French diplomat and minister under Louis
gorian system of the sixteenth century. XIII and Queen Regent Anne of Austria
The year included 360 days, plus 5 "name- (mother of Louis XIV). A protege of
less" days, considered very unlucky and Cardinal Richelieu, Mazarin became first
therefore observed by the Maya with sacri- minister to Louis XIII in 1642 and re-
fices and fasting. The year was also divided mained in that post after Louis's death.
MEDINA 217
Muhammad formed the first Muslim and a lower house of elected representa-
community (the Umma). Medina is a pil- tives, a cabinet and privy council, and an
grimage destination today. emperor who held ultimate power. It also
made the army and navy accountable di-
Megasthenes (c. 340-282 B.C.E.) rectly to the emperor and thus indepen-
Greek historian. The Hellenistic Greek dent of the parliament. The parliament of
king Seleucus I sent Megasthenes as am- 1889, created under the constitution, was
bassador to the court of Chandragupta the first such elected body in Asia. In prac-
Maurya in India. He traveled through tice, the system gave ultimate power to a
Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Indus valley, few statesmen close to the emperor, but it
Tibet, and to the Ganges River and re- proved ineffective in checking adventur-
ported on his journey and observations of ism by a somewhat autonomous military
Indian culture and religious practices and and its supporters in the 1930s and was re-
the caste system. Megasthenes' history placed by a more democratic constitution
provided the basis of Western knowledge after World War II.
of India, although little of it has survived.
Meiji Japan
Mehmet II (1432-1481)
Period ofthe Meiji emperor (1868-1912)
Seventh Ottoman sultan (1444-1446,
created by a crisis in 1854, when the U.S.
1451-1481). Known as Mehmet the Con-
navy forced itself upon Japan, bringing
queror largely because of his conquest of
down the Tokugawa government, the
Constantinople, which he expanded and
bushi, and the shogunate. In 1867 the em-
renamed Istanbul. He is remembered for
peror died and a new, fifteen-year-old
his territorial conquests in southeastern
emperor took the name Meiji, which gave
Europe and southwestern Asia and for
the era its name. In 1868 the imperial seat
his construction of palaces, including
was moved to a new capital at Tokyo (for-
Topkapi, and a compendium of new
merly Edo) from the old capital of Kyoto,
law codes. With Mehmet's conquest of
and a new government was formed that
former Abbasid territory, the Ottomans in-
moved Japan rapidly into the nineteenth-
herited the mantle of Muslim world lead-
century world of industrialization with a
ership, a global position articulated locally
modern military. This revolution changed
in part via emergent forms of artistic and
the whole shape and direction of Japanese
cultural production, refinement of mili-
society to compete with the modern world.
tary institutions, comparatively liberal re-
Meiji Japan was a period of brilliance, ex-
ligious and social policies, and increasing
citement, an outpouring of creative energ-
economic vitality.
ies, and enlightenment.
See also Shogun
Meiji Constitution
Constitution of Japan implemented in
stages from 1885 to 1889 and replaced by Meiji Restoration
the U.S.-prepared constitution of 1947. Term for the revolution that ended the To-
Primarily the work of Japanese statesman kugawa shogunate in 1868 and restored
Ito Hirobumi, it was modeled to a large rule by imperial authority. Led by mostly
extent on the 1871 constitution of imperial younger bushi from the western outer dai-
Germany. It combined a European-style myos of Japan, the Meiji Restoration was
peerage, a parliament with a house of peers a response to the challenge imposed by
MENKAURE 219
Western imperialism to Japanese sover- He wrote 105 comedies, none of which re-
eignty following the "opening" of Japan mains in its entirety.
by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854.
The leaders of the new government Mencius (Mengzi) (371-289 B.C.E.)
claimed to be restoring the ancient direct Chinese philosopher whose book Mengzi
rule by the Japanese emperor, but in reality (Book of Mencius) is one of the major
Mutsuhito, who reigned as the Meiji em- works of Confucianism. Central to
peror (1868-1912), was more of a puppet Mencius's teachings is the fundamental
they used to wield their own power and to goodness and perfectibility of each
carry out sweeping reforms of Japanese person. He also helped to establish the
society. These reforms were aimed at mod- idea that the ruler governed with the
ernizing and westernizing society to estab- Mandate of Heaven, that is, with cosmic
lish a "strong military, rich country" that moral authority, as long as he was moral,
would preserve Japanese independence but if he failed to govern with benevolence
and catch up with the West. They included the people had the right to rebel. Their
inviting Western experts to help create a rebellion would be a sign that the ruler
modern conscript army and a modern had lost the Mandate of Heaven.
navy, carry out land reforms, establish
modern industry and banking, and create Menelik II (1844-1913)
a Western-inspired constitution with an King of Shoa (1865-1889) and emperor of
elected parliament. That the Meiji Resto- Ethiopia (1889-1913). Menelik expanded
ration largely succeeded in its goals is the empire, modernized the country, and
exemplified by Japan's victory in the in 1896 at the Battle of Adwa (Adua)
Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, after defeated an Italian invasion force. The
which Japan was accepted by Western na- victory ensured the full sovereignty and
tions as one of the great powers. independence of Ethiopia. Menelik mod-
ernized the country's educational system
Mekong River and much of its infrastructure, such as
Longest river in Southeast Asia, flowing telephone and railroads, and built the new
2,700 miles (4,300 km). It begins in eastern capital city of Addis Ababa.
Tibet and forms the border between
Burma and Laos and between Laos and Menes
Thailand, then flows through Cambodia First king of a united Egypt around 3100
and Vietnam, emptying into the South B.C.E. Little is known of Menes, but he es-
China Sea south of Ho Chi Minh City (the tablished the first Egyptian royal dynasty
former Saigon). The river is navigable for and united Egypt as a kingdom of Upper
much of its course and drains a large area and Lower Egypt with a crown signify-
of Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and south- ing both.
ern Vietnam. It was historically important
as a means of transportation and a source Menkaure (c. 2552-2504 B.C.E.)
of water for irrigation. Fifth king ofthe Fourth Dynasty ofthe Old
Kingdom of ancient Egypt. Menkaure su-
Menander (c. 342-291 B.C.E.) pervised the building of the third and
Ancient Greek Athenian comic poet. Edu- smallest of the Pyramids of Giza and was
cated under Theophrastus, Menander was traditionally remembered for being pious
noted for his refined wit and observation. and just.
220 MENNONITES
and cacao; farther south they grew manioc Metternich, Prince of (Klemens Wenzel
and potatoes. Mesoamerica was the Nepomuk Lothar Metternich)
location of numerous fully sedentary (1773-1859)
peoples with complex city-states such as Austrian diplomat. In 1809 he was ap-
the Olmecs, Maya, Toltecs, and Aztecs as pointed foreign minister (1809-1848),
well as the people of Teotihuacan. and he played a prominent role in the
Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) after
Mesopotamia the Napoleonic Wars. He was the most in-
Greek term meaning "land between the fluential spokesman for conservatism in
rivers" given to the area between the Tigris Europe in the mid-nineteenth century and
and the Euphrates. It was one of the cra- worked to suppress liberal and national
dles of civilization. Between 5000 and 3000 movements. When the revolution of 1848
B.C.E. its peoples developed organized sys- overturned his government, he fled to
tems of agriculture, administration, and England, although he returned to Austria
urban life; specialized crafts including pot- in 1851.
tery and metallurgy; and even writing. The
civilization of Sumer was one of the earli- Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)
est in Mesopotamia, with the great city of Armed overthrow ofthe Mexican dictato-
Ur. Akkadian and Babylonian civiliza- rial regime of Porfirio Diaz and establish-
tions developed there in the third millen- ment of a liberal democracy. Francisco
nium B.C.E. Madero led a movement for democracy,
while Pancho Villa, a bandit with a reputa-
tion of taking from the rich and giving to
Messiah. See Handel, George Frederick the poor, began a guerrilla war against
the government, and Emiliano Zapata,
Mestizos leader of an agrarian reform movement
People of mixed race. The term is used in to distribute land to the people, also led
Mexico, Central America, and South a peasant army. Together these three
America to mean a person of combined brought about a full-scale revolution
European and Native American descent. demanding democracy, land reform, and
labor rights for the working class. The
Metamorphoses. See Ovid United States got involved in trying to in-
fluence the revolution and protect oil
Methodism interests in Mexico. Venustiano Carranza
Christian Protestant denomination called a convention that framed a new
founded by John Wesley (1703-1791) in constitution in 1917, and Carranza
the eighteenth century. Originally part of became president. In 1920 Carranza was
the Anglican Church, Methodism stressed murdered, Alvaro Obregon assumed the
personal piety and relationship to God. presidency, and stability came to Mexico.
After Wesley's death the movement split
from the Anglicans to form a separate Mfecane (Nguni for "the crushing")
denomination. Growth was dramatic in Militant and traditionally based process of
England, Wales, and the United States in state formation of the Zulus of South
the nineteenth century. Methodism played Africa in the early nineteenth century. The
an important role in the American aboli- Zulus had created a powerful nation by
tionist movement. the time Europeans appeared in number
222 MICHELANGELO
in the nineteenth century, and they put up Ages was a period of economic growth and
a tremendous struggle against the Euro- cultural vitality that saw the establishment
peans. In 1966 John Omer-Cooper pub- of universities, new cities, and large cathe-
lished a history outlining the greatness of drals. The late Middle Ages was a period of
the Zulu led by Shaka Zulu. This revised relative decline, with population loss due
the study of African history by deempha- to famine and plague, major wars, and
sizing the importance of Europeans and peasant revolts.
increasing the importance of native Afri-
cans, at a time when many African coun-
Middle East
tries were gaining independence but
Geopolitical construct first used in print
apartheid was growing in South Africa.
by the American admiral Alfred Thayer
Mahan in an essay that appeared in the
Michelangelo (1475-1564)
September 1902 issue of the National
Primarily a sculptor and also a brilliant
Review, published in London. The terms
painter, architect, and engineer of the
Near East and Levant are European geo-
Renaissance. Michelangelo di Lodovico
graphical references that predate Middle
Buonarroti Simoni was the greatest influ-
East. Middle East as a term became increas-
ence on the High Renaissance and the
ingly more commonplace between the two
most famous of all Renaissance artists,
world wars. The meaning has shifted but
known as a solitary genius. Michelange-
always subsumes a variety of cultural and
lo's sculpture Pieta (1500) established a
political units and geographic regions, de-
new height for classical realism infused
pending on the user's perspective, in any
with emotion, as did his David (1501-
era. Its geographic centrality has made the
1504) and Moses (1513-1515). His most
Middle East a crossroads and source of
famous painting was the Sistine Chapel
many innovations in world history.
ceiling at Saint Peter's Cathedral in Rome,
The Middle East is often inappropriately
and his most renowned architecture Saint
equated with the Muslim world as a whole.
Peter's (1546-1564) itself.
The most populous Muslim countries are
outside the Middle East, while Israel is not
Middle Ages
Muslim and Turkey has a secular govern-
In Europe, the period from the fall of the
ment. Generally agreed boundaries for the
Roman Empire (approximately 500 C.E.)
region in 2005 are Egypt in the West,
until around 1500 C.E. Known as the
Yemen in the South, Iran in the East, and
Middle Ages (the Latin term medieval
Turkey in the North. The Maghreb (North
means "middle ages"), it was named in the
Africa), as part ofthe Middle East, is de-
Renaissance as the period in the middle,
bated by scholars.
between the "important" eras of the
Greeks and Romans and the Renaissance
(meaning "rebirth"). The Middle Ages is Middle Kingdom
often divided into early Middle Ages (500- Name commonly used by the Chinese for
1000), High Middle Ages (1000-1300), their country (in Chinese, Zhongguo). This
and late Middle Ages (1300-1500). Insti- term, in use since ancient times, implies
tutions ofthe Middle Ages include feudal- that China is the country in the center of
ism, manorialism, the Roman Catholic the world. Because ancient China was not
Church, guilds, monasteries and con- surrounded by other advanced states, the
vents, and universities. The High Middle Chinese considered themselves to be the
MING 223
sole center of higher culture including writer of the seventeenth century, Milton
literacy, higher art and literature, agri- is best known for his epic poems Paradise
culture, and handicrafts, and, most im- Lost (1667, 1674) and Paradise Regained
portantly, the Middle Kingdom was the (1671).
home ofthe sages who taught people how
Minamoto Yoritomo (1147-1199)
to live an ethical and civilized life. The peo-
Japanese military leader, the first to
ples surrounding China were considered
assume the title shogun, and founder of
barbarians lacking proper culture, govern-
the Kamakura shogunate (1192-1333). He
ment, or ethical teachings. The Chinese
was a member of the Minamoto family,
emperors from at least Zhou times (1028-
the principal rival to the Taira family that
221 B.C.E.) claimed to be not merely the
dominated Japan from 1160. Minamoto
rulers ofthe Chinese state but the rulers of
Yoritomo's father was killed by the Taira,
all civilized humanity, the sole intermedi-
who removed his family from power.
ary between heaven and earth. Thus China
With the help of his brother Minamoto
was in the centerthe "middle"of the
Yoshitsune, who would become a legend-
world.
ary tragic hero in Japanese culture,
Yoritomo defeated the Taira, annihilating
Middle Path
their forces at Danno-ura in 1185. Yoritomo
Also known as the Eightfold Path, one of
then killed his brother Yoshitsune and
the basic teachings of Buddhism. The
all other possible rivals and assumed
Eightfold Path, taught by Siddhartha
complete power that year. He created the
Gautama (the Buddha) and sometimes
title sei-itai-shogun ("great barbarian-
called the Noble Eightfold Path, requires
subduing general"), or shogun, in 1192.
right belief, right resolve, right speech,
This is often considered as the beginning
right behavior, right livelihood, right ef-
of Japan's feudal period, when military
fort, right contemplation, and right med-
hegemons and their bushi followers ruled
itation. Often called the Middle Path
Japan.
because it avoids the extremes of asceti-
cism and luxurious, sensual life and in- Ming (1368-1644)
stead teaches moderation and balance. Chinese dynasty that saw the expulsion of
the Mongols from China and an econom-
Milan, Edict of (313) ic and cultural flowering. Founded by
Law legalizing Christianity in the Roman peasant-born Zhu Yuanzhang (r. 1368-
Empire. Emperor Constantine converted 1398), the Ming maintained some ofthe
Roman policy toward Christians by offi- practices of their Mongol predecessors,
cially tolerating the religion and according such as the civil service examination sys-
Christian clergy protection and exemp- tem, and restored the earlier bureaucratic
tions from public duty. It was not until and cultural institutions and the tributary
391, under Emperor Theodosius I, that system with China's neighbors. While
Christianity became the official religion agriculture flourished and China resumed
of Rome. its place as the world's largest and most
prosperous society, the Ming period, al-
Milton, John (1608-1674) though dynamic, was also characterized by
English writer and exponent of Protes- ideological rigidity and political conserva-
tantism and the parliamentary cause in the tism. The Great Wall was built in its pres-
English Civil War. The dominant English ent form, and contact with outsiders was
224 MING HONGWU
more limited. Literature, especially novels a slave state, be admitted. Henry Clay ne-
and Neo-Confucian philosophy, flour- gotiated an agreement delineating that
ished. The dynasty was conquered by the the remaining territory of the Louisiana
Manchus in the mid-seventeenth century. Purchase would be free north of 3630',
the southern border of Missouri. The
Ming Hongwu. See Hongwu compromise was sufficient for a time,
but tension between North and South
Minoan Civilization remained. The compromise was repealed
Bronze Age civilization on Crete (c. 3500- by the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854.
1100 B.C.E.) based around the Palace of
Minos and named for the legendary king Mita
Minos. Occupied from Neolithic times, the A system of Andean labor groups of the
Knossus (Cnossus) cultural remains reveal sixteenth century, similar to the Aztec cal-
a spectacular complex of buildings. The pulli. The mita was used by the elite to or-
Minoan civilization was innovative, with ganize the commoners to gather tribute, to
complex economic and social organiza- organize labor, or to build public projects.
tion and its own script. The civilization The work was not to exceed two weeks in
was overrun by the Mycenaean Greeks, al- length, and the system was not supposed
though the palace complex was not de- to be used more than three or four times
stroyed until later by an earthquake. annually, but these restrictions were often
ignored. The system remained in effect
Mississippian Culture into the nineteenth century.
Prehistoric interrelated Amerindian cul-
tures in the central and southeastern re-
gions of North America. From around 700 Mithra. See Mithraism
C.E. until the arrival of Europeans, the Mis-
sissippian Culture flourished with large Mithraism
populations based on maize, bean, and Ancient Persian religion based on Mithra,
squash cultivation, especially along rivers. the god of light. Popular in the Roman
Although each village was autonomous, al- Empire in the second and third centuries,
liances were constantly in flux and wars Mithraism placed emphasis on courage
common. One of the peculiar features of and honor and was spread primarily
the Mississippian culture, which did not among the soldiers. Mithraism had bap-
exist in the preceding Hopewell culture, tism and communion, similar to Chris-
was the creation of huge, pyramidal, flat- tianity with which it competed in those
topped earthen burial mounds, several of centuries.
which still exist.
Mixtec
Missouri Compromise (1820-1821) Mesoamerican civilization of central
Solution to a congressional conflict be- Mexico in the mountains of Oaxaca, and
tween slave states and free states over the an Indian population in that region of
admission of Missouri to the United States modern Mexico. The Mixtec civilization
of America. The answer came when thrived from the ninth to the fourteenth
Maine, a proposed free state, requested ad- century C.E. They formed a loose confeder-
mission; this kept the number of slave ation and came into contact with the
and free states balanced should Missouri, Zapotec civilization.
MOHENJO-DARO 225
Mobutu, Sese Seko (1930-1997) Aztecs and captured the capital. Moctezuma
Zairian president. After military training in was eventually stoned to death by his
the Belgian Congo and journalism training own people.
in Belgium, Mobutu joined Patrice
Lumumba as army chief of staff of the Modern Devotion Movement (in Latin,
nationalist forces. He then led a coup that "Devotio Moderna")
removed Lumumba and appointed an in- Christian religious movement originating
terim government. In 1965 Mobutu seized in the Low Countries in the late Middle
power with the aid of the army, estab- Ages. Its simplicity and piety made it at-
lished a single political party, and was re- tractive to people disconcerted with the
peatedly elected to seven-year terms as Roman Catholic Church's emphasis on
president ofthe Congo (renamed Zaire in wealth and display. The Modern Devo-
1971). Mobutu became notorious for mis- tion movement also gave greater equal-
rule, and by the 1990s rioting and, finally, ity and autonomy to women. The most
a full revolt in 1996 brought him down. He famous group of the Modern Devotion
fled to Gabon in 1997 and died that year movement was the Brethren of the Com-
from cancer. mon Life, and its most famous product
was Desiderius Erasmus.
Moche. See Mochica
Modernization
Mochica Term for the political, economic, social,
Ancient Peruvian civilization from the first and institutional changes that occurred
to the eighth century C.E. On the northern first in western Europe and North America
coast of Peru the Mochica were the domi- as a result ofthe Industrial Revolution, the
nant culture, building numerous urban Enlightenment, and the development of
centers and huge temples to the sun and modern science. Modernization is often
moon in pyramidal and terraced-platform equated with westernization, but most
designs. The Mochica had extensive irriga- historians make a distinction between the
tion systems and farmed maize, beans, and two. Some historians see the process of
other crops. It is not known why they modernization as having started in east
disappeared. Asian countries, particularly Japan, inde-
pendently from western Europe.
Moctezuma II (r. 1502-1520)
Monarch ofthe triple alliance ofthe Aztecs Moguls. See Mughals (Moguls)
at the time of arrival of the Spaniards in
1519. Believing an Aztec tradition that the Mohammed. See Muhammad
god Quetzalcoatl would return to reclaim
his lost kingdom, Moctezuma mistook the Mohenjo-Daro
Spanish conquistador Hernando Cortes City of an ancient Indus culture located on
for Quetzalcoatl and, after attempts to the Indus River. Mohenjo-Daro, a name
appease him with gifts, invited him into given to the city by modern archaeologists,
the well-defended capital, Tenochtitlan. which is Sanskrit for "City of the Dead."
Cortes took Moctezuma hostage, although Like Harappa, it was a major planned city
a revolt by the Aztec people drove Cortes with a grid pattern; wells, piped water,
out. He returned with enemies of the bathrooms, and drains for many houses;
226 MOLIERE, JEAN-BAPTISTE
civic granaries; and thick brick sur- The Mon established a number of small
rounding walls. Mohenjo-Daro was at its states in the late first millennium C.E., such
height from 2500 to 1800 B.C.E. as Dvaravati, Thaton, and Haripunjaya,
that were strongly influenced by Indian
Moliere, Jean-Baptiste (1622-1673) culture and were probably the first literate
French playwright born Jean-Baptiste societies in that region. These states were
Poquelin. Considered the greatest French absorbed by the Burman and Thai peoples
writer of dramatic comedy, Moliere at- in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
tacked hypocrisy, vice, and injustice. He is
sometimes compared to Shakespeare Monasteries and Convents
for the development of his characters. Communities of Christians or Buddhists
Among his most famous plays are Tartuffe living under religious vows, usually as a
(1664), The Misanthrope (1666), and The single gender. In the early centuries of
Bourgeois Gentleman (1670). Christianity, individual believers some-
times went off into the wilderness, such as
Molly Maguires the desert, to live a life of isolation to con-
Secret Irish antilandlord organization, and template God. This would be true mo-
later a secret U.S. organization of miners nasticism (meaning "alone"), but these
in eastern Pennsylvania. Originally, in the individuals often attracted followers and
early and mid-nineteenth century, the whole communities of monks developed.
Molly Maguires were a grassroots organi- By the sixth century orders of monks and
zation protesting the abuses of landlords nuns lived in monasteries or convents fol-
in Ireland. Taking its name from that orga- lowing sets of rules such as those of Saint
nization, the American Molly Maguires, Benedict. Monasteries and convents
composed primarily of Irish-American were very successful in the Middle Ages
miners, protested ill treatment by mine because of their communal life of shared
owners in the period 1865-1875. They property and work. Monasteries and con-
were crushed by repressive measures and vents were often repositories of knowl-
prosecutions. edge, with libraries and learned individuals
resident, and often they had the most ad-
Mombasa vanced economies and living conditions.
Kenya's second-largest city and the largest Monasteries and convents often owned
port in east Africa. Ibn Battutah sailed to large amounts of farmland and had serfs
Mombasa in 1331, and Vasco da Gama to work it. Because they owned land, mon-
followed him in 1498. By the fifteenth cen- asteries and convents sometimes had
tury it had become the most important feudal obligations of supplying warriors to
trading center in East Africa. In the six- their lord.
teenth century the Portuguese built a large
fort there. In the nineteenth century the Mongol Empire
British used Mombasa as the capital of East Empire founded by Genghis Khan early in
Africa. It became a tourist center in the the thirteenth century. A group of steppe
twentieth century. nomads of the region of modern Mongo-
lia, the Mongols were excellent horsemen
Mon and skilled archers. Genghis Khan unified
A Southeast Asian people forming a small the Mongols and created an empire
ethnic minority in Burma and Thailand. stretching from Manchuria to the Black
MONROE DOCTRINE 227
Sea. His successors under Ogodei Khan committed their lives to their religion, they
and Mongke Khan continued his con- are often highly admired in their society. In
quests, bringing Russia under their rule the Middle Ages Christian monks were
in 1241 and advancing into central Europe among the few educated people and played
as far as Hungary, Poland, and Bulgaria; a very important role in society.
conquering Iran and Iraq in 1258; com-
pleting the conquest of China; and sub- Monotheism
duing Korea. Khubilai Khan was one Belief in one god. Most ancient societies
of the greatest of these conquerors. Al- were polytheistic (believing in many gods).
though they brought almost all of Cen- The Egyptians flirted with monotheism in
tral Asia under their rule, the Mongols the fourteenth century B.C.E., but the first
began to suffer some setbacks at the em- prominent monotheistic religion was Ju-
pire's farthest reaches. In 1260 they were daism as it developed from the thirteenth
defeated by the Mamluks of Egypt at Ain to the sixth century B.C.E.
Jalut, preventing them from completing
the conquest ofthe Middle East. Two sea- Monroe, James (1758-1831)
based invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281 Fifth U.S. president (1817-1825) and
ended in failure, and expeditions to Burma author of the Monroe Doctrine. Monroe
in 1287 and a very ambitious sea-based in- was elected after the War of 1812, the last
vasion of Java in 1291 led to some initial president ofthe Revolutionary War gener-
successes but proved logistically impossi- ation. He presided over the so-called Era of
ble to support. Karakoram in Mongolia Good Feelings. Peace was established with
served as the first capital, but Khubilai Great Britain, a treaty was signed with
Khan moved the capital to Khanbalikh, on Spain (1819) allowing the United States to
the site of what is now Beijing. After 1300 expand to the Pacific Ocean, and in 1823
the various regional khanates became President Monroe gave a speech stating
fully independent from the emperors in the Monroe Doctrinethat the New
Khanbalikh, and Mongol unity came to World and Old World should not interfere
an end. In 1368 the Mongols were driven in each other's affairs.
out of China, and in 1372 a Chinese army
burned Karakoram. The Mongol empire Monroe Doctrine (1823)
created what historians sometimes call U.S. diplomatic policy delivered to Con-
the Pax Mongolica, or a great peace across gress by President James Monroe stating
Eurasia, which facilitated transregional three pointsnoncolonization, two spheres,
trade and cultural contact. and nonintervention. First proposed by
John Quincy Adams, the Monroe Doc-
Monks trine claims that the Western Hemisphere
People who remove themselves from the is no longer open for European coloniza-
everyday world to devote themselves to as- tion, the United States will not become
ceticism or contemplating God. A Latin involved in European wars, and the
term, monk originally was interpreted European powers are not to become
to simply mean alone. Some groups of militarily or forcefully involved in the
monks form communities, known as Americas. This policy effectively sepa-
monasteries, where they hold no private rated the Old World of Europe and the
property. There are monks in Christianity New World of the United States until the
and in Buddhism. Because monks have beginning of World War I. It represented
228 MONTE ALBAN
the American quest for independence, He resigned in 1532 over his refusal to ac-
sovereignty, and separation from Europe. knowledge King Henry VIII as head ofthe
church in England and was beheaded for
Monte Alban refusing to accept Henry's divorce from
Zapotec site in present-day Oaxaca, Catherine of Aragon and marriage to
Mexico. From the eighth century B.C.E. to Anne Boleyn. More composed Utopia in
the fourth century C.E., the site ofthe com- 1516, in which he criticized contemporary
plex society contained pyramids, plazas, European society. He was canonized 400
ball courts, and tombs, all typical of the years after his death.
Zapotec and other Mesoamerican civiliza-
tions. At present the site has extensive ruins. Mormons
Members ofthe Church of Jesus Christ of
Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Latter-day Saints. The Mormons were
Secondat, Baron de la Brede et de founded by Joseph Smith in Palmyra, New
(1689-1755) York. He had revelations from God and
French political philosopher during the was visited by God, Jesus, and the angel
Enlightenment. He was best known in his Moroni who in 1823 gave Smith golden
day for Persian Letters (1721), a satire of tablets from which he translated The Book
French life. His modern reputation rests of Mormon. Mormons claim to be Chris-
mainly on Spirit of the Laws (1748), an tians and believe that the Bible is the word
Enlightenment treatise proposing govern- of God, but not a complete record of
ment with separation of executive, legi- God. The Mormons settled in Illinois but,
slative, and judicial powers modeled on because of persecution, made a great mi-
the British government. His ideas were gration to Utah in 1846, settling what
well known by the American founding fa- would become Salt Lake City. In the later
thers as well as by the leaders of the nineteenth century many Mormons prac-
French Revolution. ticed polygamy, but in 1890, under pres-
sure from the U.S. government, the church
Montezuma. See Moctezuma II banned the practice.
though he died before his thirty-sixth as the Quran (Arabic for "recitation"). His
birthday. Working primarily in his native sayings were recorded as the Hadith. Both
Salzburg and in Vienna, Mozart began to the Quran and the Hadith express how
compose at agefiveand performed for the to follow the straight path. After some re-
empress at age six. Among his most sistance, Muhammad's message spread
famous works are the operas The Marriage throughout Arabia and, within 100 years
ofFigaro (17 86), Don Giovanni (1787), and of his death, all the way from India to
The Magic Flute (1791); his Requiem Spain. The fundamentals of his message
(1791); and the piano piece Fine kleine were that there is one god, Allah, and that
Nachtmusik(1787). the righteous will be rewarded and the
wicked punished, hence leading a life in
Mughals (Moguls) accord with God's will. The believers of
Muslim dynasty of Central Asian origins this religion are called Muslims.
that invaded India in 1526 under Babur
and by the end ofthe seventeenth century Muhammad I Askia (d. 1538)
had extended its rule over all of the King ofthe Songhay empire. Muhammad
subcontinent except the extreme south. I Askia usurped the throne and militarily
Mughal rulers included Humayun, Akbar, expanded the west African empire of the
Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. Niger River region, which had replaced
Under the Mughals, Persian and Indian the empire of Mali. The emperors of the
artistic influences combined to produce a Songhay were always Muslim, although the
distinctive Indo-Muslim style in miniature entire population was not. The Songhay
painting and architecture that is highly ad- empire was the last of the great African
mired in the world today. The most grasslands empires.
famous of the Mughals' many architec-
tural monuments, fortress, palaces, and Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi
mosques is the Taj Mahal. The early rulers (1919-1980)
tolerated the Hinduism ofthe majority of Ruler of Iran (1941-1979). After his father,
their subjects but the Muslim zeal of Reza Shah Pahlavi, was forced into exile,
Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707) led to Hindu re- Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi gained
volts that weakened the empire. Internal the throne. In the 1950s he struggled for
disintegration and pressure from the control of the country with Muhammad
Marathas brought on decline throughout Mosaddeq, but with the covert assistance
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries of the United States the shah gained
until the dynasty was abolished by the supreme power, denationalizing the pe-
British in 1858 following the Sepoy Mutiny. troleum companies and increasing oil
production. He introduced reforms and
Muhammad (c. 570-632) rapid economic development in Iran but
Prophet of Islam. From a merchant fam- coupled these actions with severe repres-
ily of Mecca, in Arabia, and orphaned by sion. His rule came to an end in 1979
age six, Muhammad married a wealthy during a revolution led by the Islamic
woman and became a merchant. With clergy. He was overthrown after the return
some knowledge of Judaism and Chris- of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. The
tianity, he had a profound spiritual experi- shah was exiled to several countries
ence around 610. His series of visions or before going to the United States for medi-
revelations were recorded after his death cal treatment for cancer. His residing in
230 MUKDEN INCIDENT
the United States led to the taking of had been pressing for the unification of
American hostages in the Iran hostage all German peoples. With the Anschluss,
crisis. The shah left the United States or annexation of Austria, it became clear
and was granted asylum in Egypt, where that he was serious. Hitler threatened war
he died. and then promised peace only if the Su-
detenland (a region of predominantly
Mukden Incident (September 18, 1931) German-speaking Czechs) was incorpo-
Japanese incident in China that sparked a rated into Germany. The region was the
Japanese invasion. Japanese forces set off most industrialized part of Czechoslova-
an explosion on the South Manchurian kia. Representatives of the other nations,
Railway, which was under Japanese con- especially Britain's Prime Minister Neville
trol, and then accused the Chinese of Chamberlain, agreed to the pact to avoid
being responsible for it. In response, Japan war. Chamberlain returned to Britain
seized the city of Mukden (Shenyang) in proclaiming "peace for our time." Five
Manchuria. The action was carried out months later German troops marched into
by members of the Japanese Guandong the rest of Czechoslovakia, and Britain and
army, apparently without consultation the other nations knew that they had
with the government in Tokyo. The Japa- been taken: Germany was now the strong-
nese military used this incident as an est nation in Europe.
excuse to occupy all of Manchuria, setting
up the puppet Manchukuo state the fol- Muong
lowing year. The incident marked the be- Ethnic minority group in Vietnam who
ginning of the Japanese expansion into speak a Mon-Khmer language. The Muong
China in the 1930s that led to World live in hilly or mountainous areas, sub-
War II. sisting on wet rice agriculture. The rugged
areas they live in have helped them main-
Munich "Beer Hall" Putsch (1923) tain their own culture. The Muong have
Abortive attempt by a rising Adolf Hitler often rebelled against Vietnamese politi-
and the Nazis to overthrow the German cal authority. During the Vietnam War
government. In a beer hall in Munich the many supported the U.S. forces in their
Nazis called for a rebellion to overthrow resistance to communist Vietnamese
the Weimar Republic of Germany. Hitler control.
made a passionate speech that gained him
recognition and led to a march by several Murasaki Shikibu (fl. c. 1000)
thousand Nazis the next day. A riot en- Author of the Japanese classic novel Tale
sued, and Hitler was arrested and im- of Genji. She was a lady-in-waiting at the
prisoned for nine months, during which court of Heian, Japan, but little is known
he dictated the first part of his famous about her life other than what we can
manifesto Mein Kampf (1925). glean from her novel, finished around
1000 C.E. A massive work, it depicts the
Munich Pact (1938) court life of Japan at that time, providing
Agreement between Germany, Britain, valuable insights into the culture and
France, and Italy that Czechoslovakia social customs of the elite. The work is
would be divided with the western part, considered Japan's greatest literary mas-
Sudetenland, handed over to Adolf terpiece and has often been called the
Hitler's Germany as appeasement. Hitler world's first novel.
MWENEMUTAPA 231
Nabataea Nagasaki
Kingdom of ancient Jordan. The Naba- Japanese city in the southern island of
taeas were a people who entered the region Kyushu that served under the Tokugawa
of modern-day Jordan during the seventh as Japan's window on the outside world.
century B.C.E. and formed a kingdom in the From the early seventeenth century the
second century B.C.E., during the time of shoguns closed Japan to foreigners except
the Seleucids and the Ptolemies. The king- for a single trading settlement on the
dom of Nabataea was conquered, along island of Deshima in Nagasaki harbor, at
with much ofthe Palestinian region, by the which the Dutch and Chinese were allowed
Romans in 63 B.C.E., although the Romans to trade. On August 9, 1945, Nagasaki was
left Nabataea as a buffer state until 106 C.E., the target of the second atomic bomb
when it was fully absorbed into the dropped by U.S. forces, three days after the
Roman Empire. first one was dropped on Hiroshima. Ap-
proximately 40,000 people were killed im-
mediately and many thousands died later,
Nadir Shah (1688-1747)
contributing to Japan's surrender to the
Iranian military and political leader. Nadir
Allies on August 15, 1945.
had already established a strong military
reputation by 1719 when Ghilzai Afghans
Nanjing, Treaty of (1842)
from the Kandahar region invaded Iran
Treaty between China and Britain that
and laid siege to the Safavid dynasty's cap-
concluded the Opium War. The first ofthe
ital city, Isfahan. By 1722 the Afghans had
Unequal Treaties that Western nations
deposed the Safavids and were imposing
and, later, Japan imposed on China, it
harsh conditions on the population. In
ceded Hong Kong to Britain and opened
1729 Nadir helped drive the Afghans out
the ports of Shanghai, Guangzhou
of Iran. In 1736 he removed the Safavid
(Canton), Xiamen (Amoy), Fuzhou (Foo-
rulers and then embarked on a series of
chow), and Ningbo (Ningpo) to British
military campaigns that generated one of
merchants. The treaty also imposed a $21
the last great nomadic empires of con-
million indemnity to compensate the
quest, which stretched from Baghdad to
British for opium the Chinese seized at
Delhi. The last years of his life were
Canton and the cost of the war, which
marked by paranoia and outbursts of
the British started. It marked the begin-
extreme violence. Nadir was assassinated
ning of the treaty system and led to for-
in 1747.
eign economic penetration of China. A
U.S. treaty of 1844 established the princi-
NAFTA. See North American Free Trade ple of extraterritoriality for Americans
Agreement (NAFTA) in China.
234 NANKING, RAPE OF
sand. The purpose of these lines is not moral, and artistic domination of the
certain but is presumed to have been West. Originating with the French-speaking
religious. black intellectuals of Africa and coined by
Leopold Senghor, the term negritude re-
Nazi ferred primarily to writing and other arts
Name for an individual member ofthe Na- but has come to emphasize black experi-
tional Socialist German Workers' Party ence and consciousness in all fields and in
(Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterp- all countries of the world. Negritude was
artei). Founded in 1919 and taken over by adopted by some French Caribbean intel-
Adolf Hitler in 1921, the Nazi Party took lectuals, notably Aimee Cesaire.
control of Germany in 1933. The Nazis be-
lieved in fascism, or subordination of Nehru, Jawaharlal (1889-1964)
the individual to the state, and opposed Major leader of India's independence
democracy and communism. Soon after movement and India's first prime minister
Hitler came to power in 1933, all other (1947-1964). The son of a prominent poli-
parties were outlawed and any opposition tician, Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru
was crushed. The Nazis declared their became an associate of Mohandas K.
belief in a pure Aryan race and in anti- Gandhi in the Indian National Congress,
Semitism. The Nazi beliefs were laid out participating in nonviolent noncoopera-
in Hitler's Mein Kampf (1925). The Nazi tion campaigns against British rule. How-
Party ruled Germany throughout World ever, he differed with Gandhi's vision of
War II until Germany's defeat in 1945. India as a nation of self-sufficient villages,
The Nazi Party has been outlawed in advocating instead the need for industrial-
Germany but appears occasionally among ization. As prime minister he sought to de-
extreme right-wing movements elsewhere. velop India through a series of five-year
plans and by protecting indigenous
Nebuchadnezzar II (Nebuchadrezzar II)
manufacturers from foreign competition.
(c. 630-562 B.C.E.)
Nehru steered India toward political neu-
King of Babylon (605-562 B.C.E.). A great
trality in the cold war and won recognition
warrior, he became king after he defeated
as a respected statesman. But India remained
Egypt at the Battle of Carchemish (605
poor, and its conflicts with its neighbors Pa-
B.C.E.). After his third successful attack on
kistan and China were unresolved. Two years
Jerusalem he destroyed the city, including
after his death his only child, Indira Gandhi,
the Hebrew Temple, and carried its lead-
succeeded him as leader of the Congress
ing citizens into the Babylonian Captivity.
Party and as prime minister.
He expanded the empire through con-
quests and enhanced the grandeur of his
capital, Babylon. Legend holds that he Neo-Confucianism
built the beautiful Hanging Gardens for Modern term for the school of Confucian
his wife. Nebuchadnezzar appears in sev- thought that emerged during the Song dy-
eral important passages of the Hebrew nasty period in China, culminating in the
Bible (in Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel and interpretations of Zhu Xi (1130-1200).
in later chapters of Kings and Chronicles). Neo-Confucianism was an ethical phi-
losophy that taught that each individual
Negritude should strive to pursue a virtuous life. This
Intellectual movement of postcolonial involved carefully and sincerely carrying
Africa that rejects the political, social, out one's social obligations and serving
NERO 237
A fire that devastated Rome (64) further and parts of China, Western nations de-
strained the economy. During Nero's fined spheres of influence where they held
reign Britain revolted under Boudicca (60) some indirect control. Largely directed by
and Palestine revolted (66). Nero re- the major European powers, especially
built Rome after the fire in a glorious Britain, France, and Russia, the United
fashion. States and Japan also participated in colo-
nial acquisitions during this time. This ac-
celerated expansion of European rule is
Nevsky, Alexander, Saint (c. 1220-1263)
sometimes attributed to the demands for
Prince of Novgorod (1236-1252), prince
markets, raw materials, and areas of in-
of Kiev (1246-1252), and grand prince of
vestment driven by their industrializing
Vladimir (1252-1263). Alexander led Rus-
economies and to nationalist rivalries. The
sian forces against Swedes in the Battle
strongest reason for the New Imperialism
of Neva (1240)giving him the name
was the belief that these factors would
Nevskyand against German Teutonic
make a country stronger, and individuals
Knights at Lake Peipus (1242), stopping
who participated in colonialism richer.
the eastward expansion of both. In 1246,
after the death of their father, Alexander
Ne Win, U (1911-2002)
and his brother Andrew, who was grand
Burmese general and autocratic ruler who
prince of Vladimir, traveled to the Mongol
served as prime minister (1958-1962) and
empire's great khan and collaborated with
led a coup in 1962 against the U Nu gov-
him. In 1252, after Andrew conspired
ernment. He then proclaimed the Socialist
against the Mongols, Alexander had the
Republic ofthe Union of Burma and made
Mongols depose Andrew, and Alexander
the country a one-party state under the
was made grand prince. He continued to
Burma Socialist Programme Party. His
collaborate with the Mongols, helping
long rule of Burma was one of economic
them to impose taxes but negotiating
stagnation, political repression, and isola-
where possible, restoring Russia by build-
tion, with little trade and limited contact
ing fortifications and churches. At his
with other nations. Once one of the most
death in 1263 Russia disintegrated into
prosperous nations in Southeast Asia,
feudal principalities. Joseph Stalin de-
Burma became one of the poorest under
clared Nevsky a national hero during
Ne Win. He stepped down from most
Russia's World War II defense against
posts in 1988 but continued to wield power
Germany, commemorating Nevsky's
behind the scenes. He was put under house
thirteenth-century defense.
arrest in 2002 and died that year.
Model Army fought with professionalism expansionism in Asia that led to the disas-
but also with religious zeal and defeated trous Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
the royalist army of Charles I. During the and a Russian Revolution in 1905. Nicho-
republic (1653-1660), the New Model las was forced to allow the creation of the
Army played an influential role. Duma (parliament). During World War I
Russia fought with the Triple Entente
New Testament. See Bible against Germany, but Nicholas's personal
command ofthe army left Tsarina Alexandra
Newton, Isaac (1642-1727) and Rasputin in charge ofthe government.
Founder of modern science with his ex- Huge military losses led to the outbreak of
planation of gravity in the Mathematical the Russian Revolution in 1917. Nicholas,
Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687). his wife Alexandra, and their children
Newton's publication was one ofthe most were killed by the Bolsheviks during the
influential works of all time. It was the cul- Russian Revolution.
mination of scientific experiments, obser-
vations, and mathematical reasoning of
Nile Valley
the scientific revolution from Nicolaus
Fertile valley several miles wide along the
Copernicus through Tycho Brahe, Johan-
Nile River, which flows for thousands of
nes Kepler, Galileo, William Gilbert, and
miles from the heart of Africa north to the
Rene Descartes. Newton's explanation of
Mediterranean Sea. Annually, the Nile
gravity tied together many branches of
floods its banks in autumn and deposits
physical science and proved that there is
silt that creates a region of rich soil and
one set of laws ofthe physical universe, not
abundant harvests. The river also provides
two, as in the rejected Aristotelian view.
a means of transportation. This region
Newton proved that mathematical rules
supported one of the earliest civilizations,
could explain the functions of the physi-
extending from the cataracts of Nubia and
cal universe.
upper Egypt north to the mouth of the
Nile delta, which was first united around
Ngyuyen Van Thieu (1923- )
3100 B.C.E.
South Vietnamese president (1967-1975).
He participated in the overthrow of the
Ngo Dinh Diem government in 1963 to Ninety-five Theses (1517)
become one of the military strongmen Document of complaints against the
that ran South Vietnam. He 1967 he was Roman Catholic Church written by
elected its president. Despite opposition to Martin Luther that sparked the Refor-
his dictatorial methods, he was supported mation. The document's real name the,
by the United States because he vigorously "Disputation on the Power and Efficacy
pursued the war against the Viet Cong and of Indulgences," dealt with the abuse of
North Vietnam. He fled to Taiwan in April indulgencesthe absolution of guilt and
1975 when communist forces overran penalty for sins committedand their
South Vietnam. sale. The sale of indulgences had become
a major source of income for the church
Nicholas II (1868-1918) and led to many abuses. The Ninety-five
Last Russian tsar (1895-1917). Nicholas Theses so challenged the church that
tried to expand Russia's influence with Luther was ordered to recant them. His re-
an alliance with France in 1895 and fusal brought on a break with the Catholic
240 NINEVEH
Church and the beginning the Reforma- agreements, including SALT I. In 1973
tion rejecting much ofthe church's struc- he pulled the United States out of the
ture and theology. Vietnam War. Nixon signed a treaty with
Leonid Brezhnev, the leader of the USSR,
Nineveh to limit nuclear weapons. Nixon's second
Largest city and sometime capital of an- term was overwhelmed by the Watergate
cient Assyria. One ofthe oldest cities in the scandal, which stemmed from illegal activ-
world, Ninevah lay on the banks of the ities by Nixon and his aides related to the
Tigris River, across from the modern-day burglary and wiretapping of the national
city of Mosul, Iraq. Great rulers of Assyria headquarters of the Democratic Party at
who reigned in Ninevah included Tiglath- the Watergate complex in Washington
pileser I; Shalmaneser III; Esar-haddon DC. In 1974 he was forced to resign from
and his son Asher-bani-pal; Sargon II, who the presidency.
captured Samaria, capital ofthe Northern
Kingdom of Israel in 722 B.C.E.; and
Nkrumah, Kwame (1909-1972)
Sennacherib. The city features promi-
Pan-African leader and first prime minis-
nently in the books 2 Chronicles, Jonah, ter and first president of Ghana. Nkrumah
and Nahum of the Hebrew Bible. A very was educated in the British Gold Coast, the
large city with magnificent buildings, lush United States, and Britain. He became in-
gardens, and high walls, Ninevah was de- terested in Pan-African affairs and wrote
stroyed in 612 B.C.E. by Nabopolassar of about fighting colonialism. Upon return-
Babylon. ing to Gold Coast he helped organize civil
disobedience. In 1952 he became prime
Nirvana minister of Gold Coast and led the nation
Term used in both Hinduism and Bud- to its independence in 1957 as Ghana.
dhism for a state of freedom from the cycle Nkrumah then began to act upon his Pan-
of births and rebirths. In Buddhism, nir- Africanist ideals. He supported other in-
vana (Sanskrit for "nonexistence") is the dependence movements and envisioned
major goal ofthe Eightfold Path. Although a united Africa. In 1960 Nkrumah was
viewed as a transcendent state in which elected as the first president of Ghana. In
one is merged with the universal, it has 1966, while traveling in an effort to end the
been interpreted as a kind of paradise by Vietnam War, a coup toppled his govern-
some sects of Buddhism.
ment. Nkrumah settled in Guinea, where
he died of cancer in 1972.
Nixon, Richard M. (1913-1994)
Thirty-seventh president of the United
States (1969-1974). He served as U.S. vice No
president under President Dwight D. Ei- Japanese form of drama developed in the
senhower and then served as president fifteenth century. The highly stylized and
himself. During his first term Nixon was symbolic form of drama evolved out of
successful in building foreign relations; in earlier simple plays in the court of the
1972 he helped to establish diplomatic re- Ashikaga shogun Yoshimitsu by Kan'ami
lations with China with the first visit to (1333-1384) and his son Seami (1363-
China by an American president and later 1443). It is performed on an almost bare
that year also paid a state visit to the Union stage by an elaborately costumed chief
of Soviet Socialist Republics, signing ten actor and his assistant. Although a secular
NORMAN CONQUEST 241
art form, like Zen Buddhism No charac- hereditary, although there was some flu-
terizes the refined and disciplined spirit of idity in the classes. A person could rise into
the aesthetics of feudal Japan. the nobility. In medieval Europe and in
some other societies throughout history,
Nobel, Alfred Bernhard (1833-1896) nobility has been synonymous with aris-
Swedish chemist, engineer, inventor of dy- tocracy and rigidly hereditary.
namite, and founder of the Nobel Prize.
Nobel found a way of making nitro- Nok Culture
glycerin safer to work with in the form of Ancient Iron Age culture of Nigeria. Nok
dynamite (1862) and invented a more artifacts from 500 B.C.E. to 200 C.E. include
powerful explosive, blasting gelatin (1876). clay figurines of animals and human
He used the immense fortune these inven- beings, iron and stone tools, and other or-
tions earned him to establish the Nobel naments. The Nok culture was based on
Foundation, which awards Nobel Prizes. farming and trading. Anthropologists
believe that iron working spread from
Nobel Prize the Nok culture to other parts of sub-
An award from the Nobel Foundation es- Saharan Africa.
tablished by Alfred B. Nobel from money
made from his invention of explosive de- Nome
vices. Nobel Prizes are given to individuals Administrative division of ancient Egypt.
who have made major contributions in the By the time ofthe Egyptian Old Kingdom
fields of physics, chemistry, medicine, lit- (c. 2575-2130 B.C.E.) the country was di-
erature, or the establishment of peace. The vided into nomes. Nome divisions were
first prizes were awarded in 1901. used in Egypt until the Muslim conquests
of the seventh century C.E.
Nobilis
Name for the Roman aristocracy by the Norman Conquest (1066)
third century B.C.E. The Roman aristocracy Conquest of Anglo-Saxon England by
was originally known as patricians and the William of Normandy and the Normans.
lower classes were known as plebeians. The descent ofthe crown of England, held
The classes were hereditary and people were by Edward the Confessor, was contested by
forbidden to marry outside their class. They Harold Godwinson, earl of Essex; Harold
completely dominated the government of Hardrada of Norway; and William, duke
the Roman Republic. During the fifth and of Normandy. When Edward died in 1066
fourth centuries B.C.E. a "struggle of the the Anglo-Saxon Witan (Great Council)
orders" led to reforms in the government elected Harold Godwinson king. Harold
and a blurring of class lines, with the upper Hardrada invaded England in the north,
class known as the nobilis (Latin for "well- but was defeated by King Harold in a hard-
known" or "noticeable") and the lower fought battle. William declared his right to
class as commoners. the throne and invaded from the south
with an army of 5,000, landing near
Nobility Hastings. Harold immediately marched
The upper class or the aristocracy. The his army south and attacked the Normans.
term nobility comes from the Latin term Only a chance arrow killing King Harold
nobilis ("well-known" or "noticeable"). In won the day for the Normans. William
the Roman Republic nobility was mostly marched on to London and was crowned
242 NORMANDY CAMPAIGN
King William I. The Normans spent sev- States signed in 1992, which took effect
eral years consolidating their conquest in 1994. It removes all tariffs between
of England, using their administrative member countries. NAFTA increased
acumen to build a strong foundation. trade among these countries, but oppo-
nents ague that it helps large businesses
Normandy Campaign (1944) and hurts small businesses.
World War II campaign by the Allies to
invade the European continent. On D-day, North Atlantic Treaty Organization
June 6, 1944, British, U.S., and Canadian (NATO)
forces landed on five beaches on the Defensive organization of European and
Normandy coast of France. Allied bomb- North American countries. NATO was
ing ofthe coast prevented a German build- formed in 1949 to defend the North Atlan-
up, and diversions confused the German
tic against the threat of the Union of
command about where the invasion might
Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). With
take place. Paratroopers landed to cut
the collapse ofthe USSR in 1991, NATO
communications and rail lines while mas-
began to work with Russia, and in 1999 the
sive deployments of troops were landed by
Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland
ship. German forces put up very stiff resis-
joined the organization. The only aggres-
tance, but the Normandy campaign was
sive actions taken by NATO to date are
successful at establishing a foothold on the
the bombing of Serb military positions
Continent for Allied forces to gain entry
in Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1995 and the
and pour in. From Normandy, General
bombing of Serbia itself in 1999 in an at-
Omar Bradley's U.S. First Army broke out
tempt to end genocide in the Kosovo
and swept across France.
region.
Normans
Vikings who settled in northwestern Northern Renaissance
France during the ninth and tenth centu- Sixteenth-century flowering of humanism
ries C.E. Their strong, centralized feudal among Christian intellectuals and artists
society expanded into England with the in northern Europe. Although the Re-
Norman Conquest, when William of naissance first blossomed in the city-states
Normandy defeated the Anglo-Saxon king of northern Italy during the early four-
of England, Harold, at the Battle of Has- teenth century, its focus would later shift
tings in 1066. Then, in 1130, the Norman northward, especially once Italy came
king Robert II founded a Norman king- under Habsburg domination in the first
dom in Sicily. The Normans assimilated half of the sixteenth century. Emphasis on
quickly into the societies they conquered, the abilities of the individual and looking
bringing architectural and military back to original sources, such as the clas-
innovations. sics and the Bible, brought on creative
work in manyfields.The Northern Renais-
Norsemen. See Normans; Vikings sance's focus was more religious and less
classical or secular than the Italian Re-
North American Free Trade Agreement naissance's. Artists like Albrecht Durer
(NAFTA) traveled to Italy and brought the intellec-
Economic agreement permitting free trade tual and artistic flavor of the Renaissance
among Canada, Mexico, and the United to northern Europe.
NYERERE, JULIUS 243
After he negotiated a union with Zanzibar the creation of a socialist, egalitarian soci-
in 1964, he was made president ofthe new ety where land would be collectively
state of Tanzania, a position he held until farmed. Nyerere was an active spokesper-
his retirement in 1985. In 1967 he pre- son for African affairs throughout the
sented the Arusha Declaration, proposing 1960s and 1970s.
o
Olmec Civilization (c. 1200 B.C.E.-400 256 B.C.E.). China went through a tumultu-
B.C.E.) ous era, feudalism evolved, and stability
Mesoamerican civilization on the Gulf of was lost. In attempts to stem the confusion
Mexico. The name Olmec ("rubber people") numerous philosophers developed schools
is taken from the rubber trees ofthe region. of thought such as legalism, Daoism,
The Olmec people constructed huge cere- Confucianism, Moism, and naturalism,
monial centers with pyramids, temples, known as the One Hundred Schools.
altars, and palaces. The civilization stretched
from present-day Mexico City to El Salva- Onin War (1467-1477)
dor. The people had a rich agriculture of Conflict between two major groups of
beans, maize, chili peppers, squash, and to- feudal families in fifteenth-century Japan.
matoes and produced decorative objects The war began with a succession dispute
from jade and obsidian and colossal head in the Ashikaga shogunate. Two major
carvings from rock. Olmec traditions of great families, the Hosokawa and the
maize cultivation and construction of cere- Yamana, then jockeyed for power. The war
monial centers became the basis of later led to the destruction of Kyoto and the
Mesoamerican civilizations such as that at further weakening of declining central au-
Teotihuacan and the Maya. thority in late medieval Japan and to nearly
a century of civil war until Oda Nobunaga,
Olympic Games Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu reunited
Name for an ancient and a modern athletic the country.
competition. From 776 B.C.E. until 393 C.E.
the ancient Olympic Games were held OPEC (Organization of Petroleum
every four years in Olympia, Greece. They Exporting Countries)
were primarily held in honor of the god International organization established in
Zeus. The athletes were any male citizens 1960 to coordinate member oil policies
in the Greek empire. In the beginning the and sales. Its founding members, Iran,
games only lasted one day, with one event, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezu-
the stadion, but they eventually grew to ela, have been joined by Algeria, Indone-
lastfivedays with ten events and were pan- sia, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, and the United
Hellenic. The games ended in 393 because Arab Emirates. In 1973 OPEC raised oil
the Roman emperor Theodosius I ended prices 70 percent and then 130 percent and
all functioning idol worship sanctuaries. refused oil sales to Western countries that
The modern Olympic Games began in had supported Israel in the 1973 Arab-
1896 in Athens, Greece. Their goal was to Israeli War. Between 1973 and 1980 the
promote friendship and understanding price of oil increased tenfold. OPEC's in-
among nations. The International Olym- fluence has been reduced by increased
pic Committee organizes the games, set- production of petroleum in non-OPEC
ting the program, choosing the host city, countries.
and determining the definition of "ama-
teur athlete." The first winter Olympic Opium War (1839-1842)
Games were held in 1924 in France. War between China and Britain that began
with Chinese attempts to stop the impor-
One Hundred Schools tation of opium. In 1839, when Chinese
Chinese term describing the rethinking of officials confiscated British opium at the
society in the Eastern Zhou period (771- port of Guangzhou (Canton), Britain sent
248 OPTIMATES
warships and defeated the Chinese, forcing solve disputes among members, to defend
the Qing government to open some of its its members' national sovereignty, and to
ports to British trade under the Treaty of act as a forum for inter-American dis-
Nanjing in 1842. Attempts to restrict for- cussions. During the cold war, under the
eign trade by the Qing led to a second con- leadership of the United States, it served
flict with Britain and France (1858-1860), as an anti-Communist organization, sus-
resulting in another humiliating defeat for pending Cuba's membership in 1962.
the Chinese and the opening of more ports.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Optimates Countries. See OPEC (Organization of
Roman term indicating the "best men." Petroleum Exporting Countries)
The Greeks and Romans used words for
good, such as "optimus," to denote men of Osaka
high birth and good social standing. The City on the main Japanese island of
Optimates were people elected to office Honshu that since the seventeenth century
and to the Senate and of high moral excel- has been second in size after Tokyo.
lence. For the Romans, office, class, and During the Tokugawa shogunate (1603-
moral quality were synonymous. 1868) it became a great commercial center
and the home of a vigorous ukiyo ("float-
Oracles ing world") cultural life supported by the
Greek form of divination. There were fixed rising class of townspeople. It is famous for
oracle sites around mainland Greece and its sixteenth-century castle.
Asia Minor. Several were healing oracles.
Most questions asked the oracles related to Osiris
what sacrifices would gain divine favor; Ancient Egyptian god of fertility and ofthe
however, a wide range of questions was dead and resurrected king. Osiris was
asked, such as whether one's wife would viewed as father of Horus, the god of the
conceive or whether a marriage was wise. living king, and wife of Isis, mourner and
Frequently the responses were provided by searcher for the dead. In later Egyptian
a priest or priestess who spoke in the mythology Osiris became ruler of the
person of a god, such as at the Oracle of underworld and the dead and of renewal
Apollo or the Oracle of Delphi. of life through descendants.
citizen stock. Each year the citizens were and a group known as the Young Turks
asked if an ostracism should take place, and was pushing for reforms within Turkey. In
if they voted yes it was held in the agora. 1914 the outbreak of World War I brought
Each citizen who wished to vote wrote on in the Ottoman Empire on the side of Ger-
a fragment of pottery (ostrakon) the name many, but with the end ofthe war the allies
of the citizen he wanted banished. If occupied Istanbul, and in 1920 the Treaty
there was a total of as least 6,000 votes, the of Sevres cut the empire to pieces. In 1922
man with the largest number of votes was the sultanate was abolished, and in 1923
ostracized. He had ten days to leave the Republic of Turkey was established.
Athens and had to remain in exile for ten
years. He did not forfeit citizenship or Ottoman Turks
property, and at the end ofthe ten years he Turkish-speaking people from the eastern
could return to Athens. steppes who moved into the Anatolian
peninsula and were ruled by the Otto-
Ostrogoths. See Goths man dynasty (beginning with Osman I,
who ruled in 1281-1326). Largely Muslim
Ottoman Empire when they arrived, the Ottomans became
Empire of Ottoman Turks extending from the center of the Muslim world. They
the fourteenth century to the end of World were set back temporarily in 1402 when
War I. Osman I founded a state in the defeated by the Mongol conqueror Timur.
Anatolian peninsula (the Asian part of The Ottoman Turks conquered the Byzan-
modern-day Turkey) in the 1280s, declar- tine Empire and Constantinople in 1453
ing Turkish independence from the Sel- and turned Constantinople into their capi-
juks in 1299. The Ottomans expanded into tal as Istanbul. The Ottoman Turks pro-
Europe in 1345 and conquered Constanti- duced a brilliant, long-lived empire that,
nople in 1453. By 1566 the empire reached at its peak, ruled territories from Budapest
its greatest size under Suleyman I, ex- to the Persian Gulf, and from the Caspian
tending to North Africa and into central Sea to Algeria.
Europe. From the fifteenth to seventeenth
centuries the Ottoman Empire was a Otto I, "the Great" (912-973)
center of high culture and many intellec- Duke of Saxony, German king (936-973),
tual achievements. It was still powerful and Holy Roman Emperor (962-973).
in the seventeenth century, but by the Otto consolidated Germany by reducing
eighteenth century it began to decline. It the power of his feudal vassals and by mili-
decreased in size and lost in several con- tary conquest eastward, including of the
frontations with Russia. The nineteenth Hungarians. He continued a German tra-
century saw Britain, Austria, France, and dition since the time of Charlemagne of
Prussia propping up the Ottoman Empire supporting the Roman Catholic Church
to maintain a balance of power in the and using the church's influence to bolster
region and to keep Russia from extending his own governance, extending his influ-
its influence into the Black Sea and the ence into Italy.
Mediterranean. The Crimean War (1854-
1856) was fought for this purpose. By the Ovid (full name Publius Ovidius Naso)
early twentieth century most ofthe Euro- (43 B.C.E.-17 C.E.)
pean territories had been lost by the Ot- Roman poet known for The Metamorpho-
tomans in the expansion of nationalism, ses (8 C.E.), a panorama ofthe Greek and
250 OXFORD UNIVERSITY
Roman myths and a masterpiece of litera- university, and it is still renowned for the
ture. It was the first attempt to bring to- humanities.
gether all Greek myths in one cohesive
whole. Ovid was a renowned poet and Oyo
honored and patronized by the Roman Region of southwestern Nigeria. Oyo was
emperor Octavian until the emperor the capital of the Kingdom of Oyo in the
banished Ovid for encouraging Octavian's seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
daughter, Julia, in a life of lasciviousness The people of Oyo, the Yoruba, were town
(which Julia performed well even before dwellers noted for their cavalry. The King-
her relationship with Ovid). dom of Oyo controlled some of the trade
routes that supplied slaves to Europeans
Oxford University in the seventeenth and eighteenth centu-
One ofthe oldest universities in the world. ries. Oyo defeated its rival Dahomey, but
Founded some time before 1180, Oxford in the nineteenth century the kingdom
was renowned for its education in theol- was broken up into a number of smaller
ogy and in the humanities. At present states and in 1888 they came under Brit-
there are thirty-nine colleges within the ish protection.
p
Pachacutec (Pachacuti) (c. 1418-1471) refined Buddhist culture. In the sixth cen-
Inca emperor (1438-1471). He dramati- tury Paekche sent missionaries to Japan,
cally expanded the Inca empire in south- where they introduced Buddhism and lit-
ern Peru and then to the north and into eracy. Until its conquest by Silla in 660,
Ecuador, creating the vast influence ofthe Paekche continued to have close relations
Incas. Pachacutec was reputed to be a with and a strong cultural influence on the
mighty warrior and also a great adminis- emerging Japanese state.
trator. Much of his expansion was by gain-
ing submission of provinces by skillful Pagan
threats and claims of divine intervention. City in the dry plains of central Burma
He invented a state religion based on the (Myanmar) that was the capital of the
worship of a creator god, Viracocha and is ethnic Burman kingdom of Pagan. The
reputed to have designed the Inca capital city and kingdoms declined after a Mongol
of Cuzco. His son Topu Inca continued invasion in 1287. Today it is famous for its
the conquests and expansion of the Inca. many Buddhist temples reflecting the
prosperity and high culture ofthe state.
Pacific, War of the
Conflict between Chile, Peru, and Bolivia Pahlavi. See Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi
(1879-1884) over control ofthe Atacama
Desert region and its rich nitrate deposits. Palenque
Following increased tensions over the ill- Maya city in present-day Chiapas, Mexico.
defined boundaries in the area, Chile Named after a modern neighboring vil-
attacked first Bolivia then Peru. Chile lage, Palenque was constructed from 600
emerged victorious, annexing Bolivia's to 900 C.E. Its buildings were smooth plas-
coastline and forcing Peru to surrender tered, unlike most limestone Maya con-
its southernmost province. The war gave struction. The city contained a palace, a
Chile control ofthe mineral region, led to watchtower, and temples. Extensive ruins
an occupation of parts of southern Peru remain.
that did not end until 1929, and left Bolivia
a landlocked country. Paleo-Indians
North American peoples ofthe Paleolithic
Paekche Kingdom Age. Like all Paleolithic people, they were
Kingdom in the southwestern part of the hunters and gatherers. There is evidence
Korean Peninsula that was one of three from 9000 B.C.E. of hunters making fluted-
states that competed for supremacy during stone projectile points attached to shafts of
Korea's Three Kingdoms Period (fourth ivory and wood, used to hunt mammoths,
century to 676). Paekche developed a mastodons, camels, and ground sloths.
252 PALEOLITHIC AGE
The Paleo-Indians also made grinding im- water supplies were available. The great
plements and ate a variety of foods ac- powersEgypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Hel-
cording to their environment. They made lenistic Greece, and the Roman Empire
baskets and nets and lived in caves and contended constantly for control of Pales-
rock shelters. They had domesticated tine, which saw many crucial battles, in-
the dog very early, and some historians cluding several near Megiddo in the north
believe that they brought the dog with (the source ofthe name Armageddon).
them from Asia and that it enabled them
to survive in their new environment. Palestinian Authority
Governing body ofthe Palestinian autono-
Paleolithic Age mous regions of the West Bank and Gaza
Ancient period of human cultural devel- Strip, established in 1994. As part of a
opment characterized by the making of peace agreement between Israel and the
chipped stone tools. Early study of man- Palestinian Liberation Organization, the
kind is divided into the Paleolithic (Old territories were to be gradually handed
Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone over to government by the Palestinian Au-
Age) eras. Most of human history belongs thority. In 1996 Palestinian Authority elec-
to the Paleolithic period, named after the tions were held and Yasser Arafat won the
characteristic stone tools found by ar- presidency decisively. In 2005 the Israeli
chaeologists. It was a time when humans military oversaw the withdrawal of Jewish
lived in small bands and subsisted by hunt- settlers in Gaza, although the complete
ing and foraging for edible products. withdrawal of Israel from Palestinian terri-
Homo erectus and Homo sapiens existed tories has not been completed because of
in the Paleolithic age. The Paleolithic continued violence on both sides.
ended about 10,000 years ago with the de-
velopment of polished stone tools and Palestinian Liberation Organization
the beginnings of agriculture. (PLO)
Political organization established in 1964
Palestine, Ancient to press for the creation of a Palestinian
Middle East region along the Mediterra- homeland. Palestine was under British
nean Sea. The territory was about 150 mandate after World War I, and the
miles (240 km) long and, in the south, 55 Peel Commission recommended the cre-
miles (90 km) wide. The eastern coast of ation of a Jewish state and a Palestinian
the Mediterranean forms its western state. In 1947 the United Nations also
border, the Jordan Valley its eastern limit. recommended the creation of two states.
The Negev (a desert region) of the Sinai With the creation of the state of Israel
Peninsula marks the southern end, while in 1948 and a war with surrounding
the hills of Galilee lie in the north. Situated Arab states, the recommendation to create
between the Nile Valley and Mesopota- a Palestinian state was dropped and
mia, Palestine (meaning "Land of the Palestinians were dispersed among a
Philistines") was the most convenient number of countries, especially Jordan.
route for merchants and armies from the In the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s guerrilla
beginning of recorded history. Some of warfare against Israel was organized by the
the oldest cities in the world are found PLO. In 1994 the PLO, in negotiations
there, including Jericho, Hebron, and with Israel, agreed to the formation of an
Jerusalem, usually located where ample autonomous state under the governance
PAN-ARAB MOVEMENT 253
Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire Korea. It was the scene of protracted nego-
after the Young Turks seized power in tiations that led to the cessation of hostilit-
1908. The Hashemite clan from the Hijaz ies in the Korean War in July 1953.
generated tangible expressions of a pan-
Arab orientation between the World Wars. Pao-chia System. See Baojia
After World War II and before the War on
Terror pan-Arabism was championed Papacy (the Pope) (Latin for "father")
by Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt, Hafez Office ofthe bishop of Rome, the supreme
Assad in Syria, and Saddam Hussein in pontiff of the Roman Catholic Church.
Iraq. The Arab League, consisting of The papacy claimed its primacy from
twenty-two member states, remains an in- Jesus's granting of authority to the apostle
stitutional repository of pan-Arabism. Peter. The papacy of Gregory I (590-604)
increased in power and prestige. During
Panhellenism the eighth century the papacy struck an
The belief that what the Greeks held in arrangement with Charlemagne's mon-
common, such as language, history, cus- archy to support each other. By the tenth
toms, and religion, was more important century the papacy had become a secular
than what separated them. The Greeks power, and in the eleventh century a long
viewed people other than Greeks as "bar- process of conflict with monarchies over
barians," or those who spoke "barbar" who held the power to install bishops and
(i.e., not Greek). The Greeks called them- abbots began. The Church of Saint Peter
selves Hellenes and saw their culture as in Rome, as the seat ofthe bishop of Rome,
united even though the region was never has held great importance throughout
politically united. Panhellenism existed the history of the papacy.
from earlier times, but it became promi-
nent with the Persian War in the fifth cen- Paper
tury B.C.E. The threat from the outside Writing material developed in China in
made clear what distinguished being Greek. the later Han dynasty period. The earliest
Panhellenic games were open to all Greeks. reference dates to 105, when a process of
making paper from mulberry trees and
Panini fibers was recorded. By the Tang dynasty
Indian grammarian and author of Ashtad- paper making was becoming common,
hyayi (Eight Chapters) the classic of San- which, along with the simultaneous in-
skrit grammar in the fourth century B.C.E. vention of printing, led to an expansion of
Panini's grammar was the most scientific reading materials and the growth of liter-
study of a language until the development acy. Paper making spread to Korea at least
of modern linguistics in the nineteenth by the eighth century, and the oldest
century. The work was important in stabi- extant example dates from 751. At about
lizing the classical form of Sanskrit, the the same time the technique of paper
most important language of scholarship, making arrived in the Middle East. Paper
literature, and religious texts in the was being produced in Europe by the
Indian subcontinent. fourteenth century.
Panmunjom Papyrus
Truce village along the demilitarized zone Writing material manufactured by the
(DMZ) that separates North and South ancient Egyptian civilization. Produced
PARIS, TREATY OF (1763) 255
since at least 3000 B.C.E., papyrus is made Parhae as a Korean state and from this
from a marsh plant that grows in the basis claimed most of Manchuria as part
swamps along the Nile River. It became of historic Korea.
the most widely used writing material in
the Greco-Roman world. It was made by Pariahs
slicing the inner pith ofthe plant into strips People outside the caste system of Hindu-
and placing strips first in one direction ism. This lowest social grouping was often
and then perpendicularly. They were then called untouchables because its members
pressed, and the plant's natural juices were considered unclean and therefore
acted as glue. When dry the papyrus was "untouchable" by people in the caste
smoothed with a stone. Sheets could be system. Theoretically, the pariahs were
connected to one another to form a roll or outside the caste system. The term pariah
scroll. In Europe, where the plant did not is derived from "Paraiyan," the name for a
grow, parchment made of animal skins caste of laborers in southern India, but
became the standard writing material. came to be applied to all outcastes. In the
twentieth century reforms sought to
Parchment end the stigma toward the group, which
Writing material used throughout Europe Mohandas K. Gandhi later renamed
in the Middle Ages and named for the city harijans ("children of god"). The Repub-
of Pergamum. Parchment was made from lic of India has developed programs to
the skins of sheep and goats or even rabbit, help them advance socially, but discrim-
deer, or pig. The skin was washed, dipped ination remains.
in water mixed with lime to remove the fat
and hair, stretched, scraped, and dried. Fi- Paris, Congress of (1856)
nally it was finished with a pumice stone. Conference to end the Crimean War.
Fine parchment is very durable. If kept dry Britain, Austria, Russia, Turkey, and Sardinia
and away from vermin, it can last indefi- were present. Russia conceded territories
nitely. It makes a very smooth and even in the Balkans. The Black Sea and the
surface for writing (unlike papyrus). Par- Danube River were supposed to be neutral
chment can be written on both sides and and open. Turkey was propped up by the
therefore works better as codices (books) Western powers, although the decline of
than as scrolls. the Ottoman Empire continued.
reduced role in India. The Treaty of Paris major exporter of industrial goods and in
established the predominance of Britain greatly increasing the standard of living,
over France as of 1763 and thereby re- many Koreans tired of his authoritarian
moved Britain's only impediment to over- policies, including suppression of labor
seas domination. unions and political dissent. Following
increasing unrest and riots he was as-
Paris, Treaty of (1783) (also known as sassinated by the head of his own huge
Peace of Paris) security organization, the Agency for Na-
Treaty between the United States and tional Security Planning (ANSP), com-
Britain ending the American Revolution. monly referred to as the "KCIA," in
Negotiated by John Adams, John Jay, and October 1979.
Benjamin Franklin on the American side,
the treaty recognized the independence of Parks, Rosa (1913-2005)
the United States but failed to settle the Montgomery, Alabama, seamstress and
frontier, leading to continued conflicts National Association for the Advancement
and, eventually, the War of 1812. of Colored People (NAACP) activist. Her
arrest in December 1955 for refusing to
Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920) give up her seat on a city bus to a white
Meeting of the leaders of thirty-two states passenger in violation of the city's policy
at the end of World War I. Negotiations of segregation in bus seating led to a
were dominated by the five major powers boycott ofthe bus system by black passen-
responsible for the defeat of the Central gers. The thirteen-month boycott, along
powers: Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and with a successful federal court suit brought
the United States. Five treaties emerged by local civil rights leaders, led to an end
from the Paris Peace Conference, the first to the policy of segregation on city buses.
and most important known as the Ver- Among those leading the boycott under
sailles Treaty. the auspices ofthe Montgomery Improve-
ment Association was the Reverend
Park Chung Hee (1917-1979) Martin Luther King Jr., a local Baptist
South Korean general and leader 1961- minister. His involvement in the boycott
1979. Park was a schoolteacher who served marked King's emergence as a national
as a young officer in the Japanese army leader of the modern civil rights move-
during World War II and as an officer in ment. Through her action Parks achieved
the South Korean army during the a legendary status in the movement. She
Korean War. In 1961 he led a military later moved to Detroit, where she contin-
coup, and he was then elected president in ued her involvement in issues of civil
1963. He continued an increasingly au- rights.
thoritarian rule, assuming dictatorial
power in 1972. Under Park, South Korea Parlement
pursued a policy of rapid economic The French court system in the ancien
growth leading to the "Miracle on the regime, abolished in the French Revolu-
Han," in which South Korea achieved the tion. Having originated as the Parlement
world's fastest rate of economic growth. of Paris, it had become a series of provin-
Despite his success in directing South cial courts. One ofthe sparks leading to the
Korea's transformation from a poverty- French Revolution was the aristocracy's
stricken, largely agricultural society to a pressure to gain control of the Parlements
PATTON, GEORGE S. 257
Paul the Apostle (Saul of Tarsus) all powers, making him a symbol of the
(c. 10-67) state and people, and provided a more
Jewish Roman convert to Christianity who democratic government that the previous
played a critical role in developing the Meiji constitution. The constitution is still
Christian church. Originally an enemy of in effect although Article 9 was reinter-
Christianity, following his conversion Paul preted during the Korean War to permit
became the strongest advocate of the Japan to maintain a national "Self-Defense
religion, traveling tirelessly around the Force."
Roman Empire to establish churches and
meet with and encourage groups of Chris- Peace of Augsburg. See Augsburg, Peace
tians in Asia Minor and Greece. His corre- of
spondence with these churches comprises
the biblical books of Paul's Letter to the
Peace of Paris (1763). See Paris, Treaty
Romans, First and Second Letters to the
of(1763)
Corinthians, Letter to the Galatians, Letter
to the Ephesians, Letter to the Philippians,
Letter to the Colossians, First and Second Peace of Westphalia. See Westphalia,
Letters to the Thessalonians, First and Treaty of
Second Letters to Timothy, Letter to Titus,
Letter to Philemon, and Letter to Hebrews. Pearl Harbor
Port on the island of Oahu, Hawaii.
Pax Romana ("Roman Peace") (14 -180) Japan's carrier aircraft surprise attack on
Period of relative peace and prosperity the U.S. Navy's Pacific Fleet at Pearl
throughout the Roman Empire. The Pax Harbor early on the morning of December
Romana was a concept of international 7,1941, led to the United States' entry into
stability made possible by the power ofthe World War II.
empire. At Octavian's (Augustus's) death
in 14 C.E. a series of corrupt emperors, the Peasants' Revolt, English. See English
Julio-Claudians, were followed by the Peasants' Revolt
five "good emperors" who ruled until 180
C.E. As a concept the Pax Romana went far Peasants' War (1524-1525)
beyond 180 C.E. and influenced even the Rebellion across southern and central
German emperors from the fifth to the ninth Germany. The largest revolt of medieval or
centuries, the British Empire of the nine- early modern Europe. Difficult conditions
teenth century, and U.S. international di- led to disaffection, but the Reformation
plomacy of the twentieth and twenty-first provided justification because it claimed
centuries. that all people were important in God's
eyes and discrimination of peasants as
Peace Constitution serfs was unacceptable. The Twelve Articles
Popular name for the 1947 Japanese con- (1525), laid out by the leaders ofthe Peas-
stitution drawn up by the U.S. occupa- ants' War, stated that no Christian man
tion forces and ratified by the Japanese or woman should be held in bondage.
parliament. The name is derived from Ar- Participants in the Peasants' War ex-
ticle 9 of the constitution, which prohib- pected Martin Luther to come to their aid,
ited Japan from possessing armed forces. but instead, after initial sympathy, he
The constitution stripped the emperor of denounced the rebellion.
PERGAMUM 259
third, and second centuries B.C.E., the city Peron, Eva (1919-1952)
was enlarged and beautified by the Attalid Argentine political figure and wife of presi-
kings, especially Eumenes II, who trans- dent Juan Peron. Eva Peron was affection-
formed it into a Hellenistic Greek cultural ately known by some groups as Evita but
capital modeled after Athens. It was an in- was hated by opposing factions. She
tellectual center with a great library where became her husband's liaison between
Romans went to study after the empire was the working classes and the government
taken over by Rome in 133 B.C.E. Perga- and organized the women's section of the
mum was renowned for its library and for Peronist Party. She sought the vice presi-
the development of parchment, named dency in 1951 but was prevented by the
for the city. It is famous as one of the few military. She died the next year.
archaeologically excavated cities of the
Hellenistic period outside Macedonia. Peron, Juan (1895-1974)
President of Argentina (1946-1955, 1973-
Pericles (c. 495-429 B.C.E.) 1974). As a soldier he participated in the
Athenian political leader and general. Al- fascist coup in 1943, and he was elected
though an aristocrat, he was a strong sup- president in 1946. Peron, a charismatic
porter of Athenian democracy. Pericles politician, sought policies that promoted
came to prominence in Athens in the labor and nationalism and founded the
460s B.C.E. and led the more aggressive for- Peronist Party. His second wife, Eva
eign policy ofthe 450s B.C.E. He introduced Peron, aided these pursuits. Juan Peron
pay for jurors, limited citizenship to men was removed from office by the military
with both an Athenian mother and an in 1955, having been adversely affected
Athenian father, and proposed an assem- by his excommunication from the Roman
bly or league of all Greece that was blocked Catholic Church, grief over Eva's death
by Sparta. Pericles commanded the expe- in 1952, and dealings with labor unrest
dition to quell a revolt in Euboea and en- and economic problems. He returned to
couraged the building program of Athens Argentina in 1973 and, still with much
in the 440s and 430s B.C.E., including the support from the labor movement, was
Parthenon. He was elected general annu- reelected to the presidency. Peron made
ally and held leadership of Athens, includ- his third wife, Isabel Peron, his vice presi-
ing direction of the Peloponnesian War, dent. He died in office in 1974.
until the hardship of the war diminished
his popularity. He continued to be Perry, Commodore Matthew Calbraith
elected to office until his death from the (1794-1858)
plague in 429 B.C.E. U.S. naval officer in command of an expe-
dition of four ships that landed near Edo,
Periplus Japan, in 1853 with a letter from President
Earliest written account of East Africa. Be- Millard Fillmore ordering the opening of
lieved to have been written by a Greek Japan to U.S. trade.
living in Egypt in the second half of the
first century C.E., the Periplus remained Persepolis
the standard of knowledge of this region Archaeological site in southeastern Iran. It
for Greeks and Romans for hundreds of represents the high point of architectural
years, describing products shipped into grandeur achieved by the Achaemenids (c.
and out ofthe area. 550-330 B.C.E.) in Iran. Persepolis is the
PHARISEES 261
palace and tomb complex for Xerxes I, Marathon in 490 B.C.E. The Persians re-
Darius I ("the Great"), and other ancient turned in 480 B.C.E. under King Xerxes I
Persian kings. The buildings comprising with an army of 150,000 and destroyed
Persepolis are elevated between 30 and 60 Athens but were defeated in the naval
feet (9 and 18 m) above ground level on an Battle of Salamis and the land Battle of
artificial terrace. The location was chosen Plataea. The Athenian victory was aston-
by Cyrus the Great, whose tomb is in ishing, considering the lopsided numbers
nearby Persepolis proper at Pasargadae. not in their favor. Victory convinced the
Achaemenid architecture was influenced Athenians that humans could accomplish
by the Greeks and the Egyptians and anything if they worked together and used
evolved into a monumental style in which their intelligence. Thus began the classical
relief sculpture was used as an adjunct to Greek period.
massive architectural complexes such as
Persepolis. Peter I, "the Great" (1672-1725)
Russian tsar (1682-1725) and reformer.
Persian Empire Peter expanded Russia, defeating the
Sixth to fifth century B.C.E. empire stretch- Tatars to gain access to the Black Sea, and
ing from Greece to India and from Egypt expanded into the Baltic region, annexing
to the Caspian and Aral seas. An alliance Estonia and Latvia. His reforms and mod-
of Persians, Medes, and Scythians sacked ernization of the military and the govern-
Nineveh in 612 B.C.E., ending the Assyrian ment brought Russia into the modern
Empire. In 550 B.C.E. Cyrus the Great world with greater association with
conquered the Medes and expanded the Europe. In 1703 he made Saint Petersburg
Persian Empire into Lydia and the Greek his capital.
cities on the Anatolian (Turkish) coast.
Cyrus then conquered eastward as far as Petrarch (full name Francesco Petrarca)
western India and southward to the city of (1304-1374)
Babylon by 539 B.C.E. Cyrus's son Cam- Italian Renaissance poet and scholar who
byses conquered Egypt in 525. Under produced secular literature and is credited
Darius I ("the Great") (522-486 B.C.E.) with being the first humanist. He wrote in
Persia began nearly two centuries of both Latin, producing Africa (1341), about
peaceful rule. Although the empire ex- the famed Roman general Scipio Afri-
panded, attempts by both Darius and his canus, and Italian, with works such as
successor Xerxes I to conquer Greece were Canzoniere (1342). Petrarch described the
thwarted. The Persian Empire survived world around him based on the inspira-
until conquered by Alexander the Great by tion of Laura, his muse, as well as the in-
326 B.C.E. fluence of classical Greek and Latin texts.
He wrote love poetry in sonnet form that
Persian Wars (490-479 B.C.E.) was later imitated by other writers includ-
Conflict between the Persian Empire and ing William Shakespeare.
the Greek poleis, especially Athens. A
revolt against the Persians by the Greek Io- Pharisees
nians brought Athens into the conflict. One of several prominent groups of Jewish
Persia under King Darius I ("the Great") leaders in the first century C.E., along
(522-486 B.C.E.) responded by attacking with the Sadducees, who dominated the
Athens but was stopped at the Battle of Hebrew Temple and priesthood, and the
262 PHILIP II (MACEDONIA)
scribes, who were experts in the Hebrew leading to the destruction of the Spanish
scriptures. They were laymen who stressed Armada in 1588.
the study of the Torah and of a mass of
oral traditions that sought to interpret and Philip II (Philip Augustus) (1165-1223)
apply it to daily life. Unlike the Sadducees, French medieval monarch (r. 1180-1223).
they were close to, and popular among, the Philip Augustus, a Capetian, fought the
masses; they accepted not only the Penta- English and reduced their influence on
teuch but also the Prophets and the Writ- the continent. He also defeated the Count
ings as scripture; they believed in bodily of Flanders and the Duke of Burgundy, ex-
resurrection after death; and they largely panding the royal domain. He consoli-
supported revolution against Roman dated and expanded royal authority in
domination. Most of the Pharisees op- France by creating paid administrators
posed Jesus and his followers, though and relying less on the aristocracy. He
some, notably Paul the Apostle (Saul of also increased the royal revenues to pay
Tarsus), became Christians. for expanded government and for fortify-
ing Paris.
Philip II (Macedonia) (382-336 B.C.E.)
Macedonian king and builder ofthe Mace- Philip IV, "the Fair" (1268-1314)
donian empire. Philip II transformed a King of France (1285-1314). Philip's
weak Macedonian kingdom into the dom- struggle with the Catholic papacy in Rome
inant power in the Greek world. Using his was resolved when the papal court moved
great infantry and cavalry he conquered to Avignon, France (1309-1378) in the so-
the entire region from the Black Sea to the called Babylonian Captivity. He increased
Peloponnese of Greece. He also exploited his royal powers by reducing the power of
the gold from Thracian mines to pay for many of his barons and confiscated prop-
large mercenary armies. Philip planned to erty from Jews. His three sons succeeded
attack Persia, but his life was ended by an him as kings of France Louis X, Philip V,
assassin and that project was left to his and Charles IV.
son, Alexander III.
Philosophes
Philip II (Spain) (1527-1598) Name for the social and political philoso-
Spanish king (1556-1598) and ruler ofthe phers, mainly French, of the eighteenth-
Netherlands, Milan, Naples, Spanish century Enlightenment. The philosophes
America, and Portugal after 1580, and searched for the fundamentals of social in-
husband of Mary I of England (1554- stitutions as the natural philosophers had
1558). From his court at Madrid Philip II done for the physical universe. They wrote
ruled an empire unequaled and generally about the nature of laws, natural law, and
unchallenged in Europe. This was Spain's the best design for government. The philo-
golden age. Philip created a centralized sophes included Montesquieu, Condorcet,
government without an Estates General by Diderot, Voltaire, and Maupertuis.
administering through paid agents. His
massive palace, the Escorial, took two de- Phoenicians
cades to build (1563-1584). Philip's Ancient people who settled on the eastern
ardent Catholic zeal created problems for coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Divided
Spain in the Netherlands with the Dutch into several kingdoms at different times,
Revolt (1568-1648) and with England, the Phoenicians became known as great
PILGRIMS 263
international traders from the cities of shape their own destiny. In The Dignity of
Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos and established Man he proclaimed the unlimited poten-
the country of Phoenicia by the ninth cen- tial of human beings to accomplish great
tury B.C.E. They established trading centers things, one of the foundations of the Re-
elsewhere around the Mediterranean, the naissance. At the end of his life Pico della
most famous of which was Carthage, on Mirandola became enamored with the
the north coast of Africa. From this lo- teachings of Savonarola, the fiery Floren-
cation the Phoenicians dominated trade tine preacher, and he was preparing to
in the western Mediterranean. The term take the orders of a Dominican monk
Punic for the wars between Rome and Car- when he died in 1494.
thage comes from the name Phoenician.
Pilate, Pontius
Physiocrat Roman governor of Judaea (26-36 C.E.)
Member of an eighteenth-century French during the reign of the emperor Tiberius.
school of economics. The physiocrats be- Strongly anti-Semitic like his powerful
lieved in a natural economy wherein gov- patron Sejanus, Pilate repeatedly outraged
ernment should never interfere. As part of the religious sensitivities ofthe Jews under
the Enlightenment belief in natural law, his rule: he brought Roman army stan-
the physiocrats argued against the contem- dards, with their pagan symbols, into
porary mercantilist belief that nations Jerusalem; used Hebrew Temple funds to
should regulate trade to increase the na- finance an aqueduct; and minted coins
tional wealth. They rationalized econom- with Roman religious emblems. Known
ics, although their ideas about the sources for his pride, cruelty, and corrupt gov-
of wealth consisting ofthe products ofthe ernment, Pilate was eventually removed
soil were not generally accepted. after he slaughtered some Samaritans. His
ordering the crucifixion of Jesus, whom he
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni acknowledged to be innocent, fits his char-
(1463-1494) acter. His fear of being reported to Tibe-
Italian Renaissance philosopher. Pico rius may reflect the vulnerability of his
della Mirandola settled in Florence in position in Rome after the fall of Sejanus
1484, where Marsilio Ficino encouraged from power.
him to study Neoplatonism. Fluent in
many languages, he studied philosophy Pilgrims
in Padua, Paris, and Ferrara. Admired for Name applied to Puritans in England
his intellectual pursuits as well as his good and America in the seventeenth century.
personality, the Neoplatonist pursued a Seeing themselves on a religious journey in
quest for "complete wisdom." Some of his life, Puritans called themselves Pilgrims.
writings, such as Conclusions in Every Kind The most famous treatise of Puritanism
of Science (1486), which attempted to rec- is John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress
oncile Greek philosophy, Judaism, and (1684). Pilgrims believed in Calvinism,
Christianity, were declared heretical by including predestinationmeaning that
Pope Innocent VIII. In this work he argued God decrees who will be saved (the elect)
for three categories of "things": super- and who will be damned (the reprobate).
celestial (God); celestial (planets and They looked for signs of election in them-
stars); and terrestrial (the earth) where selves and others and lived cleanly and
humans had the freedom and power to worked hard to show that they had God's
264 PINOCHET, AUGUSTO
favor. As Puritans they believed that the France in 1793. After his return to office in
church in England in the seventeenth 1804 and the resumption of hostilities with
century had not reformed enough and Napoleonic France, Pitt died in office.
needed to be "purified," hence that name.
Some Puritans felt the church in England Pizarro, Francisco (c. 1478-1541)
could not be reformed and emigrated to Spanish conquistador and conqueror of
America. the Incas of Peru. In 1532 Pizarro, three
brothers, and a handful of other Spanish
Pinochet, Augusto (1915-) soldiers encountered the Inca civilization
Chilean general and president of Chile during a war between two brothers for em-
(1974-1990). Pinochet became com- peror ofthe Incas. Pizarro intervened, held
mander of the Chilean military in 1973 captive the successful Inca, and used him
and led a coup that toppled and killed as a puppet to gain control of the empire
Marxist president Salvador Allende. and its enormous wealth for himself.
Pinochet headed a four-man junta that Pizarro then executed the emperor, with-
imposed a brutal repression, abolished stood an Inca rebellion, proceeded to dis-
political parties, suppressed civil liberties, tribute the lands as he wished, and set up
banned unions, and dissolved Congress. a new capital at Lima. Pizarro was as-
sassinated by a rival Spaniard in Lima
Pisa, Council of. See Council of Pisa in 1541.
through Richard III in 1485. The Planta- wrote none) and is best known for The Re-
genets (the name comes from Geoffrey of public, in which he defines "justice" and
Anjou's emblem, the yellow broom flower, the state and describes the role of philoso-
planta genista) are usually divided into the phers as leaders of society.
names ofthe related families: Anjou, Lan-
caster, and York.
Platonic Philosophy
Philosophy sometimes called realism and
Plassey, Battle of (1757)
sometimes idealism that presents a uni-
Battle in India between the British and the
verse of "ideas," or the essences of all
local Indian ruler of Bengal. In the Battle of
things existing from eternity to eternity.
Plassey, part of the Seven Years' War,
Platonic philosophy is the world of
Robert Clive of the British East India
"being," in which nothing ever changes
Company led a force of British and Indian
because everything in it is perfect. Things
troops to victory over Nawab Siraj ud-
existing in our world are reflections of
Daula on June 23, 1757. This effectively
those ideas; they come and go and are in
left the entire Indian subcontinent open to
the less exaltedless realworld of "be-
British supremacy.
coming." For example, the idea of justice is
perfect and unchanging; just men and just
Plataea, Battle of (479 B.C.E.)
laws may approximate the idea of justice
Victorious Greek land battle against the
but only imperfectly; apart from that they
Persians that followed the Battle of Sala-
come and go as just men die and just laws
mis. The Persians under King Xerxes I ar-
are repealed, ignored, or replaced. The
rived in Greece with 150,000 men. With a
perfect city-state exists only in the world
sizable Greek army of combined Athenian
of ideas; Sparta may reflect it more than
and Spartan troops, Greece defeated the
Athens but still has its imperfections and
Persians at Plataea, northwest of Attica.
will deteriorate like anything else in the
The Persians did not return to Greece, and
world of becoming. The political implica-
this opened Greece to a period of great
tions are that only philosophic people who
flowering known as "classical Greece."
study and know the world of ideas should
have authority over other people. Class
Plato (c. 427-347 B.C.E.)
positions should be determined by abili-
Ancient Greek philosopher. Plato, along
ties, but nonphilosophic types should
with Socrates and Aristotle, helped shape
never have any control of a city-state's des-
Western intellectual traditions. Plato lived
tiny. The Christian church held Platonic
in Athens during a time of great turmoil,
philosophy in high regard as an example of
conflict, and war and was discouraged by
God's mind.
the actions ofthe state, especially when the
Athenians executed his mentor, Socrates,
in 399 B.C.E. Plato attempted to find a Plautus (fl. 205-184 B.C.E.)
solution to the ills of society through phi- Roman playwright, author of some of the
losophy and believed that philosophers earliest Latin works to survive complete.
would need to be the rulers ofthe state. In Some scholars have attributed more than
the fourth century B.C.E. Plato founded the 100 plays to Plautus, and at least 21 are
Academy in Athens, the prototype of the known to be by him. His plays, often ad-
university. Plato wrote numerous philo- aptations of Greek comedies, were per-
sophical treatises (unlike Socrates, who formed throughout the time ofthe Roman
266 PLEBEIANS
Empire and were revived in the Renais- Elder also wrote a history of the German
sance when twelve plays were rediscovered wars with Rome and other works, all of
in Germany in 1429. which have been lost. His writings were
always meant to be practical and con-
Plebeians crete, rather than philosophical. He died
Commoners in the Roman Republic. The leading a rescue near Pompeii during the
name plebeians ("plebs") was given to eruption of Vesuvius.
the masses as opposed to the patricians.
When the patricians, or aristocrats, ex- Pliny the Younger (c. 61-112)
pelled the kings of Rome around 500 B.C.E., Roman senator, consul, author, and
they formed a republic completely domi- nephew of Pliny the Elder. He published
nated by the patricians. The plebeians had ten books of literary letters on the social,
an assembly, but it too was controlled by domestic, judicial, and political affairs of
the patricians until the plebeians formed Rome, himself, and his friends. Pliny the
their own assembly, known as the Tribal Younger also wrote in other fields of litera-
Assembly; its representatives were known ture. His letters give the only eyewitness
as tribunes. This assembly of plebeians account of the eruption of Vesuvius, in
would draw up resolutions, known as which his uncle died. He was a close friend
plebiscites. Patricians and plebeians were of the emperor Trajan.
forbidden to marry based on the laws of
the Twelve Tables. Over several centuries
PLO. See Palestinian Liberation Organiza-
the lines blurred, and the classes became the
tion (PLO)
nobilis, or nobility, and commoners.
Plotinus (205-269)
Plebiscite
Neoplatonist philosopher. Probably born
Assembly of the plebeians, or plebs, the
in the Egypt of the Roman Empire and
common people of Rome. From as early as
Greek speaking, Plotinus became a teacher
449 B.C.E., decisions ofthe plebiscites were
and the center of a circle of intellectuals in
recognized as legally binding within the
Rome. His essays, written originally for
Roman Republic as long as they also
teaching, cover the whole of ancient phi-
received sanction from the patrician sena-
losophy, logic, ethics, and aesthetics. Neo-
tors. At the time of the Conflict of the
platonism combined the philosophies of
Orders in the fifth and fourth centuries,
Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, and Stoicism
the plebiscites became recognized as a
and became a philosophy and religion fol-
lower court, or body of the government.
lowed by much of the ancient Western
By 287 B.C.E. the plebiscites, dominated by
world from the third century until the
the wealthier plebeians, gained political
sixth century. It strongly influenced both
equality with the patricians.
medieval and Renaissance Europe.
Pliny the Elder (23-79)
Roman equestrian, author of Natural His- Plough. See Plow
tory, historian, and uncle of Pliny the
Younger. Natural History is an encyclo- Plow
pedia of all knowledge of animals, vegeta- Agricultural implement used to break up
bles, and minerals, but with much other soil for planting and cultivating. The plow
knowledge also incorporated. Pliny the is the most important agricultural tool
POL POT 267
1979 he carried out a ruthless "reconstruc- have often made the dichotomy between
tion" of the country that led to an esti- polytheism and monotheism fundamental
mated 1.7 million deaths. Following a in their thinking, but in reality the com-
Vietnamese invasion in 1979 he fled with plexity and diversity of religious beliefs
other Khmer Rouge leaders into the jun- sometimes defies such simple categories.
gle to wage a guerrilla war against the Many Hindus, for example, believe in
Vietnamese-installed regime. He was re- many gods yet also in the universal Brah-
moved from leadership by his colleagues man. To many non-Christians the Chris-
in the late 1990s. In 1998 he died, report- tian belief in the Holy Trinity, in Satan,
edly of a heart attack, and his body was and in saints appears polytheistic, while
burned. adherents of other religious faiths see
various gods as manifestations of a uni-
Polybius (c. 200-118 B.C.E.) versal cosmic spiritual energy or force.
Greek historian of Rome's rise to power
and the Mediterranean world. Son of Pompeii
a prominent Athenian, Polybius was Roman city destroyed by the eruption of
deemed unfriendly to Rome after its con- Mount Vesuvius in 79 C.E. Pompeii be-
quest of Greece and was deported to Rome, came a prominent Campania seaside town
where he became friendly with Scipio and in Augustan Rome. An earthquake in
accompanied him to Spain and Africa. He 62 C.E. had damaged the city, and it was
observed the destruction of Carthage and being repaired in opulent fashion. It was
traveled again to the eastern Mediterra- completely destroyed by the eruption,
nean. His forty-volume Universal History, buried under deep ash. The site was redis-
only part of which survives, chronicles covered in 1748. Systematic study of Pom-
Rome's rise to dominance from 220 to peii began in 1861, and in the 1950s careful
146 B.C.E. excavation and conservation of the well-
preserved city began. Approximately four-
Polynesian Culture fifths of Pompeii has been archaeologically
The culture ofthe islands ofthe South Pa- excavated. Artworks; everyday objects; and
cific Ocean known as Polynesia. Polyne- even people, animals, and food have been
sia includes the Hawaiian Islands, French discovered, providing the best-known
Polynesia, the Cook Islands, the Samoan Roman city.
Islands, and numerous others. The islands
were populated over centuries, from the Pompey the Great (106-48 B.C.E.)
fourth century B.C.E. through the sixth cen- Roman general and part of the First Tri-
tury C.E., by seafaring peoples from the umvirate with Julius Caesar and Crassus.
west. The islands generally are devoid of In 59 B.C.E. Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus
edible indigenous plants or animals, so formed the triumvirate, and Pompey mar-
most of these were transported in. Tradi- ried Caesar's daughter Julia, but after
tions included their own mythology ofthe Pompey quarreled with Caesar civil war
origins of the earth and of peopling the broke out in Rome. Pompey was defeated
islands. at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C.E., fled to
Egypt, and was stabbed to death as he ar-
Polytheism rived there. Pompey did not want to de-
Term for religions that have more than stroy the Republic, but he bent its rules
one deity. Christians, Muslims, and Jews severely to benefit himself.
POSEIDON 269
Poseidon was worshipped widely in Stalin ofthe Soviet Union. The major con-
Greece and even in Athens contended with cerns were not to write a peace treaty but
the goddess Athena for loyalty. to formulate an immediate administration
for defeated Germany and to define the
Potato Famine (1845-1848) role of the Soviet Union in Eastern
Irish failure of the country's entire potato Europe. Germany was divided into zones
crop that caused widespread hardship and of occupation controlled by the United
migration out of Ireland. The potato (in- States, the Soviet Union, Britain, and
digenous to South America) was intro- France.
duced to Ireland by 1600 and by the
eighteenth century had come to predomi-
Po Valley
nate as a food source. The Irish population
Italy's major river valley, the region where
doubled because of the good calorie
most ofthe country's population is settled.
source. An average laborer ate 10-20
The Po River begins in the Alps and flows
pounds (4.5-9 kg) a day. From 1845 to
southeasterly across northern Italy before
1848 potato blight ruined the entire crop.
emptying in to the Adriatic Sea south of
Public works, price controls, and food
Venice. The Po Valley is very fertile and its
supplies from Britain did little to stop the
farms produce olives, vegetables, wheat,
suffering. Almost 1 million Irish died
citrus fruits, and grapes for wine. The city
from starvation and disease. More than 1.5
of Milan became rich and politically pow-
million fled to England, Scotland, the
erful in this location during the Renais-
United States, Canada, and Australia.
sance because it was located at the
intersection of trade routes between the
Potosi Alpine passes and Italy's coastal cities.
Bolivian city where vast silver deposits
were discovered in 1545. With the discov-
ery Spain shifted its emphasis in the New Praetor
World from confiscating gold to mining An official of the Roman Republic. Origi-
silver. Charles V made Potosi an imperial nally praetors were the two magistrates
town, and from 1545 to 1800 the Spanish chosen annually to serve as heads of state.
crown collected one-fifth the vast value of In the fourth century B.C.E. that role was
silver in taxes. In the seventeenth century termed consul and a third praetor was
Potosi was probably the third-largest city added as a lesser official supporting the
in the Americas. Bullion fleets loaded with consuls and acting as chief magistrate and
silver sailed from the New World to Spain president ofthe Senate in their absence. A
or the Spanish Netherlands. praetor could also act as a general, leading
armies. In the third century B.C.E. the
Potsdam Conference (1945) number of praetors was increased from
Allied peace settlement conference of one to two and later to four, six, and eight.
World War II. Held in Potsdam, Ger- Under Julius Caesar their number was in-
many, outside Berlin, the conference was creased to sixteen.
attended by President Harry S Truman
of the United States, Prime Minister Prakrit Language
Winston Churchill (replaced by Clement Name for the everyday languages of an-
Attlee, who became prime minister during cient India, which were related to but dif-
the conference), and Premier Joseph fered from the classical language Sanskrit.
PRINCETON, BATTLE OF 271
The most important of the Prakrit lan- achievements, such as land reforms.
guages was Pali, which became the reli- Under the PRI Mexico was in practice a
gious language of Buddhism because most one-party state for six decades. The party
of the sacred texts were composed in it. leader served as Mexico's president for a
six-year term with extensive powers. By
Presbyter custom each president named his succes-
Term derived from the Greek word for sor, who then faced little opposition in the
"elder," as an official of the Christian national election. Through an elaborate
church. In the Catholic Church, presbyters system of patronage administered by labor
received their authority from bishops. In and peasant organizations, business
the Reformation, Calvinist churches groups, and local governments, the PRI
were administered by a council of pres- provided Mexico's longest period of politi-
byters, and in Scotland the Calvinist cal stability and moderate economic
church became known as the Presbyte- growth. Criticized for its corruption and
rian Church. pressured by people in Mexico and the
United States seeking democratic reform,
Prester John the PRI lost its monopoly of power in the
Legendary ruler of a Christian kingdom 2000 elections, when opposition leader Vi-
originally believed to have been located in cente Fox was elected president and the
Asia and later, in Africa. He was first PRI lost its majority in the National
mentioned in 1145, but in 1165 a mysteri- Congress.
ous letter appeared in Europe addressed to
various kings from Prester John and Prince, The. See Machiavelli, Niccolo
claiming him to be king of the Indies and
guardian of the tomb of Saint Thomas. Prince Henry. See Henry, Prince, "the
Many theories arose as to his origins and Navigator"
location. By the fifteenth century the belief
that he was a king in Ethiopia encouraged Princeps
exploration, because Europeans believed Title meaning "first citizen," given to em-
that they could circumvent the Muslim perors of the Roman Empire. From the
world and link up with Prester John's rule of Octavian (Augustus), the emperors
Christian civilization. were titled "princeps" as a cover for the
fact that they ruled as dictators rather than
PRI (Partido Revolucionario as merely the first of all the citizens of
Institucional) Rome. Use ofthe term designates the shift
Spanish for "Institutional Revolutionary from the Roman Republic to the Roman
Party," the political party that ruled Empire.
Mexico from its founding in 1929 to 2000,
and the abbreviation by which it is known. Princeton, Battle of (1777)
The party was founded by Plutarco Elias Victorious American colonial battle. The
Calles to stabilize Mexico after two de- Battle of Trenton was the first clearly
cades of conflict. Its name is derived from successful campaign by the Continental
the fact that it sought to institutionalize Army under George Washington against
the new power structure created by the British troops during the American Revo-
Mexican Revolution as well as consoli- lution. After the victory in Trenton,
date some of the revolution's important Washington boldly decided to quietly
272 PRINTING PRESS
Qin Shi Huangdi (c. 259-210 B.C.E.) inspiration for generations of Chinese
Literally meaning "Qin First Emperor," women.
the title assumed by King Zheng ofthe Qin
dynasty when he unified China in 221 Quetzalcoatl
B.C.E. Zheng came to the throne of Qin Feathered serpent deity of ancient Meso-
in 247 during the Warring States period american civilizations. Quetzalcoatl first
and completed the conquest of China that appeared in the Teotihuacan civilization
had been begun by his predecessors. An (third-eighth centuries C.E.) as an earth
energetic ruler, he created a highly central- and water god. In the city of Teotihuacan,
ized empire, building a series of roads the Temple of Quetzalcoatl was built in the
leading his capital of Xianyang and con- form of a shortened pyramid, painted red,
structing a series of fortifications on the and decorated with heads of the god. Be-
northern steppe frontier. He established a neath the temple were graves of people rit-
uniform system of measurements, enacted ually sacrificed. In the later Toltec culture,
strict and detailed rules with severe pun- Quetzalcoatl became the god ofthe morn-
ishments, and appointed his officials based ing and evening starsof birth and death.
on talent rather than heredity. Qin Shi Hu- In Aztec civilization, Quetzalcoatl was the
angdi sought to impose order on intellec- official title of the high priest, the deity of
tual life by limiting teachings to practical the priests, the inventor of the calendar,
subjects and burning books of all schools and the god of learning and was also
of thought except for those by legalist phi- associated with the planet Venus. The
losophers. Despite his sweeping reforms Aztec capital Tenochtitlan had a Temple
and vigorous rule, he governed primarily of Quetzalcoatl. Quetzalcoatl's calendar
by fear. His dynasty collapsed soon after spawned the belief that Quetzalcoatl would
his death in 210 B.C.E. His burial site near return in the year Ce Acatl, which coin-
Xianyang included thousands of life-size cided with the year that Hernando Cortes
models of his armed forces known as the landed, convincing Moctezuma that the
Terra-Cotta Army. Spaniards were divine.
See also Great Wall
Quezon, Manuel Luis (1878-1944)
Qiu Jin (1875-1907) Filipino statesman. He served with Emilio
Chinese feminist and revolutionary whose Aguinaldo in the Philippine war for inde-
execution in 1907 made her a patriotic pendence from Spain (1896-1898) and
martyr. In 1904 Qiu Jin left her husband the United States (1898-1901). He became
to study in Japan, where she became one of the most prominent political lead-
involved with radical Chinese political ers in the Philippines under U.S. colonial
groups. She joined the Tongmenghui rule and was elected the first president
(Revolutionary Alliance) and was active in of the transitional Philippine Common-
other groups. She campaigned against the wealth in 1935. Forced into exile by the
practices of child marriage and the foot Japanese in 1942, he headed the Philip-
binding of women and joined in efforts to pine government in exile in the United
overthrow the Qing government, which States until his death.
she regarded as weak and ineffective in
dealing with threats to China. In 1907 she Quinine
was implicated in an antigovernment up- Antibacterial substance effective against
rising and was executed, becoming an malaria especially when used as a
QURAN 277
prophylactic (for protection). Made from color quipu. The quipus were often kept
cinchona bark, found in South America, as permanent records of accounting.
the extract known as quinine was made
commercially by 1830. It was taken by Eu- Quran (Qur'an or Koran) (means
ropeans as they entered malarial regions "recitation")
such as in Africa, enabling them to con- The holy book of Islam. According to
quer Africa in the nineteenth century Muslim belief, the Quran is revelations
without enormous loss of life. Because received as a series of visions by Muham-
quinine tastes bitter it was sometimes mad. He experienced a spiritual awaken-
taken with gin and the lime juice that was ing and received revelations from 610 to
given to British sailors and hence is the 632 that he understood as messages com-
source ofthe drink gin and tonic. municated from God ("Allah" in Arabic)
through the angel Gabriel, who instructed
Quipu Muhammad to spread the message to others.
Inca accounting device. This long rope Muslims regard it as inerrant and immu-
with forty-eight secondary cords and nu- tably preserved. Originally these revela-
merous tertiary cords attached to the sec- tions were transmitted orally, but after
ondary cords had knots marking units of Muhammad's death in 632 his followers
tens and hundreds. It enabled agencies to wrote them down as the Quran during the
do complex accounting, similar to check- 650s. The Quran explains God and God's
ered tables used in medieval England. Each relationship to the world and is the pri-
area of Incan government had its own mary authority for the Islamic religion.
r
use of color and its rendering of land- month of fasting. Muslims are required
scapes. (though some are excused) to abstain from
food, drink, and sex during the daylight
Rajputs hours of Ramadan. Muslims believe that
Members of a class of warriors and land- on the twenty-seventh of Ramadan, the
owners in central and northern India, "Night of Power," Muhammad ascended
probably of Central Asian descent. From briefly to heaven.
the ninth to the sixteenth century they
dominated much of Rajasthan. Their for- Ramayana
tresses were conquered by the Mughals, One of the two great epics of India and a
who allowed them some autonomy. major source of Hindu mythology. The
Some of their chiefs, such as the rulers of Ramayana is attributed to the sage Valmiki
Jodhpur, Jaipur, and Udaipur, managed and was written in Sanskrit perhaps
to retain some autonomy under British around 300 B.C.E. It tells the story of the
rule. The name Rajput survives as a sub- hero Rama of Ayodhya, his wife Sita, and
caste in modern India. her abduction by the Ravana, the demon-
king of Lanka (Sri Lanka). The epic has
Ralegh, Sir Walter. See Raleigh, Sir Walter been immensely popular in India and in
Southeast Asia, where it has been the
Raleigh, Sir Walter (c. 1552-1618)
source of many dances, plays, and artistic
English soldier, explorer, writer, and en-
works.
trepreneur. As a favorite of Queen Eliza-
beth I, Raleigh was granted land in Ireland, Raphael (1485-1520) (full name
where he planted the new crops of potato Raphaello Sanzio)
and tobacco from the New World. He was Italian Renaissance painter and student
knighted in 1585. Raleigh became inter- of Perugino. Raphael synthesized the
ested in the New World and traveled there greatness of Leonardo da Vinci and
on several expeditions, exploring the Michelangelo in his paintings and became
southeastern coast of North America. He the most important painter of the High
tried to establish a colony in what is now Renaissance. His painting The School of
North Carolina and named the region Vir- Athens (1510-1511) is a culmination of
ginia after Elizabeth, "the Virgin Queen." the period, merging realism and idealism
His first attempt (1585) was abandoned with the balance and harmony of body
while the second (1587) disappeared mys- and spirit.
teriously and is known as the Lost Colony.
Raleigh lost favor with the queen, and at Re. See Amon-Re
her death the new king, James I, charged
Raleigh with treason and had him impris- Reagan, Ronald (1911-2004)
oned. After twelve years he was released The fortieth president ofthe United States
and took part in another expedition (1981-1989). A Hollywood movie actor,
(1616), to South America. Upon his Reagan became governor of California
return Raleigh was sentenced to death for and then president ofthe United States. A
disobeying orders and was beheaded. conservative Republican and a hard-liner
against communism, Reagan increased
Ramadan military spending and reduced social ser-
Ninth month of the Muslim calendar vices spending. The national debt in-
specified by the Five Pillars of Islam as a creased tremendously during his terms.
280 REALISM
state. Plato lived in Athens during a time of Restif de la Bretonne, Nicolas Edme
great turmoil and he was disgusted with (1734-1806)
the leadership of the polis and critical of French novelist who published more than
democracy. In The Republic Plato uses his 250 novels of detailed realism featuring
famous cave analogy, in which he de- low-life characters or bawdy situations.
scribes average people as living in a cave Many were based on his own life.
and seeing only shadows of reality while
philosophers are like people on the out- Revolutionary War. See American
side who see reality and have the responsi- Revolution
bility to interpret it to the rest.
Rhee, Syngman (Yi Song-man)
(1875-1965)
Republic of China
Korean nationalist leader and South
Official name ofthe central government of
Korean president (1948-1960). Rhee at-
mainland China from January 1, 1912, to
tended an American mission school and
the establishment ofthe People's Republic
as a young man became a member ofthe re-
of China on October 1, 1949. The Repub-
form group in the late Yi dynasty. Fleeing
lic of China was proclaimed following
to the United States in 1899, he graduated
the collapse of the Qing dynasty in late
with a doctoral degree in political science
1911. Its capital was Nanjing (Nanking),
from Princeton University and became
although a wartime capital existed in
one ofthe principal exiled nationalist lead-
Chongqing (Chungking) from 1939 to
ers during the Japanese colonial rule of
1945. From 1928 the central government
Korea (1910-1945) living in Hawaii and
was controlled by the Guomindang (Na-
Washington DC. In 1945 he returned to
tionalist Party), which fled to Taiwan in
Korea and was elected as the first president
1949. The government of Taiwan since
ofthe Republic of Korea (South Korea) by
1949 has continued to call itself the Repub-
the National Assembly in 1948. He led
lic of China, implying that it represents all
South Korea's resistance to North Korea's
of China, not just the island province.
invasion during the Korean War (1950-
1953). Increasing dissatisfaction with
Requerimiento Rhee's authoritarian rule led to a student
Spanish document read to Amerindians in led uprising in 1960 and his second exile
the New World before making war on to Hawaii.
them. As early as 1493 the Requerimiento
required that natives acknowledge the su- Rhodes, Cecil (1853-1902)
premacy of the Roman Catholic Church English imperialist, capitalist, prime
and the sovereignty of the Spanish mon- minister of Cape Colony, conqueror of
arch on pain of war and slavery. In the six- Rhodesia (present-day Zimbabwe and
teenth century most conquistadors took Zambia), and founder ofthe Rhodes Schol-
the Requerimiento lightly and did not arships. Born to a poor family, by age
read it or quickly stated it before attack- thirty-six Rhodes had made a fortune in
ing. The document absolved the Spaniards diamonds and gold in South Africa. He
of responsibility for their actions. Barto- was elected to the parliament of Cape Colony
lome de Las Casas thought it laughable and made its prime minister (1890-1896).
and fought against the brutal treatment of From 1890 to 1897 he used his wealth to
the Indians. gain control of Rhodesia and beyond. He
284 RHODESIA
founded the Rhodes Scholarships to famous Muslim leader Saladin but fail-
establish connections between English- ing to take Jerusalem. On his way home
speaking nations and Oxford University. Richard was captured and held captive in
Austria for fourteen months. Later, fight-
Rhodesia ing to regain lost territory in France, he
African colony founded by the conquests was wounded and died. Richard was
ofthe Briton Cecil Rhodes in the nineteenth succeeded by his brother, John I.
century that became a country in 1964. It
has been named Southern Rhodesia (1890- Richelieu, Cardinal Armand Jean du
1964), Rhodesia (1964-1978), Zimbabwe- Plessis (1585-1642)
Rhodesia (1978-1979), and Zimbabwe French cleric and royal advisor. Richelieu
(since 1980). British rule ended in 1970 was the architect of French royal absolut-
when Rhodesia declared itself indepen- ism. He served as the chief minister of
dent and a republic, but under white rule. Louis XIII (1624-1642) and with the
Britain imposed sanctions on Rhodesia, philosophy of "reason of state" sought to
and violence between blacks and whites increase the power of the central bureau-
increased. In 1980 Rhodesia became cracy, taking power from local and noble
Zimbabwe with black majority rule. control in the process. His decision to
enter the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)
Ricci, Matteo (1552-1610) as an opponent of Spain to cripple the
Italian Jesuit missionary who sought to Habsburgs, who had dominated France,
convert the Chinese to Christianity. The led to French superiority on the Continent.
Jesuits were aware ofthe Chinese people's After Richelieu's death and the death of
pride in their culture, so they attempted Louis XIII, Louis XIV and his chief minis-
to draw parallels between Confucianism ter Jules Mazarin, a protege of Richelieu's,
and Christianity to encourage conversion. continued to develop the power of abso-
Ricci shared scientific knowledge and lute government along Richelieu's design.
technology such as clocks with Chinese of-
ficials in an attempt to win the favor ofthe Rifle
intelligentsia. Each culture learned from Rifling, or boring of a gun-barrel with spi-
the other and was impressed with and cu- raling grooves. First done in the sixteenth
rious about aspects of the other's civiliza- century, rifling became common only in
tions. Ricci adopted Chinese dress and the eighteenth century. Spiral grooving
customs and brought information about spins the ball (later, the oblong bullet) and
the Chinese, including their more ad- gives it a truer trajectory. Rifles were slow
vanced printing methods, back to Europe. to load, hence were used for hunting, not
warfare, until the nineteenth century. In
Richard I, "the Lionhearted" the nineteenth century percussion caps,
(1157-1199) smokeless powder, oblong bullets, and
King of England (1189-1199). Richard breechloading made rifles increasingly ef-
spent less than a year of his ten-year reign fective at longer ranges and more rapid
in England, but his military success, cru- firing.
sading bravado, and effective advisors
who ran England made him very popular. Rigveda
He was one of the leaders of the Third Oldest and most sacred ofthe Vedas of an-
Crusade, winning a victory against the cient India. Consisting of 1,028 hymns for
ROCKEFELLER, JOHN D. 285
use at sacrifices by the Aryans to their Robert I, the Bruce (Robert Bruce)
gods, the Rigveda was probably composed (1274-1329)
between 1500 and 900 B.C.E. It is revered by King of Scotland (1306-1329). As a Scot-
Hindus, making it perhaps the oldest tish aristocrat, Robert the Bruce resisted
sacred text in the world as well as a major English occupation. As king, Bruce won a
source on the religion and culture of an- major victory over the English at the Battle
cient India. of Bannockburn in 1314. In 1328 a treaty
with the English established Bruce's title as
Rites of Zhou (Zhou Li) king and Scotland's independence. Bruce
Ancient Chinese ritual text attributed to was able to consolidate Scottish govern-
Zhou Gong (the duke of Zhou) in the ment and at his death transferred a rela-
twelfth century but probably compiled tively stable country to his son David II.
about 300 B.C.E. It deals with government,
the military, and education and was incor- Robespierre, Maximilien (1758-1794)
porated into the Confucian canon as an French revolutionary during the French
authoritative text and guide for philoso- Revolution and architect of the Terror.
phers and policy makers. Robespierre was elected to the Estates
General in 1789 and became a leader ofthe
River Valley Civilizations radical Jacobins in the National Conven-
Early civilizations, such as those of Egypt, tion. On the Committee of Public Safety
Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and the Robespierre helped to hunt and destroy
early Chinese civilization of the Yellow enemies of the revolution. This effort
River basin, that appeared in river valleys. became so widespread it was known as the
The rich, easily worked alluvial soils and Terror. The Terror centralized authority in
the ease of communication and transpor- the hands of the revolutionary govern-
tation that rivers provide facilitated large ment and eliminated opposition. When
concentrations of farming communities members ofthe Committee of Public Safe-
and the growth of more complex socie- ty denounced Robespierre himself as an
ties. The need to control the river from enemy of the revolution, he was arrested
flooding and to build irrigation canals, res- and executed.
ervoirs, and dikes all encouraged large-
scale organization and the growth of states. Rockefeller, John D. (1839-1937)
American business owner and philanthro-
Rizal, Jose (1861-1896) pist who dominated the U.S. oil industry
Filipino nationalist and novelist. After in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
studying medicine in Spain Rizal became centuries. Originally a bookkeeper, Rocke-
a novelist. His writings were a vehicle for feller entered the oil business in 1863 as a
expressing Philippine nationalist senti- partner in a Cleveland, Ohio, oil refinery
ments. The Spanish exiled him to Minda- and established Standard Oil Company of
nao after he formed the Liga Filipina, a Ohio in 1867. A skilled business organizer
reform society. The Spanish colonial au- and ruthless competitor, Rockefeller pion-
thorities executed him in 1896, falsely ac- eered the use ofthe trust in 1881 to estab-
cusing him of involvement in a nationalist lish a near monopoly in the petroleum
uprising that occurred that year. He has industry, becoming a target of antitrust ac-
become the most revered nationalist figure tivists in the process. When Ohio outlawed
in the Philippines. the Standard Oil Trust in 1892 Rockefeller
286 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
reorganized his business as a holding com- evolved in the first century after Jesus's
pany, Standard Oil of New Jersey, which death and by the fifth century was elabo-
survived until broken up in a U.S. Su- rately structured. During the Middle Ages
preme Court decision in 1911. Rockefeller the Roman Catholic Church became the
remained a major force in the petroleum only European-wide administrative struc-
industry but no longer dominated it. One ture following the form of the Roman
of America's wealthiest men, he spent his Empire, with dioceses (districts) adminis-
later years supporting a number of philan- tered from the major cities by bishops who
thropic causes. answered to the pope (the bishop of
Rome). In 1054 the eastern churches re-
Roman Architecture fused to acknowledge the supremacy of
Architectural style ofthe Roman Republic the Roman pope and split to become the
and Roman Empire. Initially influenced Eastern Orthodox Church. In the six-
by Italic and Etruscan styles, Greek archi- teenth century corruption within the
tecture was also incorporated when the Roman Catholic Church led to the Refor-
Roman Republic began to expand at the mation and a splintering into numerous
end ofthe third century B.C.E. The Romans Protestant denominations. Over the cen-
utilized mud brick and local stone (such turies the Roman Catholic Church has re-
as tufa and limestone) with marble fa- formed through numerous councils and is
cades. The arch and the vault defined continuously evolving.
Roman design, which manifested itself dif-
ferently across the empire depending on Romance ofthe Three Kingdoms
local influences. One of the most influ- Chinese novel attributed in its present
ential Roman architectural legacies was the form to Le Guanzhong, a fourteenth-cen-
development of poured concrete, which tury writer of novels and drama. Written
enabled the creation of such monuments in a simple literary style, it is based on the
as the Pantheon (c. 118-28 C.E.), whose wars of the Three Kingdoms period of
dome spanned 142 feet (43 m). the third century C.E. It has remained one
of the most popular works of fiction in
Roman Catholic Church East Asia.
Christian church developed in the postap-
ostolic era, hierarchically structured, and Roman Empire (27 B.C.E.-C. 476 C.E. in
claiming a continuous administrative exis- the west; 27 B.C.E.-1453 C.E. in the east)
tence from Saint Peter. The name Roman Vast empire of the Mediterranean world
Catholic has been in use since the Refor- and continuation ofthe Roman Republic.
mation to distinguish the church from The Roman Empire was known for its con-
Protestantism. The term catholic has quests, unified laws, technology, effective
been in use since the early centuries administration, and stability, especially in
of the church, meaning "universal" and, the period 14-180 C.E., known as the Pax
later, "orthodox." The Roman Catholic Romana ("Roman Peace"). Roman civili-
Church's theology is centered around zation spans a period from 500 B.C.E., when
the sacramentsearthly manifestations of the Republic was founded, to 1453 C.E.,
God's grace and seven in number, and also when the Eastern Roman Empire, known
in belief in the church as a divinely com- as the Byzantine Empire, fell to the Otto-
missioned institution and in the church's mans. Even though the Roman Republic
role in mediating salvation. The church built an empire of multiple peoples ruled
ROMAN REPUBLIC 287
centrally, it became the Roman Empire which the Senate ratified as a matter of
after Octavian defeated all opposition and course. The Justinian Code (534 C.E.) con-
returned to Rome in 27 B.C.E. to be made solidated past laws and jury decisions to
princeps ("first citizen") and given the comprise a system of civil law. The legal
title Augustus. Even though the Senate and system in ancient Rome, which continued
the rest of the administration still existed, to develop during the empire, served as the
Augustus and his successors ruled as em- foundation of laws across western Europe
perors. Imperial Rome maintained stabil- and in the later European colonies.
ity abroad by powerful armies and good
diplomacy and at home by a good judicial Roman Religion
system, adequate food supplies, and enter- Myths of ancient Rome illustrating Roman
tainment for the common people. Roman religion as a mix of Greek, indigenous, and
technology included the effective use ofthe Indo-European ideas. These polytheistic
arch for the construction of large buildings myths were used to illustrate legal and
and aqueducts to bring water to the moral lessons like civic virtue. It was
cities. The Roman Empire was divided during the Pax Romana that Christianity
into two administrative units in 375 C.E., developed within the Roman Empire.
and as the western half crumbled under
Germanic invasions, the eastern half Roman Republic (c. 500-27 B.C.E.)
continued. State that began in the Italian peninsula
and grew to dominate the entire Mediter-
Romanesque Architecture
ranean world. The Roman Republic was
Medieval architectural style ofthe eleventh
renowned for its mixed constitutiona
and twelfth centuries distinguished by
combination of monarchy, oligarchy, and
rounded arches, thick vaulting, heavy
democracyand for its effective army.
walls, columns, and piers. The name
Around 500 B.C.E. the patricians of Rome
Romanesque was taken from its "Roman"-
expelled their kings and set up a republic
like appearance with repetitive arches re-
consisting of three parts: two chief magis-
flective of Roman basilicas. Romanesque
trates, known as consuls, selected from the
church architecture normally has an en-
patricians for one year; the Senate, com-
larged eastern choir and a nave divided
posed of life-term patricians selected by
into units with columns and piers. Pisa Ca-
the consuls; and the assembly of the
thedral in Italy and Durham Cathedral in
common people, called plebeians. The
England are two distant and differing ex-
plebeians formed their own assembly,
amples of Romanesque.
known as the Tribal Assembly; its repre-
Roman Law sentatives were called Tribunes. This
Collective codified (written) laws. At the structure was modified in the third cen-
foundation of the Roman Republic (509 tury B.C.E., creating more social mobility
B.C.E.), law was based on custom and ex- and proved successful. The Roman Repub-
isted in an oral tradition. When it was cod- lic began to expand in the third century
ified in the Twelve Tables, the plebeians B.C.E. and by the first century B.C.E. con-
were no longer entirely at the mercy of trolled most of the Mediterranean world.
upper-class interpretation of the laws. From 133 to 31 B.C.E. the Roman Republic
When Octavian rose to power, the repub- was rocked by unrest and civil war. Julius
lic came under the domination ofthe em- Caesar became virtual dictator of the re-
peror, who enacted many of the laws, public in 47 B.C.E., and after Caesar's
288 ROMANTICISM
murder in 44 B.C.E. his grandnephew and C.E. In a fifty-year period there were about
adopted son Octavian came to power, In fifty claimants to the throne. Following a
27 B.C.E. he became princeps and was series of tyrannical and inadequate emper-
given the title Augustus. The Roman Re- ors as well as waves of attacks by the
public at this point became the Roman Germanic tribes on the northern border
Empire. of the empire, the Roman Empire was di-
vided into eastern and western portions in
Romanticism the fourth century. While the western
Artistic and intellectual movement of the Roman Empire lasted until the Turks
late eighteenth and early nineteenth centu- conquered Constantinople in 1453, the
ries that emphasized emotional, mystical, eastern empire began to fall when the Visi-
natural, and supernatural interests over goths overran the Italian peninsula in 410
the cerebral, the orderly, and the utili- C.E. and when the city of Rome was sacked
tarian. The Romantics reacted to the En- again in 476 C.E.
lightenment, the Industrial Revolution,
and the French Revolution, all of which Roosevelt, Franklin D. (1882-1945)
seemed to deny the emotional side of hu- Thirty-second president of the United
mankind. The Romantics tried to reinte- States. After serving as a New York state
grate these elements through the use of senator and assistant secretary of the
poetry, paintings, novels, music, and other navy under President Woodrow Wilson,
arts. Some of the famous proponents of Franklin D. Roosevelt (often called FDR)
Romanticism were poet and painter was the Democratic Party's nominee for
William Blake, poet William Wordsworth, vice president in 1920. Shortly after losing
novelist Mary Shelley, and musical com- that election Roosevelt was stricken with
poser Richard Wagner. polio, which left his legs paralyzed. Elected
governor of New York in 1928, he de-
Rome feated Herbert C. Hoover in the presiden-
Name of a city, a republic, and an empire. tial election of 1932 with a pledge to
Rome was originally the city, later associ- vigorously fight the effects of the Great
ated with the surrounding territory. With Depression. His New Deal reform pro-
the establishment of the Roman Republic gram brought relief to the unemployed,
the name Rome came to designate the addressed structural problems in industry
empire that was gradually built up by the and agriculture, implemented programs of
Republic. With the accession of Octavian planned development in particularly dis-
as Augustus, Rome became the Roman tressed areas ofthe country, provided sup-
Empire. The empire disintegrated in the port for the rights of organized labor, and
west in the third, fourth, and fifth centu- established structural safety nets to ensure
ries, and although it survived in the east, against a future economic collapse of simi-
it became known as the Byzantine Empire lar scale. In the process Roosevelt funda-
and was no longer known as Rome. mentally altered the relationship of the
federal government to the American
Rome, Decline of people and greatly increased its scope and
Long and gradual process of disintegration power. While the New Deal did not end
of the Roman Empire. The fall of the the Great Depression, it did enable the
Roman Empire was propagated by fiscal nation to survive the crisis. The economy
and class conflict during the third century recovered with the World War II
ROUSSEAU, JEAN-JACQUES 289
mobilization. Reelected in 1936,1940, and traveled to Africa and Europe, but growing
1944, FDR is the only U.S. president dissatisfied with his chosen successor,
elected to more than two terms. During William Howard Taft, Roosevelt again ran
World War II he played a major role in the for president in 1912 as the candidate of
development of Allied strategy, authorized the Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party.
development of the atomic bomb, and With the Republican vote split between
sought diplomatic arrangements to ensure Taft and Roosevelt, the election was won
the postwar peace. Toward these ends, he by Democrat Woodrow Wilson.
met with Winston Churchill and Joseph
Stalin at Tehran, Iran (1943), and Yalta, Rosetta Stone (c. 197-196 B.C.E.)
Ukraine (1945), in addition to holding Stone tablet with the same events de-
numerous other conferences with Chur- scribed in Greek, Egyptian, and hiero-
chill alone. glyphics that enabled scholars to solve the
mystery of hieroglyphics. Discovered by
Roosevelt, Theodore (1858-1919) the French when Napoleon invaded Egypt
Twenty-sixth president of the United in 1799, the parallel texts finally made it
States. Following a career as a New York possible in the nineteenth century to deci-
state legislator, cattle rancher, civil service pher ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics,
commissioner, New York City police com- opening up the world of Egyptology.
missioner, assistant secretary of the navy,
and soldier in the Spanish-American War, Rotten Boroughs
Theodore Roosevelt was elected governor English towns with few or no residents that
of New York as a Republican in 1898. In still sent two members to Parliament. Cer-
1900 he was elected U.S. vice president tain towns in England had been specified
under William McKinley, and he became in the Middle Ages as Royal Boroughs,
president upon McKinley's assassination meaning they sent members to Parlia-
in 1901. Roosevelt was elected president ment. By the late eighteenth century some
in 1904. As president he championed the of them had declined to few or no resi-
cause of progressive reform and consider- dents, while new industrial towns had
ably expanded the power of the presi- grown up but had no voting power. In the
dency. Among his domestic achievements Reform Bill of 1832 more than fifty rotten
were passage of the Pure Food and Drug boroughs were abolished while more in-
Act and the Meat Inspection Act, moder- dividuals in the industrial towns were
ate support of organized labor through his enfranchised.
Square Deal program, railroad regulation,
and efforts to regulate business trusts and Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712-1778)
break up those that resisted compliance French philosopher ofthe Enlightenment.
(called trust-busting). In foreign policy, Swiss-born Rousseau criticized the ex-
Roosevelt secured the rights to build the isting social order, the ancien regime ("old
Panama Canal and began its construction, order"), in France but believed in the
negotiated peace between Russia and innate goodness of humans, which he
Japan in 1905 (for which he won the Nobel described as the "noble savage," an indi-
Prize for Peace), and proclaimed the Roo- vidual unaffected by demands of society.
sevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine In this vein Rousseau laid out a new educa-
to forestall European intervention in the tional concept for the natural man in Emile
Caribbean. After leaving office in 1909 he (1762). And yet Rousseau proposed in The
290 ROYAL AIR FORCE (RAF)
Social Contract (1762) that humans accept Rubens, Peter Paul (1577-1640)
social contracts to maintain order and Flemish painter of the northern baroque
that there is a "general will" that forces all period. Rubens, an ardent Catholic during
individuals in society to abide by the rules the Reformation, studied painting in Italy.
ofthe social contract. He created huge paintings (many of them
with religious themes) full of color, move-
Royal Air Force (RAF) ment, and great emotion. Rubens also
Air force ofthe United Kingdom. The RAF, wrote humanist commentaries on classical
originally part ofthe army, became famous Latin texts but is known for paintings such
during World War II in the Battle of Brit- as The Raising of the Cross (1609-1610)
ain. Against overwhelming numbers the and Battle of the Amazons (c. 1618).
RAF held off the German Luftwaffe (air Rumi, Jalal al-Din al- (1207-1273)
force) and thwarted Germany's plan to Islamic scholar and poet. Rumi was born
invade Britain. Winston Churchill, refer- in northern Afghanistan, and he died in
ring to the RAF pilots, said, "Never in the southwestern Turkey. An Islamic scholar
field of human conflict, was so much owed and a follower of Tasawwuf, or Sufism,
by so many to so few." Rumi is most famous for his poetry, par-
ticularly his mystical "Mathnawi." The
Royal Commentaries ofthe Inca Mevleviyya order of Sufis (sometimes
Vast account ofthe Inca written by Garci- known as the whirling dervishes) consider
laso de la Vega, son of an Inca mother and him their founder. Rumi remains influen-
Spanish noble father. The Royal Commen- tial for modern Muslim intellectuals, and
taries became the most widely read source his writings have been translated into
on the Inca during the Spanish colonial many languages.
period. It, along with the view of the
Pizarro brothers, and the history of Rump Parliament
Bartolome de Las Casas, provided the Remnant of the English Parliament after
Europeans with their knowledge of the the English Civil War. A Parliament was
Incas. called by King Charles I in 1640. It re-
mained in existence against the king's
Rubaiyat wishes throughout the English Civil War
A quatrain of verse poetry. The most (1642-1649), called into existence the New
famous Rubaiyat was written by Persian Model Army, and called for the execution
poet and mathematician Omar Khayyam ofthe king (1649). The remnant (seventy-
(d. 1123 C.E.), who wrote his Rubaiyat eight members of Parliament), known as
during the final year of his life. Other Per- the Rump Parliament, still sat in 1653
sian literati, such as Rumi and Hafez, also when Oliver Cromwell said, "Be gone you
wrote Rubaiyat. The Rubaiyat of Omar rogues. You have sate long enough." Six
Khayyam is among the few Persian mas- years later it was recalled to end the com-
terpieces translated into most major monwealth, dissolve itself, and allow for
languages, including English, French, the Restoration ofthe monarchy in 1660.
German, Italian, Russian, Chinese, Hindi, Runnymeade. See Magna Carta
Arabic, and Urdu. In 1859 Edward J.
Fitzgerald completed perhaps the most Rus
famous translation of the Rubaiyat from Swedish Vikings who penetrated Russia in
Persian into English. the mid-eighth century. The Finnish term
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 291
Rus gave the name Russia to the area con- Tsar Nicholas II. Russia's defeat in the
quered or influenced by the Rus. Russo-Japanese War brought on heavy
taxation and discontent with the govern-
Russia ment. Many believed that the tsar was
Region of the vast eastern European plain being poorly advised, and they marched in
settled by the Slavs in the third century C.E. a peaceful demonstration in Saint Peters-
The region was overrun numerous times burg. When troops fired upon the de-
by tribes including Goths, Huns, Avars, monstrators, leaders of the people were
Bulgars, Magyars, Khazars, and Vikings outraged and a council, or soviet, of work-
who were known as the Rus and who gave ers was formed. The revolt subsided when
their name to the territory. Semilegendary the tsar promised reforms, but the gov-
figure, Rurik established the first Russian ernment became increasingly harsh and
principality at Novgorod in 862 and soon oppressive instead.
after that Kiev, which became the center of
Russia. Russia became Christian under Russian Revolution (October
Vladimir, prince of Kiev, in 989. Kiev was Revolution) (1917)
destroyed by the Mongols in 1240, and Overthrow of the tsarist government in
most of Russia was conquered. A slow Russia and establishment first of a republic
recovery left the leadership in Moscow be- and then of a union of Soviets. Russia suf-
cause of its location. Alexander Nevsky's fered from massive discontent caused by
son became the first prince of Moscow. World War I, little relief for the poverty-
Ivan III (r. 1462-1505), grand prince of stricken serfs who had been emancipated
Moscow, consolidated the Russian state; in 1861, and the pressures of rapid indus-
drove the Mongols, Hanseatic merchants, trialization, putting many stresses on the
and Lithuanians out; moved the church's rigid, absolutist state of Tsar Nicholas II.
center to Moscow; and married the niece The first phase of the revolution erupted
of the last Byzantine emperor. Ivan IV during food shortages in Saint Petersburg
became the first tsar of Russia (r. 1547- in March 1917. The tsarist regime was top-
1584). pled and a new provisional republican
Russian Orthodox Church government was established. When this
Eastern Orthodox Church in Russia. government continued Russia's involve-
Russia became Christian in 989, and when ment in World War I and did not deal ad-
the eastern and western Christian equately with land reform and food
churches split in 1054 Russia's churches shortages, the moderate Soviets, headed by
remained in the Eastern Orthodox tradi- Lavr Georgiyevich Kornilov, came to con-
tion. However, the patriarch of Constan- trol the government that July. The second,
tinople does not claim authority over the radical phase of the revolution unfolded
Russian Orthodox Church. The Russian when Vladimir Lenin led the successful
Orthodox Church recognizes seven major Bolshevik Revolution on October 24-25,
sacraments, like the Roman Catholic 1917 (new style calendar November 6-7).
Church, but does not recognize the au-
thority ofthe pope. Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
Conflict between Russia and Japan over
Russian Revolution (1905) control of Korea and Manchuria. After
Revolt of factory workers, the military, and years of tensions between the rival expan-
some peasants against the government of sionary powers, Japan launched an attack
292 RWANDA MASSACRES
on the Russian forces when Russia reneged Rwanda's majority ethnic group is Hutu
on an agreement to withdraw its forces and the country also has a large minority
from southern Manchuria. After Japanese Tutsi population. In 1959-1960 the Hutus
forces won victories in Manchuria and came to power, driving 200,000 Tutsis into
sank the Russian fleet at Tsushima, Japan, exile. In 1994 the sons ofthe exiled Tutsis
the United States brokered a peace (the returned to massacre Hutus. A genocidal
Treaty of Portsmouth) that in effect left civil war ensued, with an estimated
Japan in control of Korea. The war, the 500,000 Hutus and 500,000 Tutsis killed or
first major victory of a non-Western lost to disease. Another 2 million people,
nation over a Western power, greatly almost a third of the total population,
contributed to international recognition left the country for neighboring Congo,
of Japan as a rising, modernizing country Tanzania, and Burundi.
with the strongest military force in the Pa-
cific. All of this weakened the tsarist regime Ryoanji Temple
of Russia and led to the loss of indepen- Zen temple in Kyoto, Japan, famous for its
dence for Korea. Japan's victory over a Eu- rock garden. Consisting of a flat, rectangu-
ropean nation inspired anti-imperialist lar surface of raked white sand with fifteen
movements in other parts of Asia. scattered rocks, the garden is said to repre-
sent the ocean with islands protruding
Rwanda Massacres (1994) above its surface. Created in the fifteenth
Genocide, warfare, and humanitarian di- century, the garden expresses the severe,
saster in the African country of Rwanda. simple aesthetics of medieval Japan.
s
moving north to the Mediterranean coast, ment led to the assassination of leading
and horses, textiles, and paper going Huguenots and killings all over France.
south. East-west trade generally ran north
or south of the desert, never straight Saint Bernard Pass
across it. Actually, two passes across the Swiss Alps,
the Great Saint Bernard Pass and the Little
Saigo Takamori (1828-1877) Saint Bernard Pass. The passes were used
Japanese revolutionary, an early opponent as Roman military roads. In the Middle
ofthe Tokugawa shogunate. He was exiled Ages the roads were watched over by the
(1859-1864) but returned to train bushi Augustinian monks of Saint Bernard. The
(samurai) warriors in the Satsuma region. monks and their large dogs saved the lives
In 1867 his troops supported the emperor of wayfarers and provided a hospice for
in the Meiji Restoration and led the devel- all travelers.
opment of a conscription army for the
government. He resigned from the Meiji Saint Lawrence Seaway
government when his advocacy of war System of river, canals, and locks that pro-
with Korea in 1873 was rejected. He re- vide a deep waterway from Lake Superior
turned to his home in Kagoshima and to the Atlantic Ocean. The Saint Law-
opened a school for military training. In rence Seaway extends 186 miles (299 km)
1877 some of his students began a revolt from Montreal, Canada, to Lake Ontario.
against the government. Saigo took leader- Canada and the United States began its
ship of the revolt, which lasted for six construction in 1954 and the seaway
months. When his ex-bushi army was de- opened in 1959. Altogether the seaway en-
feated by conscripted peasant imperial ables ships to travel more than 2,300 miles
troops and he was mortally wounded, he (3,700 km) inland from the Atlantic. The
had a faithful warrior behead him. seaway opened the Great Lakes region of
Canada and the United States to enormous
Sailendra (Shailendra) economic development and connected the
Dynasty that flourished in Java from interior to the rest of the world via ocean
around the mid-eighth to the mid-ninth shipping.
century. Based in the agriculturally rich
island of Java, it held some influence, if not Saint Peter's (Rome)
direct rule, over much of Southeast Asia. Roman Catholic church of the bishop of
In the ninth century it relocated to Palem- Rome (the pope). Saint Peter's became the
bang in Sumatra. It left many monuments, most important church in Christianity
the most famous of them the great Bud- because Rome was the center of the
dhist temple of Borobodur. Roman Empire. The original church, al-
legedly built over the grave of Saint Peter,
Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre was built in 324. The new Saint Peter's,
(1572) started in 1506 during the papacy of
French slaughter of Protestants. On Julius II, was designed by Donato Bra-
August 24, 1572, Catholics throughout mante but not completed for more than
France killed thousands of French Protes- 120 years. Michelangelo became its archi-
tants, called Huguenots. A religious war tect in 1546 and continued in that role
had been raging since 1562 in France, but until his death in 1564. It is built in a High
fear of a Huguenot takeover of govern- Renaissance style.
SAMUDRAGUPTA 295
"Gupta golden age," when the arts and sci- in the second millennium B.C.E. and
ences in India flourished. reached its classical form in the grammar
by Panini about 400 B.C.E. N O longer
Samurai. See Bushi spoken in India, Sanskrit continued to be
the primary language of scholarship as well
San. See Khoisan as of much Indian literature until recent
times. It is still an official language of the
Sandinista
Republic of India.
A member ofthe Sandinista National Lib-
eration Front, a Nicaraguan guerrilla
group founded in 1962. Named for Cesar Santa Maria
Augusto Sandino, a hero of resistance The flagship of Christopher Columbus's
against the U.S. occupation (1927-1933), voyage to the New World in 1492. The
the Sandinistas were formed to resist the Santa Maria was a nao, a typical fifteenth-
tyranny of the Somoza family, gaining century cargo ship not renowned for its
support primarily from the landless peas- handling ability but bigger than the Nina
antry. The Sandinistas clashed with the or the Pinta. A three-masted, square and
National Guard until 1967, when a full lateen-sailed ship, it measured about 108
civil war broke out (1967-1979). The San- tons, was about 60 feet (18.3 m) long and
dinistas overthrew President Anastasio 20 feet (6 m) wide and carried a crew of
Debayle Somoza in 1979 and ruled Nicara- forty. Columbus was its captain until it ran
gua under Daniel Ortega from 1979 to aground and sank on Haiti on Christmas
1990, breaking up the country's large es- Eve 1492.
tates and distributing land to the peasants.
Resistance to the Sandinistas, known as the Sartre, Jean-Paul (1905-1980)
Contras, arose from the dispossessed land- French existential philosopher, novelist,
owners and was supported by the United and playwright. The central concepts of his
States. In 1990 elections replaced the San- philosophy are freedom and action. His
dinistas with a coalition heavily funded by works include Being and Nothingness
the United States. (1943), on individual freedom and the re-
sponsibilities of choices that humans
San Martin, Jose de (1778-1850) make. In 1964 Sartre was awarded the
Argentine hero of South American inde- Nobel Prize for literature but turned it
pendence movements against Spain. With down on the grounds of the award being
San Martin's aid, Argentina, Chile, and bourgeois. Sartre was a longtime friend of
Peru were liberated from Spanish rule. He Simone de Beauvoir and in a bitter feud
worked with Bernardo O'Higgins in the with Albert Camus.
liberation of Chile. He was appointed pro-
tector of Peru but turned over his power Sasanids (224-651)
to Simon Bolivar in 1822. San Martin Mesopotamian dynasty that overthrew
spent the remainder of his life in exile in the Parthians (224) and ruled Persia and
Europe. Babylonia. Claiming descent from the Per-
sian Achaemenids, the Sasanids created a
Sanskrit sophisticated cosmopolitan culture with
Classical language of India in which many their capital at Ctesiphon. Trade extended
classics of Hindu religion and Indian liter- to the east and west, and under Shapur I
ature were written. The language appeared (239-272) the Sasanid empire expanded
SAXONS 297
militarily, even defeating Roman armies. rule. Meaning "truth-force" in Hindi, sa-
The Sasanids revived Zoroastrianism, tyagraha involved using passive resistance
which became the state religion. From the and adhering to ethical conduct in strug-
end of Shapur's reign until 651 the Sasa- gle. The technique was effective in un-
nids existed precariously between the dermining British rule in India and was
Roman and Byzantine empires in the adopted by other groups such as activists in
west and the Kushan empire in the east. the civil rights movement in the United
In 651 Islam overran the Sasanids. States.
Satyagraha Saxons
The policy of civil disobedience developed Germanic tribe that invaded Britain in the
by Mohandas K. Gandhi in South Africa fourth century C.E. The Saxons, settled in
and later employed in India against British lower Denmark and Germany, began to
298 SCHLIEFFEN PLAN
invade Britain in the late fourth century, and prolific writer. Schweitzer won the
and by 410 the Romans left Britain to the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1952 for his work
invading Saxons, Angles, Picts, and Irish as building a fellowship of all nations. Most
well as the native Celts. On the Continent, of Schweitzer's work was in sub-Saharan
Charlemagne conquered the Saxons after Africa, where he became a symbol of the
repeated attempts during the eighth Western world's humanitarian care for
century. the third world.
major sources for building up the holdings in Anatolia to purge his realm of Shia
of libraries at court and in the monaster- Muslims, and his greatest accomplishment
ies. Often copyists reproduced the text and in this regard was his convincing defeat of
illuminators added images if the text was a the Shia Safavids in the 1514 Battle of
valuable one. Chaldiran.
(in fact, it was enlarged), but the emperor Seneca wrote numerous works including
held absolute power. works on ethics for Nero as well as other
prose works, letters, poetry, plays, and
Senate, United States speeches. The bulk of his prose was philo-
The upper house ofthe U.S. Congress. The sophical and is an important source for
Senate and the House of Representa- our understanding of Stoicism.
tives constitute the two chambers of Con-
gress, the legislative branch of the U.S. Senghor, Leopold (1906-2001)
government. The Senate is composed of Senegalese poet, philosopher, and the first
two senators elected from each state, or president of Senegal (1960-1981). Edu-
100 members, for six-year terms. For a law cated in contemporary literature at the
to be enacted both the Senate and the prestigious Ecole Normale Superieure in
House of Representatives must pass it; it Paris, drafted into the French army in
is then sent to the U.S. president to be World War II, and elected to the French
signed. National Assembly, Senghor was thor-
oughly European and African in his cul-
Sendero Luminoso (Spanish for ture. He was the first African elected to the
"Shining Path") Academie Fran^aise. He was also influ-
Peruvian revolutionary communist orga- enced by the writings of W. E. B. Du Bois
nization. Founded in 1970, the avowedly and by the Pan-African Congresses. He
Maoist Sendero Luminoso used guerrilla became one of the founders of negri-
tactics and terrorism to advance its revolu- tudefocusing on Africanness rather than
tion, whose goal was the replacement of Europeanness. Senghor spent his last years
Peru's moderate government with an ul- writing poetry and developing a theory of
traleftist one. Founder Abimael Guzman, converging civilizations.
a university professor, used young intellec-
tuals to arm and train indigenous peoples Sennacherib (c. 730-681 B.C.E.)
in the mountains. They moved from King of Assyria (c. 705-681 B.C.E.). He
remote regions of the Andes to commit made Nineveh his capital and turned it
bombings and assassinations in the cities. into a magnificent city with a new palace,
In 1992 Guzman was arrested and sen- canals, aqueducts, and a city wall with fif-
tenced to life imprisonment, but the group teen spectacular gates. Sennacherib ap-
has continued to commit terrorist acts. In pears in the Old Testament.
2003 it was estimated that 70,000 people
had been killed by the Sendero Luminoso Sephardim
and government forces opposing it. Jews of or descended from the Jews of
Spain and Portugal. Jews who were ex-
Seneca the Elder (c. 50 B.C.E.-40 C.E.) pelled from Spain and Portugal, especially
Roman writer of rhetoric and a history of in 1492, dispersed across Europe, but in
Rome. His history, from the civil wars their largest numbers moved to the Neth-
almost to his death, is now lost. Seneca also erlands; England; and, in the seventeenth
wrote works of witty sayings for his sons. and eighteenth centuries, on to the New
World. The Sephardim had Spanish lan-
Seneca the Younger (c. 4 B.C.E-65 C.E.) guage and culture and remained separate
Roman writer, statesman, and tutor to from the Ashkenazic Jews of eastern
Nero. Prominent during Nero's reign, Europe. Some Sephardim were well
SEVEN YEARS' WAR 301
educated and wealthy at the time of their quently, serfs rarely fulfilled the contract
expulsion and maintained their status for and when they died an heir would have to
generations, even into the twenty-first pay a penalty for breaking the contract
century. before the heir could enter into another
contract to work the same land. In medi-
Sepoy Mutiny (1857-1858) eval Europe most of the population was
Widespread mutiny in India against the serfs. Serfdom began in the eighth or ninth
British by sepoys, Indian troops employed century and became the norm in the
by the British East India Company. The tenth. As the population increased from
rebellion started when it was rumored that the eleventh to the thirteenth century, serf-
the new cartridges being introduced, dom's obligations became more severe
which soldiers had to bite before loading a matter of supply (limited land) and
them into their new Enfield rifles, were lu- demand (rising population). Serfdom de-
bricated with pig and cow grease, thus vio- clined in western Europe beginning in
lating both Muslim and Hindu religious the fourteenth century but was reinforced
prohibitions (the rumor was partly true). in eastern Europe beginning in the six-
Although few Indian princes other than teenth century. Serfs in Russia were not
the Mughal emperor joined the mutineers, freed until the nineteenth century.
the sepoys seized control of Delhi and
other areas, briefly challenging British Sermon on the Mount
control over India. The Sepoy Mutiny rep- Discourse by Jesus containing the essence
resented Indian dissatisfaction with the of his ethical teachings (in the Bible, Mat-
British overlords but also acted as a turn- thew 5-7). In it Jesus teaches his disciples
ing point. After crushing the rebellion, the about the Kingdom of God and fulfillment
British government took direct control of of the laws of righteousness according to
India from the East India Company and Judaism. The Beatitudes are a section of
ended the last remnant of the Mughal the sermon in which Jesus lays out the pre-
empire. cepts ofthe Kingdom of God in simple but
consoling fashion: "Blessed are the peace-
Serf makers. . . . " The Sermon on the Mount
Medieval European peasant who was is the most quoted and influential text of
bound contractually to a lord to work the Bible, having influenced even non-
parts of the lord's land. A serf was not a Christians such as Mohandas K. Gandhi.
slave because a serf was not owned by the The sermon sets Christians into three
lord, but a written or verbal contract groups: those who follow God, those who
bound the serf to the lord for a certain do not, and those who pretend to follow.
number of years, and the serf owed pay-
ment in cash or kind (goods) and had a Seven Years' War (1754-1763)
work obligation whereby the serf worked War between Britain and France with
a specified number of days each week, Prussia allied with Britain and Austria and
month, or year. If no work obligation was Spain allied with France. The war actually
involved, the person was a free peasant, lasted nine years but was not formally
not a serf. In return for the payment and declared until 1756. It was fought in
work the lord provided land to work and Europe, North America (where it was
protection. Often the contract was for long known as the French and Indian War), the
terms, such as ninety-nine years. Conse- Caribbean, India, and the Philippines. For
302 SFORZA, FRANCESCO
the first four years France was successful leadership the Zulus rapidly became a for-
in Europe, the Mediterranean, and North midable power in south Africa.
America, but starting in 1759 Britain had
victories under the political leadership of Shakespeare, William (1564-1616)
William Pitt the Elder and by Prussian English playwright and poet during the
forces on several fronts. By 1760 Britain reign of Queen Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603).
controlled all of North America and by Shakespeare was a prolific writer of come-
1762, most ofthe Caribbean. The Treaty of dies, histories, romances, and tragedies in-
Paris of 1763 ended the Seven Years' War, cluding Midsummer Night's Dream (1595),
with Britain predominant over France on Henry VI (1590-1592), Romeo and Juliet
all fronts including India, where France's (1595), and Hamlet (1601-1602). He also
role effectively ended. acted and penned many sonnets, which
stand as a testament to his skillful, beauti-
Sforza, Francesco (1401-1466) ful use of the English language. His influ-
Renaissance ruler of Milan and part ofthe ential works are renowned for their intense
powerful Sforza family. The Sforza dukes portrayals of human emotion and the
of Milan (1450-1494), who came to power interconnectedness of life. Shakespeare's
after the last Visconti ruler died, were part plays were originally performed in Lon-
of a tight interweaving of politics and re- don's Globe Theater, built in 1599.
ligion during the Renaissance and the
Reformation. They used their political in- Shamans
fluence on the Roman Catholic Church Northeast Asian religious figures who in
and used the church to influence pol- a number of societies play an important
itics. Francesco used his military power, role in mediating between the spiritual
asserted when Milan was besieged by Ve- realm and the day-to-day world. Among
netians in the mid-fifteenth century, to Koreans, as well as some Manchurian,
become the Milanese head of state. He Siberian, and Central Asian peoples, sha-
was very successful in continuing the Vis- mans are believed to have the power to
contis' program of making Milan a strong cross into the spiritual world, sometimes
centralized state. He devised a system of leaving their bodies to do so. In Korea,
taxation that generated an enormous shamanism was often supported by the
amount of revenue, which the government state, but this practice declined during
used to fortify its military. the Choson dynasty (1392-1910). Many
modern Koreans continue to visit sha-
Shah of Iran. See Muhammad Reza Shah manist shrines to seek the aid of profes-
Pahlavi sional shamans in dealing with malevolent
spirits. Forms of shamanism were also
ShakaZulu(c. 1790-1828) practiced in parts of China and Japan. The
Zulu king (1816-1828) and mythologized term is also used more generally to in-
figure in Zulu tradition. Shaka, son of a clude Amerindian figures who can com-
Zulu chief, became leader ofthe federated municate with spirits.
military under organizer and military in-
novator Dingiswayo. When Dingiswayo Shang (1766-1122 B.C.E.)
was murdered by a rival, Shaka took con- Earliest historical Chinese dynasty, cen-
trol, consolidated the confederation, and tered in the Yellow River valley of the
assumed the Zulu kingship. Under Shaka's northern Chinese plains. Although the
SHEBA, QUEEN OF 303
traditional dates are 1766-1122 B.C.E., his- Vedas"), the most important ofthe six sys-
torians now estimate that the dates are tems of Hindu thought. Through his com-
more likely circa 1600-1045 B.C.E. Shang mentaries on the Brahma Sutras and the
seems to have been organized as a city- Upanishads he developed his doctrine that
state with satellite cities. During its last two emphasized the eternal, unchanging real-
centuries the capital was at the modern- ity of Brahman, which he interpreted in a
day city of Anyang. Shang saw the be- way that resembled the Buddhist concept
ginnings of a recognizable Chinese civili- of nirvana.
zation with the use of early forms of
Chinese characters; ancestor worship; and Sharia
powerful, semisacred kingship. Shang cul- Revealed or canonical Islamic law ad-
ture was noted for the practice of interpre- dressing many subjects and based on a
ting cracks made in bones and tortoise shells number of primary sources including the
for divination, the creation of superb and Quran, the Hadith, the Sunna, qiyas (anal-
often huge bronze vessels, large tombs, ogy), and ijma (consensus of juridical
and the practice of human sacrifice. opinion). The sharia contains both pre-
scriptions and proscriptions on behaviors
Shanghai ranging from obligatory (performance is
China's largest commercial and industrial rewarded; omission is punished) to rec-
city, located on the Huangpu River near ommended (performance is rewarded;
the mouth of the Yangzi River. Shanghai omission is not punished) to indifferent
was one ofthe first treaty ports, opened to (neither punished nor rewarded) to unde-
Westerners in 1842 after the Opium War. sirable (disapproved but not punished)
It became China's most important trading and finally to prohibited (punished; with
and industrial center and its most West- degrees of punishment depending on the
ernized city. Many of China's modern severity of the sin, measured as either
movements, from the Chinese Commu- grave, venal, or trespass). There are a vari-
nist Party to the film industry, began in ety of sharia-based legal schools and tra-
Shanghai. It became a truly international ditions within and between Sunni Islam
city with a large foreign community in (including Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi, and Han-
the first half of the twentieth century. Much bali) and Shia Islam (Akbari, Usuli). In
of Shanghai until the 1930s was under many Islamic settings sharia-based legal
the administration of foreign nations who frameworks are often modified, redefined,
administered various areas known as augmented, and bypassed, with individual
"concessions." Shanghai went into a decrees forming separate bodies of civil,
period of decline when the communists criminal, and commercial case law and
came to power in 1949 and it was replaced legal codes. The relationship among the
by Hong Kong as an international com- sharia and other legal frames of reference is
mercial city, but with a shift in policy a key index of social and political life in
toward international trade and investment most Muslim societies.
after 1980 the city regained it status as the
country's leading business center. Sheba, Queen of
Traditional queen of a land in southwest-
Shankara (c. 788-820) ern Arabia or across the Red Sea in Ethio-
South Indian philosopher and one of the pia. The Old Testament and Islamic
formulators of the Vedanta ("End of the traditions speak ofthe Queen of Sheba and
304 SHEIKH
claim that she visited the court of Solomon origins in prehistoric times, Shinto recog-
(r. c. 974-937 B.C.E.). Ethiopian tradition nizes varied spirits called kami that repre-
has Sheba bearing a son by Solomon, Meni- sent forces of nature, especially those that
lek I, who was the founder ofthe Solomonic inspire awe, such as prominent mountains
dynasty, which according to tradition con- or rocks, and the ancestors of individuals
tinued almost uninterrupted through Haile who also inspire awe, such as great war-
Selassie in the twentieth century. riors. Unlike Buddhism, which since the
sixth century has coexisted with it, Shinto
Sheikh has no official scriptures or well-defined
Word often used by non-Arabic speakers doctrine and little in the way of ethical
to refer to a man with high status. It can teachings. Its mythology as recorded in the
refer to an influential elder, a tribal leader, Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters) and
or a religious authority figure, whether a the Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan) in
mullah member ofthe Ulama (a commu- the eighth century focus on the sun god-
nity of learned men) or a Sufi spiritual dess Amaterasu and on the imperial line as
guide. Sheikhs in Arabic-speaking regions her descendants. After the Meiji Restora-
are similar to khans in the Turkish-speak- tion Shinto was made the state religion
ing world or rish safids in Persian- and became associated with the cult ofthe
speaking communities. emperor and ultranationalism. It ceased to
be the state religion in 1945, although it re-
Shia Muslims (also Shi'a, Shi'i, or Shiite) mains one ofthe forms of religious expres-
Minority branch of Muslims who believe sion in Japan.
that the leader of Islam should be a direct
descendant of Muhammad. At his death in
Shiva
632 C.E., Muhammad left no instructions
One ofthe principle Hindu gods, often re-
for his succession and no sons. Some of
garded with Brahma and Vishnu as the
his followers selected Abu Bakr as caliph
main deities of Hinduism. Shiva is known
("successor"); they followers became
as the destroyer because his role is to de-
known as Sunni ("people of tradition")
stroy the world, but he also creates life and
Muslims. Others thought that Muham-
represents both asceticism and sensuality.
mad did not intend that approach and that
His consort is Parvati, who also appears as
only an heir to Muhammad should lead.
Durga and Kali. Shaivite cult was very pop-
They became known as shias ("partisans")
ular in medieval India and Southeast Asia
of Ali, or Shia Muslims. While only 10 per-
and inspired many great temples and art.
cent of Muslims are Shias, they constitute
Shiva is often represented by a linga
a majority in Iran and Iraq, although
(phallus).
Sunnis controlled the Iraqi government
until the U.S. invasion of 2003. Shia Islam
includes several varieties with varying beliefs. Shoen
Aristocratic, tax-free autonomous estates
or manors in Japan from the eighth to the
Shiite Muslims. See Shia Muslims
fifteenth century. The shoen, which began
Shining Path. See Sendero Luminoso as grants to Shinto shrines, Buddhist tem-
ples, or members of the imperial family,
Shinto undermined the central government of
Japanese indigenous religion literally Heian Japan by essentially giving eco-
meaning "the way ofthe gods." Having its nomic and political power to the shoens'
SIDDHARTHA GAUTAMA 305
owners and led to the rise ofthe provincial laws, bureaucratic institutions, and the
military class. The Kamakura bakufu ap- Chinese calendar. He also promoted both
pointed stewards to gain control over the Buddhism and Confucianism. His re-
shoen. They disappeared when rural vil- forms were continued by his successors.
lages became self-governing units owing
loyalty to a feudal lord who divided them Shudras
into fiefs. Fourth and lowest of the four varnas, the
major social groupings in India's caste
Shogun system. A distinction was traditionally
Military hegemons who were the effective made between the upper three castes of
rulers of Japan during its feudal period Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas, who
from the late twelfth to the nineteenth cen- were "twice-born," and the Shudras, who
tury. Their governments were called sho- were much lower in the religious and
gunates, or bakufu ("tent government"). social system of Hinduism. Most were
The term was coined in 1192 by Mina- originally farmers and laborers. Some his-
moto Yoritomo, who took the title sei-i torians believe the Shudras are descen-
tai-shogun ("great barbarian-subduing dants of indigenous peoples conquered by
general"), a term previously given to gen- the ancient Aryans.
erals who had led successful campaigns
against the native Ainu peoples of north- Siam
ern Japan. The shoguns never abolished Former name for Thailand. The name
the imperial court but, rather, created the Siam is derived from the Siamese Thai
parallel government known as the bakufu ethnic group that lives in the center ofthe
that held real power while the emperors country. Because there are many other
continued to reign ceremoniously in ethnic groups, such as the Lao Thai of the
Kyoto. There were three shogunates. The northeast, the government changed the
Kamakura shogunate founded by Mina- name in 1939 to Muong Thai ("Land of
moto Yoritomo ruled from a town south the Thais"). The name Thai itself means
of modern-day Tokyo until 1333; the "free." After briefly being changed back to
Ashikaga (also called Muromachi) sho- Siam in 1945, the country has been called
gunate ruled from Kyoto from 1339 to Thailand.
1573; and the last and most powerful, the
Tokugawa Shogunate, ruled from Edo Siddhartha Gautama (c. 480-400 B.C.E.)
(modern-day Tokyo) from 1603 to 1868, Historical founder of Buddhism best
when the shogunate was abolished in the known as the Buddha (Sanskrit for "the
Meiji Restoration. enlightened one"). According to later
recorded tradition, Siddhartha Gautama
Shotoku Taishi (574-622) was the son of a prince who left a protected
Japanese prince who as regent for Empress environment to seek the meaning of exis-
Suiko carried out reforms that helped to tence. At the age of thirty-five he experi-
transform the government of the Yamato enced enlightenment while meditating
state from a clan society to a centralized under a bodhi tree. He then devoted his life
administration modeled on China. He to helping others seek enlightenment and
sent the first recorded ambassador to thereby began a line of teaching that
China in 607; brought Chinese artists and evolved into Buddhism. He gave sermons
crafters to Japan; and adopted Chinese in the eastern Gangetic Plain of India and
306 SIDON
Europe was only one of thousands of trade imperial town, and from 1545 to 1800 the
goods, including spices, that moved along Spanish crown collected one-fifth the vast
the Silk Roads. The name was coined by value of the silver in taxes. Bullion fleets
German geographer Ferdinand Paul Wil- loaded with silver sailed from the New
helm Freiherr in the 1870s. World to Spain or the Spanish Nether-
lands, and English pirates, sometimes
Silla funded by the monarch, raided the Span-
Classical Korean state and one ofthe Three ish silver fleets. Silver was also shipped
Kingdoms. Along with Paekche and Ko- from Acapulco to the Spanish colony of
guryo, Silla competed for dominance in the Philippines to be traded for Asian
the Korean peninsula from the fourth to goods. The silver trade caused inflation
the seventh century until Korea was uni- throughout Eurasia in the sixteenth and
fied in 676. Silla, located in the southeast- seventeenth centuries.
ern part ofthe peninsula, was by tradition
founded in 57 B.C.E. but only appears in Sima Qian (Ssu-ma Ch'ien) (c. 145-185
historical records beginning in the fourth B.C.E.)
century C.E. The last of the Three King- Chinese historian and official at the court
doms to adopt Buddhism, Silla conquered of emperor Han Wudi. His great history
its two rivals with the help of Tang China. Shi Ji (Historical Records) provided a
During the united Silla period (676-935) model for the official histories followed by
Korea was a prosperous, culturally sophis- Chinese scholars for the next two millen-
ticated aristocratic state ruled by the Kim nia. Few if any historians have been more
royal family. Its capital, Kyongju, was influential. His history traces China from
among the largest cities in Asia. After a mythical times to the Han dynasty. It in-
brief period of disunity Korea was reunited cludes essays on various topics and bio-
under a new dynasty and renamed Koryo graphies of prominent people, generals,
although its elite viewed themselves as le- and statesmen as well as poets. It also con-
gitimate successors to Silla. tains annals and descriptions of foreign
peoples. A strong moral tone of praise and
Silver Trade blame pervades the work. Sima Qian was
Historical worldwide trade in silver. Much castrated by Wudi for defending a general
of the silver ended up in the Middle East who had surrendered to the Xiongnu.
and Asia, where Europeans traded it for
textiles, spices, and other goods. The Sinan (1489-1588)
silver trade increased with theflowof silver Ottoman architect who designed the
bullion from the New World in the six- Sehzade Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey, for
teenth and seventeenth centuries. With the Suleyman I. Sinan worked as chief archi-
discovery of the New World large quanti- tect for the Ottoman Empire at its height
ties of gold and silver were found in and designed more than 200 mosques, pal-
Mexico, but soon incredibly rich silver aces, public baths, and schools as well as
mines were located in places such as numerous other buildings. His most
Potosi, a Bolivian city where vast silver de- famous designs were two mosques built for
posits were discovered in 1545. With that Suleyman in Istanbul. He completed the
discovery Spain shifted its emphasis in the Sehzade Mosque in 1548, modeled after
New World from the confiscation of gold Hagia Sophia, a sixth-century Byzantine
to silver mining. Charles V made Potosi an church.
308 SINGAPORE
Vietnamese state and its officials bor- Asia and migrated into eastern Europe.
rowed, often enthusiastically, from China, They speak Slavic, an Indo-European lan-
so that Vietnam became known as the guage. Slavs are divided into East Slavs
"Lesser Dragon." The ruling class learned (Belarussians, Russians, and Ukrainians),
and wrote in Chinese (although they de- West Slavs (Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, and
veloped their own script in the fifteenth Wens), and South Slavs (Croats, Macedo-
century); adopted Chinese styles in art, nians, Serbs, and Slovenes). The Belarus-
music, and literature; and adopted a vari- sians, Macedonians, Russians, some Serbs,
ety political and social customs from their and Ukrainians use the Cyrillic alphabet
northern neighbors. Nonetheless, the and generally belong to the Eastern Ortho-
Sino-Vietnamese remained quite distinct dox Church, while the Croats, Czechs,
from the Chinese in many ways, such as in Poles, some Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes, and
their language and the higher social status Wens use the Latin alphabet and generally
of Vietnamese women. belong to the Roman Catholic Church.
Among the most influential of the many primarily through Plato's dialogues in
schools of socialism was that founded by which Socrates questions his students.
Karl Marx. In the twentieth century social-
ism largely split into Marxists, who advo- Sogdiana
cated revolution and sought to establish Name for the Transoxiana region, land
one-party communist states, and social between the Oxus (Amu Darya) and Syr
democrats, who sought to achieve grad- Darya rivers in western Turkestan, during
ual reform that would lead to a democratic the time when it was inhabited by an
social welfare state. Iranian-speaking people called the Sogdi-
ans. With a homeland in a strategic center
Society of Jesus (Jesuits) the Silk Road, the Sogdians were active in
Christian religious order founded by Igna- trade during the first millennium C.E.,
tius Loyola in 1540. Loyola was a soldier, forming a merchant diaspora that ex-
but when he was recuperating after being tended from Persia to China. Sogdiana
wounded, he had a vision of a Christian became a center for Manichaeism, which
brotherhood organized on militaristic the Sogdians introduced farther east, in-
lines. The Society of Jesus was established cluding to the Uighurs in the eighth
by the papacy in 1540, and Loyola was century. The Sogdians helped to extend
elected the first superior general. The soci- civilization to the peoples of the steppe.
ety played a large part in the Council of After the eighth century Sogdiana became
Trent (1545-1563), which reinvigorated increasingly Turkish and Islamic.
the Roman Catholic Church. Jesuits were
sent as the front line of attack against the Solomon (r. c. 974-937 B.C.E.)
Protestant Reformation and as missionar- King of Israel and son of King David.
ies to convert the indigenous peoples in Based on the Hebrew Old Testament,
newly discovered areas of the Americas Solomon, meaning "peaceful," was pro-
and Asia. claimed successor to his father and became
a very successful king of Israel, providing
Socrates (469-399 B.C.E.) a peaceful forty-year reign. Solomon mar-
Ancient Greek philosopher. Along with ried a daughter of the Egyptian pharaoh.
Plato and Aristotle, Socrates shaped the Commercial activity during his reign was
intellectual tradition of the West. He left extensive, and Jerusalem became a
no written treatises, but as the educator transformed city of wealth and luxury. De-
(although he claimed not to be a teacher) voted to Yahweh, Solomon built a grand
of men such as Plato, he left an indelible temple in Jerusalem. The Odes of Solomon
mark. Socrates lived in Athens during the and the Psalms of Solomon, both ascribed
pinnacle of its greatness after winning the incorrectly to Solomon, were written be-
second Persian War (480-479 B.C.E.), tween the first century B.C.E. and the first
when Athens became the leader of Greek century C.E.
society. Socrates believed that the unex-
plored life is not worth living and that Solomonic Dynasty (c. 990 B.C.E.-1974
goodness is knowledge, and he implored C.E.)
humans to recognize that they are respon- Ethiopian dynastic line, according to tra-
sible for their own ignorance or wisdom dition descended from King Solomon and
and therefore for their own moral atti- the Queen of Sheba. Haile Selassie, who
tudes. We know of Socrates' philosophy became emperor of Ethiopia in 1930 and
SONG OF ROLAND 311
was deposed in 1974, claimed to be the last agricultural improvements; and a sophisti-
of an almost continuous line from Solo- cated banking system including the use of
mon, broken by the Zagwe dynasty of the paper money have led modern historians
twelfth to thirteenth centuries and Tew- to describe this period as a "Song Com-
odros II (1855-1868). Some scholars trace mercial Revolution." China reached the
the Solomonic dynasty back to 1270. highest level of material culture in the
world. Buddhism lost state sponsorship
Solon (fl. 600-560 B.C.E.) and Confucianism underwent a revival in
Athenian politician and reformer. In the a form called Neo-Confucianism. The
sixth century B.C.E. Athens slipped into Southern Song ended with conquest by
conflict between the aristocracy and the the Mongols in 1279.
commoners. Solon attempted to achieve
a compromise between the privileged and Songhay
the unprivileged. He established reforms West African empire (1464-1591) ofthe
wherein all debts were canceled and slav- Niger River region that superseded the
ery for indebtedness was abolished. Solon empire of Mali. The Songhay had their
organized the Athenians into property capital at Gao and their major intellectual
classes in which members of the top two and commercial center at Timbuktu. They
classes could hold major political offices built an elaborate government, had an
and the others could either hold office or, army and navy, and controlled much of
at least, attend the Assembly. He also com- the trans-Saharan trade from the gold and
piled a new law code in which all free men ivory coasts to north Africa and the Medi-
were equal under the law. terranean. Gao at its peak had about
75,000 residents. The emperors of the
Song (960-1279) Songhay were Muslim, although the
Chinese dynasty that saw a brilliant cul- entire population was not. Timbuktu had
tural flowering and important technical a Muslim university. The Songhay empire
and commercial developments. Founded was the last of the great African savannah
by Zhao Kuangyin (known posthumously empires.
as Song Taizu), the Song ended a half cen-
tury of disunity. Despite an enormous pro- Song of Roland
fessional army, Song leaders were unable Epic poem written in Old French circa
to achieve decisive military advantages 1100 C.E. about the Battle of Roncesvalles
over their northern neighbors. In 1127 one of 778. Known also by the French title
of these groups, the Jurchens, conquered Chanson de Roland, the poem is of a type
the northern half of China and created the called Chanson de geste or ("song [praise]
Jin dynasty. The Song moved their capital of heroic deeds"). Song of Roland embod-
from Kaifeng in the north to Hangzhou in ies the heroic elements ofthe High Middle
the south, inaugurating a period known as Ages, with Roland, nephew and baron of
the Southern Song (1127-1279). During Charlemagne, asked to defend the rear
the Song an extensive system of canals and against the Muslims as Charlemagne's
other transportation improvements en- army left Spain. The treason of Roland's
couraged a flourishing internal trade and stepfather and fellow baron sets up a mon-
many prosperous cities. Improvements in umental battle, the death of Roland and
silk, lacquer, and ceramic industries; the vengeance of Charlemagne. Song of
expansion of iron and steel production; Roland was written (by an unknown
312 SONG MEI-LING
Spanish misrule in Cuba to intervene. As revolution, and sent advisors and aid. Nazi
riots broke out in Havana the United Germany and Italy supported the Nation-
States sent the battleship Maine into the alists and sent military aid. Men around
harbor, where it mysteriously blew up. the world volunteered to fight for each
"Remember the Maine" became the slogan side. Americans fought for the republic as
for war with a decrepit Spain. The United the Abraham Lincoln Brigade. The Span-
States acquired Guam, Puerto Rico, and ish Civil War was won by the Nationalists
the Philippines from the war. and General Francisco Franco, but ulti-
mately Spain was ruined financially and
Spanish Armada spiritually and did not fully recover for
Spanish fleet sent against England. In 1588 more than thirty years. Franco ruled as a
Philip II of Spain sent a fleet, under the dictator until his death in 1975.
command ofthe Duke of Medina-Sidonia,
of 130 ships and nearly 30,000 men into Spanish Inquisition
the English Channel to clear the way for Persecution of Muslims, Jews, heretics,
the Spanish army in the Netherlands to be and converts by Christian authorities in
ferried across it for an invasion of England. Spain in the fifteenth and sixteenth centu-
The Spanish planned to overthrow the ries. Separate from the papal inquisition,
Protestant queen Elizabeth I. The English the Spanish Inquisition was created by
navy, redesigned by Sir John Hawkins and Pope Sixtus IV in 1478 at the request of
commanded by Charles Howard (Second Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella I to en-
Baron Howard of Effingham), Sir Francis force uniformity of Christian belief, espe-
Drake, Martin Frobisher, and Hawkins, cially among Muslims and Jews who
routed the armada using faster, more ma- chose to convert rather than leave Spain.
neuverable, and better-armed ships. Spain The Spanish Inquisition was originally di-
lost forty-four ships in battle and in the rected by the inquisitor general, Domin-
flight, which necessitated sailing entirely ican monk Tomas de Torquemada.
around the British Isles. The defeat of the
armada destroyed Spain's chance of Spanish Netherlands
defeating Protestantism militarily and es- Low Countries, including modern-day
tablished England as a major naval power. Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Nether-
lands, that were part of the Habsburg
Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) holdings and transferred to the Spanish
Civil war in Spain between Republicans Habsburgs with Philip II. As gold and
and Nationalists that gained much inter- silver poured into Spain from the New
national attention because democratic World, much of it went to the Spanish
versus fascist ideologies were involved. Netherlands, Spain's industrial heartland.
When the Spanish Republic was elected in When the northernmost of these prov-
1931 the monarch left Spain. By 1936 the inces broke away as the United Provinces
military, monarchists, nationalists, and in the Dutch Revolt, the southern provinces
the Roman Catholic Church allied, feeling remained united with Spain in the Union of
that the Republican government was not Arras (1579) and also remained Catholic.
maintaining order. A civil war broke out,
with great bloodshed and terror used by Sparta
both sides. The Soviet Union supported Polis in Laconia in ancient Greece. By the
the Republicans, hoping for a communist eighth century B.C.E. Sparta conquered
314 SPARTACUS
the surrounding people, enslaving one through the Red Sea and overland to
group as Helots and controlling another as Alexandria, Egypt. Venetian merchants
perioeci, both of whom provided most of bought the spices at these three sites and
the labor and production for the Spartans, transported them to Europe. The Venetian
enabling them to become purely focused monopoly on spices shipped to Europe was
on their military. The Spartans became the only broken in 1498, when the Portuguese
supreme land force in Greece. At age seven discovered a route around Africa to India.
boys were sent away for military training
until age twenty, when they became sol- Spitfire
diers. At thirty they joined the Assembly British aircraft made famous in the Battle
and had full legal privileges. Sparta fought of Britain. The Spitfire was first developed
with Athens against Persia in the Persian in 1936, with the first production airplanes
Wars (490-479 B.C.E.) but against Athens delivered in 1938. By 1939, the year that
in the Peloponnesian War (431^04 B.C.E.). World War II began, Britain had 182
Sparta was victorious yet shattered and Spitfires. The early versions of the plane
never fully recovered. could fly at 350 miles per hour and carried
eight guns. In the Battle of Britain the Spit-
Spartacus (c. 109-71 B.C.E.) fire and the Hurricane proved themselves
Roman slave (born in Thrace) and gladia- equal or superior to the best fighter
tor who led a revolt against Rome in 73 planes of Germany and built the reputa-
B.C.E. At the height ofthe rebellion Sparta-
tion of having saved Britain.
cus led thousands of rebel slave warriors Sputnik
and routed two Roman legions. After two First spacecraft to orbit the earth. Sputnik
years Spartacus was defeated by Roman I, an unmanned satellite, was launched by
armies led by Crassus and crucified. rocket in October 1957 by the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics and orbited the
Spice Trade earth sending back radio signals. The ac-
Trade in spices from eastern Asia and the complishment startled the United States
Moluccas (Spice Islands in Indonesia) to and began a space rivalry between the two
India, the Middle East, and eventually superpowers. Within a month the Soviets
Europe. Spices used in food preparation, had sent up Sputnik II with a live dog
medicine, and religious ceremonies have aboard. The Americans countered with a
been traded from the East to the West for space program that had to come from
thousands of years. In Europe in the early behind, but while the Soviets went for size
Middle Ages, the spices went through and power the United States built small,
Axum in the area that is modern-day Ethi- efficient craft for accumulation of data.
opia. After the rise of Islam in the eighth
century, the spice trade from India west- Srivijaya
ward was controlled by Muslim traders. Maritime state of southern Sumatra con-
Goods from the Moluccas went to Malacca taining the port of Palembang. Srivijaya
in Malaysia, where Muslim or Indian trad- dominated the Malacca Strait from the late
ers transported the spices to the Malabar seventh to the eleventh century. Taking
Coast of western India. From there, the advantage of its location on the waterways
spices were shipped either to the Persian linking the Indian and Pacific oceans, Sriv-
Gulf and onward to Beirut, Lebanon, or ijaya flourished as a center of both com-
Aleppo, Syria, via the Euphrates River, or merce and Buddhism. It declined in the
STAMP ACT OF 1765 315
ninth century, revived in the tenth when it rank of general secretary. Upon Vladimir
created a commercial empire that con- Ilyich Lenin's death, Stalin proceeded to
trolled much of Malaya and what is now eliminate all opposition, most notably that
western Indonesia, and then declined of Leon Trotsky, and he secured his power
again in the eleventh century and eventu- by 1927. Through a series of Five-Year
ally disappeared. Plans, Stalin attempted to collectivize agri-
culture and create a powerful, industrial
SS (Schutzstaffel) state. Stalin followed many ofthe views of
Elite corps ofthe German Nazi Party. The Karl Marx and Lenin, but added a policy
term Schutzstaffel is German for "protec- of police terror to accelerate the industrial-
tive echelon." The black-uniformed corps ization process. He defeated the German
was formed by Adolf Hitler in 1925 as a army during World War II. Stalin's rule
bodyguard. From 1929 to 1945 the SS was was characterized by a sharp decrease in
headed by Heinrich Himmler. By the time civil liberties and the use of fear and vio-
the Nazi Party gained control of Germany lence to secure his power. During the
in 1933 the SS comprised more than "purges," he banished and executed mil-
50,000 men selected for their "racial lions of people, fearing that they were a
purity" and physical perfection. By 1939 threat to his position. After his death Stalin
there were 250,000 SS, divided into the All- was embalmed and placed in Lenin's mau-
gemeine SS (police and the Gestapo) and soleum. His body was later moved to a
the Waffen SS (Hitler's bodyguard, con- nondescript grave near the Kremlin.
centration camp administrators, and elite
combat troops). The SS used death's-head Stalingrad, Battle of (1942-1943)
and lightning-shaped "SS" symbols to World War II major battle in the Soviet
create an image of superiority and invinci- Union. The German invasion of the
bility. Its members were trained for abso- Soviet Union was directed toward Stal-
lute obedience and loyalty. The Nurnberg ingrad in August 1942. The German Sixth
Trials declared the SS a criminal organiza- Army penetrated the city, but in the winter
tion in 1946. the Soviets countered with six armies. By
January 1943 the German army was sur-
Stalin, Joseph (1879-1953) rounded and it surrendered. Extensive
Absolute ruler of the Union of Soviet So- bombing by the German Luftwaffe, heavy
cialist Republics and the leader of world bombardment, and house-to-house fight-
communism from 1927 until his death ing made the Battle of Stalingrad one ofthe
in 1953. He is credited with transforming deadliest of World War II. The German
the USSR from an agricultural society defeat ended its eastern front. The Soviet
into an industrialized world superpower. Union continually requested that the Allies
Born Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, open a western front during the Battle of
Stalin grew up in Gori, Georgia. He joined Stalingrad to draw German forces away
the Bolsheviks in 1903. He rose through from the Soviet Union.
the party ranks until 1913, when he was
banished to Siberia. He remained there Stamp Act of 1765
until 1917. It was during this time that he British law that inspired American colo-
adopted his public name, Stalin, meaning nial resistance. Passed by the British Par-
"man of steel." He continued to rise liament in March 1765, this act approving
through the party until he achieved the taxes on public documents reflected an
316 STATES GENERAL
effort to rationalize British colonial ad- the American writers, in particular. Her
ministration and to defray the costs of co- best-known work is Three Lives (1908).
lonial defense. In formulating the taxes,
Parliament challenged the autonomy and Steinem, Gloria (1936- )
legitimacy of colonial self-government, American writer and leader of the femi-
sparking the beginning of a protracted nist movement. Steinem campaigned for
period of debate over the nature and limits women's rights in politics, education,
of British sovereignty and ultimately lead- employment, and social life. In 1971
ing to colonial assertions of independence Steinem helped found the National Women's
in 1776. Political Caucus and the Women's Action
Alliance. She founded Ms. magazine in
States General. See Estates General 1972 as a publication for and by women.
(States General)
Steppe
States System
System in which political units claim sov- A type of climatic and vegetational zone
ereignty over their internal affairs and the found in several locations worldwide.
right to participate in international affairs The term is frequently used for the grass-
with other states with at least some degree land belt that lies in the center of Eurasia
of diplomatic and political equality. The from Manchuria to Hungary, bordered in
states system in which global politics the north by boreal forests and in the south
were viewed as the interaction of sovereign by deserts, mountains, and better-watered
states emerged in the sixteenth through agricultural lands. The steppe supported
nineteenth centuries, based on the Euro- pastoral nomad populations that upon
pean state system that was established achieving mastery of the horse and bow
during that period. Gradually a body of in- in thefirstmillennium B.C.E. became major
ternational law was created to establish threats to the settled agricultural societies
rules governing legal claims and conduct on their borders. Besides raiding, the
among states. The number of recognized highly mobile peoples ofthe steppe raised
sovereign states grew rapidly after the two horses, sheep, goats, cattle, and camels
world wars with the collapse of the major and engaged in and often promoted trade.
colonial empires. By the beginning of the As traders they often helped to facilitate
twenty-first century nearly 200 political cross-cultural encounters. The steppe
units were widely recognized as indepen- peoples formed a number of formidable
dent states. Most are members of the warrior confederations such as the Xion-
United Nations. gnu, the Hunnic, the Turkic, andmost
famouslythe Mongol empire. With the
rise of armies equipped with firearms and
Steam Engine. See Watt, James
artillery from the sixteenth to the eigh-
teenth century, the steppe peoples lost
Stein, Gertrude (1874-1946)
their military advantage.
American author and influence on the in-
tellectual scene of Europe in the first half
of the twentieth century. Stein moved to Stevenson, Robert Louis (1850-1894)
Paris in 1903; befriended Ernest He- Scottish author of novels and poems. In
mingway, Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, the late nineteenth century Stevenson was
and many others; and influenced many of among the most popular writers as author
STROZZI, ALESSANDRA 317
family preservation and financial success. by international convention, the canal was
She dedicated herself to supporting the open to all nations. During World War I
future of her family until her death in 1471. and World War II Britain used troops
to keep the canal open to its allies. In
Stupa 1956 Egypt claimed control of the Suez
Mound or monument commemorating Canala point of contention in the
the Buddha's death. Based on funerary Arab-Israeli wars.
mounds, or tumuli, the design of early
stupas maintained the hemispherical shape Suez Crisis (1956)
of a mound. An early and classic example International crisis over control of the
is the Great Stupa of Sanchi, built in the Suez Canal precipitated by Egypt's claim
second or first century B.C.E. The form to control the canal, which had been open
spread with Buddhism, evolving into the to all nations by international convention.
multistoried pagoda designs of China, Egypt's premier Gamal Abdel Nasser na-
Korea, and Japan. tionalized the Suez Canal to remove out-
side influence and to raise funds to build
Sudetenland the Aswan Dam on the Nile River when
Region of western Czechoslovakia adja- both the United States and the Soviet
cent to and ceded to Germany just prior to Union withdrew their support. Israel,
World War II. The Sudetenland, part of Britain, and France invaded to open the
the traditional region of Bohemia but canal, but the United States condemned
granted to Czechoslovakia after World the invasion. The Suez Crisis diverted at-
War I, was German in language and cul- tention and resources from a possible re-
ture. As Adolf Hitler expanded Germany sponse to the Soviet crushing of the
for "living space," he negotiated the con- Hungarian Revolt, also in 1956.
cession of the Sudetenland to Germany
in the Munich Pact of 1938. Prime Minis- Sufism
ter Neville Chamberlain of Britain re- Mystical tradition of Islam. Sufism devel-
turned from the Munich conference oped as an alternative to the strict ortho-
hailing a compromise that would bring dox Islam that seemed removed from
"peace in our time." Granting the Sude- emotional connections with God. Sufism
tenland to Germany gave away Czechoslo- strives for a personal connection with God
vakia's defenses and most of its industry in through revelation, often through poetry,
an attempt to appease Hitler. In 1993 music, or danceor even what is beyond
Czechoslovakia separated into the Czech the senses. It was known as the tariqua
Republic and Slovakia. ("path"). Sufis, through their networks or
brotherhoods, became masters of con-
Suez Canal version. Sufism helped to introduce Islam
Man-made 100-mile canal connecting the to all Muslim frontier regions including
Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. The sub-Saharan Africa, India, and inner Eur-
Suez Canal, designed by Ferdinand-Marie asia and spread rapidly in the nineteenth
de Lesseps, was begun in 1859 and com- century.
pleted in 1869. Although built by France,
Britain gained the most because the canal Sugar Trade
shortened the route from Britain to British Important international trade in the six-
India by 6,000 miles (9,700 km). In 1888, teenth to eighteenth centuries. Sugar has
SUKARNO 319
been refined from sugarcane since at least China's neighbors. Yangdi suffered de-
Roman times. Sugar came from North feats in his campaigns against the Korean
Africa or northwest Asia in the Middle state of Koguryo that, along with peasant
Ages, and sugar production was brought unrest, led to the overthrow ofthe Sui and
to Spain by Muslims. With the discovery its replacement by the Tang dynasty.
ofthe New World sugarcane was grown in Sui achievements in restoring a unified
the Caribbean, where it became the most empire were long lasting. China never
important export and a highly valued again experienced a long period of
commodity in Europe. Britain, France, disunity.
and Spain fought naval battles during the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to Sui Wendi (541-604)
control the sugar trade. Posthumous temple name for Yang Jian, a
general of mixed Chinese and Xianbei de-
Suharto (1921-) scent who founded the Sui dynasty (r.
Indonesian general and president (1967- 581-604). While acting as regent, Wendi
1998). Suharto crushed a communist coup usurped the throne from the boy emperor
attempt in 1965 and afterward assumed ofthe Northern Zhou dynasty in 581. He
great powers. He became president in 1967 completed the conquest of southern
and governed the state as a dictator until China in 589, thereby reunifying China
he was forced to resign in 1998 following after nearly three centuries of division.
widespread riots that resulted from a He promoted Buddhism, sought the
1997-1998 collapse of Indonesia's econ- support of Confucian scholars, and
omy. Under his rule Indonesia opened its created a self-supporting militia system.
economy to foreign investment, adding His dynasty came to an end only fourteen
manufactured goods to its exports of pe- years after his death in 604, but many of its
troleum and timber to stimulate economic institutions were inherited by the Tang
growth. His regime, however, was also dynasty.
marked by widespread corruption and
political repression. The suddenness and Sui Yangdi (569-618)
scale of the economic collapse also sug- Posthumous temple name of Yang Guang,
gested that he failed to provide the social the second emperor of the Sui dynasty
institutions and infrastructure needed to (604-618). Yangdi built the Grand Canal
emulate the sustained development of linking the Yellow River valley with the
some of the other Pacific Rim states such productive Yangzi River delta and con-
as Taiwan and South Korea. structed a new capital at Luoyang. The
strain on the population through heavy
Sui taxation and labor service to support his
Chinese dynasty (581-618) that ended enormous projects and his unsuccessful
nearly three centuries of disunity. It was a military campaigns against the northern
short-lived dynasty of two emperors, Sui Korean state of Koguryo led to rebellion
Wendi and Sui Yangdi, who established and the collapse ofthe dynasty.
their capital at Xi'an in western China.
The Sui rulers restored the Great Wall, re- Sukarno (1901-1970)
constructed and expanded the Grand Charismatic Indonesian independence
Canal, and launched campaigns against leader and president (1945-1967). A
320 SUKHOTHAI
prominent member ofthe Indonesian Na- reached its greatest expanse under Suley-
tionalist Party in the 1920s and 1930s, Su- man. He is known as the Lawgiver because
karno became the leader of a nationalist he augmented the sharia-based legal
movement under the Japanese occupation framework with a series of firmans (de-
of the Dutch East Indies. In 1945 he de- crees) that were organized into legal codes
clared himself president ofthe Republic of called kanun. Europeans depicted Suley-
Indonesia and led a war of resistance to the man as a threatening menace, but inside
reestablishment of Dutch rule from 1945 the Ottoman Empire he was known as a fair
to 1949, a conflict referred to as the Indo- ruler who fought corruption and as a great
nesian Revolution. From 1949 to 1967 he patron of artists, philosophers, poets, mu-
was president of independent Indonesia. sicians, intellectuals, and scientists.
His presidency was characterized by flam-
boyance; his attempts to play a role as a Sumer
leader of the third world, such as by host- Mesopotamian civilization first developed
ing the Bandung Conference in 1955; and around 4000 B.C.E. that gave the world the
by economic stagnation and widespread wheel, the plow, the calendar, a system of
poverty. He sought support from Indone- numbers, and the clock. The Sumerians
sian communists, but after their failed coup had a writing system of cuneiform sym-
attempt in 1965 he lost effective power and bols, irrigation, and an organized adminis-
was forced to resign two years later. tration that enabled them to produce
cities, the most important of which was
Ur, constructed of sun-dried bricks. In the
Sukhothai
center of Ur (and other Sumerian cities)
City and capital of a kingdom that ruled
was a ziggurat ("pinnacle"), an artificial
much of Thailand from the thirteenth to
mountain of layers topped by a temple.
the fifteenth century. Located in north-
Religion in Sumer was composed of deities
central Thailand, Sukhothai was the first
as manifestations of nature, such as the
independent ethnically Thai state in the
sun, the moon, lightning, rain, and chang-
fertile Chao Phraya River basin that
ing seasons, but the religion provided little
became the heartland of Thailand. Under
guidance or comfort; rather, it brought
Ramkhangaeng (r. c. 1279-1298) it estab-
the people demands of action and threats
lished control over an area from Laos to
of punishment. The great Sumerian poem
the Malay Peninsula. After the establish-
The Epic of Gilgamesh is the story of the
ment of Ayudhya in 1351 Sukhothai de-
king of Uruk and explains much of their
clined, and it was abandoned at the end of
mythology.
the fifteenth century.
Sunni Muslims
Suleyman I, "the Magnificent" Majority branch of Muslims who follow
(1494-1566) the Sunna, ("trodden path"), which in-
Ottoman caliph (1520-1566). Also known cludes the Quran (Koran), the Hadith
as Suleyman the Lawgiver. His conquests (sayings of Muhammad), and belief in the
include large acquisitions in the Balkans, chain of caliphs as leaders of Islam. Mu-
eastern Europe, and the Mediterranean hammad, at his death in 632 C.E., left no
Sea and all of North Africa and the Middle instructions for his succession and no
East (except Iran), including the Red Sea sons. Some of his followers selected Abu
and Persian Gulf. The Ottoman Empire Bakr as caliph ("successor"); they became
SWAHILI 321
known as Sunni Muslims. Others thought the attacker. His ideas had a great influ-
that Muhammad did not intend that ap- ence on Chinese and, more recently, West-
proach and that only an heir to Muham- ern military strategists.
mad should lead. They became known
as shias ("partisans") of Ali, or Shia Surat
Muslims. Sunnis constitute 90 percent of City in the western Indian state of Gujarat
Muslims in the world, but conflict remains that was a major port in the sixteenth and
between Shia and Sunni in places such as seventeenth centuries. In 1612 the British
Iran and Iraq. East India Company established its first
trading settlement in India at Surat.
Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) Surrealism
Chinese revolutionary and statesman who Artistic movement of the first half of the
founded the Guomindang (Nationalist twentieth century. Surrealism attempted
Party). Receiving a Western education in to bypass the conscious and express the
Hong Kong and Hawaii, Sun sought to workings of the artist's mind directly on
overthrow the Qing dynasty and create a the canvas. Among the leading surrealists
modern state in China that would be were Salvador Dali (1904-1989), Frida
strong and prosperous. He established Kahlo (1907-1954), Joan Miro (1893-
the Tongmenghui (United League), a rev- 1983), and Paul Klee (1879-1940).
olutionary organization, in 1905, which
after the 1911 revolution was reorganized Susa
as the Guomindang. Sun's political phi- Capital of the Achaemenid empire of
losophy was summed up in the three Darius I. Located in Iran, the site of Susa
People's Principles, which emphasized has been extensively excavated, with ex-
nationalism, democracy, and people's tremely valuable finds including the Code
livelihood (prosperity). Following the sup- of Hammurabi of Babylon and the
pression of the Guomindang by the new palace of Darius I.
republican government in Beijing, Sun
made his headquarters in his native Suttee. See Sati (Suttee)
Guangdong province in southern China
Swahili
and sought Russian help in political or-
African mercantile people living along the
ganization and military training. After his
southeastern coast of Africa. The term
death the party established control over
swahili means "people of the coast" in
most of China. He is revered as a national-
Arabic. Their language, Kiswahili, is Bantu
ist patriot today in both the People's Re-
but has incorporated many Arabic words.
public of China and Taiwan.
Because of their location, the Swahili have
long been intermediaries for trade, includ-
Sunzi (Sun-tzu) (fl. early fourth century) ing during the Atlantic slave trade be-
Reputed author of the Chinese classic of tween Africa and America. They are
war and military strategy Bing Fa (Art predominantly urban, mercantile, and
of War). He stressed the importance of sometimes maritime. The Swahili civiliza-
taking political factors into consideration tion was at its height in the twelfth to
in war and having a good knowledge ofthe sixteenth centuries, with a high level of
enemy. His strategy was to use deception sophistication. The Swahili language is im-
and avoid conflict until conditions favored portant today.
322 SYRACUSE
Islamic, and Indian forms that character- Tang dynasty and who reigned (626-649)
ized Mughal architecture. after forcing his father to abdicate. Re-
garded as one of China's greatest emper-
Tale of Genji. See Genji, Tale of ors, Tang Taixang secured the empire by
defeating the eastern Turks and strength-
Talmud
ened the state by expanding the civil
Jewish text of religious and ethical teach-
service examination system and establish-
ings. After the Jewish diaspora a cohesive
ing more state-supported schools to train
Jewish community did not exist. To pro-
officials.
vide guidance to widely scattered Jews,
rabbinical teachings on the Torah were
Tangut
collected along with legal judgments, reli-
A Tibetan people ofthe northwestern bor-
gious duties, and other aspects of Jewish
derlands of China who established the
life. By the middle of the fourth century
Chinese-influenced state of Xi Xia (Hsi
B.C.E. this compilation of writings, known
Hsia) in Gansu and Inner Mongolia. The
as the Talmud, provided a practical guide
Tanguts had an economy based on irri-
for daily conduct.
gated agriculture, pastoralism, and trade
Tamerlane. See Timur (Timur Leng, along the Silk Roads. Originally a tributary
"Timur the Lame" or Tamerlane) people of China, they proclaimed their in-
dependence from Song China in 1038.
Tang (618-907) Buddhism was their state religion, and Xi
Chinese dynasty noted for its military Xia was important as a center of Bud-
strength, economic prosperity, and cul- dhism, as is evidenced by the caves at
tural achievements. The Tang dynasty was Dunhuang, a great repository of Bud-
established by Li Yuan, titled Gaozu, who dhist paintings and manuscripts. The state
made his capital at Chang'an, which was destroyed by the Mongols in 1227.
became perhaps the largest city in the
world at that time. The Tang further dev- Tang Xuanzang (684-762)
eloped the civil service examinations, Emperor (r. 712-56) of Tang China famed
which proved highly effective in recruiting as a great patron of scholarship, literature,
men of talent to serve the imperial bureau- and the arts. His reign marks a high point
cracy, and expanded their empire into the in Chinese culture during which two of
Xingjiang region and the Pamirs, moun- China's greatest poets, Li Bo and Du Fu,
tains of Central Asia. Under the Tang, and two of its great painters, Wu Daozi and
Buddhism flourished, the printing press Wang Wei, flourished. In his later years
was invented, great works of art were cre- Tang Xuanzang fell under the influence of
ated, and Chinese poetry enjoyed perhaps corrupt and untrustworthy courtiers and
its greatest period. The Tang encouraged officials including a concubine, Lady Yang,
trade along the Silk Roads and the sea and a general, An Lushan, who led a rebel-
routes with Southeast Asia. After the An lion in 755.
Lushan rebellion (755-763) the dynasty
went into a period of decline. Tantras
Scriptures ofthe tantric sects of India who
Tang Taixang (Li Shimin) (600-649) worshiped goddesses with magical cere-
Posthumous name of Li Shimin, who as- monies. Tantras focus on Shakti, the per-
sisted his father, Li Yuan, in founding the sonification of female fertility and creative
TEOTIHUACAN 325
energy. Hindu and Buddhist Tantras claimed descent from the legendary
were written from the seventh century. Jimmu Tenno, who supposedly ascended
Tantric Buddhism spread to Tibet and to the throne in 660 B.C.E. By the ninth cen-
China from the ninth century. tury the emperors were largely figure-
heads, with the real power in the hands of
Tantrism various officials, but they continued their
Esoteric form of Indian religious thought sacerdotal and ceremonial functions to the
and practice based on Sanskrit treatises nineteenth century. With the Meiji Resto-
known as Tantras that contain secret ration an elaborate ideology known as
teachings involving physical and psycho- tennosei was created, which claimed that
logical techniques and practices. There was all ultimate authority was in the hands of
tantric Hinduism and Jainism, but tantric the emperoralthough in practice em-
Buddhism is best known, for its influ- perors continued to be largely ceremonial
ence on Mahayana Buddhism. Tantric rulers. Japanese ultranationalists also
Buddhism emerged in the sixth century claimed that the semidivine status of the
and flourished through the eleventh and emperors made them and made the Japa-
twelfth centuries. It was also known nese people they ruled unique and special.
as Vajrayana Buddhism ("Way of the In 1945, under the U.S. occupation au-
Thunderbolt") and Mantrayana Bud- thorities, Emperor Hirohito was forced to
dhism ("Way of the Mantra"), the latter renounce his sacred status, but the monar-
named for the practice of repeatedly recit- chy was maintained.
ing an incantation called a mantra.
Tenochtitlan
Taoism. See Daoism (Taoism) Capital city of the Mesoamerican Aztec
civilization. Tenochtitlan was built in
Tea Ceremony Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico
Aesthetic ritual originally derived from the at the site of modern-day Mexico City. At
Chinese Zen Buddhist monks' practice of its peak, with a population of around
drinking tea in honor of their first patri- 250,000, it became the capital of a vast,
arch, Bodhidharma. In Japan it emerged in tribute-paying empire, although the
the fifteenth century as a method of host- power ofthe central government was lim-
ing guests while quietly appreciating the ited beyond Tenochtitlan itself. At the
beauty found in simple and everyday center of the city was the sacred precinct
things. It was further refined by the tea with huge pyramids dedicated to gods, on
master Sen Rikyu, who served in the court top of which human sacrifices were made.
of the warlord Hideyoshi. Tea ceremony In 1521 Hernando Cortes was invited into
influenced the development of Japanese Tenochtitlan by the monarch Moctezuma
art, especially raku pottery. and took Moctezuma hostage. When the
people revolted Cortes was driven from
Temple Mount. See Hebrew Temple the city, but he returned leading ene-
mies of the Aztecs and conquered and
Temple of Jerusalem. See Hebrew Temple destroyed Tenochtitlan.
nearly 1,000 years from the third century and South Vietnamese forces during the
B.C.E. to c. 800 C.E. The city had a popula- Vietnam War. The surprise attack was
tion of as many as 150,000 and a main timed for the Vietnamese Lunar New Year
thoroughfare lined with temples and pal- holiday (Tet). The communists hoped to
aces. It was dominated by the Pyramid of spark a popular uprising against the South
the Sun, a massive ceremonial center more Vietnamese government. The offensive
than 200 feet (60 m) high, and the Pyramid was a military failure that resulted in heavy
of the Moon. The entire city was laid out communist loses, but it served to damage
on a north-south, east-west grid plan. The American and South Vietnamese morale.
people traded products including cacao, Many view it as a turning point in the war
food, obsidian, and rubber over a vast that eventually led to the U.S. withdrawal
region. The language of Teotihuacan is un- of all forces from Vietnam in 1973.
known. Teotihuacan was in many ways
heir to the Olmec civilization, as is the Texas Rangers
contemporary Maya civilization. Policing force in Texas organized in the
1830s. Originally a militia for the protec-
Teresa of Avila, Saint (born Teresa de tion of settlers against Indians, during the
Cepeda y Ahumada) (1515-1582) Texas war for independence and the
Spanish nun, mystic, and author. In 1555 period of the Republic of Texas the Texas
she had a religious awakening and began a Rangers were the border patrol. Noted for
remarkable career. She led a reform ofthe their marksmanship and discipline, they
Carmelite order to restore its austerity established law and order in the Wild
and contemplative nature. She founded West. They merged with the state police
reformed monasteries and convents in 1935.
throughout Spain and greatly influenced
King Philip II. Her writings include The Texcoco
Way of Perfection (1583) and The Interior Lake and city-state in central Mexico. Im-
Castle (1588), both published after her portant Mesoamerican cities were built on
death. the lake. Originally one of five lakes, Tex-
coco, the largest, was the site of a city built
Terra-Cotta Army by the Nahuatl tribe, who moved into the
Life-size clay figures buried to guard the Valley of Mexico after the collapse of the
huge underground tomb of third-century Toltec civilization. The city was destroyed
B.CE. Chinese emperor Qin Shi Huangdi in 1428, but when the Aztecs gained as-
(r. 247-210 B.C.E.). They were discovered cendancy they built their capital, Teno-
in excavations in 1974. Each figure's face chtitlan, in Texcoco, connected to the
has a realistic representation of a genuine mainland by long causeways. This pro-
individual. The scale of the clay army vided the Aztec with security. At the center
reflects the power and grandiose nature of of the city was the sacred precinct with
China's first emperor. So far about 7,000 huge pyramids dedicated to gods, on top
figures have been found. of which human sacrifices were made.
Hernando Cortes was invited into
Tet Offensive (1968) Tenochtitlan by the monarch Moctezuma
Battle offensive launched January 29 in 1521 and destroyed it. Texcoco the city-
through February 25,1968, by North Viet- state was part ofthe "Triple Alliance," with
nam and its Viet Cong allies against U.S. the Aztecs or Mexica from Tenochtitlan
THIRD WORLD 327
of decolonization that brought indepen- terrible state from which it would take
dence to a large group of African and nearly 200 years to recover.
Asian countries in the 1950s and 1960s.
Their historical experience of imperialism Thucydides (c. 455-400 B.C.E.)
and common problems, such as poverty Ancient Greek historian. Considered the
and underdevelopment, shared with coun- greatest Greek historian, Thucydides was
tries of Latin America, led them to act as a born in Athens. As a general in the Pelo-
bloc in international forums, particularly ponnesian War he was unsuccessful, and
the UN. upon banishment he wrote a history ofthe
events. His history was based on docu-
Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) ments and evidence and provides an im-
European series of wars begun as a reli- partial analysis of the causes and course
gious war but turned into a political and of the war. Thucydides wrote his history
territorial war. In 1618 the Thirty Years' for "those who desire an exact knowledge
War began as hostility within the German of the past as a key to the future, which
states between Protestants and Catholics in all probability will repeat or resemble
in Bohemia when a Protestant church the past."
was destroyed and the Protestants rebelled
and elected a Protestant king. The Catholic Tianshan (T'ien-shan)
Holy Roman Emperor crushed the rebel- Mountain range extending 1,500 miles
lion in Bohemia, but other Protestant that forms the boundary between north-
states rebelled. Catholic forces under Gen- western China and Kyrgyzstan and runs
eral Albrecht von Wallenstein defeated east-west through most of Kyrgyzstan. The
the Danish Protestants. Soon Swedish name Tianshan means "Heavenly Moun-
Protestants under King Gustavus II en- tains." The range is one ofthe highest in the
tered the war, partly for Protestantism world; its tallest peak reaches over 24,406
and partly for political aggrandizement. feet (7,439 m). The range is the reputed
Gustavus built the best army in Europe and home of several important Central Asian
defeated the Catholic forces. In the Battle peoples. Its fertile valleys have always at-
of Liizen (1632) Gustavus's army defeated tracted pastoral nomadic peoples. The
Wallenstein's army, but Gustavus was western Turks had their base in the area.
killed. The emperor, fearing Wallenstein's Tiberius (42 B.CE.-37 C.E.)
power, arrested him, and Wallenstein was Roman emperor, general, and successor to
assassinated trying to escape. With the Octavian. Tiberius was the chosen succes-
Habsburg Catholic forces unstopped, sor to Octavian, who was also his stepfa-
Catholic France, directed by Cardinal Ri- ther and father-in-law. He was a successful
chelieu, entered on the side of the Protes- general who ruled (14-37 C.E.) with a
tants to block the Habsburgs. Swedish heavy hand as emperor. Increasingly ty-
Protestant and French Catholic armies re-
rannical, Tiberius made many enemies
peatedly defeated the Catholic Habsburgs.
and executed many opponents. He retired
In 1648 the Peace of Westphalia ended the
to Capri in 26, and when he died in 37
war, giving France Alsace and Lorraine,
Rome rejoiced.
giving Sweden territories, and protecting
Calvinism and Lutheranism. Europe suf- Tiber River
fered horribly from the war, with possibly Italian river 252 miles (405 km) long and
millions of deaths. Germany was left in a originating in the Apennines, traveling
TIMUR 329
Syria, and the Ottoman Turks in Anatolia. contact between Japan and the outside
He was preparing for an invasion of world, a policy that has been called sakoku
China when he died in 1405. A skilled mili- ("closed country"). Diplomatic relations
tary commander noted for his brutality, and carefully regulated trade with China and
Timur never established a stable adminis- the Dutch was permitted at Nagasaki and
trative structure and much of his empire some trade was carried out indirectly with
collapsed with his death. Timur brought China through Okinawa, but otherwise
artisans to add splendor to his capital, Japan remained a world apart under the
Samarkand, and patronized the arts, but Tokugawa. The shogunate ended with
his main legacy was one of terror and the Meiji Restoration in 1868, which took
brutality. His grandson Ulugh Beg was place following the forcible opening of
able to raise the dynasty founded by Japanese ports by Westerners.
Timur to heights of art and culture.
Toltec Civilization (c. 900-1200)
Titian (c. 1488-1576) (full name Tiziano Mesoamerican civilization that ruled cen-
Vecellio) tral Mexico in the period between the
Renaissance painter from Venice, a Maya and the Aztec civilizations. The
contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci, name Toltec means "urbanite" or "cul-
Michelangelo, and Raphael. Titian painted tured people." The Toltec were a warring
in a sensuous style that was unsurpassed, people who practiced human sacrifice on
with works such as Bacchanal (c. 1518). a large scale. They worshiped a pantheon of
Unusual in its pagan subject, the painting gods; the war gods were of primary im-
is lush and rich in color and sensuous form. portance. Their capital was at Tula. The
Titian was a brilliant portraitist, as seen in Toltecs moved into the Yucatan and in-
Man with a Glove (c. 1520) and Pope Paul fluenced the Maya. The impressive Maya
III and His Grandson (1546). ruins at Chichen Itza have many similarit-
ies to the Toltec capital of Tula.
Tokugawa
Japanese family that served as shoguns Tonkin (Tongking)
during the Tokugawa shogunate (1603- The northern region of Vietnam containing
1868). The founder ofthe shogunate was the fertile Red River valley and the capital,
Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543-1616), a warlord Hanoi. During the French rule of Indo-
allied with Hideyoshi. He defeated the china, the name Tonkin was given to this
daimyo loyal to Hideyoshi's son and suc- region by the French but not used by the
cessor at Sekigahara in 1600 and estab- Vietnamese. It is also a name for the body
lished his capital at Edo. Under the of water that lies east of northern Vietnam
Tokugawa rulers Japan enjoyed two-and- and south of China, the Gulf of Tonkin.
a-half centuries of peace and stability.
The economy grew, commerce flourished, Topkapi Palace
a vigorous commercial middle class Ottoman royal palace. Upon his conquest
emerged, and the arts flowered. Society of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman
was frozen into rigid classes of bushi, peas- sultan Mehmet II commissioned the build-
ants, artisans, and merchants. The Toku- ing of the palace complex that later came
gawa rulers were suspicious of Christianity to be known as Topkapi Saray. It is sit-
with its foreign links and loyalties and re- uated on a hill overlooking both the Sea of
lentlessly persecuted it. They also limited Marmara and the Bosporus Strait. Upon
TOURE, SAMORI 331
completion of its first phase of construc- in 1493 to settle disputes by both countries
tion the palace covered 75,000 square feet over new discoveries, but it was revised at
(7,000 square meters) and was surrounded Tordesillas in 1494. The new treaty drew a
by fortified walls 4,600 feet (1,400 meters) line from pole to polewest of Greenwich,
in length. The compound is next to Hagia England (46 37' W in modern terms). All
Sophia, a church that the Ottomans con- newly discovered lands west of this line
verted into a mosque. From the time of were given to Spain, and those east of the
Mehmet II until its last royal Ottoman oc- line went to Portugal. This was a diplo-
cupant, Abdul Mejid (r. 1839-1860), the matic victory for Portugal because it kept
palace grew steadily to form a citylike control of the trade route to India and
complex of buildings and annexes. gained Brazil, probably unknown in 1494.
Both countries hoped to get the Moluccas
Topu Inca (c. 1435-1493) in the East Indies. Spain initially won the
Inca emperor (r. 1471-1493). Son of Moluccas, but in 1529 the Treaty of Sara-
Pachacutec, who expanded the Inca gossa gave the Moluccas to Portugal.
empire by conquest and using skillful
threats and claims of divine intervention, Tories (America)
Topu continued the expansion, mainly by British loyalists in the American colonies.
conquest. The vast empire stretched from During the American Revolution ap-
the border of modern-day Ecuador and proximately one-third of the colonists
Colombia in the north to central Chile remained loyal to Great Britain and the
and northwestern Argentina in the south, crown and were known as Tories, but
with a population of perhaps 9-12 million their actions were punished by imprison-
by the time of Topu's death. In his last ment and confiscation of property. Some
years Topu traveled across his empire es- Tories moved to Canada, back to Britain,
tablishing local administration. or even joined the British army.
coast of Africa, Toure fought them and Oklahoma. As settlers moved to Georgia,
created one ofthe most powerful states, re- Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, and Louisiana
sisting French conquest for more than in the 1830s, the U.S. authorities moved
seventeen years. His military tactics are Cherokee, Seminole, Creek, Cochtaw, and
generally recognized as superior to those of Chickasaw tribes out of the region west-
the French, but his armaments were infe- ward to Oklahoma. The suffering and high
rior. In 1898 the French finally captured death toll along the way became known as
Toure and deported him to Gabon, com- the Trail of Tears.
pleting their conquest of west Africa.
Toure died in Gabon. Trajan (c. 53-117)
Roman general and emperor (98-117). A
Tours, Battle of (732) distinguished general, Trajan was adopted
Frankish (Carolingian) victory over a by Emperor Nerva to succeed him. After
Muslim army. Charles Martel (Charle- his effective reign provided needed stabil-
magne's grandfather) routed the Muslim ity for the Roman Empire, Trajan in turn
army and drove the Muslims out of France adopted Hadrian to succeed him. Many
across the Pyrenees into Spain. Islam had public works were constructed during the
expanded from its origins 100 years earlier reign of Trajan.
to reach deeply into Europe. The Frankish
victory was later extolled as more dramatic Transalpine. See Gaul
than it really was, though it established
the Franks as a major power in eighth- Transoxiana (also called Sogdiana)
century Europe. Central Asian land between the Amu
Darya River (the ancient Oxus River) and
Toussaint L'Ouverture, Francis the Syr Darya River, now part of Uz-
Dominique (c. 1744-1803) bekistan and southwestern Kazakhstan.
Haitian revolutionary leader. Inspired Transoxiana in ancient times was a very
by the French Revolution, Toussaint important crossroads of trade, religion,
L'Ouverture led a slave revolt in Haiti in and ideas between East and West. The
1791. When Britain invaded Haiti in 1793 most important city was Samarkand.
and allied with Spain, Toussaint organized Along with Bactria to the east, Transoxi-
the resistance. By 1795 Toussaint was gov- ana was part of the Achaemenian empire
erning the entire island, and when Napo- of Cyrus the Great in the sixth century
leon Bonaparte sent forces to subdue him B.C.E., part ofthe empire of Alexander the
Toussaint again resisted. He was captured Great in the fourth century B.C.E., and part
and sent to France, where he died in a ofthe Seleucid empire in the third century
dungeon. In 1804 Haiti, under one of B.C.E. The region had a strong Buddhist
Toussaint's commanders, declared its in- influence until the coming of Islam in
dependence making it the first liberated ter- the seventh century C.E. It was invaded
ritory in the Caribbean or Latin America. by Genghis Khan in 1219 and by Timur
in the fourteenth century.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi. See Hideyoshi
Trans-Saharan Trade
Trail of Tears Trade between the Mediterranean Sea and
Enforced exile of Amerindians of the the Sudan region of Africa south of the
United States from southeastern states to Sahara Desert. The Sahara Desert has
TRIBUTARY SYSTEM 333
come and gone throughout time. It ap- signed with Western powers in the nine-
peared in its present form by about 3000 teenth century. Starting with the Treaty
B.C.E., dividing North Africa and the Medi- of Nanjing (Nanking) in 1842 between
terranean region from west Africa. Around China and Britain at the end ofthe Opium
the first century C.E. the camel, which was War, China was forced to open certain ports
already in use along the southern rim of to Westerners. Foreigners living in these
the Sahara, spread to North Africa, making ports were largely governed by the laws of
trade across the desert possible. Nomadic their own countries. The treaty port became
tribes moved the trade between northern a symbol of the weakness of China and its
and sub-Saharan Africa in small quantities gradual loss of sovereignty to foreigners.
during Roman times, but after the rise of China regained full control over these
Islam in the seventh century several major ports by 1943. The term treaty ports is also
trade routes appeared. The western route used for similar ports in Japan and Korea.
from Morocco through Mauritania led to
ancient Ghana between the Senegal and Treblinka. See Death Camps, German
Niger rivers. A central route began in
northern Algeria and ran almost directly Trent, Council of. See Council of Trent
south through Timbuktu and on to the
region of modern-day Ghana. An eastern Trenton, Battle of (1776)
route from Tripoli in Libya led through The first clear success by the American
Niger, west of Lake Chad, and south to the troops under George Washington against
Niger River. These remained the princi- the British army during the American
ple trade routes until the twentieth cen- Revolution on December 26, 1776. Wash-
tury. Along these routes southward moved ington made a daring crossing of the icy
horses, salt, cloth, metalwork, and Islam. Delaware River on Christmas Day, 1776,
Northward moved gold, ivory, slaves, goat and subsequently captured approximately
hides, senna, and cola nuts. Ancient Ghana 900 Hessian soldiers in the pay of the
became known as the land of gold, and British. This led to a boost in con-
gold drove much of the trade and, later, fidence throughout the colonies and a
the European interest in sub-Saharan similarly successful operation in the Battle
Africa. of Princeton several days later.
Nhi drove the Chinese out of much of the home or headquarters of many great
Vietnam but were defeated and executed Central Asian empires such as that of
in 43. The Chinese continued to rule Viet- Timur. The easternmost region became
nam until the eleventh century. The sisters part of the Qing empire in the eighteenth
became Vietnamese national heroes and century and Xingjiang province of China
symbols ofthe high social status of South- in the twentieth, and most of Turkestan
east Asian women. was conquered by Russia in the nineteenth
century. With the collapse of the Soviet
Tupac Amaru II (born Jose Gabriel Union in 1991 the formerly Russian-ruled
Condorcanqui) (c. 1742-1781) regions became five independent states.
Peruvian revolutionary. A mestizo who
claimed royal descent from the last Inca Turks
ruler, Tupac Amaru, he led an Amerindian Central Asian Turkic-speaking peoples,
rebellion in 1780 against Spanish rule in originally nomads from the Altai Moun-
Peru that spread to Bolivia and Argentina. tains between Turkestan and Mongolia.
The revolt began as an alliance of Peru- In the mid-sixth century the Turks created
vian-born whites, mestizos, and indige- a large empire that stretched from Mongo-
nous people but became primarily an lia to the Caspian Sea. The empire col-
indigenous movement against the power lapsed but various Turk groups formed
structure. Tupac and his family were cap- important components in the armies of
tured in 1781 and taken to Cuzco, where many steppe empires, including that ofthe
Tupac witnessed the execution of his Mongols. From the ninth century many
family. He was then mutilated, drawn and Turks converted to Islam and served as
quartered, and beheaded. The revolt con- soldiers for Middle Eastern rulers. In the
tinued for some time until the insurgents eleventh century under the Seljuks they
were granted pardons. It frightened the gained control of much of Iraq, Syria, and
Peruvian and Bolivian elites, who became parts of Anatolia. At the end of the thir-
wary of indigenous participation in inde- teenth century the Osmanli Turks created
pendence movements. a state that became the Ottoman Empire
that ruled most ofthe Middle East, North
Turkestan Africa, and the Balkans by the sixteenth
Region of Central Asia that extends from century. Most people in the modern states
the Caspian Sea to the Altai Mountains, of Turkey, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uz-
bordering the taiga forest belt of Siberia bekistan, Turkmenistan, and Kyrgyzstan
and the steppe belt to the north and Af- regard themselves as Turks, not in a na-
ghanistan and Tibet to the south. It in- tionalistic way, but because they speak
cludes the modern states of Kazakhstan, Turkic.
Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan,
and Tajikistan and Xingjiang province of Tutankhamon (r. c. 1347-1338 B.C.E.)
China. Much of Turkestan is desert or Ancient Egyptian boy-pharaoh who re-
semidesert grassland, but it also contains stored the Egyptian civilization's capital
mountains, fertile river valleys, and oases. and religion. Tutankhamon's predecessor,
Historically Turkestan has been a great Amenhotep IV, attempted to change the
crossroads with many flourishing trading religion of Egypt from worship of Amon-
centers such as Bukhara and Samarkand, Re to Aton and moved the capital from
major cities on the Silk Roads. It was also Thebes to the new city of Akhenaton.
336 TUTU, DESMOND
Tutankhamon returned the government inscribed onto twelve stone tables and put
to Thebes and restored the old religion. on display in the Roman Forum for all citi-
Tutankhamon is known primarily for his zens to read. Although they would soon
tomb, discovered in 1922 unlooted in the become antiquated, a precedent was set
Valley of the Kings. His mummified body that all free citizens had a right to protec-
was inside a coffin of gold and surrounded tion under the law.
by jewels and weapons.
Tycho. See Brahe, Tycho
Tutu, Desmond (1931-)
South African clergyman, opponent of Tydings-McDuffie Act
apartheid, and 1984 winner ofthe Nobel Act passed by the United States Con-
Prize for Peace. As secretary-general ofthe gress and signed by President Franklin
South African Council of Churches, Tutu D. Roosevelt in 1934 that laid out the
became a spokesman for the rights of black process for the independence of the
South Africans and against apartheid. He Philippines. Under its provisions, the Phil-
called for economic sanctions against the ippines became autonomous in 1935 with
government and emphasized nonviolence. an elected president and a congress, while
He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace the United States continued to handle
for his efforts. In 1985 he became bishop defense, foreign affairs, and monetary
and in 1986 archbishop of Cape Town. In matters. Full independence came on July
1996 he became archbishop emeritus. South 4, 1946.
African president Nelson Mandela ap-
pointed Tutu head ofthe Truth and Recon- Tyranny. See Tyrant
ciliation Committee to investigate human
rights abuses during apartheid. Tyrant
Greek word for the rule as monarch by a
Twelve Tables (451-450 B.C.E.) usurper in a troubled time. A tyrant could
Roman laws, originally an oral tradition, be benevolent or malevolent but ruled
codified (written down). A commission of with strong influence over an existing gov-
ten legal experts addressed the issues of re- ernment. During the civil war in Athens,
dresses for wrongs, paternal power, and Peisistratus and his son Hippias ruled as
property rights as Rome's patricians (the tyrants. Tyrants would take over a govern-
upper class) and plebeians (the common ment because of dissatisfaction, and then
people) struggled for legal rights and polit- dissatisfaction with the tyrant would lead
ical influence. The customary laws were to the downfall of tyranny.
u
such as directions provided in the de- Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, Leonid Brez-
signs of quilts that were hung on the hnev, and Mikhail Gorbachev. The USSR
front porches of houses. Harriet "Moses" attempted to compete with the United
Tubman was one of the most famous States in a nuclear arms, or atomic weap-
African Americans to provide assistance, ons, race, which by the 1980s economically
helping around 300 slaves escape. North- weakened the country. After the fall of
ern abolitionists provided minimal assis- the USSR in 1991, many ofthe republics
tance. Estimates of the number of slaves declaring themselves independent.
freed by the Underground Railroad range
from 40,000 to 100,000. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR), Fall ofthe
Union, Act of (1707) Collapse of the Soviet Union. In March
Union of the Kingdoms of England and 1985, after the deaths ofthe previous two
Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Brit- leaders within three years, the Soviet
ain during Queen Anne's reign. Since 1603 Union selected Mikhail Gorbachev to
the two countries had shared the same serve as general secretary of the Commu-
monarch, but Scotland had its own parlia- nist Party. Gorbachev was the youngest
ment, laws, a separate church (Presbyte- member of the Politburo, the chief com-
rian), and a formidable army. In forming mittee of the Communist Party. Con-
the union Scotland lost its independent vinced that the USSR was headed toward
government but maintained its separate economic ruin, Gorbachev enacted the
church and laws. However, within fifty policies of perestroika (restructuring of
years Scotland's economic and intellectual the economy) and glasnost (openness to-
growth had catapulted it into the Scottish ward discussion). In 1989 Soviet citizens
Enlightenment. The new flag of Great were allowed to voice views contrary to
Britain, the Union Jack, combined the those of Soviet Communist Party leaders.
flags of England and Scotland. Ireland was Gorbachev also allowed for the creation of
added in a separate Act of Union in 1801. the 2,250-seat National Congress of Peo-
ple's Deputies; 1,500 seats were to be filled
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics by the vote of the people. Despite Gorba-
(USSR) (1917-1991) chev's best intentions, however, he soon
Eurasian empire comprised of fifteen found the USSR on the brink of collapse.
Soviet republics, the largest of which was Reforms threw the Soviet Union into tur-
Russia, with the capital at Moscow. The moil, and in 1991 individual Soviet repub-
USSR, also known as the Soviet Union, lics began to emerge as free states. States
was the largest country in the world and, such as Latvia and Lithuania, which had
during its greatest period (1946-1991), it been seized by Joseph Stalin in 1940,
was one of the two world superpowers, demanded and received their indepen-
along with the United States. The Com- dence. On January 1,1992, the communist
munist Party ruled the USSR, and from hammer-and-sickle flag was lowered for
1946 to 1991 the United States and the the final time, officially ending the exis-
USSR were rivals and often enemies. The tence of the USSR.
USSR came into being at the Russian Rev-
olution of 1917 out of the old, tsarist United Arab Republic (1958-1971)
Russia. Some important leaders of the Attempt by Egyptian president Gamal
USSR were Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, Joseph Abdel Nasser to establish Egyptian
UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION 339
well as the capital of a duchy controlled by Nigeria. Usman dan Fodio, a Muslim
the Montefeltro family from 1444 to 1508. scholar and a teacher, began to gather a
The dukes of Urbino were patrons of art- large following, a community of believers.
ists like Piero della Francesca (who painted It became a rebellion against social and
Federigo da Montefeltro and his wife, Bat- economic injustices. In 1804 he was de-
tista Sforza, over the background of the clared an imam, and, preaching religious
central Italian principality) and literary reform, he raised millenarian hopes
figures such as Castiglione (whose setting among the people, who through a jihad
for The Book ofthe Courtier was the court formed their own state. Soon after he re-
of Guidobaldo da Montefeltro). tired from politics to teach.
Adhering to the rules for each varna was During the Middle Ages the city-state of
a religious andin early timesa legal Venice was instrumental in conquering
duty. These rules no longer have any Constantinople during the Fourth Cru-
legal recognition, but they still influence sade (1204), and Venetian merchants such
social relations and conduct in India. as Marco Polo traveled to China in the
thirteenth century. This helped Venice
Varuna into the strategic position of controlling
In the Vedic period of India (1500-900 east-west commerce. The Venetian Re-
B.C.E.), the Aryan god who ruled the sky and public (run by a senate and the Council of
water and personified authority. He later Ten) grew in commercial and political
declined in importance in Hindu religion. power, defeating Genoa in 1380 and fur-
ther securing its power as a seafaring
Vassal power. During the Renaissance Venice
In the feudal relationship, the subordinate played an important role, if lesser than
person holding lands from a superior lord. Florence's. Titian was one ofthe great Ve-
Usually the vassal would hold lands from netian artists. Once the Portuguese had
the lord and owe homage and allegiance to sailed all the way to the Far East (1498),
the lord, normally in the form of military Venice went into a decline. It gradually lost
service. A vassal might in turn be a lord much of its territory to the Turks during
to someone else who would be his vassal. the sixteenth century.
Within the feudal structure a hierarchy
of lords and vassals provided the mili- Versailles, Palace of
tary, legal, and social structure of the French palace built for Louis XIV, begun
aristocracy. in 1669. Designed by Louis Le Vau, Jules
Hardouin-Mansart, Charles Lebrun, and
Vedas Antoine Coysevox, Versailles was meant to
Most sacred and authoritative texts of draw the aristocracy to the king's palace,
Hinduism. They are the earliest Sanskrit where they could be controlled. The
scriptures, dating from as early as 1500 palace was completed in 1685. It is one of
B.C.E. There are four basic collections con- the finest examples of baroque architec-
sisting of hymns, sacrificial rites, chants, ture in France.
and occult formulas and spells. The oldest
and most revered is the Rigveda, a collec- Versailles Treaty (1919)
tion of 1,028 hymns. They provide the ear- Treaty that emerged from the Paris Peace
liest decipherable written record of the Conference between Germany and the
culture of ancient India. Allied powers at the end of World War I.
Of the Allied powers (Britain, France,
Vedic Italy, Japan, and the United States), only
Indo-Aryan (Hindu) cultural term mean- the United States refused to ratify the
ing "knowledge." The term Vedic often treaty, due to objections of the U.S. Con-
refers to the Indo-Aryan or early Indian gress. Germany signed the treaty under
philosophy that is the basis of Hinduism. protest. The Versailles Treaty's main terms
included the surrender of all German
Venice colonies; the return of Alsace-Lorraine to
Powerful Italian medieval and Renais- France; ceding lands to Belgium, Lithuania,
sance commercial city on the Adriatic Sea. Czechoslovakia, and Poland; German
344 VESALIUS, ANDREAS
reparations to Britain and France; Ger- during World War II. Northern France
man acceptance of guilt for causing the was conquered, occupied, and adminis-
war; limitation of Germany's army to tered by German forces. Southern France
100,000 men; and limitations on Ger- was allowed to maintain its own govern-
many's navy. Each of the Central powers ment at Vichy, although only as a puppet
countries received separate treaties. of Germany. Run by Marshal Philippe
Petain in collaboration with Adolf Hitler,
Vesalius, Andreas (1514-1564) a new constitution was created. Vichy
Anatomist and author of On the Fabric of France was never recognized by the Allies,
the Human Body (1543). Vesalius learned and after the Allied liberation of France
anatomy, like all anatomists of his day, in 1944 the Vichy government moved to
from the great Roman author Galen. But Germany, where it collapsed along with
Vesalius did not merely copy Galen blind- Germany in 1945.
ly; he actually performed dissections on
human bodies and questioned Galen's text. Victoria, Queen (1819-1901)
Vesalius saw that the great blood vessels Queen of Great Britain (1837-1901) and
originated from the heart, not from the liver, Empress of India (1876-). Granddaughter
as in Galen's work. Vesalius established one of George III and married to Prince Albert
of the foundation blocks of the scientific of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Victoria (Alexan-
revolutionobservation. His book was d r i a Victoria) had four sons and five
published in the same year as Nicolaus daughters with Albert who married into
Copernicus's On the Revolution ofthe Heav- several of the royal families of Europe.
enly Bodies. Together Vesalius and Coper- Victoria was related to the royal families
nicus began the movement of science by of Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece,
the use of observation and mathematics. Norway, Romania, Russia, and Sweden. As
queen she had great legislative influence
Vespucci, Amerigo (1451-1512) and worked effectively with several prime
Italian explorer in the Age of Exploration ministers, especially Viscount Melbourne
for whom America is named. Vespucci (William Lamb) and Benjamin Disraeli.
made four sailing voyages to the New She disliked intensely Prime Minister Wil-
World for Spain, and his published de- liam Gladstone. During her reign Britain
scriptions were so widely read that his reached its greatest heights of power and
name, Amerigo, was adopted for the new prosperity, with an empire doubled in
continents. Vespucci was the first to refer size upon which "the sun never set." Also
to South America as the "New World." during her reign the middle class gained
expanded voting rights and the working
Vezir/Wazir class gained worker protections. At the
Word used in Islamic, particularly Turko- 1861 death of Prince Albert, who had
Persian, contexts in reference to a high- advised Victoria immensely, Victoria with-
ranking deputy to a ruler, such as a prime drew from the public until her golden
minister, or to another member of the (1887) and diamond (1897) jubilees. She
bureaucratic or ministerial elite. died in 1901 in the sixty-fourth year
of her reign survived by forty grandchil-
Vichy dren and thirty-seven great-grandchil-
Government of France established in 1940 dren and succeeded by her eldest son,
under the authority of Nazi Germany Edward VII.
VIJAYANAGAR 345
time afterward. It prevented the Muslims Vinland for the wild grape vines, hence
from extending their rule over the south- "wine land." Leif also claimed that there
ernmost part of India. was wild grain growing there. Modern
research has discovered a Norse trade set-
Vikings tlement in this region dated to 1000 C.E.
Seafaring Scandinavian peoples who There is substantial proof of Norse settle-
raided, traded, and settled across much of ments in North America.
Europe and the North Atlantic between
the eighth and the eleventh century. Virgil (Vergil) (full name Publius
Swedes settled in what is today Russia; Vergilius) (70-19 B.C.E.)
Danes conquered lands in England and Roman poet. Famous in his own day,
France (Normandy, taken from North Virgil remains widely read today and is
men); Norwegians set up kingdoms in best remembered for the Georgics (36-29
Scotland and Ireland; Eric the Red colo- B.CE.), an instructional guide to farming,
nized Iceland and set up settlements in and The Aeneid (26-19 B.C.E.), which was
Greenland; and Leif Eiriksson set up a promoted by the emperor Augustus (Oc-
community in North America circa 1000. tavian) as a national epic glorifying the
The Vikings were seeking wealth and new Roman Empire.
land due to rapid population growth in
their homelands. Their trade went as far Virgin Mary
as Byzantium (now Istanbul) and the Mother of Jesus of Nazareth resulting
Muslim Middle East. During the tenth from a miraculous conception according
century power was consolidated into to Christianity. Jesus was conceived in
larger, more powerful kingdoms. Mary by the power ofthe Holy Spirit. Ca-
tholicism also claims for Mary perpetual
Villa, Pancho (1878-1923) virginity, immaculate conception (was born
Mexican revolutionary who fought for and lived without original sin), and assump-
labor and land reform. The struggle for tion into heaven. Worship of Mary as
reform led to taking up arms against the Mother of God became popular from the
corrupt Porfirio Diaz regime, which fa- fifth century onward. Mary has been the sub-
vored large landowners and industrialists. ject of much art, music, and literature. Her
This turned into the Mexican Revolu- humility and obedience to the message of
tion (1910-1920). Villa fought alongside God have made her a model of the Chris-
Francisco Madero (1873-1913) and Ven- tian life, particularly for women. Mary is a
ustiano Carranza (1859-1920), but in saint in the Roman Catholic Church.
1914 Villa broke from Carranza and allied
with Emiliano Zapata (1879-1919). Villa Visconti
invaded the United States in 1916 but was Italian family who controlled the duchy of
driven back into Mexico by the U.S. Army. Milan and all of Lombardy (1277-1447).
Villa helped to overthrow Carranza in The first Visconti Duke of Milan was Arch-
1920 and was assassinated in 1923. bishop Ottone Visconti (1207-1295). The
lordship became hereditary in 1349. The
Vinland Viscontis sought to centralize the power
Land, likely in Newfoundland, Canada, of the state and wanted to expand their
discovered by Leif Eiriksson around 1000 power through Tuscany and Umbria while
C.E. According to sagas, Leif named it preventing Venice from expanding in
VUH 347
mainland Italy. After the last Visconti ruler ducing plays, poems, novels, histories, and
of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, died in essays. He was considered one ofthe great-
1447 the Viscontis were succeeded by the est wits of his age. Voltaire worked for
Sforza family. Louis XV and for King Frederick of Prus-
sia. Candide shocked its audience and reli-
Vishnu gious authorities, and yet it became a best
One of the principal deities of Hinduism, seller for its humor, irreverence, and em-
regarded as the preserver ofthe world and phasis on limits and sufferingcontrary
its moral order. Vishnu is worshiped in his to the traditions ofthe Enlightenment.
various incarnations, or avatars, the most
popular being Rama and Krishna his sev- Vo Nguyen Giap (1912- )
enth and eighth incarnations, respectively. Vietnamese general and political leader.
Giap, a member of the Communist Party,
Visigoths. See Goths
led Viet Minh forces against the Japanese
Vladimir I, Saint (956-1015) and captured Hanoi in 1945. Under the
Grand Duke of Kiev (978-1015) who es- political leadership of Ho Chi Minh Giap
tablished the Eastern Orthodox Church in commanded forces against the French,
Russia. Vladimir converted to Chris- winning a decisive victory at Dien Bien
tianity, married the sister ofthe Byzantine Phu in 1954. He later used successful guer-
emperor, and brought the Eastern Ortho- rilla tactics against South Vietnamese and
dox Church to Kiev. He became the patron U.S. forces in the Vietnam War. Giap
saint of Russia. planned the Tet Offensive, which resulted
in heavy losses but proved effective in un-
Voltaire (1694-1778) dermining U.S. and South Vietnamese
French Enlightenment writer, author of morale.
Candide (1759). Voltaire (born Francois-
Marie Arouet) wrote voluminously, pro- Vuh. See Popol Vuh
w
1912, Wang studied in France until 1917, competed for power in China. Although
when he became personal assistant to Sun there was a nominal Zhou king, he ruled
until Sun's death in 1925. He formed an un- only a small territory. Eventually one of
easy truce with Chiang Kai-shek to lead the states, the Qin, unified seven major
the Guomindang. He served as president states and several minor ones into China,
ofthe Nationalist Party (1932-1938) with bringing the era of competing states to an
Chiang Kai-shek as head of the military, end. The Warring States period saw phi-
but broke with Chiang in 1938, advocating losophy and literature flourish. Among
peace with Japan and continuing the strug- the great philosophers of the period were
gle against the communists. From 1940 to Mencius, associated with Confucianism;
his death he was premier of the Japanese Zhuangzi, a major teacher of Daoism;
puppet government of China at Nanjing. and Han Feizi, the legalist thinker. The
Japanese, in reference to this period,
Wang Mang named the era 1467-1568 C.E. "The War-
Founder of the short-lived Chinese Xin ring States Period."
dynasty (9-25 C.E.). He used his position as
regent to usurp the throne of the Han Wars of Independence, Latin American
rulers, dividing the Han dynasty into the (1808-1826)
Former Han (206 B.CE.-9 C.E.) and the Movement that gained independence for
Later Han (25-220 C.E.). He attempted to Latin American countries from Spanish
implement idealistic policies based on or Portuguese control. Latin American
Confucianism, such as equally distribut- countries were governed by officials from
ing the land. These measures were impos- Spain or Portugal. Creoles, individuals
sible to enforce and turned the wealthy born in the Americas of Spanish or Portu-
landholders against Wang Mang. He was guese ancestry, resented administrative
killed in 23 C.E., but it was two more control from abroad. Inspired by the En-
years until order was restored and the Han lightenment and emboldened by Napole-
dynasty continued. onic invasions of Spain and Portugal,
Creoles such as Simon Bolivar and
Warlords
Bernardo O'Higgins took part in revolts
Chinese regional military commanders
and uprisings between 1808 and 1825
who during the years following the 1911
that brought independence to most colo-
collapse ofthe Qing dynasty took on much
nies in Latin America.
of the effective control of China. Peak
years of warlord control over China were
1916-1928. After 1928 the Guomindang Wars of Religion. See French Wars of
Religion
gradually established control over most of
China, although regional warlords often
maintained effective power over areas of Washington, George (1752-1799)
the country as subordinate commanders Commander in chief of the Continental
to the central Guomindang authority, Army during the American Revolution
especially in remote western parts of the and first U.S. president (1789-1797).
country, until the 1940s. Washington, a rich landowner in Virginia,
distinguished himself militarily by fighting
Warring States Period for the British in the French and Indian
Period of Chinese history from 403 to 221 War. The Second Continental Congress
B.C.E. when between ten and twelve states appointed him commander in chief of the
350 WATERLOO, BATTLE OF
colonial forces, both for his proven mili- widespread. By the early Middle Ages hori-
tary ability and because as a southerner he zontal and vertical millsboth undershot
could bring some of the southern states, (water flowing under the wheel to turn it)
less inclined to rebellion, into the colo- and overshot (water led through a mill-
nial cause. Delegates to the Constitutional race to the top of the wheel)existed.
Convention unanimously voted Washing- Watermills became an important source
ton to be the first president of the United of power to grind grain, full cloth, saw
States, a position he occupied for eight wood, and hammer iron.
years. Despite offers to stay in leadership
of the countryand even to become Watt, James (1736-1819)
kingWashington stepped down after his Scottish inventor of the steam engine.
two terms were up, retiring to his estate, Watts altered a Newcomen atmospheric
Mount Vernon. This established a prece- engine into the much more usable steam
dent for future presidents to avoid seeking engine by 1769. The steam engine was ini-
a third term. Washington's contributions tially used to power pumps in mines, but
as a general and as the first executive in 1782 Watts invented a rotary steam
of the United States led Americans to engine with a far wider application: ability
begin calling him "the Father of Our to turn a shaft and drive machinery. By
Country." 1800 Watt's firm had built hundreds of
steam engines. The Industrial Revolution
Waterloo, Battle of (1815) was driven by steam power.
Decisive battle ending Napoleon Bona-
parte's reign. Napoleon had been defeated Watteau, Jean-Antoine (1684-1721)
and exiled to the island of Elba in 1814, but French painter of the rococo period.
he escaped and regathered his army in Watteau broke from the baroque style of
1815. Near the Belgian town of Waterloo, his predecessors. His was a style of light
on June 18, 1815, the French forces met subject matter and bright and peaceful
the combined British, Dutch, Belgian, and settings with a touch of eighteenth-cen-
German armies commanded by the British tury frivolity but with classical elements.
general Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of One of his best-known paintings is A Pil-
Wellington. The main Prussian force un- grimage for Cythera (1717).
der Field Marshal Gebhard von Bliicher
was delayed, and the French army attacked WAVES (1942-1972)
the center ofthe British until the Prussians Program established during World War II
arrived and attacked the French flank, as a women's component of the United
allowing Wellington to advance and route States Navy. The WAVES (Women Ac-
the French. Napoleon was defeated, abdi- cepted for Volunteer Emergency Service)
cated, and was exiled to the island of Saint provided women in the navy with a more
Helena in the South Atlantic for the rest formal status than was accorded the 11,000
of his life. "yeomen (female)" who served in World
War I. Serving in noncombat positions at
Watermills shore installations primarily in the conti-
Water-powered mills, probably developed nental United States, the WAVES reached
in China or the Middle East and com- a peak strength of 86,000 in 1944. In 1972
mon in Europe in the Middle Ages. The the WAVES program was terminated as wo-
Romans had watermills, but they were not men were integrated into the regular navy.
WESTERNIZATION 351
80 percent of them were women because established in 1977 for assistance to the
women were regarded as the weaker sex poorest countries.
and so more likely to give in to the devil's
temptations. The witch craze declined as World System
people in positions of power no longer be- Concept first developed by the French
lieved that the devil would bother to work scholar Ferdinand Braudel and system-
through human agents. atized by U.S. political-social scientist
Immanuel Wallerstein. It argues that the
WoUstonecraft, Mary. See Godwin, Mary central theme of modern world history
WoUstonecraft since 1500 has been the creation of a world
economic system centered in western
Woman's Suffrage Europe. Most political, cultural, and eco-
The right of women to participate in polit- nomic developments have been shaped by
ical life that inspired movements in major this world system. It is the central story of
Western and some non-Western nations history, along with shifts in the core, sem-
in the nineteenth and early twentieth cen- iperiphery, and periphery. Some world
turies. Encouraged by the ideals of equality historians have modified it by seeing
and democracy, woman's suffrage was smaller "world-systems" existing before
advocated as early as the late eighteenth 1500, such as an Islamic world trading/
century by the British writer Mary WoU- cultural/political system between 1000
stonecraft Godwin. Women gained the and 1500. One scholar, Andre Frank,
right to vote at the national level first in traces world systems back 5,000 years. A
New Zealand, in 1893, but it was only after central theme of world history, some
World War I that most Western nations historians maintain, is the creation and
granted women suffrage, including Britain impact of the world system or world
in 1918, Germany in 1919, the United systems.
States in 1920, and France in 1944. At the
start ofthe twenty-first century women in World War I
some Muslim countries, such as Saudi War between the Allied forces (France,
Arabia, still did not have the right to take Britain, Russia, Japan, Serbia, and Italy)
part in politics. and the Central powers (Germany,
Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire,
World Bank and Bulgaria). It began in the summer of
Institution and agency of the United Na- 1914 and concluded after an Allied victory
tions based in Washington DC that was with an armistice on November 11, 1918,
created after the Bretton Woods Confer- and the VersaiUes Treaty in 1919, which
ence in 1944 to promote international eco- resulted from the Paris Peace Confer-
nomic prosperity and stability. It consists ence. A number of countries joined the
of the International Bank for Recon- Allies later in the war, most importantly
struction and Development (IBRD), es- the United States in 1917. The war was
tablished in 1945, and the International sparked by nationalist rivalries in the
Development Association, established in Balkans. The fundamental causes of the
1960. Member nations contribute money conflict include colonial and nationalist
to the World Bank, which then lends it to rivalries among the European powers and
developing countries to aid in economic fear of Germany's growing military might
development projects. A special fund was and imperialist ambitions. The war saw
WRIGHT, WILBUR AND ORVILLE 355
Wudi. See Han Wudi (Wu-ti) (Emperor reigns of two sons. In 690 she took the
Wu) unprecedented step of seizing control of
the throne and established a short-lived
Wu Zhao (Wu Chao) (c. 627-705) Zhou dynasty ruling as emperor (not
Second wife of Tang emperor Gaozong empress). Later Chinese historians con-
(r. 650-683) and China's only woman to demned her as a wicked tyrant and an ex-
found a dynasty. An imperial concubine, ample of the danger of women in power.
she became the power behind the throne Modern scholars see her as an able if
late in her husband's reign and under the ruthless ruler.
x
region was the home to thriving oasis against them in the west. Eventually the
communities that served as posts along Xiongnu confederacy split and became
the Silk Road. In the mid-eighteenth less of a threat to China. In the fourth cen-
century it was brought under Chinese tury other Central Asian peoples overran
control by the Qing dynasty. With a ma- northern China.
jority non-Chinese, mostly Uighur- and See also Great Wall
other Turkic-speaking Muslim popula-
tion, Xingjiang was the source of many re- Xuanzang (Hsuan-tsang) (602-664)
bellions in the nineteenth century and fell Chinese Buddhist scholar and pilgrim
under the influence of the Soviet Union famous for his travel and study in India.
in the second quarter ofthe twentieth cen- In 629 Xuanzang journeyed to India via
tury until the Communists consolidated Central Asia and studied at the famous
their control over it in 1950. monastery of Nalanda in the eastern
Gangetic Plain. While in India he attracted
many Buddhist followers and the patron-
Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu) age of the Indian ruler Harsha. Returning
The first nomadic confederation to orga- to China in 645, he brought back many
nize the tribes ofthe steppe on a large scale Buddhist texts. His Records ofthe Western
to confront China. They were a Central Region ofthe Great Tang Dynasty provides
Asian nomadic group that posed a military important information on India, and his
threat to the states of China from the fifth life was the basis of the popular Chinese
century B.C.E. to the fifth century C.E. The novel Journey to the West.
unifier ofthe Xiongnu was Maodun (209
B.CE.). They became increasingly well or- Xunzi (Hsun-tzu) (c. 300-237 B.C.E.)
ganized, prompting the states of northern Important Chinese philosopher noted
China to erected a system of wall fortifica- for his opposition to the Confucian
tions. The emperor Han Wudi (r. 140- and Mencian idea that human nature is
87 B.C.E.) launched a vigorous campaign fundamentally good. Xunzi taught that
against them that included expanding Chi- education and strict rules of order and
nese control into Manchuria and northern propriety are needed to control human
Korea to outflank them in the east, and emotions that lead to immoral behavior.
expeditions to Turkestan to find allies His ideas had some influence on legalism.
y
code of Confucianist ethical norms. The The Yangzi and its tributaries drain China's
status was legally abolished after 1894, but most agriculturally productive area that
yangban families continued to serve as since the twelfth century has been the
Korea's elite until the social upheavals that country's principal granary. It is naviga-
followed World War II. ble for roughly 1,700 miles (2,700 km)
facilitating commerce throughout the
Yang Guifei (Yang Kuei-fei) region. During the Southern Song, the
Concubine ofthe Tang emperor Xuanzong Ming, and the Qing dynasties, the lower
(r. 712-756) and notorious Chinese beauty Yangzi became the most prosperous region
and political schemer. She is said to have ofthe country and was home to many of its
used the emperor's infatuation with her to scholars, artists, and political leaders. In
secure a position for her brother Yang recent years the government of China has
Guozhong as his chief minister and attempted to control the river's flooding
to help an adventurer of Turkic origin, and harness its energy for electricity by
An Lushan, become influential at court. building the controversial Three Gorges
Xuanzong is said to have spent so much Dam, one of the largest construction
time with her that he neglected his duties, projects ever attempted.
endangering the empire. An Lushan led a
revolt in 755, forcing the emperor and his Yathrib
court to flee. The members of the court City in Arabia later known as Medina.
forced the emperor to execute Yang and After Muhammad's escape to Yathrib
her brother. The love affair between Yang from Mecca (622), the city became known
Guifei and the emperor has long been a as Medina ("Luminous City") and became
popular subject of Chinese literature and one of Islam's two holiest cities, along
is used as a cautionary tale by Chinese with Mecca.
moralists on the danger of women in posi-
tions of power. Yayoi (c. 250 B.CE.-250 C.E.)
Prehistoric culture of Japan subsequent to
Yangshao Culture (c. 4500-3000 B.C.E.) the Jomon culture. Some scholars believe
Neolithic culture in the middle YeUow the Yayoi people were newcomers into the
River valley named for a site in northern Japanese archipelago, perhaps from Korea.
Henan province in China. Yangshao was Their culture arose on the southern
based on agriculture, mainly millet, and Japanese island of Kyushu near the Korea
produced red burnished pottery often Strait and spread northeastward toward
painted with black designs. It later evolved the Kanto Plain. The Yayoi culture was
into the Longshan culture, the latter an- based on wet-paddy rice cultivation (of
cestral to Shang, China's earliest civili- Chinese origin), but the people continued
zation. to hunt and collect seafood as the Jomon
culture did.
Yangzi River (Yangtze River or Chang
Jiang) YeUow River (Huang He)
River flowing 3,915 miles (6,300 km) that River flowing approximately 2,900 miles
rises in the Kunlun Mountains of Tibet (4,700 km) across China into the Yel-
and flows across south-central China to low Sea. The Yellow River, which looks
the East China Sea. It is the third-longest yellow because of loess silt in the water,
river in the world and the longest in China. and its tributaries the Wei, the Fen, and
YONGLE 361
the Wuding, form the heartland of Chinese king of the Koryo state and renamed the
civilization, with the first Chinese states state Choson after an ancient Korean
having emerged there. The river is subject state. He abdicated after six years on the
to frequent floods, earning it the nickname throne in favor of one of his sons.
"China's sorrow." Since the first millen-
nium B.CE. Chinese governments have at- Yi Sun-sin (1545-1597)
tempted to control the river through dikes Korean admiral and national hero who
and other hydraulic works but have never fought the Japanese during the Hideyoshi
been entirely successful. The river has invasions (1592-1598). While the Korean
changed its course twenty-six times in the court remained largely unprepared, Yi, as
last 3,000 years. commander ofthe navy in the southwest-
ern Cholla province, began building a
Yi Dynasty. See Choson fleet when rumors of a planned Japanese
invasion reached Korea. He implemented a
Yin-Yang (literally "moon-sun") number of military innovations, the most
Opposite but complementary principles famous of which was the "turtle boat," the
that together make up the basic elements world's first iron-clad ship. Mounted with
of life according to Chinese philosophy. swiveling cannons, the turtle boats were
In the third century B.C.E. yin-yang theory highly effective in resisting Japanese cannon
became a distinctive school of thought, fire while ramming and destroying enemy
but later its ideas were absorbed by ships. Yi's naval successes hindered Japan's
other schools of thought and became ability to reinforce and supply its land
part ofthe Chinese worldview. Yin is dark, forces, contributing to the war's stalemate
passive, and female, and yang is bright, ac- and the eventual Japanese withdrawal
tive, and male; yin represents earth and from the peninsula. Yi was killed in battle
yang, heaven. The view of the world as during the last year of the war.
consisting of compatible and necessarily
complementary opposites, each contain- Yoga
ing a little of the other, contrasts with One ofthe six orthodox schools of Hindu-
the sharper dualism that characterizes ism best known for its physical exercise.
much of Western and Middle Eastern The philosophy of yoga is expressed in its
cosmology. classic text the Yoga-sutra, by Patanjali
(believed to have lived in the second cen-
YiSong-gye (1335-1392) tury B.C.E.). The physical practices of yoga,
General who established the Yi dynasty of ancient origins, are intended to achieve
that ruled Korea from 1392 to 1910, spiritual liberationa goal of all Hindus.
among the longest-ruling dynasties in In the modern era yoga has been practiced
world history. Yi, who came from the all over the world.
northeast frontier region and may have
been of partly Manchurian tribal origin, Yongle (Yung-le) (1359-1424)
was supported by a group of Neo- Ming emperor of China (1402-1424)
Confucianist reformers who wanted to re- whose vigorous rule strengthened and ex-
invigorate the Korean state and implement tended the Chinese empire. Yongle is the
sweeping social reforms in accordance to name for his reign, and his own name was
Zhu Xi's interpretation of Confucianism. Zhu Di. He was the son of the first Ming
With their help Yi deposed the last Wang ruler, the Hongwu emperor, and was a
362 YONGZHENG
capable general in the Ming army. After British formally recognized America as an
his father's death, the Yongle emperor independent nation in 1783.
used his military power to usurp the
throne from his nephew after three years Yoruba
of civil war. He sponsored the voyages of People of southwestern Nigeria, Benin,
Zheng He to Southeast Asia and the Indian and northern Togo. The Yoruba were orig-
Ocean, brought Japan into the tributary inally from the Oyo, but by the nineteenth
system, and launched campaigns in century came to include numerous dis-
Annam (Vietnam) and in the Mongolian tinct groups all of whom are descended
steppe. Concerned about new threats by from earlier kingdoms of that region. The
the Mongol Empire, he moved the capital Yoruba are urban people but with an ag-
from Nanjing to Beijing in 1421 and re- ricultural economy.
stored the Grand Canal to supply it. This Yosano Akiko (1878-1942)
northward orientation of China resulted Japanese poet, feminist, activist, and critic.
in a loss of interest in the southern voyages Best known for passionately romantic
of Zheng He, which were also deemed verse, she wrote literary criticism for the
too expensive. Seito feminist journal. She and her hus-
band, Yosano Tekkan, also a poet, pub-
Yongzheng (1678-1735) lished the literary journal Myojo, which
Chinese imperial name (r. 1723-1735) of introduced a number of poets of the new
the second emperor of the Qing dynasty. romantic movement to the literary public.
The first three Qing emperors, includ- A prominent pacifist and feminist, Yosano
ing Yongzheng, saw the Chinese empire spoke out against the second Sino-Japanese
reach great power. The fourth son, named War and the growing nationalistic fervor
Yinzhen, of emperor Kangxi (r. 1662- ofthe times. She later founded a women's
1722), Yongzheng's administrative re- college, the Bunka Gakuin.
forms enhanced the revenue of the state.
He centralized control of the government Yoshida, Shigeru (1878-1967)
by creating the Grand Council, withfiveor Post-World War II Japanese political
six members directly answerable to him, leader and prime minister (1946-1947,
thus involving the emperor in the daily ad- 1948-1954) whose energetic leadership
ministration of government. earned him the epithet "Wan Man [One-
Man] Yoshida." A diplomat with pro-
Yorktown British and pro-American sentiments, he
Site ofthe besiegement and final surrender was distrusted by the militarists who dom-
of British troops to American and French inated Japan in the 1930s and early 1940s.
forces at the end ofthe American Revolu- After Japan's defeat he became the chief
tion. As September 1781 drew to a close, architect of the postwar political system
the British army under Charles CornwaUis that emphasized supporting U.S. foreign po-
found itself trapped between combined licy, minimizing military expenditures,
forces of American and French troops by and concentrating on economic growth.
land and French warships by sea. Cornwal- He was staunchly anticommunist and pur-
lis requested relief from the British navy, sued conservative, probusiness policies
which arrived one week too late, on Octo- that would shape Japan's course of politi-
ber 26, 1781. Cornwallis had surrendered cal and economic development for the
to the colonials on October 19, 1781. The next several decades.
YUGOSLAVIA 363
Later identified with the Roman god Jupi- He went to Taiwan when the Guomindang
ter, Zeus was the offspring of Cronus and regime fled there in 1949.
Rhea, who devoured all their children
except Zeus, who then overthrew Cronus. Zheng He (Cheng Ho) (1371-1433)
Zeus mated with countless goddesses and Chinese eunuch admiral of Muslim back-
mortal women and produced legions of ground who led seven maritime expedi-
offspring. tions to Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and
the east coast of Africa (1405-1407, 1407-
Zhang Qian (Chang Ch'ien) 1409, 1409-1411, 1413-1415, 1417-1419,
(d. 114 B.C.E.) 1421-1422, 1431-1433). The purpose of
Chinese diplomat and explorer who these voyages is not clear, but they were
helped to establish contact between the probably part of the Ming dynasty's at-
Han dynasty and western Eurasia. Sent by tempt to extend its influence and protect
emperor Han Wudi in 138 B.C.E. to contact sea-lanes in Southeast Asia from pirates.
the Indo-European-speaking Yuezhi tribal The expeditions were huge; the first had
peoples in Central Asia, he was captured 28,000 men in more than 300 ships. Some
by the Xiongnu, who detained him for ten of Zheng He's ships were 400 feet (122 m)
years. During that time Zhang Qian mar- long (Christopher Columbus's Santa
ried and had children before escaping to Maria measured 60 feet). Zheng He's ex-
proceed westward again on his mission. peditions established Chinese naval su-
He failed to convince the Yuezhi to unite premacy in the South China Sea and the
in an alliance against the Xiongnu. On his Indian Ocean and displayed China's poten-
return to China he was captured again by tial to create an overseas empire. The expe-
the Xiongnu and detained for another ditions ran into opposition from members
year. He made it back to China around 125 of court who found them too costly, and
B.C.E. In a second trip (118-115 B.C.E.), they were discontinued. Zheng He fell out
he attempted to forge an alliance with of favor, was banished, and nearly all his
the Wusun but also failed. His deputy trav- documents were destroyed. China by the
eled farther, to what is now Uzbekistan 1440s had ended most oceangoing trips.
and Afghanistan. Zhang's expeditions
promoted greater knowledge about the Zhou (Chou) (c. 1045-256 B.C.E.)
West in China and helped to establish the Period in which the Zhou dynasty ruled at
Silk Roads. least nominally over most of northern and,
later, central China. The Zhou were a war-
Zhang Xueliang (Chang Hsiieh-liang) like people from the Wei Valley who con-
(1898-2001) quered Shang and established a new state
Chinese warlord, son of Chang Tso-lin, under King Wu and his brother, the
whom he succeeded after the latter was as- Duke of Zhou. The latter was honored by
sassinated by Japan in 1928. In 1936 he later Chinese as a great sage. The Zhou es-
kidnapped his nominal leader, Chiang tablished a feudal system of government.
Kai-shek, at Xi'an to compel cooperation After suffering defeat by a nomadic tribe
between the Guomindang and the com- in 771 B.C.E. the Zhou moved their capital
munists against Japan. Zhang then sur- from the Wei Valley, in northwestern
rendered to Chiang and was tried and China, to the more eastern city of Luoyang.
sentenced for his part in the affair; he was The Zhou gradually lost control over most
pardoned but kept in custody until 1962. of China, but rulers of various states gave
368 ZHOU ENLAI
the dynasty nominal allegiance until the the basis for the Chinese civil service ex-
Zhou were destroyed by Qin in 256 B.C.E. aminations. He also wrote a handbook on
The Zhou period saw the emergence ofthe the rituals and ceremonies associated with
great schools of ancient philosophy in- marriage that influenced marital customs
cluding Confucianism, Daoism, and legal- in China and Korea. Zhu's interlinear
ism. Conventionally, the period is divided commentaries to the Confucian classics
into the Western Zhou (1045-771) and have been included in most editions since
Eastern Zhou (771-256). late imperial China.
Some Web sites listed here are for world history organizations. Some are teaching sites, and
some provide vast documentation. All offer useful information and links to other sites. Just
about every state in the United States has a Web site with information on specific state
education requirements.
Every specialty has a multitude of Web sites. Many are good and informative, but beware
of those produced by nonexperts. Links on reputable sites will usually take you to other
reputable sites.
Stearns, Peter N., Michael Adas, Marc Jason Gilbert, and Stuart Schwartz. World Civilizations: The
Global Experience. New York: Longman, 2003.
Edward III, 107 100; Freemasonry, 122; Feltre, Vittorino de, 116
Edwards, Jonathan, 135 French Revolution, 122; Feminist movement, 116-17
Egypt, 22-23, 28, 86, 293, Locke, 201; Ferdinand of Aragon, 81,
339. See also Egyptian modernization, 225; 117, 169, 176, 313
civilization natural law, 235; Fermi, Enrico, 29
Egyptian civilization, 107-8, philosophes, 262; Fertile Crescent, 117
117, 193-94 Romanticism versus, 288 Feudalism, 117, 191, 211,
Eightfold Path, 108, 223 Enuma Elish, 111 226
Einstein, Albert, 29, 108, Epicurus, 111 Ficino, Marsilio, 117-18,
216, 243 Equiano, Olaudah, 1, 111-12 263, 282
Eiriksson, Leif, 108, 346 Erasmus, Desiderius, 112, Fief, 118, 191, 211
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 55, 158, 225 Filial piety, 118
58, 77, 104, 108-9, 240 Erech. See Uruk Firearms. See Guns
Ejidos, 109 Ericsson, Leif. See Eiriksson, Five Dynasties, 118
Eleanor of Aquitaine, 109, Leif Five Nations. See Iroquois;
149 Essay Concerning Human Iroquois, League of
Electric light, 107 Understanding. See Locke, Five Pillars of Islam. See
Electromagnetism, 216 John Islam
El Greco, 109, 211 Essenes, 112 Flanders, 118
Elizabeth I, 109-10, 215, Estates General, 112, 122, Floating World (Ukiyo),
279, 313 234 118-19
Eta class, 112
Ellora, Rock Temples of, 110 Florence, 56-57, 119, 217,
Etruscans, 13, 112-13
E-maki, 110 282
Eugene of Savoy, 113
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 110 Florentine Council of Ten,
Eunuch, 113
Emile. See Rousseau, Jean- 119
Euphrates River, 113
Jacques Flying Tigers, 119
Euripides, 101, 113
Empress Dowager (Ci Xi), Fontenelle, Bernard le
Eurocentrism, 113-14
110, 159, 363 Bovier, Sieur de, 119
European Community (EC),
Encomienda, 110, 195, 282 Foot binding, 119, 276
114
Engels, Friedrich, 81, 214 Forbidden City, 43, 162
European Economic
England. See Great Britain; Ford, Gerald R., 59
Community (EEC), 43,
terms beginning with Ford, Henry, 27, 32
97, 114
Anglo- Four Modernizations, 98,
European Union (EU), 43,
English Calvinists. See 119-20
114
Calvinism; Pilgrims; Evolution, 95 Four Noble Truths, 108, 120
Puritans Exodus. See Book of Exodus Fragonard, Jean-Honore, 40
English Civil War (1642- Expressionism, 114 France: Battle of Agincourt,
1649), 71, 110-11, 201, Eyck, Jan van, 114 7; Battle of Crecy, 89;
257, 274, 290 Burgundy, 58; Grand
English Peasants' Revolt, 111 Falklands War (1982), 115, Empire, 134-35; Hundred
Enigma, 111, 337 327 Years War, 159; Jacquerie,
Enlightenment, 111; Fan Kuan, 115 173; Parlement, 256-57.
American Revolution, 15; Fanon, Frantz, 115 See also French
Augustan Age, 30; Fascism, 115, 231, 236 Revolution
Declaration of Fashoda, 115-16 Francesca, Piero della, 120
Independence, 96; Fatimid Caliphate, 116 Franciscans (Friars Minor or
Declaration of the Rights Favelas, 116 Grey Friars), 120, 166
of Man and Citizen, 97; Faxian (Fa-hsien), 116 Francis Joseph (Franz Josef),
Diderot's Encyclopedia, Fazenda, 116 32, 120
INDEX 383
Lords, 157; Liberal Party, Gunboat diplomacy, 139, Hapsburg. See Habsburg
199; New Model Army, 183 Harappa, 144
238-39; Parliament, 257. Gunboats, 139 Harappan civilization, 1 4 4 -
See also United Kingdom Gunpowder, 139, 191 45, 164
of Great Britain and Gunpowder Empire, 139 Hara Takeshi (Hara Kei),
Northern Ireland Guns, 139 145
Great Depression. See Guo (Kuo), 139-40 Harem, 113, 145
Depression, Great Guomindang (Kuomintang), Hargreaves, James, 145
Great Exhibition of 1851, 9, 43, 72, 73, 140, 201, 212, Harrison, John, 201
91, 135 283, 321, 349, 357, 366, Harsha, 145
Great Fear, 135 367 Harun al-Rashid, 145
Great Leap Forward, 98, Gupta Empire, 140 Harvard University, 145-46
135, 212 Gustavus II (Adolphus), 140, Harvey, William, 146
Great Potato Famine. See 328, 348 Hashimite, 146
Potato Famine Gutenberg, Johannes, 140, Hastings, Battle of (1066),
Great Proletarian Cultural 272 146
Revolution, 126-27, 136, Gutenberg Bible, 140 Hatshepsut, 146
176, 199, 200, 212, 280 Hattusha, 146
Great Pyramids of Giza. See Habsburg, 31-32, 141, 242,
Hausa States, 146-47
Pyramids of Giza 284, 313, 328, 339
Hawkins, Sir John, 147, 313
Great Schism, 33, 88, 136, Hacienda, 141
Haydn, Franz Joseph, 42,
214, 306, 340 Hadith, 141
147
Great Wall, 136, 223 Hadrian, 87, 141, 332
Heavenly Mountains. See
Great War. See World War I Hadrian's Wall, 31, 141-42
Tianshan
Great Zimbabwe, 136-37 Hagia Sophia, 142
Hebrew Covenant, 147
Greece, Archaic, 137 Haiku, 41, 142
Hebrews, Early, 117, 147,
Greece, Classical, 137 Haile Selassie. See Selassie,
359
Greece, Dark Ages, 137 Haile
Haiti, 332 Hebrew Temple, 147-48,
Greece, Hellenistic, 137, 260
Hajj, 142 179, 236, 261, 263, 293
Greece, Mycenaean, 137
Hajra. See Hijra Hegel, Georg Wilhelm
Greek and Persian Wars. See
Hamilton, Alexander, 38, Friedrich, 148
Persian Wars; Plataea,
142 Hegira. See Hijra
Battle of; Salamis,
Hammurabi, 16, 142 Heian Period, 148
Battle of
Hammurabi, Code of, 16, Heisenberg, Werner, 148
Greek Orthodox Church. See
Eastern Orthodox Church 142 Helen of Troy, 6
Gregory I, "the Great," 138 Han, 143 Hellenic philosophy, 33, 148
Gregory VII, 166 Handel, George Frederick, Hellenistic Greece. See
Gregory IX, 166 143 Greece, Hellenistic
Gregory XIII, 180 Han Feizi (Han Fei-tzu), Helots, 148
Gregory of Tours, 137-38 143, 197 Henry II, 42, 149
Grosz, George, 114 Han Gaozu (Kao-tsu), 143 Henry IV, 53, 149, 234
Guerrilla, 138, 212, 215, 221, Han'gul, 143 Henry VIII, 67, 78, 88, 149,
252, 259, 296, 300, 345, Hangzhou, 143 228
366 Hannibal, 143, 273 Henry, Patrick, 149
Guevara, Ernesto "Che," 138 Hanoi, 144 Henry, Prince, "the
Guild, 138 Hanoverians, 144 Navigator," 7, 149
Guillotine, 138 Hanseatic League (Hansa), Heresy, 149, 165, 166
Gulf War. See Iraq War 144 Herod, 147
(1991) Han Wudi, 144 Herodotus, 149-50
INDEX 385
Jurchen, 180, 210 Khmer Rouge, 187-88, 267 Land of the Morning Calm,
Justinian, 60, 87, 180-81 Khoisan, 188 195
Justinian Law. See Corpus Khomeini, Ayatollah Laozi (Lao-tzu), 33, 94, 195
Juris Civilis Ruhollah, 188, 229 Las Casas, Bartolome de,
Khrushchev, Nikita, 45, 5 4 - 195, 283, 290
Ka'aba, 182 55, 91, 188, 338 Latifundia, 195-96
Kabir, 182 Khubilai Khan, 154, 188-89, Latin American Wars of
Kaempfer, Engelbert, 182 227, 267, 363 Independence. See Wars
Kahlo, Frida, 321 Khyber Pass, 189 of Independence, Latin
Kaifeng, 182 Kiev, 189 American
Kailasantha, 182 Kim Dae Jung, 189 Latitude, 196, 201, 273
Kalidasa, 78, 182 Kimg Jong II, 189-90 Latium, 196
Kamakura, 37, 182-83 Kim II Sung, 189, 192 League of Arab States. See
Kamasutra, 183 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 77, Arab League
Kami, 183, 304 190, 228, 256 League of Iroquois. See
Kamikaze, 183 Kipchak, 190 Iroquois, League of
Kana (Katakana), 183 Kirghiz, 190-91 League of Nations, 196, 339,
Kanagawa, Treaty of, 183-84 Kita Ikki, 191 353
Kanchipuram, 184 Klee, Paul, 321 Leakey, Louis and Mary, 196
Kandinsky, Wassily, 114 Knight, 191 Lebensraum, 196-97
Kangxi (K'ang-hsi), 184, 275 Knights Hospitaller, 74 Lee Kuan Yew, 197, 308
Kang Youwei (K'ang Knights Templar, 74 Legalism, 143, 197, 247, 358,
Yu-wei), 159, 184, 198 Knossus Culture. See
368
Kanishka, 184 Minoan civilization Legions, 197
Kant, Immanuel, 111, 184 Koguryo, 191
Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 50,
Kashmir, 184-85 Kohl, Helmut, 129
81, 197, 291, 315, 338
Kaunda, Kenneth, 185 Kokutai, 191
Leo I, Saint, 197-98
Kautilya, 185 Kongo, 83, 191
Kemal, Mustafa. See Atatiirk, Leo IX, Saint, 198
Konoye Fumimaro, 191-92
Kemal Leonardo da Vince. See Da
Koran. See Quran
Kempis, Thomas a, 185 Vinci, Leonardo
Korean War (1950-1953),
Kennedy, John F., 12, 25, 41, Lepanto, Battle of (1571),
81, 192, 199, 205, 254,
67, 77, 91, 125, 178, 185, 198
334
186 Lepidus, Marcus, 75
Koryo, 192
Kennedy, Robert F., 178, Leviathan. See Hobbes,
Kosygin, Aleksey, 55
185-86 Thomas
Kowtow (Ketou), 192
Kent State, 186 Lewis and Clark expedition,
Koxinga, 192-93
Kenya, 186, 215-16 175, 198, 202
Krupp, Alfred, 193
Kenyatta, Jomo, 186 Lexington, Battle of (1775),
Kshatriya, 193
Kepler, Johannes, 86, 125, 198
Kublai Khan. See Khubilai
186, 298 Liang Chi-chao, 198
Khan
Kerry, John, 60 Ku Klux Klan (KKK), 193 Liberalism, 198-99
Keynes, John Maynard, 166, Kuo. See Guo Liberal Party, 199
186 Kush, 193-94 Li Dazhao, 73
KGB, 186-87 Kushan kingdom, 194 Li Hongzhang (Li Hung-
Khajuraho, 187 Kyoto, 194 chang), 199
Khayyam, Omar, 290 Kyushu, 194 Limpopo River, 199
Khazars, 187 Lin Biao (Lin Piao), 199,
Khilafat Movement, 187 Laissez-faire, 195 259
Khitan people, 187, 210 Lamaism, 195, 329 Lincoln, Abraham, 51, 199
388 INDEX
Medieval Optimum, 217 Mississippian culture, 224 Muhammad, 2, 11, 62, 64,
Medina, 217, 360 Missouri Compromise, 224 102, 146, 151, 169, 182,
Megasthenes, 218 Mita, 224 217-18, 229, 277
Mehmet II, 218, 330 Mithraism, 224 Muhammad I Askia, 229
Meiji Constitution, 218 Mixtec, 224 Muhammad Reza Shah
Meiji Japan, 218 Mobutu, Sese Seko, 83-84, Pahlavi, 229-30
Meiji Restoration, 60, 2 1 8 - 225 Mukden Incident, 230
19, 325 Mochica, 225 Mumbai. See Bombay
Mekong River, 219 Moctezuma II, 88, 225, 276, Munich "Beer Hall" Putsch,
Menander, 219 325, 326 230
Mencius, 33, 219 Modern Devotion Munich Pact, 70, 93, 230,
Menelik II, 219 movement, 225 318
Menes, 219 Modernization, 225 Muong, 230
Menkaure, 219 Moguls. See Mughals Murasaki Shikibu, 124, 128,
Mennonites, 220 Mohammed. See 230
Mercantilism, 220 Muhammad Muromachi Period. See
Meroe, 220 Mohenjo-Daro, 225-26 Ashikaga
Merovingians, 220 Moliere, Jean-Baptiste, 226 Muslim, 231, 249, 274. See
Mesa Verde, 220 Molly Maguires, 226 also Islam
Mesoamerica, 220-21 Mombasa, 226 Muslim Brotherhood, 170,
Mesopotamia, 113, 221, 329 Mon, 226 231
Messiah. See Handel, George Monasteries and convents, Muslim League, 177, 231
43, 79, 226, 298-99, 326 Mussolini, Benito, 231
Frederick
Monet, Claude, 163 Mutapa. See Mwenemutapa
Mestizos, 221
Mongol Empire, 226-27, Mutsu Munemitsu, 231
Metamorphoses. See Ovid
363 Mwenemutapa (Mutapa),
Methodism, 221, 351
Mongols, 139, 154, 190, 192, 231-32
Metternich, Prince of, 221
195, 223, 267 Myanmar. See Burma
Mexican Revolution, 65, 141,
Monks, 227 Mycenaean. See Greece,
206, 221, 346, 366
Monotheism, 2, 227 Mycenaean
Mexico, 9, 65, 109, 150,
Monroe, James, 227 Mythology, 232
178-79, 271
Monroe Doctrine, 3, 227-28,
Mfecane, 221-22 Nabataea, 233
289
Michelangelo, 119, 151, 171, Nadir Shah, 233
Monte Alban, 228
180, 222, 282, 294, 309 NAFTA. See North
Montesquieu, Charles-Louis
Middle Ages, 222 de Secondat, 111, 119, American Free Trade
Middle East, 222 228, 262 Agreement
Middle Kingdom, 222-23 Montezuma. See Nagasaki, 233
Middle Path, 223 Moctezuma II Nanjing, Treaty of (1842),
Milan, Edict of, 223, 327 Montgomery, Alabama, 228 233, 333
Mill, John Stuart, 199 Montgomery, Bernard Nanking, Rape of, 234
Mills: water-, 350; wind-, Law, 9 Nantes, Edict of, 123, 149,
353 More, Sir Thomas, 149, 228 158, 202, 234
Milton, John, 223 Mormons, 228 Napoleon Bonaparte, 42, 85,
Minamoto Yoritomo, 183, Morse, Samuel F. B., 228 122-23, 134-35, 155, 202,
223 Mozambique, 205-6 210, 234, 289, 299, 327,
Ming, 193, 223 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 332, 345, 350
Ming Hongwu. See Hongwu 228-29 Nasser, Gamel Abdel, 28,
Minoan civilization, 224 Mughals (Moguls), 31, 35, 231, 234, 254, 293, 318,
Miro, Joan, 321 229 338
390 INDEX
National Assembly, 112, 122, Nero, 237-38 Notre Dame Cathedral, 243
234 Nevsky, Alexander, Saint, Nubia, 243
National Association for the 238, 291 Nuclear disarmament, 243
Advancement of Colored New imperialism, 238 Niirnberg Trials, 243, 315
People (NAACP), 103-4 Ne Win, U, 238 Nyerere, Julius, 25-26,
Nationalism, 234-35; Arab, New Model Army, 238-39, 243-44
23, 234, 253-54; 290
Argentine, 260; Chinese, New Testament. See Bible OAS. See Organization of
216; Congress of Vienna, Newton, Huey P., 48 American States
345; European, 32; Newton, Isaac, 86, 186, 239, OAU (Organization of
Hindu, 231; Indonesian, 298 African Unity), 5, 6, 245,
320; Irish, 168, 308, 363; Newton, John, 1 253
Japanese, 191, 325; Ngyuyen Van Thieu, 239 Oaxaca, 245
Octavian, Julius Caesar, 3, 4,
Mexican, 65; Muslim, Nicholas II, 50, 239, 291
Nigeria, 34 20, 57, 62, 75, 78, 196,
187; Ottoman Empire
245, 250, 287, 288
and, 249; Philippine, 285; Nightingale, Florence, 89
October Revolution. See
Turkish, 363; World War Nile Valley, 239
Russian Revolution
I, 354 Ninety-five Theses, 164, 203,
(October Revolution)
National Organization for 239-40
(1917)
Women (NOW), 117 Ninevah, 240
October War. See Arab-
Nation-state, 235 Nirvana, 120, 240
Israeli War, 1973
Native Americans. See Nixon, Richard M., 59, 185,
Oda Nobunaga, 245
Amerindians 186, 240, 295
Odyssey, 4, 155, 245-46
NATO. See North Atlantic Nkrumah, Kwame, 203, 240
Oedipus the King. See
Treaty Organization No, 240-41, 366
Sophocles
Natural law, 235 Nobel, Alfred Bernhard, 241
O'Higgins, Bernardo, 246,
Navajo, 235 Nobel Prize, 241
296, 349
Navarre, Henry of. See Nobilis, 241, 257, 266
Oil crisis, 246
Henry IV Nobility, 241 Okubo Toshimichi, 246
Nazca, 235-36 Nok culture, 241 Okuma Shigenobu, 171, 246
Nazi, 20, 26, 51, 96, 196, Nome, 241 Old Testament. See Bible
230, 236, 243, 344, 351. Norman Conquest, 146, Olmec civilization, 247
See also Hitler, Adolf 241-42, 242 Olympic Games, 247
Nebuchadnezzar II, 35, 236 Normandy Campaign One Hundred Schools, 197,
Negritude, 236, 300 (1944), 242 247
Nehru, Jawaharlal, 84, 126, Normans, 18, 242 Onin War (1467-1477), 247
236 Norsemen. See Normans; OPEC (Organization of
Neo-Confucianism, 236-37, Vikings Petroleum Exporting
368 North American Free Trade Countries), 246, 247
Neoliberalism, 237, 366 Agreement (NAFTA), Opium War (1839-1842),
Neolithic Age, 237 237, 242 64, 233, 247-48, 333
Neolithic agricultural North Atlantic Treaty Optimates, 248
revolution. See Organization (NATO), Oracles, 248
Agricultural revolution, 97, 242, 334 Organization of African
Neolithic Northern Renaissance, 242 Unity. See OAU
Neoplatonism, 118, 122, Northmen. See Normans; (Organization of African
237, 263, 266 Vikings Unity)
Nerchinsk, Treaty of (1689), Northumbria. See Anglo- Organization of American
237 Saxon England States (OAS), 248
INDEX 391
indulgences, 164; Luther, Rizal, Jose, 285 84-85; decline, 288; Gaul,
203; Ninety-five Theses, Robert I, the Bruce, 285 127; gladiators, 130-31;
239-40; Peasants' War, Robespierre, Maximilien, good emperors, 133;
258; Protestantism, 272. 285, 327 latifundia, 195-96;
See also Catholic Rockefeller, John D., 285-86 magistrate, 207; nobilis,
Reformation Roman architecture, 286 241; patrician, 257;
Reform Bill of 1832, 157, Roman Catholic Church, plebians, 266; Punic
281, 289 286; Avignon papacy, 40; Wars, 273; Senate, 299-
Reign of Terror, 122 Babylonian Captivity, 36; 300; Twelve Tables, 336.
Relics, 281 baroque-rococo, 40; See also other terms
Religion, 281 bishop, 47; cathedral, 67; beginning with Roman;
Remarque, Erich Maria, 12 Catholic Reformation, 68; Roman Empire; Roman
Rembrandt, 281 College of Cardinals, 65; Republic
Renaissance, 57, 58, 119, Council of Pisa, 88; Rome, decline of, 288
281. See also High Council of Trent, 88; Rommel, Erwin, 6, 9
Renaissance; Italian Eastern Orthodox split Roosevelt, Franklin D., 29,
Renaissance; Northern with, 75, 106, 198, 286; 108, 156, 186, 288-89,
Renaissance; other terms English church separation 334, 336
beginning with Roosevelt, Theodore, 289
from, 67, 89; French
Renaissance Rosetta Stone, 289
Wars of Religion, 123;
Renaissance architecture, Galileo and, 125; Great Rotten boroughs, 281, 289
281-82 Schism, 136; Henry VIII Rouault, Georges, 114
Renaissance art, 282 and, 149; indulgences, Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 111,
Renaissance Florence, 282 289-90
164; Inquisition, 165-66;
Renaissance literature, 282 Royal Air Force (RAF), 290
investiture controversy,
Renault, Louis, 32 Royal Commentaries of the
166; mass, 215; papacy,
Renoir, Auguste, 163 Inca, 290
254; Peace of Augsburg,
Repartimiento, 282 Rubaiyat, 290
30; pope, 269; relics, 281;
Republic, The, 282-83 Rubens, Peter Paul, 290
Requerimiento, 283;
Republic of China, 283 Rumi, Jalal al-Din al-, 290
Thirty Years' War, 328.
Requerimiento, 195, 283 Rump Parliament, 290
See also Papacy; Pope
Restif de la Bretonne, Runnymeade. See Magna
Romance of the Three
Nicolas Edme, 283 Carta
Kingdoms, 286
Revolutionary War. See Rus, 290-91
Roman Empire, 60, 258,
American Revolution Russia, 291
286-87. See also Eastern
Rhee, Syngman (Yi Song- Russian Orthodox Church,
Roman Empire; Rome
man), 283 291
Rhodes, Cecil, 283-84 Romanesque architecture,
Russian Revolution (1905),
Rhodesia, 284 287
197, 291
Ricci, Matteo, 284 Roman law, 287
Russian Revolution (October
Richard I, "the Lionhearted," Roman religion, 287
Revolution) (1917), 50,
284, 295 Roman Republic, 287-88.
197, 291
Richelieu, Cardinal Armand See also Rome
Russo-Japanese War (1904-
Jean du Plessis, 216, 284, Romanticism, 288
1905), 219, 239, 289, 291,
328 Rome, 288; Appian Way, 69;
291-92, 359
Rifle, 284 aqueduct, 21-22; Rwanda Massacres, 292
Rigveda, 284-85, 343 Assembly, 27; Centuriate Ryoanji Temple, 292
Rites of Zhou, 285 Assembly, 69;
River Valley civilizations, Christianity, 223; Sadat, Anwar el-, 42, 293
285 Colosseum, 80; consul, Sadducees, 293
394 INDEX
Sadi, 293 Scientific revolution, 53, 86, Shinto, 60, 183, 304
Safavid dynasty, 170, 293, 97, 99, 125, 146, 186, Shiva, 304
299 298, 344 Shoen, 304
Sahara trade, 293-94. See Scottish National Party Shogun, 223, 305
also Trans-Sahara trade (SNP), 298 Shotoku Taishi, 305
Saigo Takamori, 294 Scriptoria, 298-99 Shudras, 305
Sailendra (Shailendra), 294 Seale, Bobby, 48 Siam, 34, 305
Saint Bartholomew's Day Selassie, Haile, 299, 310-11 Siddhartha Gautama, 33, 43,
Massacre, 123, 294 Seleucids, 299 57, 305-6
Saint Bernard Pass, 294 Selim I, 299 Sidon, 306
Saint Lawrence Seaway, 294 Selim III, 299 Sigismund, 306
Saint Peter's (Rome), 294 Seljuks, 299 Sihanouk, Norodom, 306
Sakamoto Ryoma, 231, 295 Senate, Roman, 287, Sikhism, 306
Saladin, 116, 295 299-300 Silk roads, 306-7, 367
Salamis, Battle of (480 B.C.E), Senate, United States, 300 Silla, 307
261, 265, 295 Sendero Luminoso, 300 Silver trade, 307
SALT I (Strategic Arms Seneca the Elder, 300 Sima Qian, 307
Limitations Treaty), 240, Seneca the Younger, 300 Sinan, 307
295 Senghor, Leopold, 236, 300 Singapore, 197, 308, 317
Samarkand, 295, 332 Sennacherib, 300 Sinitic language, 308
Samnite Wars, 295 Sephardim, 300-301 Sinn Fein, 168, 308
Samori. See Toure, Samori Sepoy Mutiny, 301 Sino-Japanese War (1894-
Samudragupta, 295-96 Serf, 301 1895), 199, 308
Samurai. See Bushi Serfs, 211, 226 Sino-Vietnamese, 308-9
San. See Khoisan Sermon on the Mount, 301 Sistine Chapel, 222, 309
Sandinista, 167, 296 Seven Years' War, 14, 122, Six-Day War. See Arab-
San Francisco Mime 255, 264, 265, 301-2 Israeli War, 1967
Troupe, 7 Seward, William H., 9 Sixtus, 166
San Martin, Jose de, 246, Sforza, Francesco, 302 Slave Coast, 93, 309
296 Shah of Iran. See Slave trade. See Atlantic
Sanskrit, 296 Muhammad Reza Shah slave trade
Santa Maria, 296 Pahlavi Slavs, 309
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 41, 63, 296 Shaka Zulu, 302 Smith, Adam, 87, 195
Sasanids, 296-97 Shakespeare, William, 282, Smith, Joseph, 228
Sassanians. See Sasanids 302 Social Contract, The. See
Sati (Suttee), 297 Shamans, 302 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques
Satori, 297 Shang, 302-3 Social Darwinism, 95, 309
Satrap, 297 Shanghai, 303 Socialism, 81, 309-10
Satyagraha, 297 Shankara, 303 Society of Jesus (Jesuits), 68,
Saul of Tarsus. See Paul the Sharia, 303 202-3, 281, 310, 357
Apostle Sheba, Queen of, 303-4 Socrates, 33, 113, 265, 282,
Savannah region, 297 Sheikh, 304 310, 357
Savonarola, Girolamo, 263, Shelley, Mary, 288 Sogdiana, 310
297 Shepard, Sam, 7 Solomon, 147, 304, 310
Saxons, 297-98 Shia Muslims, 62, 116, 160, Solomonic dynasty, 304,
Schlieffen Plan, 298 162, 170, 293, 299, 304, 310-11
Schliemann, Heinrich, 334 321 Solon, 311
Scholasticism, 298 Shining Path. See Sendero Song, 311
Schweitzer, Albert, 243, 298 Luminoso Songhay, 311
INDEX 395
Song Mei-ling, 312 Strait of Magellan, 207, 317, Tang Taixang (Li Shimin),
Song of Roland, 70, 311-12 329 324
Song Qingling (Soong Strait of Malacca, 317 Tangut, 324
Ch'ing-ling), 312 Strozzi, Alessandra, 317-18 Tang Xuanzang, 324
Song Taizu, 312 Stupa, 318 Tantras, 324-25
Soong Mei-ling, 72 Sudetenland, 230, 318 Tantrism, 325
Sophists, 312 Suez Canal, 231, 234, 318 Tanzania, 25-26, 209, 243
Sophocles, 312 Suez Crisis, 28, 318 Taoism. See Daoism
South Africa, 6, 18, 20-21, Sufism, 170, 290, 293, 318, Tarmac roads, 217
39, 210 348 Tea ceremony, 60, 325, 366
South Pacific, 268 Sugar trade, 318-19 Telegraph, 228
Soviet Union. See Union of Suger, Abbot, 45, 133 Telephone, 43
Soviet Socialist Republics Suharto, 319 Temple Mount. See Hebrew
Spain, 41, 176 Sui, 319 Temple
Spanish-American War, Sui Wendi, 319 Temple of Jerusalem. See
312-13 Sui Yangdi, 319 Hebrew Temple
Spanish Armada, 313 Sukarno, 319-20 Tenno ("Heavenly
Spanish Civil War (1936- Sukhothai, 320 Emperor"), 325
1939), 313 Suleyman I, "the Tenochtitlan, 325
Spanish Inquisition, 117, Magnificent," 249, 320 Teotihuacan, 274, 325-26
166, 169, 313 Sumer, 117, 320 Teresa of Avila, Saint, 326
Spanish Netherlands, 313 Sunni Muslims, 62, 160, 162, Terra-Cotta Army, 276, 326
Sparta, 259, 313-14 299, 304, 320-21 Tet Offensive, 326, 345, 347
Spartacus, 314 Sun Yat-Sen, 64, 140, 312, Texas Rangers, 326
Spencer, Herbert, 309 321, 348 Texcoco, 326
Spice trade, 314 Sunzi (Sun-tzu), 25, 321 Thailand, 34, 75, 305
Spitfire, 314 Surat, 321 Thatcher, Margaret, 84, 115,
Sputnik, 314 Surrealism, 321 280, 327
Srivijaya, 314-15, 317 Susa, 321 Theodoric, 49, 327
SS (Schutzstaffel), 315 Suttee. See Sati Theodosius I, "the Great,"
Stalin, Joseph, 45, 54, 81, Swahili, 321 223, 247, 327
238, 270, 289, 315, 338 Swift, Jonathan, 30 Theravada Buddhism, 57,
Stalingrad, Battle of (1942- Syracuse, 322 208, 327
1943), 315 Szilard, Leo, 29 Thermidorian Reaction, 327
Stamp Act of 1765, 315-16
Stanley, Henry, 83, 200 Third World, 327-28
States General. See Estates Tacitus, P. Cornelius, 323 Thirty Years' War (1618-
General Taft, William Howard, 289 1648), 140, 284, 328, 348,
States system, 316 Tagalog, 323 352
Steam engine, 350 Tagore, Rabindranath, 323 Thucydides, 328
Steel, 46, 143 Taika, 323 Tianshan (T'ien-shan), 328
Stein, Gertrude, 316 Taiping Rebellion, 155-56, Tiberius, 328
Steinem, Gloria, 316 199, 323, 366 Tiber River, 328-29
Steppe, 316 Taj Mahal, 229, 323-24 Tibet, 94, 195, 329
Stevenson, Robert Louis, Tale of Genji. See Genji, Tierra del Fuego, 329
316-17 Tale of Tigris River, 329
Stoicism, 266, 300, 317 Talmud, 324 Timbuktu, 329
Stonehenge, 317 Tamerlane. See Timur Timur (Tamerlane), 329-30,
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 1-2, Tang, 19, 324 332, 337
317 Tanganyika. See Tanzania Tintoretto, 211
396 INDEX
Vietnam War, 81, 178, 186, Westminster Abbey, 352 Worms, Concordat of
230, 240, 326, 345 Westphalia, Treaty of (1122), 166,355
Vijayanagar, 345-46 (1648), 217, 328, 352 Worms, Diet of (1521), 355
Vikings, 217, 242, 290, 346 Whitby, Synod of, 352 Worms, Edict of (1521), 355
Villa, Pancho, 65, 221, 346, Whitefield, George, 135 Wright, Richard, 355
366 White Lotus Rebellion, 352 Wright, Wilbur and Orville,
Vinland, 346 Wilberforce, William, 1 355
Virgil, 4, 30, 101, 245, 346 William I, "the Silent," Wudi. See Han Wudi
Virgin Mary, 346 352-53 Wu Zhu (Wu Chao), 356
Visconti, 346-47 William III. See William of
Vishnu, 347 Orange Xavier, Saint Francis, 357
Visigoths. See Goths William of Normandy, 2 4 1 - Xenophon, 357
Vladimir I, Saint, 347 42, 352 Xerxes I, "the Great," 2, 261,
Voltaire, 111, 119,262,347 William of Orange, 134, 173 265, 295, 357
Vo Nguyen Giap, 347 Wilson, Woodrow, 32, 196, Xia, 357
Vuh. See Popol Vuh 288, 289, 353 Xi'an (Hsi-an), 357
Windmills, 353 Xi'an Incident, 357
Wagner, Richard, 288 Winthrop, John, 215 Xingjiang (Hsin-chiang),
Wahhabism, 348 Witchcraft, 353 357-58
Wallenstein, Albrecht von, Witch craze, 353-54 Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu), 358,
328, 348 WoUstonecraft, Mary. See 367
Walpole, Horace, 348 Godwin, Mary Xuanzang (Hsuan-tsang),
Walpole, Robert, 348 WoUstonecraft 358
Wang Anshi, 348 Woman's suffrage, 19, 354 Xunzi (Hsun-tzu), 358
Wang Jingwei, 348-49 Wordsworth, William, 288
Wang Mang, 349 World Bank, 354 Yahweh, 359
Warlords, 349 World system, 354 Yamagata Aritomo, 359
Warring States Period, 349 World War I, 354-55; Yamato, 359
Wars of Independence, Latin Balkans Crisis, 37; Yangban, 359-60
American, 349 Congress of Berlin, 44; Yang Guifei (Yang Kuei-fei),
Wars of Religion. See French Paris Peace Conference, 360
Wars of Religion 256; Triple Alliance and Yangshao culture, 360
Washington, Booker T., 104 Entente, 334; Versailles Yangzi River, 360
Washington, George, 87, Treaty, 343-44; Wilson Yathrib, 217, 360
122, 271-72, 333, 349-50 and, 353 Yayoi, 360
Waterloo, Battle of (1815), World War II, 355; Yellow River, 360-61
350 Anschluss, 19; Axis Yi Dynasty. See Choson
Watermills, 350 powers, 33; Battle of the Yin-yang, 157, 361
Watt, James, 165, 350 Atlantic, 28-29; Battle of Yi Song-gye, 361
Watteau, Jean-Antoine, 40, Britain, 55; Battle of the Yi Sun-sin, 361
350 Bulge, 58; Battle of Yoga, 361
WAVES, 350 Dunkirk, 104; Battle of Yom Kippur War. See Arab-
Wayang, 351 el-Alamein, 9; blitzkrieg, Israeli War, 1973
Weber, Max, 351 49; Mukden Incident, Yongle (Yung-le), 361-62
Weimar Republic, 351 230; Normandy Yongzheng, 362
Wergild, 351 Campaign, 242; Niirnberg Yoritomo, Minamoto, 37
Wesley, John, 1, 135, 221, Trials, 243; Potsdam Yorktown, 362
351 Conference, 270; Yoruba, 362
Westernization, 225, 351 Roosevelt, 289; WAVES, Yosano Akiko, 362
Westminster, 352 350 Yoshida, Shigeru, 362
398 INDEX
Young Ireland, 363 Zapatista uprising, 237, 366 Zhuangzi (Chuang-tzu), 94,
Young Italy, 363 Zapotec civilization, 366 368
Young Turks, 249, 254, 363 Zen, 60, 100, 297, 325, 366 Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi), 236, 368
Yuan, 363 Zeng Guofan (Tseng Ziggurat, 368
Yuan Shih-kai, 363 Kuo-fan), 366 Zimbabwe, 231-32, 284. See
Yugoslavia, 363-64 Zeno, 317 also Great Zimbabwe
Yurt, 364 Zeus, 366-67 Zionism, 150
Zhang Qian (Chang Ch'ien),
Zagwe, 365 Zollverein, 368
367
Zaibatsu, 365 Zoroaster, 33
Zhang Xueliang (Chang
Zaire, 83, 203, 225, 365 Zoroastrianism, 33, 210, 297,
Hsiieh-liang), 367
Zambia, 185 Zheng He (Cheng Ho), 180, 368-69
Zanj, 365 367 Zulus, 18-19, 221-22, 302
Zanzibar, 365 Zhou (Chou), 367 Zulu War. See Anglo-Zulu
Zapata, Emiliano, 65, 109, Zhou Enlai (Chou En-lai), War
221, 346, 365-66 368 Zwingli, Huldrych, 280, 369
About the Author