Explosives

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Explosives

Explosives
Explosives
Explosives - Primary
Explosives - Booster
Explosives - Nitroaromatics
Explosives - Nitramines
Explosives - Nitrate esters
Explosives - Compositions
Insensitive Explosives
Insensitive Munitions (IM)
Explosives - Classes
Explosives - ATF List
Explosives - UN List
Explosives & the Environment

An explosive is defined as a material (chemical or

nuclear) that can be initiated to undergo very rapid, self-
propagating decomposition that results in the formation
of more stable material, the liberation of heat, or the
development of a sudden pressure effect through the
action of heat on produced or adjacent gases. All of
these outcomes produce energy; a weapon's
effectiveness is measured by the quantity of energy - or
damage potential - it delivers to the target.

Modern weapons use both kinetic and potential energy

to achieve maximum lethality. Kinetic energy systems
rely on the conversion of kinetic energy to work, while
potential energy systems use explosive energy directly
in the form of heat and blast, or by accelerating metal
as a shaped charge, EFP or case fragments to increase
their kinetic energy and damage volume.

Energy may be broadly classified as potential or kinetic.

Potential energy is energy of configuration or position,
or the capacity to perform work. For example, the
relatively unstable chemical bonds among the atoms
that comprise trinitrotoluene (TNT) possess chemical
potential energy. Potential energy can, under suitable
conditions, be transformed into kinetic energy, which is
energy of motion. When a conventional explosive such
as TNT is detonated, the relatively unstable chemical

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bonds are converted into bonds that are more stable,

producing kinetic energy in the form of blast and
thermal energies. This process of transforming a
chemical system's bonds from lesser to greater stability
is exothermic (there is a net production of energy).

A chemical explosive is a compound or a mixture of

compounds which, when subjected to heat, impact,
friction, or shock, undergoes very rapid, self-
propagating, heat- producing decomposition. This
decomposition produces gases that exert tremendous
pressures as they expand at the high temperature of the
reaction. The work done by an explosive depends
primarily on the amount of heat given off during the
explosion. The term detonation indicates that the
reaction is moving through the explosive faster than the
speed of sound in the unreacted explosive; whereas,
deflagration indicates a slower reaction (rapid burning).
A high explosive will detonate; a low explosive will
deflagrate. All commercial explosives except black
powder are high explosives.

Low-order explosives (LE). E create a subsonic

explosion [below 3,300 feet per second] and lack HEs
over-pressurization wave. Examples of LE include pipe
bombs, gunpowder, and most pure petroleum-based
bombs such as Molotov cocktails or aircraft improvised
as guided missiles.

A High Explosive (HE) is a compound or mixture which,

when initiated, is capable of sustaining a detonation
shockwave to produce a powerful blast effect. A
detonation is the powerful explosive effect caused by
the propagation of a high-speed shockwave through a
high explosive compound or mixture. During the
process of detonation, the high explosive is largely
decomposed into hot, rapidly expanding gas.

The most important single property in rating an

explosive is detonation velocity, which may be
expressed for either confined or un-confined conditions.
It is the speed at which the detonation wave travels
through the explosive. Since explosives in boreholes
are confined to some degree, the confined value is the
more significant. Most manufacturers, however,
measure the detonation velocity in an unconfined
column of explosive 1- i/4 in. in diameter. The
detonation velocity of an explosive is dependent on the
density, ingredients, particle size, charge diameter, and
degree of confinement. Decreased particle size,

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increased charge diameter, and increased confinement

all tend to increase the detonation velocity. Unconfined
velocities are generally 70 to 80 percent of confined
velocities.

The confined detonation velocity of commercial

explosives varies from 4,000 to 25,000 fps. With
cartridge explosives the confined velocity is seldom
attained. Some explosives and blasting agents are
sensitive to diameter changes. As diameter is reduced,
the velocity is reduced until at some critical diameter,
propagation is no longer assured and misfires are likely.

Relative effectiveness factor (R.E. factor) is a

measurement of an explosive's power for military
demolitions purposes. It measures the detonating
velocity relative to that of TNT, which has an R.E. factor
of 1.00. TNT equivalent is a measure of the energy
released from the detonation of a nuclear weapon, or
from the explosion of a given quantity of fissionable
material, in terms of the amount of TNT (trinitrotoluene)
which could release the same amount of energy when
exploded. The twelve-kiloton Hiroshima atomic bomb
had had a blast effect alone equivalent to some twenty-
five million pounds of TNTthats million.

Denser explosives usually give higher detonation

velocities and pressures. A dense explosive may be
desirable for difficult blasting conditions or where fine
fragmentation is required. Low-density ex-plosives will
suffice in easily fragmented or closely jointed rocks and
are preferred for quarrying coarse material.

Energetic materials are made in two ways. The first is

by physically mixing solid oxidizers and fuels, a process
that, in its basics, has remained virtually unchanged for
centuries. Such a process results in a composite
energetic material such as black powder. The second
process involves creating a monomolecular energetic
material, such as TNT, in which each molecule contains
an oxidizing component and a fuel component. For the
composites, the total energy can be much greater than
that of monomolecular materials. However, the rate at
which this energy is released is relatively slow when
compared to the release rate of monomolecular
materials. Monomolecular materials such as TNT work
fast and thus have greater power than composites, but
they have only moderate energy densities-commonly
half those of composites. Greater energy densities
versus greater powerthat's been the traditional trade-

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off.

Ingredients of high explosives are classified as

explosive bases, combustibles, oxygen carriers,
antacids, and absorbents. Some ingredients perform
more than one function. An explosive base is a solid or
liquid which, upon the application of sufficient heat or
shock, decomposes to gases with an accompanying
release of considerable heat. A combustible combines
with excess oxygen to prevent the formation of nitrogen
oxides. An oxygen carrier assures complete oxidation of
the carbon to prevent the formation of carbon
monoxide. The formation of nitrogen oxides or carbon
monoxide, in addition to being undesirable from the
standpoint of fumes, results in lower heat of explosion
and efficiency than when carbon dioxide and nitrogen
are formed. Antacids increase stability in storage, and
absorb-ents absorb liquid explosive bases.

Explosives are classified as primary or secondary

based on their susceptibility to initiation. Primary
explosives, which include lead azide and lead
styphnate, are highly susceptible to initiation. Primary
explosives often are referred to as initiating explosives
because they can be used to ignite secondary
explosives. Secondary explosives, which include
nitroaromatics and nitramines are much more prevalent
at military sites than are primary explosives. Because
they are formulated to detonate only under specific
circumstances, secondary explosives often are used as
main charge or bolstering explosives.

Secondary explosives can be loosely categorized into

melt-pour explosives, which are based on
nitroaromatics such as TNT, and plastic-bonded
explosives which are based on a binder and crystalline
explosive such as RDX.

Propellants include both rocket and gun propellants.

Most rocket propellants are composites based on a
rubber binder, ammonium perchlorate oxidizer, and a
powdered aluminum fuel; or composites based on a
nitrate esters, usually nitroglycerine or nitrocellulose
and nitramines. If a binder is used, it usually is an
isocyanate-cured polyester or polyether. Some
propellants also contain combustion modifiers, such as
lead oxide. One group of gun propellants are called
"single base" (principally nitrocellulose), "double
base" (nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine), or "triple
base" (nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, and nitroguanidine).

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Some of the newer, lower vulnerability gun propellants

contain polymer binders and crystalline nitramines.

Pyrotechnics include illuminating flares, signaling flares,

colored and white smoke generators, tracers, incendiary
delays, fuses, and photo-flash compounds.
Pyrotechnics usually are composed of an inorganic
oxidizer and metal powder in a binder. Illuminating
flares contain sodium nitrate, magnesium, and a binder.
Signaling flares contain barium, strontium, or other
metal nitrates.

Explosive and incendiary (fire) bombs are further

characterized based on their source. Manufactured
implies standard military-issued, mass produced, and
quality-tested weapons. Improvised describes
weapons produced in small quantities, or use of a
device outside its intended purpose, such as converting
a commercial aircraft into a guided missile.
Manufactured (military) explosive weapons are
exclusively HE-based. Terrorists will use whatever is
available illegally obtained manufactured weapons or
improvised explosive devices (also known as IEDs)
that may be composed of HE, LE, or both.
Manufactured and improvised bombs cause markedly
different injuries.

Plastic explosive means an explosive material in flexible

or elastic sheet form formulated with one or more high
explosives which in their pure form has a vapor
pressure less than 10-4 Pa at a temperature of 25 deg.
C., is formulated with a binder material, and is as a
mixture malleable or flexible at normal room
temperature.

The energetic materials used by the military as

propellants and explosives are mostly organic
compounds containing nitro (NO2) groups. The three
major classes of these energetic materials are
nitroaromatics (e.g., tri-nitrotoluene or TNT), nitramines
(e.g., hexahydro-1,3,5 trinitroazine or RDX), and nitrate
esters (e.g., nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine).

Since the invention of the cannon, the explosive fills

used to drive lethal mechanisms have been the subject
of ever increasing interest and study. Traditionally,
munitions designers have used such ex-plosives as
Comp-B, TNT, or LX-14, depending upon the particular
application.

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During the 1920s and into the 1940s, the Army's

Picatinny Arsenal was instrumental in designing,
modeling and evaluating such high explosive material
as TNT, RDX, and Haleite. This work greatly influenced
battlefield lethality during WWII where explosives
exhibiting a higher brisance, or shattering effect, than
TNT were in great demand.

The 1960s brought new explosives such as HMX that

was chemically analogous to RDX, but even more
powerful to give soldiers greater lethality capability.
Picatinny laboratories also developed precision
warheads for several missile systems, including the
DRAGON-MAW, a Medium Antiarmor Weapon.

The Army uses Research Department Explosive (RDX)

and High Melt Explosive (HMX) as basic explosives for
munitions and tactical missiles as well as propellants for
strategic missiles rather than TNT because of their
superior energy.

Most modern explosives are reasonably stable and

require percussive shock or other triggering devices for
detonation. Energetic materials are especially
vulnerable to elevated temperature, with possible
consequences ranging from mild decomposition to
vigorous deflagration or detonation. Energetic materials
can also be initiated by mechanical work through
friction, impact, or electricity (e.g., current flow, spark,
electrostatic discharge, or electromagnetic radiation).
Other stimuli (e.g., focused laser light or chemical
incompatibility) can have consequences ranging from
mild decomposition to detonation.

Explosives may be toxic, with exposure pathways being

inhalation of dust or vapor, ingestion, or skin contact.
Most explosives are not highly toxic, but improper
handling can result in systemic poisoning, usually
affecting the bone marrow (i.e., the blood cell-producing
system) and the liver. Some explosives are
vasodilators, which cause headaches, low blood
pressure, chest pains, and possible heart attacks. Some
explosives may irritate the skin.

Some detonation or combustion products from

explosives are toxic. Such products can be respiratory
and skin irritants and lead to systemic effects following
short-term exposure to high levels. Soot from detonated
explosives is not mutagenic; however, soot from burned
gun propellants may be mutagenic and is therefore

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treated as a mutagen.

Fortunately, contamination usually occurs in dilute,

aqueous solutions or in relatively low concentrations in
the soil and present no explosion hazard. Masses of
pure crystalline explosive material have, however, been
encountered in soils associated with wastewater
lagoons, leach pits, burn pits, and firing ranges. These
materials remain hazardous for long periods of time and
great care must be used during the investigation and
remediation process.

Molecular weights are moderate, of the order of a few

hundreds of grams per mole. The molecular structure,
particularly the types and positions of subsidiary
functional groups, controls environmental behavior.

All of the common explosives are solid at normal

environmental temperatures and pressures. Melting
point temperatures for explosives solids are moderate
(50-205 0C). Melting points are of little direct value in
predicting environmental fate and transport, but several
parameter estimation relations for solids incorporate the
influence of molecular crystal bonding by including a
term dependent on the melting point. Melting points are
not available for many of the breakdown products. Most
of the explosives and associated contaminants have
very low volatility, with vapor pressures estimated to be
less than 6 x 10-4 torr. Henry's law constants (KH)
range from 10-4 to 10-11 atmm-2mole-1. Only those
with KH greater than 10-5 volatilize significantly from
aqueous solution 12. Though explosives compounds
may not be volatile, some of the transformation
products, other key reactants, or products may be
volatile to semivolatile.

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 Primary Explosives

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Primary Explosives

Explosives
Explosives - Primary
Explosives - Booster
Explosives - Nitroaromatics
Explosives - Nitramines
Explosives - Nitrate esters
Explosives - Compositions
Insensitive Explosives
Insensitive Munitions (IM)
Explosives - Classes
Explosives - ATF List
Explosives - UN List
Explosives & the Environment

Primary Explosives
The explosives used as initiating explosives are the
primary high explosives mentioned previously in this
chapter. They are used in varying amounts in the
different primers and detonators used by the Navy and
may differ some insensitivity and in the amount of heat
given off. The explosives discussed in this section are
lead azide, lead, styphnate, and diazodinitrophenol
(DDNP).

Lead Azide
Lead azide has a high-ignition temperature and is today
the most commonly used primary explosive. Lead azide
is poisonous, slightly soluble in hot water and in alcohol,
and highly soluble in a diluted solution of nitric or acetic
acid in which a little sodium nitrate has been dissolved It
reacts with copper, zinc, cadmium, or alloys containing
such metals, forming an azide that is more sensitive
than the original lead tide. Because lead azide does not
react with aluminum, detonator capsules for lead azide
are made of this metal. The hygroscopicity of lead azide
is very low. Water does not reduce its impact sensitivity,
as is the case with mercury fulminate. Ammonium
acetate and sodium bichromate are used to destroy
small quantities of lead azide. Lead tide may be used

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where detonation is caused by flame or heat. The

velocity of detonation is approximately 17,500 feet per
second (fps). Its color varies from white to buff. Lead
azide is widely used as an initiating explosive in high-
explosive detonator devices. Lead azide, when
protected from humidity, is completely stable in
stowage.

Lead Styphnate
There are two forms of lead styphnatethe normal that
appears as six-sided monohydrate crystals and the
basic that appears as small, rectangular crystals. Lead
styphnate is particularly sensitive to fire and the
discharge of static electricity. When the styphnate is
dry, it can readily ignite by static discharges from the
human body. The longer and narrower the crystals, the
more susceptible the material is to static electricity.
Lead styphnate does not react with metals. It is less
sensitive to shock and fiction than lead azide. Lead
styphnate is slightly soluble in water and methyl alcohol
and may be neutralized by a solution of sodium
carbonate. The velocity of detonation is approximately
17,000 fps. The color of lead styphnate varies from
yellow to brown. Lead styphnate is used as an initiating
explosive in propellant primer and high-explosive
detonator devices.

Diazodinitrophenol (DDNP)
DDNP is a yellowish brown powder. It is soluble in
acetic acid, acetone, strong hydrochloric acid, and most
of the solvents, but is insoluble in water. A cold sodium
hydroxide solution may be used to destroy it. DDNP is
desensitized by immersion in water and does not react
with it at normal temperatures. It is less sensitive to
impact but more powerful than lead tide. The sensitivity
of DDNPto friction is approximately the same as that of
lead tide. DDNP is often used as an initiating explosive
in propellant primer devices.

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 Booster Explosives

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Booster Explosives

Explosives
Explosives - Primary
Explosives - Booster
Explosives - Nitroaromatics
Explosives - Nitramines
Explosives - Nitrate esters
Explosives - Compositions
Insensitive Explosives
Insensitive Munitions (IM)
Explosives - Classes
Explosives - ATF List
Explosives - UN List
Explosives & the Environment

Booster Explosives
Booster explosives are those components of the
explosive train that function to transmit and augment the
force and flame from the initiating explosive. They
ensure the reliable detonation or burning of the main
burster charge or propellant charge. Propelling charges
use a black powder booster, while high-explosive
boosters use one of the following: Tetryl, CH-6, or
Composition A-5.

Tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenyl-methylnitramine)
Tetryl is a nitramine booster explosive, though the use
has been largely superseded by RDX. Tetryl is sensitive
secondary high explosive used as a booster, a small
charge placed next to the detonator in order to
propagate the detonation into the main charge. While it
is commonly known as Tetryl it is in fact
Trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (derivative of Benzene).
This is a standard booster explosive. Tetryl is a fine
yellow crystalline material. When tetryl is heated, it first
melts, then decomposes and explodes. It burns readily
and is more easily detonated than explosive D.

It is a yellow crystalline solid powder material,

practically insoluble in water but soluble in Acetone,

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Benzene and other solvents. It burns readily and is

more easily detonated than TNT or Ammonium Picrate
(Explosive D), being about as sensitive as Picric Acid. It
is detonated by friction, shock, or spark . It remains
stable at all temperatures which may be encountered in
storage. It is generally used in the form of pressed
pellets, and has been approved as the standard
bursting charge for small-caliber projectiles, since it
gives much better fragmentation than TNT. It also has
greater shattering ability than any other military high
explosive, and must be properly protected from bullet
fire . Its rate of detonation is 23,600-23,900 feet per
second. Tetryl is the basis for the service Tetryl blasting
caps necessary for positive detonation of TNT. A
mixture of Fulminate of Mercury and Potassium
Chlorate is included in the cap to insure detonation of
Tetryl.

The most toxic ordnance compounds, tetryl and 1,3,5-

TNB, are also the most degradable. Therefore these
chemicals are expected to be short-lived in nature, and
environmental impacts would not be expected in areas
that are not currently subject to chronic inputs of these
chemicals. Tetryl decomposes rapidly in methanol/water
solutions, as well as with heat. All aqueous samples
expected to contain tetryl should be diluted with
acetonitrile prior to filtration and acidified to pH <3. All
samples expected to contain tetryl should not be
exposed to temperatures above room temperature. In
addition, degradation products of tetryl appear as a
shoulder on the 2,4,6-TNT peak. Peak heights rather
than peak areas should be used when tetryl is present
in concentrations that are significant relative to the
concentration of 2,4,6-TNT.

CH-6
CH-6 is a mixture of 97.5% RDX (described in the next
section), 1.5% calcium stearate, 0.5% polyisobutylene,
and 0.5% graphite. It is a finely divided gray powder that
is less toxic and more available than tetryl.

Composition A-5
Composition A-5 is a mixture of 98.5% RDX and 1.5%
stearic acid.

NQ [Nitroguanidine / Picrate]

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Ammonium Picrate (Yellow D / Explosive D), or Picric

Acid or 2,4,6-trinitrophenol, C6H2(NO2)3OH, a toxic
yellow crystalline solid that melts at 122C and is
soluble in most organic solvents. Picric acid is a
derivative of phenol. It reacts with metals to form metal
picrates, which like picric acid itself are highly sensitive
explosives that can be detonated by heat, flame, shock,
or friction.

The high explosives lyddite and melinite are composed

mostly of compressed or fused picric acid. Picric acid is
often used as a booster to detonate another, less
sensitive explosive, such as TNT (trinitrotoluene ).
Although picric acid, a nitramine explosive, can be
synthesized by nitration of phenol, higher yields are
obtained if chlorobenzene is used as a starting material;
the latter method involves several steps and the
formation of several intermediate products. In addition
to its use in explosives, picric acid has been used as a
yellow dye, as an antiseptic, and in the synthesis of
chloropicrin, or nitrotrichloromethane, CCl 3 NO 2 , a
powerful insecticide.

A UXO item without a fuze is relatively safe (crystallized

bulk explosives, picrate salts, chemical, and white
phosphorous rounds excepted).

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 Explosives - Nitroaromatics

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Explosives - Nitroaromatics

Explosives
Explosives - Primary
Explosives - Booster
Explosives - Nitroaromatics
Explosives - Nitramines
Explosives - Nitrate esters
Explosives - Compositions
Insensitive Explosives
Insensitive Munitions (IM)
Explosives - Classes
Explosives - ATF List
Explosives - UN List
Explosives & the Environment

Explosives - Nitroaromatics
Nitroaromatics form an important group of recalcitrant
xenobiotics. Only few aromatic compounds, bearing one
nitro group as a substituent of the aromatic ring, are
produced as secondary metabolites by microorganisms.
The majority of nitroaromatic compounds in the
biosphere are industrial chemicals such as explosives,
dyes, polyurethane foams, herbicides, insecticides and
solvents.

Detection of unrecovered land mines is a growing

international problem. Unrecoverd land mines are a
legacy that continues to harm people long after the
hostilities cease. The most widely used tool for land
mine detection today is the hand-held metal detector.
Other methods for landmine detection are limited due to
their high false alarm rate. Chemical sensors have been
investigated for mine detection. For chemical species
having favorable spectral properties, remote sensing
can be achieved by fluorescence light detection and
ranging LIDAR. Nitroaromatic explosives exhibit strong
ultraviolet absorption but low fluorescence, thus direct
detection is not practical. Indirect detection in soil can
be obtained using a synthetic chemical polymer that
exhibits a change in fluorescence in the presence of an
explosive compound.

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Penetration of nitroaromatic compounds through the

skin is a major concern for the military. An important
characteristic of nitroaromatic compounds is their ability
to rapidly penetrate the skin. They can cause the
formation of methemeglobin on acute exposures and
anemia on chronic exposures. Additionally, local
irritation, liver damage and bladder tumors have also
been identified.

These compounds are generally recalcitrant to

biological treatment and remain in the biosphere, where
they constitute a source of pollution due to both toxic
and mutagenic effects on humans, fish, algae and
microorganisms. However, relatively few
microorganisms have been described as being able to
use nitroaromatic compounds as nitrogen and/or carbon
and energy source.

However, relatively few microorganisms have been

described as being able to use nitroaromatic
compounds as nitrogen and/or carbon and energy
source. The best-known nitroaromatic compound is the
explosive TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene).

The optimal remediation strategy for nitroaromatic

compounds depends on many site-specific factors.
Composting and the use of reactor systems lend
themselves to treating soils contaminated with high
levels of explosives (e.g. at former ammunition
production facilities, where areas with a high
contamination level are common). Compared to
composting systems, bioreactors have the major
advantage of a short treatment time, but the
disadvantage of being more labour intensive and more
expensive.

TNT [2,4,6-trinitrotoluene]
TNT is one of the most common bulk explosives. 2,4,6
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is an explosive used in military
munitions and in civilian mining and quarrying activities.
TNT was first used on a wide scale during World War I
and is still used today. The United States military
stopped production of TNT in the mid-1980s.

TNT is classified as a secondary explosive because it is

less susceptible to initiation and requires a primary or
initiating explosive to ignite it. TNT can be used as a
booster or as a bursting charge for high-explosive shells

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and bombs. Also, TNT may be mixed with other

explosives such as Royal Demolition Explosive (RDX)
and High Melting Explosive (HMX) and it is a
constituent of many explosives, such as amatol,
pentolite, tetrytol, torpex, tritonal, picratol, ednatol, and
Composition B. It has been used under such names
as Triton, Trotyl, Trilite, Trinol, and Tritolo.

The advantages of TNT include low cost, safety in

handling, fairly high explosive power, good chemical
and thermal stability, compatibility with other explosives,
a low melting point favorable for melt casting operations
and moderate toxicity.

TNT is a crystalline substance. The importance of TNT

as a military explosive is based upon its relative safety
in manufacture, loading, transportation, and stowage,
and upon its explosive properties. Manufacturing yields
are high and production relatively economical. The
chemical names for TNT are trinitrotoluene and
trinitrotol. Other (commercial) names are Trilite, Tolite,
Trinol, Trotyl, Tritolol, Tritone, Trotol, and Triton. TNT is
toxic, odorless, comparatively stable, nonhygroscopic,
and relatively insensitive. When TNT is pure, it is known
as grade A TNT and varies from white to pale yellow.
When the proportion of impurities is much greater, the
color is darker, often brown, and the chemical is known
as grade B TNT. It maybe ignited by impact, friction,
spark, shock, or heat. TNT does not form sensitive
compounds with most metals. The melting point varies
between 80.6C for grade A (refined TNT) and 76C for
grade B (crude TNT).

TNT does not appear to be affected by acids but is

affected by alkalies (lye, washing soda, and so on),
becoming pink, red, or brown, and more sensitive. It is
practically insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol,
ether, benzene, carbon disulfide, acetone, and certain
other solvents. The velocity of detonation is
approximately 22,300 fps.

Exudate has been known to separate from cast TNT. It

may appear pale yellow to brown and may vary in
consistency from an oily liquid to a sticky substance.
The amount and rate of separation depend primarily
upon the purity of the TNT and, secondarily, upon the
temperature of the stowage place. Grade B (low-melting
point) TNT may exude considerable liquid and generate
some gas. This exudation is accelerated with an
increase in temperature. Pure TNT will not exude since

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exudate consists of impurities that have not been

extracted in the refining process. Exudate is a mixture
of lower melting isomers of TNT, nitrocompounds of
toluene of lower nitration, and possible nitrocompounds
of other aromatic hydrocarbons and alcohols. It is
flammable and has high sensitivity to percussion when
mixed with absorbents. Its presence does no
appreciable harm to the stability but somewhat reduces
the explosive force of the main charge.

In some ammunition, an inert wax pad is used in the

loading operation, and, in some cases, waxy material
may ooze from the case. It should not be confused with
the TNT exudate previously described. This material
should, however, be tested for TNT to confirm its actual
composition, TNT exudate, when mixed with a
combustible material, such as wood chips, sawdust, or
cotton waste, will form a low explosive that is highly
flammable and ignites easily from a small flame. It can
be exploded in a reamer similar to a low grade of
dynamite, but the main danger is its fire hazard.
Accumulation of exudate is considered a great risk of
explosion and fire. Its accumulation should always be
avoided by continual removal and disposal as it occurs.
While TNT is no longer used in Navy gun ammunition,
some 3"/50, 40-mm, and 20-mm stocks loaded with
TNT may still be in the inventory. These stocks should
be identified and checked periodically for the presence
of exudate. The exudate is soluble in acetone or
alcohol. One of these solvents (requiring adequate
ventilation) or clean, hot water should be used to
facilitate removal and disposal of the exudate.

Under no circumstances should soap or other alkaline

preparations be used to remove this exudate. The
addition of a small amount of hydroxide, caustic soda,
or potash will sensitize TNT and cause it to explode if
heated to 160F.

During production TNT is in the form of a liquid which is

then cooled and washed with water to form solid flakes
in the form of colorless crystals, though commercial
crystals are yellow. The flakes can be remelted at low
temperatures (180 degrees Fahrenheit) and poured into
munitions shells and casings. TNT was widely used by
the military because of its low melting point and its
resistance to shock or friction which allows it to be
handled, stored, and used with comparative safety.

In order to detonate, TNT must be confined in a casing

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or shell and subjected to severe pressures and/or

temperatures (936 degrees Fahrenheit) such as from a
blasting cap or detonator. In fact, U.S. Army tests on
pure TNT show that when struck by a rifle bullet TNT
failed to detonate 96% of the time and when dropped
from an altitude of 4,000 feet onto concrete, a TNT filled
bomb failed to explode 92% of the time.

2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) causes liver damage and

aplastic anemia. Deaths from aplastic anemia and toxic
hepatitis were reported in TNT workers prior to the
1950s. With improved industrial practices, there have
been few reports of fatalities or serious health problems
related to its use.

Exposures at or below 0.5 mg/m3 have been reported

to cause destruction of red blood cells. Among some
groups of workers, there is a reduction in average
hemoglobin and hematocrit values. Workers deficient in
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase may be
particularly at risk of acute hemolytic disease. Three
such cases occurred after a latent period of 2 to 4 days
and were characterized by weakness, vertigo,
headache, nausea, paleness, enlarged liver and spleen,
dark urine, decreased hemoglobin levels, and
reticulocytosis. Although no simultaneous
measurements of atmospheric levels were available,
measurement on other occasions showed exposure
levels up to 3.0 mg/m3.

Cataracts are also reportedly produced with chronic

exposures for more than 5 years. The opacities did not
interfere with visual acuity or visual fields. The induced
cataracts may not regress once exposure ceases,
although progression is arrested.

The vapor or dust can cause irritation of mucous

membranes resulting in sneezing, cough, and sore
throat. Although intense or prolonged exposure to TNT
may cause some cyanosis, it is not regarded as a
strong producer of methemoglobin. Other occasional
effects include leukocytosis or leukopenia, peripheral
neuritis, muscular pains, cardiac irregularities, and renal
irritation.

Trinitrotoluene is absorbed through skin fairly rapidly,

and reference to airborne levels of vapor or dust may
underestimate total systemic exposure if skin exposure
also occurs. Apparent differences in dose-response
relationships based only on airborne levels may be

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explained by differences in skin contact. TNT causes

sensitization dermatitis; the hands, wrist, and forearms
most commonly are affected, but skin at friction points
such as the collar line, belt line, and ankles also is often
involved. Erythema, papules, and an itchy eczema can
be severe. The skin, hair, and nails of exposed workers
may be stained yellow.

Rats administered 50 mg/kg/day in their diets had

anemia, splenic lesions, and liver and kidney damage.
Hyperplasia and carcinoma of the urinary bladder also
were observed in female rats.

Historically, control of exposure to TNT has been

accomplished through general safety and hygiene
measures, yet additional, specific measures are
necessary. The Hazard Communication Program, for
example, should instruct workers about the need for
strict personal and shop hygiene, and about the
hazards of the particular operations that are conducted
in that plant. In addition, soap that contains 5% to 10%
potassium sulfite will not only help remove TNT dust
from the skin, suds that turn red will also indicate any
remaining contamination. Furthermore, respiratory
protection equipment should be selected according to
NIOSH guidance, and should be worn during operations
that release dust, vapor, or fumes.

Before WWII, research suggested that improving the

nutritional status of TNT workers might help improve
their resistance to toxic effects. However, in a World
War II era cohort study, multivitamin capsules were not
shown to be efficacious in preventing TNT toxicity.

TNT interacts with certain medications - including

isoniazid, phenylbutazone, phenytoin, and
methotrexate. Anyone taking these medications while
working with TNT should be closely followed by the
occupational physician.

Medical Monitoring. The U.S. Army currently

recommends preplacement and periodic (semiannual)
examinations of TNT workers. To identify workers with
higher-than-normal sensitivity to TNT toxicity during the
first three months of exposure, monthly hemoglobin,
LDH, and AST should be done.

The ACGIH TLV Committee for Chemical Substances

recommended that the 8-hour TLV for TNT be lowered
from 0.5 mg/m3 to 0.1 mg/m3 on 21 May 1997 after

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reviewing scientific reports of human and animal

exposure. In some studies, evidence of liver toxicity,
changes in blood cell production, and cataracts were
noted when exposure levels ranged below 0.5 mg/m3
(the old ACGIH TLV). TNT workers should never be
exposed to ambient levels of TNT above 0.1 mg/m3 for
an 8-hour time weighted average (TWA) without
appropriate respiratory protection. Based on the
evidence reviewed by the ACGIH, the extra margin of
safety afforded by this lowered TLV is necessary to
protect workers health. Skin absorption has also been
noted to be a significant means of exposure in several
studies. Dermal exposure over an 8 hour period cannot
be readily quantitated at a worksite, however use of
protective clothing to include head cover and
impermeable gloves is essential to prevent skin
absorption of TNT.

DNT (Dinitrotoluene)
2,4-DNT and 2,6-DNT are pale yellow solids with a
slight odor and are two of the six forms of the chemical
called dinitrotoluene (DNT). The other four forms (2,3-
DNT, 2,5-DNT, 3,4-DNT, and 3,5-DNT) only make up
about 5% of the technical grade DNT. DNT is not a
natural substance but rather is usually made by reacting
toluene (a solvent) with mixed nitric and sulfuric acids,
which are strong acids. DNT is used to produce flexible
polyurethane foams used in the bedding and furniture
industry. DNT is also used to produce ammunition and
explosives and to make dyes. It is also used in the air
bags of automobiles.

It has been found in the soil, surface water, and

groundwater of at least 122 hazardous waste sites that
contain buried ammunition wastes and wastes from
manufacturing facilities that release DNT. DNT does not
usually evaporate and is found in the air only in
manufacturing plants. DNT also does not usually remain
in the environment for a long time because it is broken
down by sunlight and bacteria into substances such as
carbon dioxide, water, and nitric acid.

Workers who have been exposed to 2,4-DNT showed a

higher than normal death rate from heart disease.
However, these workers were exposed to other
chemical as well. 2,4- and 2,6-DNT may also affect the
nervous system and the blood of exposed workers. One
study showed that male workers exposed to DNT had
reduced sperm counts, but other studies did not confirm

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this finding.

TNB (1,3,5-Trinitrobenzene)
The synthetic compound 1,3,5-TNB is used as a high
explosive for commercial mining and military use, as a
narrow-range pH indicator and as an agent to vulcanize
natural rubber. The compound is a manufacturing by-
product of the explosive, TNT, and is released to the
environment in discharged wastewater. Additionally,
any TNT itself that is present in the waste stream may
be degraded to 1,3,5-TNB by photolysis under certain
conditions of pH and organic matter content. The
compound has a close structural relationship with the
most widely produced military explosive, trinitrotoluene
(TNT), of which it is a manufacturing by-product and an
environmental degradation product.

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Explosives
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Explosives & the Environment

Explosives - Nitramines
The nitramines are the most recently introduced class of
organic nitrate explosives. The most prominent member
of this class is RDX (research department explosive;
hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5 triazine, which is also
known as cyclonite); HMX (high melting explosive;
octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7 tetrazocine),
nitroguanidine, and tetryl are also significant nitramines.

In a class of explosives like nitramines, the higher

density, bigger molecules will give more power because
more realizable energy can be packed in the same
space. Bigger molecules using the same proportion of
elements are more dense because the formation of
covalent bonds makes atoms come closer together than
if they were just pushed together but from different
molecules. HMX is a big ring molecule, same as RDX
but with an extra CH2NNO2 unit. It has higher density
(TMD 1.902) than RDX, 1.806, its det. vel is 9.11 km/
sec vs. 8.70 for RDX. It is considered more powerful.

Pollution from manufacturing processes of the major

energetic materials currently used in the U.S., 1,3,5-
trinitro-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane (RDX), 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-
1,3,5,7 tetraazacyclooctane (HMX) was briefly
evaluated. It was found that acetic acid was a major

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pollutant. It appeared that the British Process could be

controlled to reduce the polluting effluents better than
the Bachmann Process used in the U.S.

RDX [Cyclonite - Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-

triazine]
RDX stands for Royal Demolition eXplosive. It is also
known as cyclonite or hexogen. RDX is currently the
most important military high explosive in the US.
Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, C3H6N606 (RDX), is
second in strength to nitroglycerin among common
explosive substances. When compressed to a specific
gravity of 1.70, it has a confined detonation velocity of
about 27,000 fps. RDX is used as an explosive, usually
in mixtures with other explosives, oils, or waxes. It has a
high degree of stability in storage and is considered the
most powerful and brisant of the military high
explosives. RDX is used as a base charge in detonators
and in blasting caps. RDX can be used alone or with
other explosives, including PETN.t RDX can be mixed
with plasticizers to make C-4, and the most common
explosive combining RDX and PETN is Semtex. RDX
forms the base for the following common military
explosives: Composition A, Composition B,
Composition C, HBX, H-6 and Cyclotol. Composition A
consists of RDX melted with wax; in Composition B,
RDX is mixed with TNT; and Composition C contains
RDX blended with a non-explosive plasticizer. Pure
RDX is used in press-loaded projectiles. Cast loading is
accomplished by blending RDX with a relatively low
melting point substance.

RDX has both military and civilian applications. As a

military explosive, RDX can be used alone as a base
charge for detonators or mixed with another explosive
such as TNT to form cyclotols, which produce a bursting
charge for aerial bombs, mines, and torpedoes.
Common military uses of RDX have been as an
ingredient in plastic bonded explosives, or plastic
explosives which have been used as explosive fill in
almost all types of munition compounds. Civilian
applications of RDX include use in fireworks, in
demolition blocks, as a heating fuel for food rations, and
as an occasional rodenticide. Combinations of RDX and
HMX, another explosive, have been the chief
ingredients in approximately 75 products.

RDX is an explosive nitramine compound. It is in the

form of a white powder with a density of 1.806 g/cc.

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Nitrogen content of 37.84%. The chemical name for

RDX is 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine. The chemical
formula for RDX is C3H6N6O6 and the molecular
weight is 222.117. Its melting point is 205C. RDX has
very low solubility in water and has an extremely low
volatility. RDX does not sorb to soil very strongly and
can move into the groundwater from soil. It can be
broken down in air and water in a few hours, but breaks
down more slowly in soil.

Although RDX [Royal Demolition Explosive or Research

Department Explosive] was first prepared in 1899, its
explosive properties were not appreciated until 1920.
RDX was used widely during World War II because
petroleum was not needed as a raw ingredient. During
and since World War II, RDX has become the second-
most-widely used high explosive in the military,
exceeded only by TNT. As with most military
explosives, RDX is rarely used alone; it is widely used
as a component of plastic explosives, detonators, high
explosives in artillery rounds, Claymore mines, and
demolition kits. RDX has limited civilian use as a rat
poison.

RDX can cause seizures in humans and animals when

large amounts are inhaled or ingested. Nausea and
vomiting have also been observed. The effects of long-
term (365 days or longer), low-level exposure on the
nervous system are not known. No other significant
health effects have been reported in humans. Rats and
mice that ate RDX for 3 months or more had decreased
body weights and slight liver and kidney damage. It is
not known whether RDX causes birth defects in
humans. It did not cause birth defects in rabbits, but did
result in smaller offspring in rats. It is not known
whether RDX affects reproduction in humans. The EPA
has determined that RDX is a possible human
carcinogen (Class C). In one study, RDX caused liver
tumors in mice that were exposed to it in the diet.
However, carcinogenic effects were not noted in rat
studies and no human data are available. RDX does not
bioaccumulate in fish or in humans.

RDX has been produced several ways, but the most

common method of manufacture used in the United
States is the continuous Bachmann process. The
Bachmann process involves reacting hexamine with
nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, glacial acetic acid, and
acetic anhydride. The crude product is filtered and
recrystallized to form RDX. The byproducts of RDX

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manufacture include nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, acid

mists, and unreacted ingredients. A second process
that has been used to manufacture RDX, the direct
nitration of octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-
tetrazocine (HMX), has not yielded a percentage of
RDX as high as the percentage produced in the
Bachmann process (Army 1978; Merck 1989).

Production of RDX peaked in the 1960s when it was

ranked third in explosive production by volume in the
United States. The average volume of RDX produced
from 1969 to 1971 was 15 million pounds per month.
However, production of RDX decreased to a yearly total
of 16 million pounds for 1984.

RDX is not produced commercially in the United States.

Production in the United States is limited to Army
ammunition plants such as Holston Army ammunition
plant in Kingsport, Tennessee, which has been
operating at 10-20% capacity. Several Army
ammunition plants, such as Louisiana (Shreveport,
Louisiana), Lone Star (Texarkana, Texas), Iowa
(Middletown, Iowa), and Milan (Milan, Tennessee), also
handle and package RDX. Since the release of RDX is
not required to be reported under SARA Section 313,
there are no data on RDX in the Toxics Release
Inventory (TRI 1993).

Waste-water treatment sludges resulting from the

manufacture of RDX are classified as hazardous wastes
and are subject to EPA regulations. Munitions such as
RDX have been disposed of in the past by dumping in
deep sea water. By-products of military explosives such
as RDX have also been openly burned in many Army
ammunition plants in the past. There are indications that
in recent years as much as 80% of waste munitions and
propellants have been disposed of by incineration.
Wastes containing RDX have been incinerated by
grinding the explosive wastes with a flying knife cutter
and spraying the ground material with water to form a
slurry. The types of incineration used to dispose of
waste munitions containing RDX include rotary kiln
incineration, fluidized bed incineration, and pyrolitic
incineration. The primary disadvantage of open burning
or incineration is that explosive contaminants are often
released into the air, water, and soils.

Soldiers and other workers have been exposed to RDX

during its manufacture, in the field, and through the
contamination of the environment. The main

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occupational exposure to RDX during its manufacture is

through the inhalation of fine dust particles. Ingestion
may also be a possible route of exposure, but it is
poorly absorbed through the dermis.

The greatest potential for occupational exposure to

RDX occurs at ammunition plants with load, assemble
and pack (LAP) operations, where workers involved
with melt-pouring and maintenance operations have the
greatest potential for exposures.

In 1962, five cases of convulsions or unconsciousness

or both occurred at an RDX manufacturing plant in the
United States. All five employees had convulsions
during their work shifts or within a few hours after their
shifts were over. These patients exhibited little or no
prodrome, and the postictal phase lasted up to 24
hours. No abnormal laboratory or physical findings were
noted.

Troops have also become intoxicated during field

operations from exposure to composition C4 plastic
explosive, which contains 91% RDX. These field
exposures occurred because C4 was either chewed as
an intoxicant or used as a fuel for cooking. Thus, the
route of exposure was ingestion or inhalation. At least
40 American soldiers experienced convulsions due to
RDX ingestion during the Vietnam War.

After acute exposure by inhalation or ingestion, there is

a latent period of a few hours, followed by a general
sequence of intoxication that begins with a prodromal
period of irritability. Neurological symptoms
predominate and include restlessness and
hyperirritability; headache; weakness; dizziness;
hyperactive reflexes; nausea and vomiting; prolonged
and recurrent generalized convulsions; muscle twitching
and soreness; and stupor, delirium, and disorientation.

Clinical findings in acute exposures may also include

fever, tachycardia, hematuria, proteinuria, azotemia,
mild anemia, neutrophilic leukocytosis, elevated AST,
and electroencephalogram (EEG) abnormalities. These
abnormal effects, transient and unreliable for diagnosis
purposes, last at most a few days. In fact, all physical
and laboratory tests may remain normal, even in the
presence of seizures. EEGs made at the time of
convulsions may show bilateral synchronous spike and
wave complexes (2-3/sec) in the frontal areas with
diffuse slow wave activity; normalization occurs within 1

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to 3 months.

RDX in the wastewater from manufacturing and loading

operations has also contaminated the environment.
Although contamination has appeared in soil and
groundwater near some ammunition plants, RDX's low
solubility in water has limited its migration in most
cases.

Although intensive research with animals has revealed

some effects, few effects of chronic human exposure to
RDX have been reported. Investigations into the
mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of RDX have yielded
conflicting results. RDX does not appear to be a
mutagen, based on negative results in the Ames tests,
the dominant lethal test, and the unscheduled
deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis assay. RDX has not
been found to be carcinogenic in gavage studies
performed on rats, but increased hepatocellular
carcinoma and adenoma were noted in females of one
strain of mice. Due to this finding, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency has classified RDX as
a possible human carcinogen.

Reproductive effects have been noted in rabbits and

rats. A study performed on rabbits showed teratogenic
effects at 2 mg/kg/day (10% of the dose that caused
maternal toxicity). Similarly, a teratology study
performed on pregnant rats exposed to RDX resulted in
offspring with lower body weights and shorter body
lengths than were found in the control group. These
researchers therefore recommended that human
females of childbearing age be protected from exposure
to RDX.

Despite the low toxicity of RDX, exposure should be

maintained at the lowest levels possible due to its
possible carcinogenicity. General medical surveillance
examinations can be conducted (such as liver and
kidney function tests), but specific testing for the effects
of low level occupational exposure does not appear to
be warranted, given the absence of abnormal results
even in those patients with RDX-induced seizures.
Surveillance for both males and females should also
include a screening questionnaire for reproductive
history. Pregnant women should avoid exposure to
RDX.

HMX [Octogen - Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-

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1,3,5,7-tetrazocine ]
High Melting Explosive [HMX] is the highest-energy
solid explosive produced on a large scale in the United
States. It is also known as Octogen and
cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine, as well as other
names. HMX explodes violently at high temperatures
(534F and above). Because of this property, HMX is
used exclusively for military purposes to implode
fissionable material in nuclear devices, as a component
of plastic-bonded explosives, as a component of rocket
propellant, and as a high explosive burster charge. The
use of HMX as a propellant and in maximum-
performance explosives is increasing.

HMX was discovered as a by-product in the production

of RDX. Although it is almost as sensitive and powerful
as RDX, it is seldom used alone in military applications
but is normally mixed with another compound, such as
TNT. In the Navy, HMX is used as an ingredient in
plastic-bonded explosives.

HMX is produced by the nitration of hexamine with

ammonium nitrate and nitric acid in an acetic acid/acetic
anhydride solvent at 44C. The raw materials are mixed
in a two-step process and the product is purified by
recrystallization. This is a modification of the Bachmann
Process used to produce RDX, another explosive. The
yield of HMX is about 55-60%, with RDX as an impurity.
RDX produced by the Bachmann Process usually
contains about 8-12% HMX as an acceptable
byproduct.

HMX is currently produced at only one facility in the

United States, the Holston Army Ammunition Plant in
Kingsport, Tennessee. The amount of HMX made and
used in the United States at present is not known, but it
is believed to be greater than 30 million pounds [15,000
tons] per year between 1969 and 1971. No estimates of
current production volume were located, but it is
estimated that its use is increasing. Processing may
occur at load, assemble, and pack (LAP) facilities
operated by the military. There were 10 facilities
engaged in LAP operations in the United States in 1976

No information was located regarding import or export

of HMX in the United States. Export of this chemical is
regulated by the U.S. State Department.

Wastes from explosive manufacturing processes are

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classified as hazardous wastes by EPA. Generators of

these wastes must conform to EPA regulations for
treatment, storage, and disposal. The waste water
treatment sludges from processing of explosives are
listed as hazardous wastes by EPA based only on
reactivity. Waste water treatment may involve filtering
through activated charcoal, photolytic degradation, and
biodegradation. Rotary kiln or fluidized bed incineration
methods are acceptable disposal methods for HMX-
containing wastes. At the Holston facility, waste waters
are generated from the manufacturing areas and piped
to an industrial water treatment plant on site. Following
neutralization and nutrient addition, sludge is aerobically
digested and dewatered. It was estimated that the
facility generates a maximum of 3,800 tons (7.6 million
pounds) of treated, dewatered sludge annually. Based
on demonstration by Holston that this sludge is
nonhazardous, the EPA proposed granting a petition to
exclude the sludge from hazardous waste control. HMX
is not listed on the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI)
database, because it is not a chemical for which
companies are required to report discharges to
environmental media.

HMX or octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine
is an explosive polynitramine. The chemical formula is
C4H8N8O8 and molecular weight is 296.20. It is a
colorless solid with a melting point of 276 to 286C.
HMX is made by the nitration of hexamine with
ammonium nitrate and nitric acid in an acetic acid/acetic
anhydride solvent. A small amount of HMX is also
formed in making cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine (RDX),
another explosive similar in structure to HMX.

It dissolves slightly in water. Only a very small amount

of HMX will evaporate into the air; however, it can occur
in air attached to suspended particles or dust. The taste
and smell of HMX are not known.

HMX is a manmade chemical and does not occur

naturally in the environment. It is made from other
chemicals known as hexamine, ammonium nitrate, nitric
acid, and acetic acid. A small amount of HMX is also
formed in making cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine (RDX),
another explosive similar in structure to HMX.

HMX is only slightly soluble in water. It has low volatility

and thus only a small amount of HMX will evaporate
into the air; however, it can occur in air attached to
suspended particles or dust. In surface water, HMX

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does not evaporate or bind to sediments to any large

extent. Sunlight breaks down most of the HMX in
surface water into other compounds, usually in a matter
of days to weeks. HMX is likely to move from soil into
groundwater, particularly in sandy soils.

Exposure to HMX can occur during the manufacture

and filling of munitions or through the environmental
contamination of groundwater and soil. HMX, like RDX,
is manufactured using the continuous Bachman
process. Although its solubility in water is very low,
HMX can be present in particulate form in water effluent
from manufacturing, LAP, and demilitarization
operations.

Information on the adverse health effects of HMX is

limited. In one study on humans, no adverse effects
were reported in workers exposed to HMX in air.
However, the concentrations of HMX in the workplace
air were not reported in this study, and only a small
number of workers and effects were investigated.

Studies in rats, mice, and rabbits indicate that HMX may

be harmful to the liver and central nervous system if it is
swallowed or contacts the skin. The lowest dose
producing any effects in animals was 100 milligrams per
kilogram of body weight per day (mg/kg/day) orally and
165 mg/kg/day on the skin. Limited evidence suggests
that even a single exposure to these dose levels
harmed rabbits. The mechanism by which HMX causes
adverse effects on the liver and nervous system is not
understood.

The reproductive and developmental effects of HMX

have not been well studied in humans or animals. At
present, the information needed to determine if HMX
causes cancer is insufficient. Due to the lack of
information, EPA has determined that HMX is not
classifiable as to its human carcinogenicity.

The data on the effects on human health of exposure to

HMX are very limited. HMX causes CNS effects similar
to those of RDX, but at considerably higher doses. In
one study, volunteers submitted to patch testing, which
produced skin irritation. Another study of a cohort of 93
workers at an ammunition plant found no hematological,
hepatic, autoimmune, or renal diseases. However, the
study did not quantify the levels of exposure to HMX.

HMX exposure has been investigated in several studies

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on animals. Overall, the toxicity appears to be quite low.

HMX is poorly absorbed by ingestion. When applied to
the dermis, it induces mild skin irritation but not delayed
contact sensitization. Various acute and subchronic
neurobehavioral effects have been reported in rabbits
and rodents, including ataxia, sedation, hyperkinesia,
and convulsions. The chronic effects of HMX that have
been documented through animal studies include
decreased hemoglobin, increased serum alkaline
phosphatase, and decreased albumin. Pathological
changes were also observed in the animals' livers and
kidneys. No data are available concerning the possible
reproductive, developmental, or carcinogenic effects of
HMX.

CL-20 / HNIW
CL-20 [2,4,6,8,10,12-hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane
(HNIW) ] is a new nitramine explosive that is 20 percent
more powerful that HMX. The trend today is to explore
the possibilities that HNIW can provide to munitions;
from high performance gun propellants , shaped
charges etc. The only limitation is the cost of its
production. Even there had been practical methods to
nitrate the special reactant (acetyl Isowurtzitane
derivatives) with mixed acid, but the effort of
debenzylation of the condensation products of glyoxal
and benzylamine still requires the expensive palladium
catalyst. Therefore it will take some time before it can
reach the level of comparatively lower cost needed to
make HMX.

CL-20 exists in four crystalline forms, stable at different

temperatures. Only the e and the form are used in ex-
ploitation. CL-20 has better detonation properties than
octogen, higher den-sity and detonation rate but lower
impact and friction sensitivity (of the PETN class). The
CL-20 melting point is lower than in octogen, 240C
approximately.

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Explosives - Nitrate esters

Nitrate (NO3-) (CAS No. 014797-55-8) is an inorganic
anion resulting from the oxidation of elemental nitrogen.
It is an essential nutrient for plant protein synthesis and
plays a critical role in the nitrogen cycle of soil and
water. Nitrates are produced by natural biological and
physical oxidations and therefore are ubiquitous in the
environment (Ridder and Oehme 1974). Most nitrate
compounds are strong oxidizing agents and some can
react violently with oxidizable substances and may
explode if exposed to heat or shock.

Nitrates are produced by natural biological and physical

oxidations and therefore are ubiquitous in the
environment. Most of the excess nitrates in the
environment originate from inorganic chemicals
manufactured for agriculture. Organic molecules
containing nitrate groups are manufactured primarily for
explosives or for their pharmacological effects

NC [Nitrocellulose]
for many centuries gunpowder was the worlds only
explosive, and was not superseded until the discovery
of guncotton. So long ago as 1832 Bracon discovered
that woody fiber could be turned into an explosive by

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the action of concentrated nitric acid; and a few years

later a French inventor, Dumas, tried to make cartridges
of paper treated in similar fashion. If he had succeeded
these would have been the first smokeless cartridges,
but he failed; and it was not until 1845 that Schnbein, a
German chemist, hit upon the proper method of treating
cotton wool with nitric and sulphuric acids, so as to turn
it into guncotton.

In 1847 an English firm, Messrs. Hall and Son of

Faversham, began to manufacture guncotton, and
military experts hailed it as the new explosive which
would take the place of gunpowder. But this explosive
was so terribly powerful that, when used in a gun or
rifle, it blew the barrel to pieces. Worse than that, it was
most dangerous to manufacture.

Two main problems had to be solved before it could be

used as a gun propellant. First, the velocity of the
explosion had to be reduced so that the charge weight
required to propel the projectile would not shatter the
gun tube. second, the density had to be increased so
that a given charge weight would pack into a
reasonable space. The first problem was solved in part
by igniting NC instead of firing it with a detonator. The
solution to the second problem actually solved both. In
1886, Vielle first colloided or gelatinized NC with alcohol
and ether and, thus reduced the burning rate to
acceptable levels. The procedure significantly increased
the loading density of NC, establishing it as the
foundational element in gun propellants used through
the present day. Further developments resulted in
materials that could be added to improve stowage
qualities, reduce or eliminate flash, reduce
hygroscopicity, reduce flame temperature, and even
increase the propellant force or impetus.

Munitions manufacturing processes may generate

nitrocellulose (NC) fines. Disposal of these fines is
difficult because of their reactive nature. Composting
has potential to be a safe and cost effective means of
disposal. Open burning is no longer permitted in several
states and is expected to banned nationally in the
future. Open detonation is also the least acceptable
form of disposal because of uncontrolled pollution by-
products. In its role as the Department of Defense
Manager for conventional munitions, Army must be able
to dispose of Propellants/Explosives/Pyrotechnics
production wastes. In composting, a controlled
biological process, microorganisms convert

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biodegradable hazardous material to innocuous,

stabilized by-products, typically at elevated
temperatures between 50 - 55 C. The increased
temperatures result from heat produced by the
microorganisms as they degrade the organic material in
the waste. The NC fines are mixed with bulking agents
and organic amendments, such as wood chips and
animal and vegetable wastes, to enhance the porosity
of the mixture. Maintaining moisture content, pH,
oxygenation, temperature, and the carbon-to-nitrogen
ratio achieves maximum degradation efficiency.

NG [Nitroglycerin ]
Nitroglycerin (NG) [Synonyms: 1,2,3-Propanetriol
trinitrate; glycerol trinitrate; nitroglycerol; NG;
trinitroglycerol; NTG; trinitrin] is an oily liquid at room
temperature; colorless in pure form and pale yellow or
brown in commercial form. It is used in manufacture of
dynamite, gunpowder, and rocket propellants, and as a
therapeutic agent primarily to alleviate angina pectoris.
NG is used to make smokeless gun powder and rocket
propellants. Single-base powders contain only
nitrocellulose, double-base powders contain
nitrocellulose and NG, and triple-base powders contain
nitrocellulose, NG, and other combustible materials.

In 1847 a new explosive came into being. This was

nitroglycerine, made by treating glycerine with nitric and
sulphuric acids. But at first it was even more dangerous
to handle than guncotton, for the least shock exploded
it, and its violence was terrific.

The great chemist Alfred Nobel tried to improve it by

mixing it with gunpowder, but the powder did not absorb
all the nitroglycerine, and accidents of the most terrible
kind became more and more frequent. Yet the new
explosive, being liquid, could be poured into crevices in
rocks, and was so useful as a blasting agent that its
manufacture went on until a large vessel carrying cases
of the explosive from Hamburg to Chili blew up at sea.
The ship was blown to bits and her crew killed, and the
disaster caused so great a sensation that the
manufacture of nitroglycerine was prohibited in Sweden,
Belgium, and in England. But Nobel still continued his
experiments, and at last, after trying sawdust and all
other sorts of absorbents in vain, found the perfect
absorbent in the shape of keiselguhra sort of earth
made of fossil shells. The mixture is what we know to-
day as dynamite; and in spite of the fact that modern

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chemistry has produced very many new explosives,

some of terrific power, dynamite remains the safest and
most widely used of all explosives.

Nitroglycerin (NG) is a vasodilator and has been

associated with acute episodes of angina pectoris,
myocardial infraction, and sudden death. Workers
engaged in the production or use of dynamite are
potentially exposed to mixed vapors of nitroglycerin
(NG) and ethylene glycol dinitrate (EGDN). Initial
exposure to NG (or NG:EGDN mixtures)
characteristically results in an intense throbbing
headache that begins in the forehead and moves to the
occipital region. Volunteers developed mild headaches
when exposed to NG:EGDN vapor at concentrations of
0.5mg/m^3 for 25 minutes. It has been suggested that
at least some workers may develop headaches at
concentrations in excess of 0.1 mg/m^3. Other signs
and symptoms associated with initial exposure include
dizziness, nausea, palpitations, and decreases in
systolic, diastolic, and pulse pressures. These initial
signs and symptoms, including headache, are indicative
of a shift in blood volume form the central to the
peripheral circulatory system, initiated by dilation of the
blood vessels.

After 2 to 4 days of repeated NG exposure, tolerance to

the vasodilatory activity occurs, probably as a result of
compensatory vasoconstriction. Tolerance may be lost
during periods without NG exposure, such as weekends
and holidays. Chronic repeated exposures to NG and
NG mixtures also have been associated with more
serious cardiovascular effects, including angina pectoris
and sudden death.

Signs and symptoms of ischemic heart disease were

observed in nine munitions workers involved in handling
a nitroglycerin-cellulose mixture. Within 1 to 4 years of
initial exposure, these workers developed nonexertional
chest pain, which was relieved either by therapeutic
nitroglycerin or by returning to work after the weekend.
Coronary angiography performed in five of the patients
showed no obstructive lesions. In one patient, observed
while in a withdrawal state, coronary artery spasm was
demonstrated and readily reversed by sublingual
nitroglycerin.

Sudden deaths in previously healthy workers have been

reported among those exposed to NG or to NG: EGDN
mixtures. Like the attacks of angina pectoris, sudden

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deaths occurred most frequently during brief periods

away from work, in particular on Sunday nights or
Monday mornings. In most cases, there were no
premonitory signs or symptoms although some subjects
had anginal episodes during brief periods away from
work. Atherosclerotic plaques, with or without
thrombosis, have been found in the coronary arteries of
workers at autopsy, but their coronary arteries generally
were not occluded to the same extent as those of
unexposed workers who had died suddenly.

The pathogenesis of the sudden death syndrome has

been postulated to be due to withdrawal of coronary
vasodilators (e.g. NG), resulting in vasoconstriction with
acute hypertension, or with myocardial ischemia in
workers adapted to and dependent on NG to maintain a
minimum level of coronary flow. A second contributing
mechanism for coronary artery toxicity due to NG may
relate to so-called aging of the vessels due to repeated
dilation. Other theories suggest that sudden deaths may
be related to peripheral vasodilation consequent to
reexposure of NG.

Estimates of exposure levels associated with sudden

death have not been made because workers typically
absorb considerable amounts of NG through the skin in
addition to inhalation.

Employees handling NG should be given personal

protective equipment to prevent the absorption of NG
through the skin. However, neither natural rubber nor
synthetic rubber gloves, including neoprene gloves, are
impervious to NG. The wearing of such gloves tends to
hold the chemical in contact with the skin, thus
promoting its absorption. Preferably, cotton-lining
gloves should be worn underneath nitrile gloves and
both gloves changed ever 2-1/2 hours (USAEHA
Technical Guide 24).

More recent studies have suggested that the effects of

long-term workplace exposure to NG may not be
completely reversed after exposure is terminated.
Former workers may be at increased risk for
cardiovascular mortality for months to years after
exposure has ceased.

Individuals with preexisting ischemic heart disease

should not be assigned to work where significant
exposure to NG may occur. Early identification of
cardiovascular disease is the primary goal of medical

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surveillance of nitroglycerin workers. A preplacement

examination must be administered to all new employees
occupational histories, a physical examination, and
indicated laboratory tests, record of their pulse rates.
Periodic examinations should be conducted
semiannually, with the same focus as the preplacement
examination. During the periodic examination, the
physician should be aware that headaches that occur
during work shifts could indicate skin absorption of
nitroglycerin, even if air concentrations of nitroglycerin
are below the PEL. Examinations with similar content
are necessary when exposure to nitroglycerin has been
terminated, although surveillance should perhaps
extend beyond employment, due to the latency of the
withdrawal effects. Monitoring should include pulse,
blood pressure, CBC, urinalysis, resting EKG and lipid
profile.

PETN [Pentaerythritol tetranitrate]

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, C5H8N4012 (PETN), has a
specific gravity of solids of 1.76 and a confined
detonation velocity of over 25,000 fps. PETN is used as
a priming composition in detonators, a base charge in
blasting caps, and a core load for detonating fuse.
PETN is very much used in Detonating Cord of which it
is the explosive core (Primacord), where it develops a
velocity rate of 21,000 feet per second. Detonating cord
is insensitive to friction and ordinary shock, but may be
exploded by rifle fire. It also detonates sympathetically
with the detonation of an adjacent high explosive.

PETN is one of the strongest known high explosives

with a relative effectiveness factor (R.E. factor) of 1.66.
It is more sensitive to shock or friction than TNT or
tetryl, and it is never used alone as a booster. It is
primarily used in booster and bursting charges of small
caliber ammunition, in upper charges of detonators in
some land mines and shells, and as the explosive core
of primacord.

During World War II the M9A1 2.36" Rocket Launcher

(Bazooka) charge, with 8 oz of pentolite, could
penetrate up to 5 inches of armor.

Demolition charge, M118, commonly called Flex-X or

sheet explosive, consists of 4 half-pound sheets of
flexible explosive packed in a plastic envelope. Each
sheet is approximately 3 inches wide, 12 inches long,
and 1/4 inch thick. Note: The exact explosive contained

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in an M118 charge varies with the manufacturer. At

present, some manufacturers use PETN as the basic
explosive. Others use RDX. Charges manufactured in
the future may include other explosives.

PETN does not occur naturally, so the production and

use of this kind of compound can lead to contamination
of the environment. PETN is subject to biodegradation
in untreated or unpreserved urine and feces. There also
have been some reports of its degradation by bacteria,
whose PETN reductase sequentially denitrates PETN
into tri- and dinitrates (French et al., 1996). The last
compound shown in the pathway, pentaerythritol
dinitrate, is degraded further to unknown products.

In 1995 Haustein KO, Winkler U, Loffler A, Huller G. of

the Abteilung Klinische Pharmakologie, Medizinische
Hochschule Erfurt, Germany reported on a study of
PETN's cardiovascular effects. The effects of 80 mg
pentaerithrityl-tetranitrate (PETN) as suspension or
formulated as tablets were compared to placebo in a
single blind, randomized, crossover study in 18 healthy
subjects (study A), and the bioequivalence of two tablet
formulations (marketed Dilcoran 80 vs a new
formulation) was studied in 24 healthy subjects after
administration of single oral doses of 80 mg PETN
according to a placebo controlled, randomized, double
blind, two-way crossover study design (study B). The
perfusion of the right middle finger was measured by
rheography (altitude A of the changes of resistance and
of the incisure D) before and 24 h post-dose, and blood
pressure and heart rate were measured in supine
position at the same time. The values of area under
curve (AUC) of the ratio A/D were calculated by the
trapezoidal rule. In study A the mean A/D-values were
reduced from about 2.0 to about 1.3 after intake of
PETN (solution or tablet) with a minimum 60 to 90 min
postdose (solution) and 2 h postdose (tablet). A
significant reduction in this ratio was seen up to 8
(solution) or 12 h (tablet) post dose. Changes in blood
pressure were not observed while the heart rate
decreased in the subjects of all three groups 1 to 2 h
postdose followed by an increase by 6 to 10 beats per
min. After subtraction of the AUC values of placebo
from the PETN-derived AUC values, mean values of
6.61 (SD 1.52, solution) and 7.25 (SD 1.48, A/D*h,
tablet) were calculated (p > 0.1, study A).

EGDN [ethylene glycol dinitrate]

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Ethylene Glycol Dinitrate [SYNONYM(s): Glycol

dinitrate; Nitroglycol; Dinitroglycol; EGDN; Glycerin
trinitrate] is a colorless to yellow, oily, odorless liquid. It
is an explosive ingredient (60-80%) in dynamite along
with nitroglycerine (40-20%).

EGDN and NG are used with a mixture of sodium

nitrate and an absorbent, often wood pulp, to produce
dynamite. EGDN is added to lower the freezing point of
the EGDN/NG mixture and is currently the major
component. The EGDN/NG ratio is about 8/2 or 9/1.
This is the only commercial use for EGDN. Because
EGDN is more volatile than NG, there is usually more
airborne EGDN than NG from the dynamite mixture. In
1976, about 250 million pounds of dynamite, containing
5 to 50% EGDN/NG, were produced by U.S.
manufacturers.

Headaches have developed in workers exposed to 0.4

to 0.67 mg/m3 for 25 minutes; all workers had
decreases in blood pressure [Trainor and Jones 1966].
Ethylene glycol dinitrate and nitroglycerine are
vasodilators and initial exposures result in headache,
dizziness, nausea, or decreases in blood pressure;
however, workers became tolerant of the vasodilatory
activity after 2 to 4 days of exposure.

Angina pectoris has been reported among workers who

were exposed to EGDN and/or NG. In those affected,
the angina usually occurred in periods away from work.
Sudden deaths without any apparent cause have also
been reported among these workers. The deaths, like
the angina, occurred more frequently during periods
away from work. In most cases, the workers who died
suddenly had no symptoms other than angina during
periods away from work. The deaths are thought to be
related to compensatory vasoconstriction (tolerance)
induced by repeated exposure to the substances.
Vasoconstriction is thought to lead to spasms of the
coronary arteries and then the related angina pectoris
and sudden deaths.

No data on acute inhalation toxicity are available on

which to base the IDLH for ethylene glycol dinitrate
(EGDN) and/or nitroglycerin. The chosen IDLH,
therefore, is based on chronic toxicity data concerning
the physiological response of animals to EGDN.
According to Patty [1963], rats and guinea pigs survived
6 months of exposure to 500 mg/m3 (80 ppm) EGDN
with the only effect being slight drowsiness and some

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Heinz body formation [Stein 1956]. Although Patty

[1963] stated that EGDN is more toxic for cats and
rabbits, the chosen IDLH is still probably conservative
because cats given 2-hour daily exposures to 21 ppm
EGDN for 1,000 days exhibited only marked blood
changes [von Oettingen 1946]. However, because of
the assigned protection factor afforded by each device,
2,000 the OSHA PEL of 0.1 mg/m3 (i.e., 200 mg/m3)
is the concentration above which only the "most
protective" respirators are permitted.

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WMD amounts of energy and doing work of various kinds on objects and
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Amatol
Research and development during World War I yielded amatol (TNT
Enter email address plus ammonium nitrate), an explosive with three times the power of
gunpowder. Amatol consists of TNT and ammonium nitrate mixed in
Choose: Submit either 20 /80 or 50 /50 ratios. When the U.S. entered the war, Amatol
was adopted for loading high explosive shells. Owing to shortages of
TNT and RDX (cyclonite) most World War II mines had had 50/50

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ammonium nitrate and TNT (amatol) warheads. This was a low

quality explosive but was later improved by the addition of about
20% aluminum to produce minol.

This explosive is a mechanical mixture of Ammonium Nitrate and

TNT. It is crystalline and yellow or brownish, moisture-absorbing,
insensitive to friction, but may be detonated by severe impact. It is
readily detonated by Mercury Fulminate and other high explosives.
Amatol 50/50 has approximately the same rate of detonation and
brisance as TNT. Amatol 80/20 (used in Bangalore Torpedoes),
produces white smoke on detonation, while Amatol 50/50 produces a
smoke, less black than straight TNT. Amatol is used as a substitute
for TNT and is to be mainly found in large caliber shells.

Driven by its liquid propellant engine, the V-2 had a range of

approximately 200 miles. Its warhead consisted of 2,000 pounds of
amatol.

ANFO (Ammonium nitrate- fuel oil)

Blasting agents consist of mixtures of fuels and oxidizers, none of
which are classified as explosive. Nitrocarbonitrate is a classification
given to a blasting agent under the U. S. Department of
Transportation regulations on packaging and shipping. A blasting
agent consists of inorganic nitrates and carbonaceous fuels and may
contain additional nonexplosive substances such as powdered
aluminum or ferrosilicon to increase density. The addition of an
explosive ingredient such as TNT changes the classification from a
blasting agent to an explosive. Blasting agents may be dry or in
slurry forms. Because of their insensitivity, blasting agents should be
detonated by a primer of high explosive.

Ammonium nitrate- fuel oil (ANFO) has largely replaced dynamites

and gelatins in bench blasting. Denser slurry blasting agents are
supplanting dynamite and gelatin and dry blasting agents. The most
widely used dry blasting agent is a mixture of ammonium nitrate prills
(porous grains) and fuel oil. The fuel oil is not precisely CH2, but this
is sufficiently accurate to characterize the reaction. The right side of
the equation contains only the desirable gases of detonation,
although some CO and N02 are always formed. Weight proportions
of ingredients for the equation are 94.5 percent ammonium nitrate
and 5.5 percent fuel oil. In actual practice the proportions are 94
percent and 6 percent to assure an efficient chemical reaction of the
nitrate.

Uniform mixing of oil and ammonium nitrate is essential to

development of full explosive force. Some blasting agents are
premixed and packaged by the manufacturer. Where not premixed,
several methods of mixing in the field can be employed to achieve
uniformity. The best method, although not always the most practical

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one, is by mechanical tier. A more common and almost as effective

method of mixing is by uniformly soaking prills in opened bags with 8
to 1O percent of their weight of oil. After draining for at least a half
hour the prills will have retained about the correct amount of fuel oil.

Fuel oil can also be poured onto the ammonium nitrate in

approximately the correct proportions as it is poured into the
blasthole. For this purpose, about i gal of fuel oil for each 100 lb of
ammonium nitrate will equal approximately 6 percent by weight of oil.
The oil can be added after each bag or two of prills, and it will
disperse relatively rapidly and uniformly.

Inadequate priming imparts a low initial detonation velocity to a

blasting agent, and the reaction may die out and cause a misfire.
High explosive boosters are sometimes spaced along the borehole
to as sure propagation throughout the column. In charge diameters
of 6 in. or more, dry blasting agents attain confined detonation
velocities of more than i2,000 fps, but in a diameter of 1- 1/2 in., the
velocity is reduced to 60 percent.

Advantages of insensitive dry blasting agents are their safety, ease

of loading, and low price. In the free-flowing form, they have a great
advantage over cartridge explosives because they completely fill the
borehole. This direct coupling to the walls assures efficient use of
explosive energy. Ammonium nitrate is water soluble so that in wet
holes, some blasters pump the water from the hole, insert a plastic
sleeve, and load the blasting agent into the sleeve. Special
precautions should be taken to avoid a possible building up of static
electrical charge, particularly when loading pneumatically. When
properly oxygen- balanced, the fume qualities of dry blasting agents
permit their use underground. Canned blasting agents, once widely
used, have unlimited water resist-ance, but lack advantages of
loading ease and direct coupling to the borehole.

The specific gravity of ANFO varies from 0.75 to 0.95 depending on

the particle density and sizes. Table 3-6 shows how confined
detonation velocity and charge concentration of ANFO vary with
borehole diameter. Pneumatic loading results in high detonation
velocities and higher charge concentrations, particularly in holes
smaller than 3 in. (otherwise such small holes are not usually
recommended for ANFO blasting).

Baratol
Baratol is a composition of barium nitrate and TNT. TNT is typically
25-33% of the mixture with 1% wax as a binder. The high density of
barium nitrate gives baratol a density of at least 2.5.

Early implosion atomic bombs, like the Gadget exploded at Trinity in

1945, the Soviet's Joe 1 in 1949, or India in 1972, used an

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Composition-B [RDX-TNT mixture] as the fast explosive, with baratol

used as the slow explosive.

Composition A
Composition A is a was-coated, granular explosive consisting of
RDX and plasticizing was. Composition A is used by the military in
land mines and 2.75 and 5 inch rockets. Comp A-3 explosives are
made from RDX and wax. Composition A-3 is a wax-coated,
granular explosive, consisting of 91% RDX and 9% desensitizing
wax. Composition A-3 is not melted or cast. It is pressed into
projectiles. It is nonhygroscopic and possesses satisfactory stowage
properties. Composition A-3 is appreciably more brisant and
powerful than TNT; its velocity of detonation is approximately 27,000
fps. It may be white or buff, depending upon the color of the wax
used to coat the powdered RDX. Composition A-3 is used as a
fillerinprojectiles that contain a small burster cavity, such as
antiaircraft projectiles. It can be used as compressed fillers for
medium-caliber projectiles.

Composition B / Comp B
Comp B explosives are made from TNT, RDX, and wax, such as
59.5 percent RDX, 39.5 percent TNT and 1 percent wax.
Desensitizing agents are added. Composition B is used by the
military in land mines, rockets and projectiles. Cast Composition B
has a specific gravity of 1.65 and a detonation velocity of about
25,000 fps and is used as a primer and booster for blasting agents.

Composition B is a mixture of 59% RDX, 40% TNT, and 1% wax.

The TNT reduces the sensitivity of the RDX to a safe degree and,
because of its melting point, allows the material to be cast-loaded.
The blast energy of Composition B is slightly higher than that of TNT.
Composition B is nonhygroscopic and remains stable in stowage. It
has an extremely high-shaped-charge efficiency. The velocity of
detonation is approximately 24,000 fps, and its color ranges from
yellow to brown. Composition B has been used as a more powerful
replacement for TNT in loading some of the rifle grenades and some
rocket heads. It can be used where an explosive with more power
and brisance is of tactical advantage and there is no objection to a
slight increase of sensitivity. While no longer used in newer gun
projectiles, some older stocks may be found with Composition B
main charges.

Factors for Equivalent Weight of

Composition B Explosive Equivalent
Factor
Comp B 1.00
PBXN-109 1.19

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Tritonal 1.09
AFX-777 1.47
AFX-757 1.39
PAX-28 1.62

Composition B-3
During the development of a series of melt-castable explosive
formulations devoid of TNT, non-TNT formulations yielded self-
heating temperatures significantly lower than predicted. In other
tests, Composition B (59.5% RDX, 39.5% TNT, 1% wax)
demonstrated an exceedingly low self-heating temperature that
ultimately results in a violent final reaction. It is often processed
above its self-heating temperature, yet it is safely processed in 300-
gallon melt kettles. Researchers subjected Composition B and its
individual energetic components to one-liter cook-off testing. They
expanded their investigations to include neat TNT, neat RDX
(HRDX), an insensitive RDX (IRDX) essentially absent of
microinclusions and voids, and Composition B-3 (60% RDX, 40%
TNT) made with IRDX. Following analysis of these tests, researchers
also tested an HRDX/TNT (13% HRDX, 87% TNT) mixture.

Neat TNT is thermally destabilized by the presence of RDX, either

HRDX or IRDX, indicating that RDX is the trigger in the thermal
decomposition process associated with Composition B (HRDX) and
Composition B-3 (IRDX). The reaction violence of both neat HRDX
and Composition B made with HRDX were exceedingly violent, with
either partial detonation or detonation occurring. Additionally,
researchers observed that the reaction of Composition B-3 (IRDX/
TNT) was more violent than either neat TNT or neat IRDX. Once
again, they hypothesized that solubilized RDX in molten TNT was
the source of the effect. They believe the high-quality, defect-free
crystals of IRDX were modified by a dynamic equilibrium in molten
TNT, with IRDX solubilized and reprecipitated as ill-defined, voided
crystals similar to HRDX. They suspect these ill-defined RDX
crystallites present at cook-off temperatures were the source of the
reaction violence at cook-off.

Composition C-3
Compositior C-3 is one of the Composition C series that has now
been replaced by C-4, especially for loading shaped charges.
However, quantities of Composition C-1 and Composition C-2 may
be found in the field. Composition C-1 is 88.3% RDX and 11.7%
plasticizing oil. Composition C-3 is 77% RDX, 3% tetryl, 4% TNT, 1%
NC, 5% MNT (mononitrotoluol), and 10% DNT (dinitrotoluol). The
last two compounds, while they are explosives, are oily liquids and
plasticize the mixture. The essential difference between Composition
C-3 and Composition C-2 is the substitution of 3% tetryl for 3% RDX,

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which improves the plastic qualities. The changes were made in an

effort to obtain a plastic, puttylike composition to meet the
requirements of an ideal explosive for molded and shaped charges
that will maintain its plasticity over a wide range of temperatures and
not exude oil.

Composition C-3 is about 1.35 times as powerful as TNT. The

melting point of Composition C-3 is 68C, and it is soluble in
acetone. The velocity of detonation is approximate y 26,000 fps. Its
color is light brown. As with Composition B, Composition C is no
longer being used as a gun projectile main charge. However, some
stocks may still be in service with Composition C-3 used as a main
charge.

Composition C-4 / Comp C-4 Plastic Explosive

The plasticized form of RDX, composition C-4, contains 91% RDX,
2.1% polyisobutylene, 1.6% motor oil, and 5.3% 2-ethylhexyl
sebacate.

The Demolition charge M183 is used primarily in breaching

obstacles or demolition of large structures where large charges are
required (Satchel Charge). The charge assembly M183 consists of
16 block demolition charges M112, four priming assemblies and
carrying case M85. Each Priming assembly consists of a five-foot
length of detonating cord assembled with two detonating cord clips
and capped at each end with a booster. The components of the
assembly are issued in the carrying case. The demolition charge
M112 is a rectangular block of Composition C-4 approximately 2
inches by 1.5 inches and 11 inches long, weighing 1.25 Lbs. When
the charge is detonated, the explosive is converted into compressed
gas. The gas exerts pressure in the form of a shock wave, which
demolishes the target by cutting, breaching, or cratering.

Using explosives provides the easiest and fastest way to break the
frozen ground. However, the use of demolitions will be restricted
when under enemy observation. Composition C-4, tetrytol, and TNT
are the best explosives for use in northern operations because they
retain their effectiveness in cold weather. Dig a hole in the ground in
which to place the explosive and tamp the charge with any material
available to increase its effectiveness. Either electric or nonelectric
circuits may be used to detonate the charge. For a foxhole, 10
pounds of explosive will usually be sufficient. Another formula is to
use 2 pounds of explosive for every 30 cm (1') of penetration in
frozen ground.

DMDNB (2-3 dimethyl, 2-3 dinitrobutane) is a new, military unique

compound used as a tagant in C-4 explosive. Therefore there is no
OSHA or ACGIH standard. However, USACHPPM's Toxicology
Directorate did a study to determine an Army Exposure Limit. There

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is no toxicological data for DMDNB's effects on the human body, but

tests were done on laboratory animals and they showed a reversible
liver hypertrophy in rats that were exposed to DMDNB. An exposure
level was determined and a one thousand fold safety factor was
used to lower the Army exposure level to 0.15 mg/m^3. (At this level
there are no warning properties, i.e. smell, taste, etc.)

Composition H6 / COMP H6
H-6 is an Australian produced explosive composition. Composition
H6 is a widely used main charge filling for underwater blast weapons
such as mines, depth charges, torpedoes and mine disposal
charges. The M21 AT mine is 230 millimeters in diameter and 206
millimeters high. It weighs 7.6 kilograms and has 4.95 kilograms of
Composition H6 explosive.

In weapon applications, computational models require experimental

data to determine certain specific output parameters of H6 to predict
various underwater blast scenarios. To this end, the critical diameter
dc, which is the minimum diameter which will sustain a stable
detonation, and the limiting value of the velocity of detonation at
infinite charge diameter D-infinity, were determined for unconfined
cylinders of H6.

Cyclotol [Composition B]
Cyclotol, which is a mixture of RDX and TNT, is an explosive used in
shaped charge bombs.

CXM-6
On 30 August 1999 Holston Army Ammunition Plant restarted
production of new explosives to fill an order for Composition CXM-3.
This is the first new explosive production by Royal Ordnance North
America (RONA) as the operating contractor at Holston. CXM-3 will
be supplied to Atlantic Research Corporation to fill warheads for the
Tomahawk missile system. RONA is also planning to produce other
RDX and HMX products, including approximately 800,000 pounds of
Composition C-4, by the end of December.

Detasheet
Detasheet is a plastic explosives, manufactured by DuPont
containing PETN with nitrocellulose and a binder. It is manufactured
in thin flexible sheets with a rubbery texture, and is generally
coloured either reddish/orange (commercial) or green (military). In
use, it is typically cut to shape for precision engineering charges.

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Dynamite
In 1847 a new explosive came into being. This was nitroglycerine,
made by treating glycerine with nitric and sulphuric acids. But at first
it was even more dangerous to handle than guncotton, for the least
shock exploded it, and its violence was terrific. The great chemist
Alfred Nobel tried to improve it by mixing it with gunpowder, but the
powder did not absorb all the nitroglycerine, and accidents of the
most terrible kind became more and more frequent. Yet the new
explosive, being liquid, could be poured into crevices in rocks, and
was so useful as a blasting agent that its manufacture went on until a
large vessel carrying cases of the explosive from Hamburg to Chili
blew up at sea. The ship was blown to bits and her crew killed, and
the disaster caused so great a sensation that the manufacture of
nitroglycerine was prohibited in Sweden, Belgium, and in England.
But Nobel still continued his experiments, and at last, after trying
sawdust and all other sorts of absorbents in vain, found the perfect
absorbent in the shape of keiselguhra sort of earth made of fossil
shells. The mixture is what we know to-day as dynamite; and in spite
of the fact that modern chemistry has produced very many new
explosives, some of terrific power, dynamite remains the safest and
most widely used of all explosives.

Many attempts have been made to use dynamite in guns; and the
Americans at one time built some huge air guns for the purpose of
firing large shells, or rather aerial torpedoes, charged with dynamite.
But these guns, of which one or two were used in the Spanish-
American War, were very cumbersome and slow in use. Nor could
they throw a projectile to a greater distance than a mile. So they
were soon abandoned in favor of rifled cannon-firing shells loaded
with explosives such as cordite or lyddite.

Dynamite was originally a mixture of nitroglycerin and diato-mite, a

porous, inert silica. Today, straight nitroglycerin dynamite consists of
nitroglycerin, with sodium nitrate, antacid, carbonaceous fuel, and
sometimes sulfur in place of the inert filler. It is most commonly
manufactured in weight strengths of 20 to 60 percent. Because of
the tendency of nitroglycerin to freeze at low working temperature,
another explosive oil usually replaces part of the nitroglycerin in a
straight dynamite.

Straight dynamite has a high detonation velocity which gives a

shattering action. It resists water well in the higher grades but poorly
in the lower grades. Straight dynamite generally has poor fume
qualities, and is unsuitable for use underground or in poorly
ventilated spaces. The use of straight dynamite has declined
because of high cost, sensitivity to shock and friction, and high
flammability. Ammonia ("extra") dynamites have replaced straight
dynamite in most applications.

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Ditching dynamite is a name given to 50 percent straight dynamite.

Its high sensitivity is advantageous in ditching where sympathetic
detonation eliminates the need for caps or detonating fuse with
individual charges. Sixty percent straight dynamite is sometimes
packaged in special cartridges for uncle rwater work.

Ammonia dynamites (extra dynamite) are the most widely used

cartridge explosives. An ammonia dynamite is similar to a straight
dpmite except that ammonium nitrate replaces a portion of the
nitroglycerin and sodium nitrate. High-density ammonia dynamite is
commonly manufactured in weight strengths of 20 to 60 percent. It is
generally lower in detonation velocity, less dense, better in fume
qualities, and considerably less sensitive to shock and friction than
straight dynamite. Extra dynamite can be used effectively where the
rock is not extremely hard and water conditions are not severe. It is
widely used in quarrying, stripping, and in well-ventilated mines for
smaller diameter holes of small blasting operations.

Low-density ammonia dynamite has a weight strength of

approximately 65 percent and a cartridge strength from 20 to 50
percent. Like a high-density extra dynamite, it contains a low
proportion of nitro-glycerin and a high proportion of ammonium
nitrate. The different cartridge strengths are obtained by varying the
density and grain size of the ingredients. Several manufacturers
produce two series of low-density ammonia dynamite, a high- and a
low-velocity series. Both series are of lower velocity and density than
high-density extra dynamite. Because of its slow, heaving action, the
low-velocity series is well suited to blasting soft material such as
clay- shale or where a coarse product such as riprap is desired. It is
well suited for use in structural excavation blasting in certain rock
types.

Fume qualities and water resistance vary with the cartridge material.
Wrappers sprayed with paraffin give fair to poor water resistance and
fair fume rating, whereas a paraffin-impregnated wrapper gives very
poor water resistance and a better fume rating. The explosive has
little more water resistance than that provided by the wrapper. Low-
density extra is the lowest cost cartridge explosive available. The
composition of low-density ammonia dynamites is similar to that of a
60 percent high-density extra dynamite with a lower proportion of
nitroglycerin and a higher proportion of ammonium nitrate.

Gelatin
Blasting gelatin is a rubber-textured explosive made by adding
nitrocellulose (guncotton) to nitroglycerin. An antacid is added for
stability in storage. Wood meal is usually added to improve
sensitivity. Blasting gelatin attains a very high detonation velocity
and has excellent water resistance, but it emits large volumes of
noxious fumes upon detonation. It is the most powerful of all

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commercial explosives. Blasting gelatin is also known as "oil well

explosive."

Nobel did much more than merely invent dynamite; he also invented
blasting gelatine, gelatine dynamite, and gelignite, both of the latter
being better suited for rock blasting than pure dynamite. Blasting
gelatine was used to pierce the great St. Gothard Railway tunnel
through rock so hard that without it the task could never have been
accomplished. Blasting gelatine was tried in guns, but burst them, so
Nobel set himself to discover an explosive less violent, yet equally
clear and smokeless. By mixing nitroglycerine and guncotton he
found a comparatively slow-burning powder which he called
ballistite, and this, when he gave it to the world in 1888, caused a
very great sensation.

Straight gelatin is a dense, plastic explosive consisting of

nitroglycerin or other explosive oil gelatinized with. nitrocellulose, an
antacid, sodium nitrate, carbonaceous fuel, and sometimes sulfur.
Since the gelatin tends to coat the other ingredients, straight gelatin
is water-proof. Straight gelatin is the equivalent of straight dynamite
in the dynamite category and is manufactured in weight strengths of
20 to 90 percent with corresponding cartridge strengths of 30 to 80
percent. The cartridge strength or the weight strength may be
referred to by the manufacturer as the grade of the gelatin, a term
which is confusing. Straight gelatin has been used in very hard rock
or as a bottom charge in a column of explosives. It has been
replaced in most applications by a more economical substitute such
as ammonia gelatin, brit higher grades are still used in underwater
blasting and in deep well shooting.

Straight gelatin has two characteristic detonation velocities, the

confined velocity and a much lower velocity which results from
insufficient confinement, insufficient initiation, or high hydrostatic,
pressure. Extremely high water pressures may cause a misfire. To
overcome this disadvantage, high-velocity gelatin has been
developed. High-velocity gelatin is very similar to straight gelatin
except that it is slightly less dense, more sensitive to detonation, and
always detonates near its rated velocity regardless of water pressure
or degree of confinement. High-velocity gelatin is particularly useful
as a seismic explosive, and is also used in deep well and underwater
work.

Ammonia gelatin (special gelatin or gelatin extra) has a portion of the

nitroglycerin and sodium nitrate replaced by ammonium nitrate.
Ammonia gelatin is comparable to a straight gelatin in the same way
that a high-density ammonia dynamite is comparable to a straight
dynamite, and was developed as a cheaper substitute. Ammonia
gelatin is commonly manufactured in weight strengths of 30 to 80
percent with corresponding cartridge strengths of 35 to 72 percent.
Compared with straight gelatin, ammonia gelatin has a somewhat

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lower detonation velocity, better fume qualities, and less water

resistance, although it will fire efficiently even after standing in water
for several days. It is suitable for underground work because of its
good fume rating. The higher strengths (70 percent or higher) are
efficient as primers for blasting agents.

A semigelatin is comparable to an ammonia gelatin as a low-density

ammonia dynamite is comparable to a high-density ammonia
dynamite. Like low-density extras, semigelatin has a uniform weight
strength (60 to 65 percent) with the cartridge strength varying with
the density and grain size of the ingredients. Its properties fall
betieen those of high- density ammonia dynamite and ammonia
gelatin, and it has great versatility. Semigelatin can be used to
replace ammonia dynamite when more water resistance is needed. It
is cheaper for wet work than ammonia gelatin, although its water
resistance is not quite as high as that of ammonia gelatin.
Semigelatin has a confined detonation velocity of 10,000 to 12,000
fps, which, b contrast to that of most explosives, is not seriously
affected by lack of confinement. Very good fume qualities permit its
use underground. The compositions are similar to ammonia gelatin
with less nitroglycerin and sodium nitrate and more ammonium
nitrate.

H6
H-6 is a binary explosive that is a mixture of RDX, TNT, powered
aluminum, and D-2 wax with calcium chloride added. H-6 is an
Australian produced explosive composition used by the military for
general purpose bombs.

HBX [Hexahydro - 1, 3, 5 Trinitro-8-Triazine]

HBX is a form of high explosive made from TNT, RDX, aluminum,
lecithin, and wax. HBX was developed during WWII that replaced the
more shock-sensitive TORPEX used in depth bombs and torpedoes.
The warhead for the 2.75-inch Mighty Mouse rocket was filled with
HBX (40 percent RDX, 38 percent TNT, 17 percent aluminum
powder, and 5 percent desensitizers) or composition B (59 percent
RDX, 40 percent TNT, and 1 percent wax). All Navy warhead filling
activities in the TNT Plant ceased in early The major longer range
improvements resulting were the Navy's development of HBX type
explosives together with asphaltic, "hot melt" liners for bombs and
other munitions. The hot melt liners were developed to coat and
eliminate metal-to metal pinch points. After the Naval Magazine, Port
Chicago, CA accident of 17 July 1944 , HBX and H-6 explosives
were developed that incorporated wax and other chemicals to
desensitize the explosive and hot melt liners were introduced for
lining bombs and warheads to give some thermal protection and
eliminate potential pinch points from cracks or fissures in the bomb

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or warhead case. Later, plastic-bonded explosives were developed

for increased thermal protection and fragment impact resistance.

LX-14
Minol
Although ANFO is not generally suitable for military use, since it's
troublesome to store without drying out, mixtures of AN and TNT
known as "amatols" were used in both WWI and WWII as a means of
stretching the supply of explosives. The proportion of AN in the mix
ranged from 50% to 80%. A mix of ANFO, TNT, and powdered
aluminum enhancer named "Minol" is still in use [40% TNT, 40%
ammonium nitrate, 20% aluminum]. Owing to shortages of TNT and
RDX (cyclonite) most World War II mines had had 50/50 ammonium
nitrate and TNT (amatol) warheads. This was a low quality explosive
but was later improved by the addition of about 20% aluminum to
produce minol.

Octol
The melt-cast explosive Octol is a TNT-based explosive (70%
HMX:30% TNT or 75 percent HMX, 25 percent TNT). Explosives to
be stored on Navy ships must not contain TNT or Octol.

PBX
The ideal high-energy explosive must balance different
requirements. HE should be easy to form into parts but resistant to
subsequent deformation through temperature, pressure, or
mechanical stress. It should be easy to detonate on demand but
difficult to explode accidentally. The explosive should also be
compatible with all the materials it contacts, and it should retain all its
desirable qualities indefinitely.

No such explosive existed in 1944. While using what was available

to meet wartime demands, scientists at Los Alamos began to
develop a high-energy, relatively safe, dimensionally stable, and
compositionally uniform explosive. By 1947, scientists at Los Alamos
had created the first plastic-bonded explosive (PBX), an RDX*-
polystyrene formulation later designated PBX 9205. Although other
PBXs have since been successfully formulated for a wide range of
applications, only a handful have displayed the combination of
adequate energy content, mechanical properties, sensitivity, and
chemical stability required for stockpile nuclear weapons. Since the
1960s, Livermore has been researching and developing safer HE for
Livermore-designed weapons.

The plastic coating that binds the explosive granules, typically 5 to

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20% of each formulation by weight, is what gives each PBX its

distinctive characteristics. Pressing a PBX molding powder converts
it into a solid mass, with the polymer binder providing both
mechanical rigidity and reduced sensitivity to accidental detonation.
The choice of binder affects hardness, safety, and stability. Too
brittle a PBX can sustain damage in normal handling and succumb
to extreme temperature swings or thermal shocks, while too soft a
PBX may be susceptible to creep and may lack dimensional stability
or strength.

PBXN-5
PBXN-5 is referred to as a plastic-bonded explosive because it is an
explosive coated with plastic material. The composition is made of
95% HMX and 5% fluoroelastomers.

The Anti-Personnel Obstacle Breaching System (APOBS)

Detonating Cord Assembly consists of PBXN-8 explosive, silicone
rubber, polyamide yarn type I and II, and composition A-5 explosive.
Grenade Assembly consists of PBXN-5 explosive booster pellet,
PBXN-9 explosive pellets, grenade tube, and male and female
grenade shells. Grenade Assembly consists of PBXN-5 explosive
booster pellet, PBXN-9 explosive pellets, grenade tube, unisex
grenade shells, and ring clamp.

PBXN-7
China Lake designed, developed, and qualified the Tomahawk Block
III WDU-36 warhead in 48 months to meet evolving Tomahawk
requirements of insensitive munitions ordnance compliance and
range enhancement, while maintaining or enhancing ordnance
effectiveness. The WDU-36 uses a new warhead material based
upon prior China Lake warhead technology investigations, PBXN-
107 explosive, the FMU-148 fuze (developed and qualified for this
application), and the BBU-47 fuze booster (developed and qualified
using the new PBXN-7 explosive). Block III was first used in the
September 1995 Bosnia strike (Deliberate Force) and a year later in
the Iraq strike (Desert Strike).

PBXN-9
PBXN-9 Explosive is made for the HELLFIRE/Longbow Missile
System. Because of its acceptance into a number of fleet uses,
additional characterization and performance tests were conducted
on PBXN-9 to support various warhead developmental efforts.
Included are the results of various explosive performance tests, such
as detonation pressure, cylinder expansion (cylex),and wedge tests,
as well as additional material sensitivity studies (large-scale gap test
and small-scale gap test).

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The JASSM contains the WDU-42/B (J-1000), a 1000-pound class,

penetrating warhead with 240 pounds of AFX-757. AFX-757 is an
extremely insensitive explosive developed by the Air Force Research
Laboratory/High Explosives Research and Development Facility,
Eglin AFB, Fla. The fuze is the FMU-156/B employing a 150-gram
PBXN-9 booster.

The Anti-Personnel Obstacle Breaching System (APOBS)

Detonating Cord Assembly consists of PBXN-8 explosive, silicone
rubber, polyamide yarn type I and II, and composition A-5 explosive.
Grenade Assembly consists of PBXN-5 explosive booster pellet,
PBXN-9 explosive pellets, grenade tube, and male and female
grenade shells. Grenade Assembly consists of PBXN-5 explosive
booster pellet, PBXN-9 explosive pellets, grenade tube, unisex
grenade shells, and ring clamp.

A Low-Energy Exploding Foil Initiator (LEEFI) is a low-energy input

device with high-energy output that can detonate a main charge of
PBXN-9.

PBXN-10
PBXN-106
This explosive is one of the new plastic-bonded explosives. It is a
cast-cured explosive composition made from a homogeneous
mixture of RDX in a plasticized polyurethane rubber matrix. Once
cured, the material cannot be easily restored to a liquid state. The
finished material is flexible and will absorb considerably more
mechanical shock than conventional cast or pressed explosives.

PBXN-107
PBXN-109
PE4
PE4 is a conventional plastic explosive, widely used for the
production of improved energetic systems for defensive and
offensive use. PE4 is RDX based and is available in cartridge and
bulk form. An extrudable for DEMEX 400 is also available. Distinctive
standard colours indicate the explosive component: C4, or PE4
( British) is white and Semtex-H is orange.

Pentolite
Pentolite is a mixture of equal parts of TNT and PETN. When cast, it
has a specific gratity of 1.65 and a confined detonation velocity of

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24,000 to 25,000 fps. Cast pentolite is used as a primer and booster

for blasting agents where its high detonation pressure assures
efficient initiation of the blasting agent.

Semtex
Semtex is an explosive containing both RDX and PETN. Semtex, a
Czech-made explosive, has been used in many terrorist bombings.
Dynamite has been replaced by the more destructive and easily
concealed Semtex. SEMTEX is a plastic explosive that is odorless.
SEMTEX along with a detonating cap, can be inserted inside a 5 x
6 musical greeting card, undetected. Three pounds of Semtex
plastique packs enough punch to raze a two-story building. Terrorists
attack with no warning and no rationale. Their weapon of choice is a
pliable, odorless substance that is twice as powerful as TNT and is
virtually invisible to conventional security devices. It can be hidden in
a brief case or a small cassette recorder.

Czechoslovakia was among the world's chief arms exporters. It sold

hundreds of tanks, thousands of firearms and large quantities of
Semtex to Iran, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Cambodia and other trouble spots,
a practice that stopped long ago. In 1985 and 1986, the Irish
Republican Army [IRA] took delivery of nearly 120 tons of arms and
explosives from Libya, including a ton of Semtex explosive and 12
SAM-7 surface-to-air missiles. Some of those weapons and
explosives have been used by the IRA in terrorist attacks in the
United Kingdom and in other European countries. Libyan terrorists
used Semtex in 1988 to down Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie,
Scotland, killing 270 persons.

The on-again, off-again export of the general-purpose plastic

explosive Semtex, manufactured in Czechoslovakia during the
height of the Cold War and linked to terrorist groups around the
world, resumed in 1994. The Czech Republic recently announced
that exports were beginning to selected countries. The first Semtex
shipment under the resumed exportswent to the British Defense
Ministry. Czech reporting suggested that the British authorities intend
to run experiments on the explosive that is often used by Irish
Republican Army terroristsincluding the October 1993 destruction
of a building in Belfast.

According to the 1991 international convention signed in Montreal,

Semtex intended for industrial applications is to be a bright red-
orange color and detectable by security-monitoring equipment.
Variants of the explosive produced for civilian purposes are also less
powerful than the nearly odorless version that became a favorite
weapon of terrorists. Despite this and the export ban that had earlier
been in place, Semtex continues to be smuggled across borders.

Substantial quantities of the explosive have been stolen from

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Explosives - Compounds

industrial enterprises in the Czech and Slovak republics for sale on

the black market. Shortly before the most recent ban was lifted,
Czech police seized 100 kilograms of industrial Semtex from a group
of Czech citizens who were planning its illegal sale abroad. In
Slovakia in October 1993, some 900 kilograms of the explosive were
stolen from the warehouse of a private firm, together with more than
2,000 detonators. Czech officials candidly admit that they have no
idea how much Semtex has been stolen or illegally diverted, and the
continued black market trade in the explosive seems certain.

Slurries
Slurries, sometimes called water gels, contain ammonium nitrate
partly in aqueous solution. Depending on the remainder of the
ingredients, slurries can be classified as either blasting agents or
explosives. Slurry blasting agents contain nonexplosive sensitizers
or fuels such as carbon, sulfur, or aluminum, and are not cap
sensitive; whereas slurry explosives contain cap- sensitive
ingredients such as TNT and the mixture itself may be cap sensitive.
Slurries are thickened and gelled with a gum, such as guar gum, to
give considerable water resistance.

Since most slurries are not cap sensitive, all slurries, even those
containing TNT, are often grouped under the term blasting agent.
This grouping is incorrect. A blasting agent, as defined by the
National Fire Protection Association, shall contain no ingredient that
is classified as an explosive.

Slurry blasting agents require adequate priming with a high-velocity

explosive to attain proper detonation velocities, and often require
boosters of high explosive spaced along the borehole to as sure
complete detonation. Slurry explosives may or may not require
priming. The detonation velocities of slurries, between i2,000 and
18,000 fps, vary with ingredients used, charge diameter, degree of
confinement, and density. The detonation velocity of a slurry,
however, is not as dependent on charge diameter as that of a dry
blasting agent. The specific gratity varies from I.i to i.6. The
consistency of most slurries ranges from fluid near iOOO F to rigid at
freezing temperatures, although some slurries maintain their fluidity
even at freezing temperatures. Slurries consequently give the same
advantageous direct borehole coupling as dry blasting agents as well
as a higher detonation velocity and a higher density. Thus, more
energy can be loaded into a given volume of borehole. Saving in
costs realized by drilling smaller holes or using larger burden and
spacing will often more than offset the higher cost per pound of
explosive. Adding powdered aluminum as a sensitizer to slurries
greatly increases the heat of explosion or the energy release.
Aluminized slurries have been used in extremely hard rock with
excellent results.

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A slurry and a dry blasting agent may be used in the same borehole
in "slurry boosting," with the buk of the charge being dry blasting
agent. Boosters placed at regular intervals may improve
fragmentation. In another application of slurry boosting, the slurry is
placed in a position where fragmentation is difficult, such as a hard
toe or a zone of hard rock in the burden. The combination will often
give better overall economy than straight slurry or dry blasting agent.

Tetrytol
Tetrytol is a mixture of ~70% tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenyl-
methylnitramine) and ~30% TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene. In 1944 the
M104 auxiliary booster was first given to Redstone Arsenal as an
experimental order with instructions to develop a manufacturing
procedure for loading it with tetrytol. The booster had heretofore
been loaded with tetryl pellets. The tests that Redstone conducted
showed that tetrytol-loaded M104 auxiliary boosters had a greater
brisance than the tetryl-loaded ones but that a heavier booster
charge was required for detonation. Since such a booster charge
was already available, the tetrytol-loaded auxiliary booster was
considered more satisfactory than the tetryl-loaded one.

TORPEX
TORPEX is an explosive based on trinitrotoluene (TNT) that gave a
greater blast than TNT, but was more sensitive. It was replaced by
HBX or HBX-1 later in WWII. Torpex is RDX/TNT/Aluminum/Wax
desensitizer. It was used in several types of torpedoes and mines.
Due to it sensitivity to bullet impact, the first weapons loaded were
ones for which there would be the least possibility of rifle bullet and
fragment attack, namely, submarine delivered mines and torpedoes.
The loading stations were advised that they must take adequate care
in mixing and loading and in the handling of the loaded items. It was
declared that the British had been able to handle it without incident
for 2 years and that the risk was worth the advantage gained in its
underwater power.

Tritonal
The GBU-28 contains only six hundred pounds of Tritonal. The BLU-
109/B was an improved 2,000-pound-class penetrator bomb
designed for attacking the most hardened targets. Its skin was much
harder than that of a standard iron bomb, consisting of a single-
piece, forged warhead casing of one-inch, high-grade steel. The
bomb featured a 550 pound tritonal high-explosive blast warhead
and was always mated with a laser guidance kit to form a laser-
guided bomb. The Tritonal filling of the BLU-109/B is similar in size
to the warhead of the Mk.48 series torpedo. Explosive (NEW) 535
lbs. Tritonal in the BLU-109 and 945 lbs. of Tritonal on the MK 84.

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The Munitions Directorates successful completion of the

Miniaturized Munition Technology Demonstration (MMTD) Program,
has provided an innovative weapon called the Small Smart Bomb.
The miniaturized munition concept includes a weapon that issix feet
long, six inches in diameter, and weighs only 250 pounds with
approximately fifty pounds of Tritonal explosive material. The
weapon is effective against a majority of hardened targets previously
vulnerable only to munitions in the 2,000 pound class. The Air Force
Research Laboratorys Munitions Directorate has set the baseline for
small bomb development by successfully demonstrating the
technology that will be used to further the development of a 250-
pound class munition. Small Smart Bombs size will allow future
fighter and bomber aircraft to carry more weapons in their weapons
bays.

Polynitrocubane Super Explosives are a family of new energetics. In

FY96, the Army initiated the synthesis of a more powerful
polynitrocubane explosive. In FY97, the Army scaled up the
polynitrocubane explosive to pound level. In FY98, scale up the
polynitrocubane explosive to pilot plant quantity and initiate
formulation study for anti-armor warhead (Shaped Charge or
explosively Formed Penetrator) loading. In FY99, conduct static
warhead test using the polynitrocubane explosive to show increase
in energy performance by up to 25 percent and with comparable
sensitivity to LX-14.

The current winner in the most powerful explosives debate is

heptanitrocubane (HpNC). It has beat out the theoretically more
powerful octanitrocubane (ONC) in actual tests recently performed.
ONC has only been synthesized in the last year, but it has been
calculated to have the greatest density of any explosive we could
make. In reality ONC does not achieve this theoretical density. Since
it has existed for such a short time, researchers conclude that they
simply have yet to find its most dense crystalline form. The default
winner is the next best thing, HpNC. Further conjecture into nitro
cubane chemistry has hypothesized at the possibility of
polynitrocubane molecules which could achieve even greater
densities.

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Explosives
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Insensitive High Explosives [IHE]

In an effort to improve munitions survivability and
safety, the Department of Defense (through the Joint
Requirements Oversight Council) several years ago
established a policy requiring all new munitions be
capable of withstanding accidents, fires, or enemy
attack. One method of addressing this requirement, the
use of Insensitive Munitions (IM), including propellants
and explosives, was mandated. Thus a new class of IM
explosives has been developed over the past decade.
Because these IM formulations differ somewhat from
each other in a variety of ways (physical properties,
explosive output, manufacturing process and cost,
sensitivity and toxicity, etc.,) the explosive selection
process for a given munition has become more
complex. They must meet MIL-STD-2105, Hazard
Assessment Tests, Non-Nuclear Munitions.

The US Air Force is developing an insensitive explosive

fill for its general use bombs using a mixture of
trinitrotoluene (TNT) and aluminum. Since the
insensitive fill is not ready to be used in tactical bombs,
and there is no available TNT in the stockpile, Joint
Munitions Command (JMC) Bombs/Energetics Division
awarded an indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity (IDIQ)
contract for supply of TNT over a 5-year period to Alliant

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Ammunition and Powder Co. (AAPC). Virgin TNT will be

supplied from a National Technology Industrial Base
source, reclaimed and OCONUS TNT. The facility that
produces the virgin TNT can be easily modified to
produce other energetic materials, notably insensitive
explosives. The IDIQ is delivering sufficient quantities of
TNT to meet increased requirements. Partnering with
major contractors has proved beneficial for current
program execution. New partnerships are now being
established with AAPC for TNT and General Dynamics
Tactical and Ordnance Systems for bombs. Through
these partnerships, communications will be improved,
expectations will be better understood, common goals
can be set, delivery times improved and problems
identified so they can be resolved early on.

AFX-757
The Joint Air-to-Surface Stand-off Missile (JASSM) may
become the first munition item to obtain insensitive
munition (IM) certification and a 1.2.3 hazard
classification. Currently, almost all munition items are
hazard classified 1.1. This certification and classification
reflect improvements in the munition that greatly reduce
both the threat for accidental initiation of the item and
the severity in case of an inadvertent initiation. The
safety implications and reduced costs associated
withstorage of such IM-compliant munitions are of
significant benefit to boththe US Air Force and Navy
customers.

With full support of the Air Force Research Laboratory

Munitions Directorate's EnergeticMaterials Branch, the
JASSM warhead and All-Up-Round passed some of the
most difficult tests for obtaining IM certification and a
reducedexplosive hazard classification (1.2.3). After a
disappointing failure of the first JASSM warhead during
sympathetic detonation testing, engineers from
Lockheed Martin asked the Energetic Materials Branch
to analyze the failure. Drawing on previous experiencein
the development of IM-compliant Mk-82 bombs filled
with the newly developed AFX-645 explosive, the
directorate recommended a non-standard pallet
stacking arrangement. This new stacking arrangement
mitigates the energy transferred during sympathetic
detonation from onemunition to the next. Lockheed
Martin engineers tested this configuration in a
hydrocode studyand confirmed that the directorate's
suggestions did provide a significant improvement for
survival. Lockheed Martin further improved this

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conceptby positioning the JASSM warheads side by

side in a nose-to-tailconfiguration. The engineers placed
the warhead casings as close aspossible, preventing a
sympathetic detonation from occuring. Lockheed Martin
engineers performed a new test using this storage
configurationand successfully passed the sympathetic
detonation criterion. The directorate and Lockheed
Martin have accomplished all required IM classification
testing. This is a major milestone since it is the first time
amajor Air Force weapon system has passed all
required IM testing. The Energetic Materials Branch
developed AFX-757, the explosive fill used in JASSM,
as a replacement for tritonal in the Miniature
MunitionTechnology program. Lockheed Martin, the
JASSM contractor, chose AFX-757 for their warhead
because of its increased blast energy andpotential
insensitivity.

DNI Dinitroimidazoles
Dinitroimidazoles, such as DNI (2,4-dinitroimidazole),
are a group of very insensitive explosives.

4,5-dinitroimidazole (45DNI) crystallizes with two

crystallographically unique molecules in the monoclinic
space group P21/n (#14) with unit-cell parameters a =
11.5360(8) , b = 9.071(1) , c = 11.822(1) , =
107.640(6), Z = 8, and has a density of 1.781 g/cm3.
The molecular packing consists of infinite one-
dimensional chains of 45DNI molecules approximately
oriented in the ac direction which are linked by two
different hydrogen bonds, {\rm [N(1)-\hbox{-}H(1)\cdots
N(31)} and {\rm N(11)-H(11)\cdots N(3)]}. In the lateral
directions the chains are held together by molecular
forces.

LX-17
Only the TATB-based formulations of Livermore's LX-17
and Los Alamos's PBX 9502 are considered
"insensitive" high explosives (IHE) for nuclear weapons;
others are termed "conventional."

MNX-194
MNX-194 in a melt castable, wax binder explosive fill to
replace TNT in Army M107/M795 155 mm artillery
rounds. Munitions Directorate researchers, funded by
the US Army Tank-Automotive and Armaments

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Command/Armament Research, Development and

Engineering Center, developed MNX-194, a qualified
replacement for Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in both the M107
and M795 155 mm artillery rounds. Directorate
researchers from the High Explosives Research and
Development Facility developed three compositionally
equivalent versions of MNX-194 in which
Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX) is the sole
energetic component.

The primary difference between the three versions is

the source and/or pretreatment of the RDX component.
Directorate researchers characterized all of these novel
wax binder explosive formulations for both small-scale
safety and shock sensitivity, and performance. Their
research also shows RDX is more powerful than TNT in
similar test configurations. Additional characterization
and optimization work is currently under way.

Beyond MNX-194 applications for artillery hardware, the

Air Force is considering this formulation as a fill for
other Air Force applications. In particular, the
directorate is developing an aluminized version of the
MNX-194 binder matrix as a potential candidate
replacement for the TNT-based fill in Mk-series bombs.

The current usage rates and depletion of the

Department of Defense stockpile of TNT is causing
many program managers to revisit formulation options
such as the directorate's bomb fill replacement effort.
With a melting temperature similar to that of TNT (~80
C) and the ease of processing this wax binder system,
the Air Force considers MNX-194, or modifications
thereof, an ideal contender for any TNT replacement
program.

PAX
Since the mid 1980s, Picatinny has developed over 24
Picatinny Arsenal Explosive (PAX) formulations. New
combinations of energetic "fill" binders and, in some
cases, plasticizers continue to be evaluated in search of
the Army's next generation more powerful explosive.

One of the most significant challenges to Picatinny was

the development of a new main charge melt-pour
energetic, PAX-21. This new explosive is designed to
be low cost and requires little or no refacilitization for
production or projectile filling. It contains no TNT and is
slightly less toxic than the Composition-B it replaces.

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Not only is it safe for use in production, PAX-21 also

exhibits good IM and thermal stress characteristics and
low shock sensitivity.

PAX-2A was the Army's first high performing IM

(insensitive munition) explosive. It is less sensitive to
initiation by outside stimuli, but retains all the requisite
performance capabilities of the high explosive that was
used in the past. It has matured through extensive
loading, performance testing and hazard threat analysis
testing in various current and future warhead
configuration of the Army, Navy, and Air Force
munitions systems. This IM explosive is now considered
to be a viable alternative to current HMX formulations
and has been successfully demonstrated in Hellfire,
Javelin, M830A1, HE-WAM, SADARM, and XM915
Dual Purpose Improved Conventional Munitions
(DPICM) XM80 grenade submunitions.

The vast majority of cannon lunched unitary warheads

use melt pour explosives for cost and surge capability.
Traditional melt pour explosives have focused on
fragmentation capability. A new family of low cost
reduced sensitivity melt pour explosives based on 2,4-
dinitroanisole, RDX or HMX and AP has been
developed in response to Insensitive Munition [IM]
requirements.

Development of Insensitive Munition [IM] melt pour

explosives has been next to none. Picatinny Arsenal
and Thiokol Propulsion developed the first melt pour
explosive (PAX-21) to exhibit IM properties (currently in
production). The PAX-21 success led to increased
interest in all areas of IM melt pour explosives I.e., cost,
producibility, facilitization, etc.

Family of PAX

PAX-21- Comp B replacement: RDX, DNAN, AP

and trace amounts of MNA (for processability)
currently in production
PAX-24 TNT replacement: DNAN, AP and MNA
PAX-25 Comp B replacement: RDX, DNAN, AP
and MNA (different proportions for RDX, DNAN,
and AP) better performance than PAX-21
PAX-26 - Tritonal replacement: DNAN, Al, AP,
MNA
PAX-28 Unitary warheads: RDX, DNAN, Al, AP,
MNA. An equivalency factor of 1.62 was

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determined between Composition B and PAX-28

PAX-40 Octol replacement: HMX, DNAN, MNA
PAX-41 Cyclotol replacement: RDX, DNAN, MNA

One advantage is the ease of loading of melt pour

explosives into various munition items. Typically less
expensive than pressed explosives to manufacture,
load and facilitization. Increased IM characteristics
without decreasing performance. Performance and
shock sensitivity can be tailored for a given system
based on particle size and the percentage of
ingredients. PAX-40 & 41 exceed COMP Bs detonation
velocity. PAX-40 & 41 are less shock sensitive than
COMP B.

PBXIH-135
The navy's insensitive munitions advanced
development program for high explosives (IMAD/HE)
has developed a new insensitive, cast-cured pbx called
PBXIH-135. PBXIH-135 has enhanced internal blast
performance and improved vulnerability and penetration
survivability characteristics compared to PBXN-109.
PBXIH-135 was subjected to insensitive detonating
substance (EIDS) testing to include cap, gap, external
Fire, slow cookoff, and friability.

The Navy began developing thermobaric explosives in

the late 1980's and resumed research and development
in the mid 1990's, responding to the need for internal
blast explosives to defeat hard and deeply buried
structures as evidenced during Operation Desert Storm.
NSWC Indian Head scientists developed the PBXIH-
135 thermobaric explosive, which not only offers
effective blast and thermal effects, but also is extremely
insensitive to factors that may cause accidental
detonation during transit or storage. The secret to
PBXIH-135 is the addition of a precise mixture of
aluminum powder, which burns in the hot gases. Long
after the initial shock wave, the burning aluminum sends
heat and pressure bounding through corridors.

In response to the Sept. 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on

the United States, the Defense Threat Reduction
Agency (DTRA) organized a 60-day joint project with
NSWC Indian Head, the Air Force and Department of
Energy to identify, test and integrate a solution to
deliver a new capability for tunnel defeat. NSWC Indian
Head was responsible for the payload and booster
design, as well as loading of the new bombs.

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After static and flight tests at full-scale tunnel facilities at

the Department of Energy's Nevada test site, the
program culminated in December with a successful
flight test of a laser-guided weapon, containing Indian
Head's PBXIH-135 thermobaric explosive, launched
from an F-15E Strike Eagle. NSWC Indian Head, along
with DTRA and the Air Force, are engaged in a three-
year advanced Concept Technical Demonstration of
another thermobaric weapon. Indian Head is developing
the new payload, which will have superior performance
to that of PBXIH-135.

PBXN-109
Two different energetic composite formulations can be
used in hard target penetrator warheads: PBXN-109
and AFX-757. Four explosive formulations have been
evaluated for the Mk-83 warhead. The four candidate
formulations: AFX-777, AFX-757, PBXN-111 and
PBXW-129 were tested against the Mk-83 baseline fill,
PBXN-109.

Two test series involving the static detonation of a new

design Hellfire missile warhead, now designated as a
type N thermobaric warhead, were conducted in 2002 to
determine fragment spatial, mass, and velocity
distributions. The data from the type N tests are
compared with the performance of a hellfire type M
blast-frag warhead (BFWH) loaded with the
conventional explosive PBXN-109. Of particular interest
in the tests was the assessment of thermobaric
phenomena with regard to warhead effectiveness.

The cookoff of energetic materials involves the

combined effects of several physical and chemical
processes. These processes include heat transfer,
chemical decomposition, and mechanical response.
The interaction and coupling between these processes
influence both the time-to-event and the violence of
reaction. The prediction of the behavior of explosives
during cookoff, particularly with respect to reaction
violence, is a challenging task. To this end, a joint DoD/
DOE program has been initiated to develop models for
cookoff, and to perform experiments to validate those
models. In this paper, a series of cookoff analyses are
presented and compared with data from a number of
experiments for the aluminized, RDX-based, Navy
explosive PBXN-109.

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Computational tools are being developed to predict the

response of Navy ordnance to abnormal thermal
(cookoff) events. The Naval Air Warfare Center 1
(NAWC) and Naval Surface Warfare Center (NSWC)
are performing cookoff experiments to help validate
DOE computer codes and associated thermal,
chemical, and mechanical models. Initial work at the
NAWC is focused on the cookoff of an aluminized, RDX-
based explosive, PBXN-109 that is initially confined in a
tube with sealed ends. The tube is slowly heated until
ignition occurs. The response is characterized using
thermocouples, strain gauges, and high-speed
cameras. A modified version of this system is being
developed at the NSWC. The designs of these cookoff
systems are relatively simple to facilitate initial model
development. An effort is being made to achieve a wide
range of results for reaction violence.

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories (LLNL) and

Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) are developing
computer codes and materials models to simulate
cookoff for ordnance safety evaluations. The computer
program ALE3D from LLNL is being used to simulate
the coupled thermal transport, chemical reactions, and
mechanical response during heating and explosion 2 .
SNL is employing multiple computer codes in a parallel
effort 3,4,5 . For the analysis of PBXN-109 cookoff,
Schmitt et al.6 performed an initial survey of measured
materials properties and provided estimates for several
others.

RS-RDX Reduced Sensitivity RDX

In the late 1990s SNPE (SME now Eurenco) marketed
an insensitive form of RDX (IRDX) produced by the
Woolwich synthesis. It employed proprietary
recrystallization process. This produced RDX that
displayed reduced sensitivity to shock initiation as
measured by Large Scale Gap Test. In 2001 Army
pursued an FCT program to evaluate IRDX in 155 mm
projectile with the goal to determine whether IRDX
would improve the IM characteristics of the projectile
and to determine whether the SNPE crystallization
process could be implemented at Holston (Bachmann
synthesis) to produce reduced sensitivity RDX. SNPE
recrystallized HSAAP RDX into IRDX. The US Army,
Navy and AF evaluated 2 formulations using both
IRDX and HSAAP IRDX: Wax-based melt castable
explosive (Air Force); and Cast curable PBX explosive
(Navy). They conducted performance and IM testing.

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Upon aging, the HSAAP RDX recrystallized by SNPE

did not retain the original insensitive characteristics.

Subsequently, other manufacturers claimed to produce

forms of RDX that exhibit reduced sensitivity to shock
relative to conventional RDX as produced by the
Bachman process. In 2003, Army published a sources
sought solicitation. The following manufacturers are
now claiming to make Reduced Sensitivity RDX (RS-
RDX): EUROENCO (aka SNPE): IRDX; Australian
Defence Industries (ADI): Grade A RDX; Royal
Ordnance Defence (RO): Type I RDX; and Dyno Nobel:
RS-RDX. Of these, only Dyno employs the Bachman
process.

What makes RDX insensitive? No definitive explanation

has been offered for the insensitivity of the RDX from
these manufacturers. Crystal quality of some sort
appears to be involved. No parameter that can be
measured on the crystalline material has been identified
that will enable one to distinguish between relatively
more sensitive and relatively less sensitive forms.

TATB (triamino-trinitrobenzene)
One of the most important accomplishments made by
nuclear weapons laboratories' chemists in the past two
decades has been the formulation of powerful
conventional high explosives that are remarkably
insensitive to high temperatures, shock, and impact.
These insensitive high explosives (IHEs) significantly
improve the safety and survivability of munitions,
weapons, and personnel.

The Department of Energy's most important IHE for use

in modern nuclear warheads is TATB (triamino-
trinitrobenzene) because its resistance to heat and
physical shock is greater than that of any other known
material of comparable energy. The Department of
Energy currently maintains an estimated five-year
supply of TATB for its Stockpile Stewardship and
Management Program, which is designed to ensure the
safety, security, and reliability of the U.S. nuclear
stockpile. The Department of Defense is also studying
the possible use of TATB as an insensitive booster
material, because even with its safety characteristics, a
given amount of that explosive has more power than an
equivalent volume of TNT.

The compound 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene

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(TATB) is a reasonably powerful high explosive (HE)

whose thermal and shock stability is considerably
greater than that of any other known material of
comparable energy. The high stability of TATB favors its
use in military2 and civilian applications3 when
insensitive high explosives are required. In addition to
its applications as a HE, TATB is used to produce the
important intermediate benzenehexamine.
Benzenehexamine has been used in the preparation of
ferromagnetic organic salts and in the synthesis of new
heteropolycyclic molecules such as 1,4,5,8,9,12-
hexaazatriphenylene (HAT) that serve as strong
electron acceptor ligands for low-valence transition
metals.

In addition to its military uses, TATB has been proposed

for use as a reagent in the manufacturing of
components for liquid crystal computer displays. The
use of TATB to prepare components of lyotropic liquid-
crystal phases for use in display devices is the subject
of a German patent. There is also interest in employing
the explosive in the civilian sector for deep oil well
explorations where heat-insensitive explosives are
required. Despite its broad potential, the high cost of
manufacturing TATB has limited its use. Several years
ago, TATB produced on an industrial scale in the U.S.
was priced at $90 to $250 per kilogram. Today it is
available to customers outside DOE for about $200 per
kilogram. In response to a need for a more economical
product, chemists at Lawrence Livermore have
developed a flexible and convenient means of
synthesizing TATB as well as DATB (diamino-
trinitrobenzene), a closely related but less well known
IHE developed by the U.S. Navy. The initial phase of
this work was funded by the Department of Defense (U.
S. Navy) to explore the chemical conversion of surplus
energetic materials to higher value products as an
alternative to detonation.

The Lawrence Livermore process--also called the VNS

(vicarious nucleophilic substitution) process--should be
able to produce TATB for less than $90 a kilogram on
an industrial scale in about 40% less manufacturing
time. The process also offers significant advantages
over the current method of synthesis in environmental
friendliness, for example, by avoiding chlorinated
starting materials.

TNAZ

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Insensitive High Explosives [IHE]

1,1,3 Trinitroazetidine (TNAZ) is a material that is more

powerful, but less-sensitive than HMX. The advent of
the new high-energy explosive CL-20 and TNAZ
present the possibility of increased performance high
explosives with reduced sensitivity. A nitrogen-rich
compound, TNAZ can itself be melted and moulded. But
money was an issue. It costs just a few tens of dollars
to produce a kilogram of HMX or RDX, but about $200
to create the same amount of TNAZ.

Most of the effort for producing the next generation of

energetic materials is currently centered around the
production of 1,3,3-trinitroazetidine (TNAZ).
Researchers have evaluated five synthetic routes for
producing TNAZ. The two most likely methods to
manufacture TNAZ in a sustainable green
manufacturing process are those due to Axenrod, and
Coburn and Hiskey.

work funded by ARDEC led to the synthesis and

process for the commercial scale-up of 3,3,1-
trinitroazetidine (TNAZ), a strained ring Heterocyclic
nitramine. TNAZ is one of the few new energetic
materials found to be thermally stable above its melting
point. However, in formulations studies, it has been
found that TNAZ has high volatility that will severely
inhibit its utility in military explosive and propellant
applications. Further limitations to its use include the
processing, polymorph, and material costs.

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 Insensitive Munitions (IM)

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Insensitive Munitions (IM)

Insensitive Explosives
Insensitive Munitions (IM)

Insensitive Munitions (IM)

Under their normal conditions of use, modern munitions
are both effectivethey provide an essential military
capability and relatively safethey are very unlikely
to explode or burn spontaneously-despite the fact that
they are composed primarily of very hazardous
material. Under very severe conditions, however, their
dangerous nature comes to light. The energetic
materialshigh explosives, gun propellants, rocket
propellantsthat are found in munitions of all types are
sensitive to heat and to mechanical shock, so they may
be triggered by fire or by impact with bullets or
fragments. Such secondary effects are significant: in the
Gulf War, for example, most of the disabling damage to
fighting vehicles was found to be caused by their own
munition payloads, inadvertently triggered by unwanted
stimuli.

A range of energetic materials can be used in low-risk

munitions: explosives and propellants less vulnerable
than their predecessors to both slow and rapid heating
("cook off") and to impact by bullets or fragments of
exploding shells. For warheads, efforts concentrate on
the replacement of explosives such as TNT, which is
very sensitive to heat and shock, by more stable plastic-
bonded explosives, which are better able to withstand
adverse condi-tions. For gun propellants, the single,
double and triple-base formulations now in service can
be replaced by others based on components that are
more energetic, but less sensitive. These new
explosives and gun propellants are made primarily with
energetic crystals such as RDX and HMX, contained in
new energetic binders and plasticizers. Some of these
formulations not only match the performance of the
munitions they replace, they improve on it.

An insensitive munition is one that will not detonate

under any conditions other than its intended mission to
destroy a target. If it is struck by fragments from an
explosion or hit by a bullet, it will not detonate. It also

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Insensitive Munitions (IM)

will not detonate if it is in close proximity to a target that

is hit. In extreme temperatures, the missile will only burn
(no detonation or explosion). This increased safety
allows greater numbers of missiles to be packaged,
handled, stored, and transported in smaller containers.
Passing these requirements addresses higher levels of
safety performance and means the system is safer to
operate in any environment while maintaining its highly
lethal performance. It also allows for cost saving
opportunities for the government.

To reduce the chance of accidental explosions and

fires, the Navy, Air Force, and Army are replacing
existing main charge explosives with new, more
insensitive explosives such as PBXN-103 and PBXN-
109. For safety, the Navy, Air Force, and Army are
replacing present main charge explosives with
insensitive main charge explosives having critical
diameters greater than 1 inch. The critical diameter for
an explosive is the minimum diameter mass of that
explosive that can be detonated without being heavily
confined. Future underwater and bombfill explosives will
have critical diameters greater than one inch.

Two examples of these insensitive main charge

explosives are PBXW-124 (27% NTO, 20% RDX, 20%
aluminum, 20% ammonium perchlorate, and 13%
binder by weight) which has a critical diameter of
between 3 and 4 inches, and PBXW-122 (47% NTO,
5% RDX, 15% aluminum, 20% ammonium perchlorate,
and 13% binder by weight) which has a critical diameter
of 7 inches.

Existing booster explosives and fuses have insufficient

energy output to reliably initiate the new insensitive
main charge explosives. Increasing the amount of
booster explosive will increase the weapon's sensitivity
and the chance of an accidental detonation. Moreover,
the existing Department of Defense (DOD) inventory of
fuses and booster explosives is very large and cannot
be replaced without considerable cost. What is needed
is an inexpensive method of reliably initiating the new,
more insensitive main charge explosive while at the
same time reducing the chance of the accidental
initiation of a fuse booster system.

There is a desire to move away from trinitrotoluene

(TNT) based fills since there is no longer a CONUS
producer of TNT in existence. Therefore, it is desirable
to develop General Purpose (GP) bombs (500 and 2000

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Insensitive Munitions (IM)

pound class), which contain a non-TNT based high

explosive fill that also meets all of the IM criteria as
specified in MIL-STD-2105B.

Reaching a 1.2.3J hazard classification allows for

significantly higher storage densities than the previous
highest classification, which means that it saves in
facility storage, handling, and transportation
expenditures.

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 Hazard Classification Code

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Military
Hazard Classification
Introduction Explosives
Code
Systems Explosives - Primary
Facilities The UN hazard classification system Explosives - Booster
Agencies for classifying explosive materials and Explosives - Nitroaromatics
explosive components. is recognized
Industry
internationally and is used universally
Explosives - Nitramines
Operations by the Department of Defense (DoD), Explosives - Nitrate esters
Countries other Department of Energy (DOE) Explosives - Compositions
contractors, and the Department of
Hot Documents Insensitive Explosives
Transportation (DOT). The UN system
News consists of nine classes of dangerous Insensitive Munitions (IM)
Reports materials, with explosives designated Explosives - Classes
Policy
as Class 1. The explosives hazard Explosives - ATF List
class is further subdivided into six
Budget divisions, which are used for Explosives - UN List
Congress segregating ammunition and Explosives & the Environment
Links explosives on the basis of similarity of
characteristics, properties, and
WMD accident effects potential.

Intelligence

Homeland Security Hazard class/division Hazard description

Space

Public Eye 1.1 Mass explosion

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1.3 Mass fire, minor blast or fragment

1.4 Moderate fire, no blast or fragment

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Hazard Classification Code

1.5 Explosive substance, very insensitive (with a

mass explosion hazard)

1.6 Explosive article, extremely insensitive

United Article Hazard

Nations Classification
Serial Code
Number
354 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.1 L
355 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.2 L
356 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.3 L
350 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.4 B
351 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.4 C
352 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.4 D
353 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.4 G
349 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.4 S
224 BARIUM AZIDE, dry or wetted with less than 50 1.1 A
per cent water, by weight.
28 BLACK POWDER (GUNPOWDER) 1.1 D
COMPRESSED, or BLACK POWDER
(GUNPOWDER) IN PELLETS.
27 BLACK POWDER (GUNPOWDER) granular or as 1.1 D
a meal.
268 BOOSTERS WITH DETONATOR. 1.2 B
225 BOOSTERS WITH DETONATOR. 1.1 B
42 BOOSTERS without detonator. 1.1D
283 BOOSTERS without detonator. 1.2 D
48 CHARGES, DEMOLITION. 1.1D
444 CHARGES, EXPLOSIVE, COMMERCIAL without 1.4 D
detonator.
445 CHARGES, EXPLOSIVE, COMMERCIAL without 1.4 S
detonator.
443 CHARGES, EXPLOSIVE, COMMERCIAL without 1.2 D
detonator.
442 CHARGES, EXPLOSIVE, COMMERCIAL without 1.1 D
detonator.
59 CHARGES, SHAPED, COMMERCIAL without 1.1D
detonator.

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Hazard Classification Code

441 CHARGES, SHAPED, COMMERCIAL without 1.4 S

detonator.
439 CHARGES, SHAPED, COMMERCIAL without 1.2 D
detonator.
440 CHARGES, SHAPED, COMMERCIAL without 1.4 D
detonator.
288 CHARGES, SHAPED, FLEXIBLE, LINEAR metal 1.1D
clad.
237 CHARGES, SHAPED, FLEXIBLE, LINEAR metal 1.4 D
clad.
60 CHARGES, SUPPLEMENTARY, EXPLOSIVE. 1.1D
383 COMPONENTS, EXPLOSIVE TRAIN, N.O.S. 1.4 B
382 COMPONENTS, EXPLOSIVE TRAIN, N.O.S. 1.2 B
384 COMPONENTS, EXPLOSIVE TRAIN, N.O.S. 1.4 S
249 CONTRIVANCES, WATER-ACTIVATED with 1.3 L
burster, expelling charge or propelling charge.
248 CONTRIVANCES, WATER-ACTIVATED with 1.2 L
burster, expelling charge or propelling charge.
102 CORD (FUSE), DETONATING, metal clad. 1.2 D
290 CORD (FUSE), DETONATING, metal clad. 1.1D
104 CORD (FUSE), DETONATING, mild effect, metal 1.4 D
clad.
65 CORD, DETONATING, flexible. 1.1D
289 CORD, DETONATING, flexible. 1.4 D
66 CORD, IGNITER. 1.4 G
226 CYCLOTETRAMETHYLENETETRANITRAMINE 1.1 D
(HMX; OCTOGEN), WETTED with not less than 15
per cent water, by weight, or
CYCLOTETRAMETHYLENETETRANITRAMINE
(HMX; OCTOGEN), DESENSITIZED with not less
than 10 per cent phlegmatiser, by weight.
391 CYCLOTRIMETHYLENETRINITRAMINE 1.1 D
(CYCLONITE; HEXOGEN; RDX) AND
CYCLOTETRAMETHYLENETETRANITRAMINE
(HMX; OCTOGEN) MIXTURES, WETTED with not
less than 15 percent water by weight, or
CYCLOTRIMETHYLENETRINITRAMINE
(CYCLONITE; HEXOGEN; RDX) AND
CYCLOTETRAMETHYLENETETRANITRAMINE
(HMX; OCTOGEN) MIXTURES, DESENSITIZED
with not less than 10 per cent phlegmatiser, by
weight.

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Hazard Classification Code

72 CYCLOTRIMETHYLENETRINITRAMINE 1.1 D
(CYCLONITE; HEXOGEN; RDX), WETTED with
not less than 15 per cent water, by weight, or
CYCLOTRIMETHYLENETRINITRAMINE
(CYCLONITE; HEXOGEN; RDX), DESENSITIZED
with not less than 10 per cent phlegmatiser, by
weight.
630 DETONATOR, ASSEMBLIES, NON-ELECTRIC for 1.1 B
blasting.
361 DETONATOR, ASSEMBLIES, NON-ELECTRIC for 1.4 B
blasting.
255 DETONATORS, ELECTRIC for blasting. 1.4 B
30 DETONATORS, ELECTRIC for blasting. 1.1 B
267 DETONATORS, NON-ELECTRIC for blasting. 1.4 B
29 DETONATORS, NON-ELECTRIC for blasting. 1.1 B
74 DIAZODINITROPHENOL, WETTED with not less 1.1 A
than 40 per cent water, by weight (or mixture of
alcohol and water).
81 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING, TYPE A. 1.1 D
331 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING, TYPE B. 1.5 D
82 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING, TYPE B. 1.1 D
84 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING, TYPE D. 1.1 D
332 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING, TYPE E. 1.5 D
241 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING, TYPE E. 1.1 D
83 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING,TYPE C. 1.1 D
99 FRACTURING DEVICES, EXPLOSIVE, for oil 1.1 D
wells, without detonator.
103 FUSE, IGNITER, tubular, metal clad. 1.4 G
101 FUSE, INSTANTANEOUS, NON-DETONATING. 1.3 G
105 FUSE, SAFETY. 1.4 S
408 FUZES, DETONATING with protective features. 1.1 D
410 FUZES, DETONATING with protective features. 1.4 D
409 FUZES, DETONATING with protective features. 1.2 D
107 FUZES, DETONATING. 1.2 B
257 FUZES, DETONATING. 1.4 B
106 FUZES, DETONATING. 1.1 B
367 FUZES, DETONATING. 1.4 S
113 GUANYL NITROSAMINOGUANYLIDENE 1.1 A
HYDRAZINE, WETTED with not less than 30 per
cent water, by weight

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Hazard Classification Code

114 GUANYL NITROSAMINOGUANYLTETRAZENE 1.1 A

(TETRAZENE), WETTED with not less than 30 per
cent water, by weight (or mixture of alcohol and
water)
79 HEXANITRODIPHENYLAMINE (DIPICRYLAMINE; 1.1 D
HEXYL).
392 HEXANITROSTILBENE. 1.1 D
393 HEXATONAL, CAST. 1.1 D
118 HEXOLITE, dry or wetted with less than 15 per 1.1 D
cent water, by weight.
325 IGNITERS. 1.4 G
315 IGNITERS. 1.3 G
314 IGNITERS. 1.2 G
121 IGNITERS. 1.1 G
124 JET PERFORATING GUNS, CHARGED, oil well, 1.1D
without detonator.
129 LEAD AZIDE, WETTED with not less than 20 per 1.1 A
cent water, by weight (or mixture of alcohol and
water).
130 LEAD STYPHNATE (LEAD 1.1 A
TRINITRORESORCINATE), WETTED with not
less than 20 per cent water, by weight (or mixture
of alcohol and water).
133 MANNITOL HEXANITRATE (NITROMANNAITE), 1.1 D
WETTED with not less than 40 per cent water, by
weight (or mixture of alcohol and water).
135 MERCURY FULMINATE, WETTED with not less 1.1 A
than 20 per cent water, by weight (or mixture of
alcohol and water).
147 NITRO UREA. 1.1 D
340 NITROCELLULOSE, dry or wetted with less than 1.1 D
25 per cent water (or alcohol), by weight.
343 NITROCELLULOSE, PLASTICIZED with not less 1.3 C
than 18 per cent plasticizing substance by weight.
341 NITROCELLULOSE, unmodified or plasticized with 1.1 D
less than 18 per cent plasticizing substance by
weight.
342 NITROCELLULOSE, WETTED with not less than 1.3C
25 per cent alcohol, by weight.
143 NITROGLYCERIN, DESENSITIZED, with not less 1.1 D
than 40 per cent non-volatile water-insoluble
phlegmatiser, by weight.

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Hazard Classification Code

144 NITROGLYCERIN, SPIRIT OF, with more than 1 1.1D

per cent but not more than 10 per cent nitroglycerin
in solution in alcohol.
282 NITROGUANIDINE, (PICRITE), dry or wetted with 1.1 D
less than 20 per cent water, by weight.
146 NITROSTARCH, dry or wetted with less than 20 1.1 D
per cent water, by weight.
266 OCTOLITE, (OCTOL), dry or wetted with less than 1.1 D
15 per cent water, by weight.
150 PENTAERYTHRITE TETRANITRATE 1.1D
(PENTAERYTHRITOL TETRANITRATE; PETN),
WETTED with not less than 25 per cent water, by
weight, or PENTAERYTHRITE TETRANITRATE
(PENTAERYTHRITOL TETRANITRATE; PETN),
DESENSITIZED with not less than 15 per cent
phlegmatiser, by weight.
411 PENTAERYTHRITE TETRANITRATE (PETN) with 1.1 D
not less than 7 per cent wax, by weight.
151 PENTOLITE, dry or wetted with less than 15 per 1.1D
cent water, by weight.
159 POWDER CAKE (POWDER PASTE), WETTED 1.3 C
with not less than 35 per cent water, by weight.
433 POWDER CAKE, WETTED with not less than 17 1.1 C
per cent alcohol, by weight.
161 POWDER, SMOKELESS. 1.3 C
160 POWDER, SMOKELESS. 1.1 C
173 RELEASE DEVICES, EXPLOSIVE. 1.4 S
190 SAMPLES, EXPLOSIVE, other than initiating As appropriate
explosive.
374 SOUNDING DEVICES, EXPLOSIVE. 1.1 E
204 SOUNDING DEVICES, EXPLOSIVE. 1.2F
375 SOUNDING DEVICES, EXPLOSIVE. 1.2 E
296 SOUNDING DEVICES, EXPLOSIVE. 1.1F
357 SUBSTANCES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.1 L
358 SUBSTANCES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.3 L
359 SUBSTANCES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.3 L
208 TRINITROPHENYLMETHYLNITRAMINE 1.1 D
(TETRYL).
388 TRINITROTOLUENE (TNT) AND 1.1 D
TRINITROTOLUENE MIXTURES OR
TRINITROTOLUENE (TNT) AND
HEXANITROSTILBENE MIXTURES.

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Hazard Classification Code

389 TRINITROTOLUENE (TNT) MIXTURES 1.1 D

CONTAINING TRINITROBENZENE AND
HEXANITROSTILBENE
209 TRINITROTOULENE (TNT), dry or wetted with 1.1D
less than 30 per cent water, by weight.
390 TRITONAL. 1.1 D
220 UREA NITRATE, dry or wetted with less than 20 1.1 D
per cent water, by weight.

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