Explosives

An explosive is defined as a material (chemical or nuclear) that can be initiated to

undergo very rapid, self-propagating decomposition that results in the formation of more
stable material, the liberation of heat, or the development of a sudden pressure effect
through the action of heat on produced or adjacent gases. All of these outcomes produce
energy; a weapon's effectiveness is measured by the quantity of energy - or damage
potential - it delivers to the target.
Modern weapons use both kinetic and potential energy to achieve maximum lethality.
Kinetic energy systems rely on the conversion of kinetic energy to work, while potential
energy systems use explosive energy directly in the form of heat and blast, or by
accelerating metal as a shaped charge, EFP or case fragments to increase their kinetic
energy and damage volume.
Energy may be broadly classified as potential or kinetic. Potential energy is energy of
configuration or position, or the capacity to perform work. For example, the relatively
unstable chemical bonds among the atoms that comprise trinitrotoluene (TNT) possess
chemical potential energy. Potential energy can, under suitable conditions, be transformed
into kinetic energy, which is energy of motion. When a conventional explosive such as
TNT is detonated, the relatively unstable chemical bonds are converted into bonds that
are more stable, producing kinetic energy in the form of blast and thermal energies. This
process of transforming a chemical system's bonds from lesser to greater stability is
exothermic (there is a net production of energy).
A chemical explosive is a compound or a mixture of compounds which, when subjected
to heat, impact, friction, or shock, undergoes very rapid, self-propagating, heat-
producing decomposition. This decomposition produces gases that exert tremendous
pressures as they expand at the high temperature of the reaction. The work done by an
explosive depends primarily on the amount of heat given off during the explosion. The
term detonation indicates that the reaction is moving through the explosive faster than the
speed of sound in the unreacted explosive; whereas, deflagration indicates a slower
reaction (rapid burning). A high explosive will detonate; a low explosive will deflagrate.
All commercial explosives except black powder are high explosives.
Low-order explosives (LE) create a subsonic explosion [below 3,300 feet per second] and
lack HE's over-pressurization wave. Examples of LE include pipe bombs, gunpowder,
and most pure petroleum-based bombs such as Molotov cocktails or aircraft improvised
as guided missiles.
A High Explosive (HE) is a compound or mixture which, when initiated, is capable of
sustaining a detonation shockwave to produce a powerful blast effect. A detonation is the
powerful explosive effect caused by the propagation of a high-speed shockwave through
a high explosive compound or mixture. During the process of detonation, the high
explosive is largely decomposed into hot, rapidly expanding gas.
The most important single property in rating an explosive is detonation velocity, which
may be expressed for either confined or un-confined conditions. It is the speed at which
the detonation wave travels through the explosive. Since explosives in boreholes are
confined to some degree, the confined value is the more significant. Most manufacturers,
however, measure the detonation velocity in an unconfined column of explosive 1- i/4 in.
in diameter. The detonation velocity of an explosive is dependent on the density,
ingredients, particle size, charge diameter, and degree of confinement. Decreased particle
size, increased charge diameter, and increased confinement all tend to increase the
detonation velocity. Unconfined velocities are generally 70 to 80 percent of confined
velocities.
The confined detonation velocity of commercial explosives varies from 4,000 to 25,000
fps. With cartridge explosives the confined velocity is seldom attained. Some explosives
and blasting agents are sensitive to diameter changes. As diameter is reduced, the velocity
is reduced until at some critical diameter, propagation is no longer assured and misfires
are likely.
Relative effectiveness factor (R.E. factor) is a measurement of an explosive's power for
military demolitions purposes. It measures the detonating velocity relative to that of TNT,
which has an R.E. factor of 1.00. TNT equivalent is a measure of the energy released
from the detonation of a nuclear weapon, or from the explosion of a given quantity of
fissionable material, in terms of the amount of TNT (trinitrotoluene) which could release
the same amount of energy when exploded. The twelve-kiloton Hiroshima atomic bomb
had had a blast effect alone equivalent to some twenty-five million pounds of TNT-that's
million.
Denser explosives usually give higher detonation velocities and pressures. A dense
explosive may be desirable for difficult blasting conditions or where fine fragmentation is
required. Low-density ex-plosives will suffice in easily fragmented or closely jointed
rocks and are preferred for quarrying coarse material.
Energetic materials are made in two ways. The first is by physically mixing solid
oxidizers and fuels, a process that, in its basics, has remained virtually unchanged for
centuries. Such a process results in a composite energetic material such as black powder.
The second process involves creating a monomolecular energetic material, such as TNT,
in which each molecule contains an oxidizing component and a fuel component. For the
composites, the total energy can be much greater than that of monomolecular materials.
However, the rate at which this energy is released is relatively slow when compared to
the release rate of monomolecular materials. Monomolecular materials such as TNT work
fast and thus have greater power than composites, but they have only moderate energy
densities-commonly half those of composites. Greater energy densities versus greater
power-that's been the traditional trade-off.
Ingredients of high explosives are classified as explosive bases, combustibles, oxygen
carriers, antacids, and absorbents. Some ingredients perform more than one function. An
explosive base is a solid or liquid which, upon the application of sufficient heat or shock,
decomposes to gases with an accompanying release of considerable heat. A combustible
combines with excess oxygen to prevent the formation of nitrogen oxides. An oxygen
carrier assures complete oxidation of the carbon to prevent the formation of carbon
monoxide. The formation of nitrogen oxides or carbon monoxide, in addition to being
undesirable from the standpoint of fumes, results in lower heat of explosion and
efficiency than when carbon dioxide and nitrogen are formed. Antacids increase stability
in storage, and absorb-ents absorb liquid explosive bases.
Explosives are classified as primary or secondary based on their susceptibility to
initiation. Primary explosives, which include lead azide and lead styphnate, are highly
susceptible to initiation. Primary explosives often are referred to as initiating explosives
because they can be used to ignite secondary explosives. Secondary explosives, which
include nitroaromatics and nitramines are much more prevalent at military sites than are
primary explosives. Because they are formulated to detonate only under specific
circumstances, secondary explosives often are used as main charge or bolstering
explosives.
Secondary explosives can be loosely categorized into melt-pour explosives, which are
based on nitroaromatics such as TNT, and plastic-bonded explosives which are based on
a binder and crystalline explosive such as RDX.
Propellants include both rocket and gun propellants. Most rocket propellants are
composites based on a rubber binder, ammonium perchlorate oxidizer, and a powdered
aluminum fuel; or composites based on a nitrate esters, usually nitroglycerine or
nitrocellulose and nitramines. If a binder is used, it usually is an isocyanate-cured
polyester or polyether. Some propellants also contain combustion modifiers, such as lead
oxide. One group of gun propellants are called "single base" (principally nitrocellulose),
"double base" (nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine), or "triple base" (nitrocellulose,
nitroglycerine, and nitroguanidine). Some of the newer, lower vulnerability gun
propellants contain polymer binders and crystalline nitramines.
Pyrotechnics include illuminating flares, signaling flares, colored and white smoke
generators, tracers, incendiary delays, fuses, and photo-flash compounds. Pyrotechnics
usually are composed of an inorganic oxidizer and metal powder in a binder. Illuminating
flares contain sodium nitrate, magnesium, and a binder. Signaling flares contain barium,
strontium, or other metal nitrates.
Explosive and incendiary (fire) bombs are further characterized based on their source.
"Manufactured" implies standard military-issued, mass produced, and quality-tested
weapons. "Improvised" describes weapons produced in small quantities, or use of a
device outside its intended purpose, such as converting a commercial aircraft into a
guided missile. Manufactured (military) explosive weapons are exclusively HE-based.
Terrorists will use whatever is available - illegally obtained manufactured weapons or
improvised explosive devices (also known as "IEDs") that may be composed of HE, LE,
or both. Manufactured and improvised bombs cause markedly different injuries.
Plastic explosive means an explosive material in flexible or elastic sheet form formulated
with one or more high explosives which in their pure form has a vapor pressure less than
10-4 Pa at a temperature of 25 deg. C., is formulated with a binder material, and is as a
mixture malleable or flexible at normal room temperature.
The energetic materials used by the military as propellants and explosives are mostly
organic compounds containing nitro (NO2) groups. The three major classes of these
energetic materials are nitroaromatics (e.g., tri-nitrotoluene or TNT), nitramines (e.g.,
hexahydro-1,3,5 trinitroazine or RDX), and nitrate esters (e.g., nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerine).
Since the invention of the cannon, the explosive fills used to drive lethal mechanisms
have been the subject of ever increasing interest and study. Traditionally, munitions
designers have used such ex-plosives as Comp-B, TNT, or LX-14, depending upon the
particular application.
During the 1920s and into the 1940s, the Army's Picatinny Arsenal was instrumental in
designing, modeling and evaluating such high explosive material as TNT, RDX, and
Haleite. This work greatly influenced battlefield lethality during WWII where explosives
exhibiting a higher brisance, or shattering effect, than TNT were in great demand.
The 1960s brought new explosives such as HMX that was chemically analogous to RDX,
but even more powerful to give soldiers greater lethality capability. Picatinny laboratories
also developed precision warheads for several missile systems, including the DRAGON-
MAW, a Medium Antiarmor Weapon.
The Army uses Research Department Explosive (RDX) and High Melt Explosive (HMX)
as basic explosives for munitions and tactical missiles as well as propellants for strategic
missiles rather than TNT because of their superior energy.
Most modern explosives are reasonably stable and require percussive shock or other
triggering devices for detonation. Energetic materials are especially vulnerable to
elevated temperature, with possible consequences ranging from mild decomposition to
vigorous deflagration or detonation. Energetic materials can also be initiated by
mechanical work through friction, impact, or electricity (e.g., current flow, spark,
electrostatic discharge, or electromagnetic radiation). Other stimuli (e.g., focused laser
light or chemical incompatibility) can have consequences ranging from mild
decomposition to detonation.
Explosives may be toxic, with exposure pathways being inhalation of dust or vapor,
ingestion, or skin contact. Most explosives are not highly toxic, but improper handling
can result in systemic poisoning, usually affecting the bone marrow (i.e., the blood cell-
producing system) and the liver. Some explosives are vasodilators, which cause
headaches, low blood pressure, chest pains, and possible heart attacks. Some explosives
may irritate the skin.
Some detonation or combustion products from explosives are toxic. Such products can be
respiratory and skin irritants and lead to systemic effects following short-term exposure
to high levels. Soot from detonated explosives is not mutagenic; however, soot from
burned gun propellants may be mutagenic and is therefore treated as a mutagen.
Fortunately, contamination usually occurs in dilute, aqueous solutions or in relatively low
concentrations in the soil and present no explosion hazard. Masses of pure crystalline
explosive material have, however, been encountered in soils associated with wastewater
lagoons, leach pits, burn pits, and firing ranges. These materials remain hazardous for
long periods of time and great care must be used during the investigation and remediation
process.
Molecular weights are moderate, of the order of a few hundreds of grams per mole. The
molecular structure, particularly the types and positions of subsidiary functional groups,
controls environmental behavior.
All of the common explosives are solid at normal environmental temperatures and
pressures. Melting point temperatures for explosives solids are moderate (50-205 0C).
Melting points are of little direct value in predicting environmental fate and transport, but
several parameter estimation relations for solids incorporate the influence of molecular
crystal bonding by including a term dependent on the melting point. Melting points are
not available for many of the breakdown products. Most of the explosives and associated
contaminants have very low volatility, with vapor pressures estimated to be less than 6 x
10-4 torr. Henry's law constants (KH) range from 10-4 to 10-11 atm·m-2·mole-1. Only
those with KH greater than 10-5 volatilize significantly from aqueous solution 12.
Though explosives compounds may not be volatile, some of the transformation products,
other key reactants, or products may be volatile to semivolatile.
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Primary Explosives
The explosives used as initiating explosives are the primary high explosives mentioned
previously in this chapter. They are used in varying amounts in the different primers and
detonators used by the Navy and may differ some insensitivity and in the amount of heat
given off. The explosives discussed in this section are lead azide, lead, styphnate, and
diazodinitrophenol (DDNP).
Lead Azide
Lead azide has a high-ignition temperature and is today the most commonly used primary
explosive. Lead azide is poisonous, slightly soluble in hot water and in alcohol, and
highly soluble in a diluted solution of nitric or acetic acid in which a little sodium nitrate
has been dissolved It reacts with copper, zinc, cadmium, or alloys containing such metals,
forming an azide that is more sensitive than the original lead tide. Because lead azide
does not react with aluminum, detonator capsules for lead azide are made of this metal.
The hygroscopicity of lead azide is very low. Water does not reduce its impact sensitivity,
as is the case with mercury fulminate. Ammonium acetate and sodium bichromate are
used to destroy small quantities of lead azide. Lead tide may be used where detonation is
caused by flame or heat. The velocity of detonation is approximately 17,500 feet per
second (fps). Its color varies from white to buff. Lead azide is widely used as an initiating
explosive in high-explosive detonator devices. Lead azide, when protected from
humidity, is completely stable in stowage.
Lead Styphnate
There are two forms of lead styphnate-the normal that appears as six-sided monohydrate
crystals and the basic that appears as small, rectangular crystals. Lead styphnate is
particularly sensitive to fire and the discharge of static electricity. When the styphnate is
dry, it can readily ignite by static discharges from the human body. The longer and
narrower the crystals, the more susceptible the material is to static electricity. Lead
styphnate does not react with metals. It is less sensitive to shock and fiction than lead
azide. Lead styphnate is slightly soluble in water and methyl alcohol and may be
neutralized by a solution of sodium carbonate. The velocity of detonation is
approximately 17,000 fps. The color of lead styphnate varies from yellow to brown. Lead
styphnate is used as an initiating explosive in propellant primer and high-explosive
detonator devices.
Diazodinitrophenol (DDNP)
DDNP is a yellowish brown powder. It is soluble in acetic acid, acetone, strong
hydrochloric acid, and most of the solvents, but is insoluble in water. A cold sodium
hydroxide solution may be used to destroy it. DDNP is desensitized by immersion in
water and does not react with it at normal temperatures. It is less sensitive to impact but
more powerful than lead tide. The sensitivity of DDNPto friction is approximately the
same as that of lead tide. DDNP is often used as an initiating explosive in propellant
primer devices
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Booster Explosives
Booster explosives are those components of the explosive train that function to transmit
and augment the force and flame from the initiating explosive. They ensure the reliable
detonation or burning of the main burster charge or propellant charge. Propelling charges
use a black powder booster, while high-explosive boosters use one of the following:
Tetryl, CH-6, or Composition A-5.
Tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenyl-methylnitramine)
Tetryl is a nitramine booster explosive, though the use has been largely superseded by
RDX. Tetryl is sensitive secondary high explosive used as a booster, a small charge
placed next to the detonator in order to propagate the detonation into the main charge.
While it is commonly known as Tetryl it is in fact Trinitrophenylmethylnitramine
(derivative of Benzene). This is a standard booster explosive. Tetryl is a fine yellow
crystalline material. When tetryl is heated, it first melts, then decomposes and explodes. It
burns readily and is more easily detonated than explosive D.
It is a yellow crystalline solid powder material, practically insoluble in water but soluble
in Acetone, Benzene and other solvents. It burns readily and is more easily detonated than
TNT or Ammonium Picrate (Explosive D), being about as sensitive as Picric Acid. It is
detonated by friction, shock, or spark . It remains stable at all temperatures which may be
encountered in storage. It is generally used in the form of pressed pellets, and has been
approved as the standard bursting charge for small-caliber projectiles, since it gives much
better fragmentation than TNT. It also has greater shattering ability than any other
military high explosive, and must be properly protected from bullet fire . Its rate of
detonation is 23,600-23,900 feet per second. Tetryl is the basis for the service Tetryl
blasting caps necessary for positive detonation of TNT. A mixture of Fulminate of
Mercury and Potassium Chlorate is included in the cap to insure detonation of Tetryl.
The most toxic ordnance compounds, tetryl and 1,3,5-TNB, are also the most degradable.
Therefore these chemicals are expected to be short-lived in nature, and environmental
impacts would not be expected in areas that are not currently subject to chronic inputs of
these chemicals. Tetryl decomposes rapidly in methanol/water solutions, as well as with
heat. All aqueous samples expected to contain tetryl should be diluted with acetonitrile
prior to filtration and acidified to pH <3. All samples expected to contain tetryl should not
be exposed to temperatures above room temperature. In addition, degradation products of
tetryl appear as a shoulder on the 2,4,6-TNT peak. Peak heights rather than peak areas
should be used when tetryl is present in concentrations that are significant relative to the
concentration of 2,4,6-TNT.
CH-6
CH-6 is a mixture of 97.5% RDX (described in the next section), 1.5% calcium stearate,
0.5% polyisobutylene, and 0.5% graphite. It is a finely divided gray powder that is less
toxic and more available than tetryl.
Composition A-5
Composition A-5 is a mixture of 98.5% RDX and 1.5% stearic acid.
NQ [Nitroguanidine / Picrate]
Ammonium Picrate (Yellow D / Explosive D), or Picric Acid or 2,4,6-trinitrophenol,
C6H2(NO2)3OH, a toxic yellow crystalline solid that melts at 122°C and is soluble in
most organic solvents. Picric acid is a derivative of phenol. It reacts with metals to form
metal picrates, which like picric acid itself are highly sensitive explosives that can be
detonated by heat, flame, shock, or friction.
The high explosives lyddite and melinite are composed mostly of compressed or fused
picric acid. Picric acid is often used as a booster to detonate another, less sensitive
explosive, such as TNT (trinitrotoluene ). Although picric acid, a nitramine explosive, can
be synthesized by nitration of phenol, higher yields are obtained if chlorobenzene is used
as a starting material; the latter method involves several steps and the formation of
several intermediate products. In addition to its use in explosives, picric acid has been
used as a yellow dye, as an antiseptic, and in the synthesis of chloropicrin, or
nitrotrichloromethane, CCl 3 NO 2 , a powerful insecticide.
A UXO item without a fuze is relatively safe (crystallized bulk explosives, picrate salts,
chemical, and white phosphorous rounds excepted).
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Explosives - Nitroaromatics
Nitroaromatics form an important group of recalcitrant xenobiotics. Only few aromatic
compounds, bearing one nitro group as a substituent of the aromatic ring, are produced as
secondary metabolites by microorganisms. The majority of nitroaromatic compounds in
the biosphere are industrial chemicals such as explosives, dyes, polyurethane foams,
herbicides, insecticides and solvents.
Detection of unrecovered land mines is a growing international problem. Unrecoverd
land mines are a legacy that continues to harm people long after the hostilities cease. The
most widely used tool for land mine detection today is the hand-held metal detector.
Other methods for landmine detection are limited due to their high false alarm rate.
Chemical sensors have been investigated for mine detection. For chemical species having
favorable spectral properties, remote sensing can be achieved by fluorescence light
detection and ranging LIDAR. Nitroaromatic explosives exhibit strong ultraviolet
absorption but low fluorescence, thus direct detection is not practical. Indirect detection
in soil can be obtained using a synthetic chemical polymer that exhibits a change in
fluorescence in the presence of an explosive compound.
Penetration of nitroaromatic compounds through the skin is a major concern for the
military. An important characteristic of nitroaromatic compounds is their ability to rapidly
penetrate the skin. They can cause the formation of methemeglobin on acute exposures
and anemia on chronic exposures. Additionally, local irritation, liver damage and bladder
tumors have also been identified.
These compounds are generally recalcitrant to biological treatment and remain in the
biosphere, where they constitute a source of pollution due to both toxic and mutagenic
effects on humans, fish, algae and microorganisms. However, relatively few
microorganisms have been described as being able to use nitroaromatic compounds as
nitrogen and/or carbon and energy source.
However, relatively few microorganisms have been described as being able to use
nitroaromatic compounds as nitrogen and/or carbon and energy source. The best-known
nitroaromatic compound is the explosive TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene).
The optimal remediation strategy for nitroaromatic compounds depends on many site-
specific factors. Composting and the use of reactor systems lend themselves to treating
soils contaminated with high levels of explosives (e.g. at former ammunition production
facilities, where areas with a high contamination level are common). Compared to
composting systems, bioreactors have the major advantage of a short treatment time, but
the disadvantage of being more labour intensive and more expensive.
TNT [2,4,6-trinitrotoluene]
TNT is one of the most common bulk explosives. 2,4,6 Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is an
explosive used in military munitions and in civilian mining and quarrying activities. TNT
was first used on a wide scale during World War I and is still used today. The United
States military stopped production of TNT in the mid-1980s.
TNT is classified as a secondary explosive because it is less susceptible to initiation and
requires a primary or initiating explosive to ignite it. TNT can be used as a booster or as a
bursting charge for high-explosive shells and bombs. Also, TNT may be mixed with other
explosives such as Royal Demolition Explosive (RDX) and High Melting Explosive
(HMX) and it is a constituent of many explosives, such as amatol, pentolite, tetrytol,
torpex, tritonal, picratol, ednatol, and ¿Composition B¿. It has been used under such
names as Triton, Trotyl, Trilite, Trinol, and Tritolo.
The advantages of TNT include low cost, safety in handling, fairly high explosive power,
good chemical and thermal stability, compatibility with other explosives, a low melting
point favorable for melt casting operations and moderate toxicity.
TNT is a crystalline substance. The importance of TNT as a military explosive is based
upon its relative safety in manufacture, loading, transportation, and stowage, and upon its
explosive properties. Manufacturing yields are high and production relatively
economical. The chemical names for TNT are trinitrotoluene and trinitrotol. Other
(commercial) names are Trilite, Tolite, Trinol, Trotyl, Tritolol, Tritone, Trotol, and Triton.
TNT is toxic, odorless, comparatively stable, nonhygroscopic, and relatively insensitive.
When TNT is pure, it is known as grade A TNT and varies from white to pale yellow.
When the proportion of impurities is much greater, the color is darker, often brown, and
the chemical is known as grade B TNT. It maybe ignited by impact, friction, spark,
shock, or heat. TNT does not form sensitive compounds with most metals. The melting
point varies between 80.6°C for grade A (refined TNT) and 76°C for grade B (crude
TNT).
TNT does not appear to be affected by acids but is affected by alkalies (lye, washing
soda, and so on), becoming pink, red, or brown, and more sensitive. It is practically
insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, benzene, carbon disulfide, acetone, and
certain other solvents. The velocity of detonation is approximately 22,300 fps.
Exudate has been known to separate from cast TNT. It may appear pale yellow to brown
and may vary in consistency from an oily liquid to a sticky substance. The amount and
rate of separation depend primarily upon the purity of the TNT and, secondarily, upon the
temperature of the stowage place. Grade B (low-melting point) TNT may exude
considerable liquid and generate some gas. This exudation is accelerated with an increase
in temperature. Pure TNT will not exude since exudate consists of impurities that have
not been extracted in the refining process. Exudate is a mixture of lower melting isomers
of TNT, nitrocompounds of toluene of lower nitration, and possible nitrocompounds of
other aromatic hydrocarbons and alcohols. It is flammable and has high sensitivity to
percussion when mixed with absorbents. Its presence does no appreciable harm to the
stability but somewhat reduces the explosive force of the main charge.
In some ammunition, an inert wax pad is used in the loading operation, and, in some
cases, waxy material may ooze from the case. It should not be confused with the TNT
exudate previously described. This material should, however, be tested for TNT to
confirm its actual composition, TNT exudate, when mixed with a combustible material,
such as wood chips, sawdust, or cotton waste, will form a low explosive that is highly
flammable and ignites easily from a small flame. It can be exploded in a reamer similar to
a low grade of dynamite, but the main danger is its fire hazard. Accumulation of exudate
is considered a great risk of explosion and fire. Its accumulation should always be
avoided by continual removal and disposal as it occurs. While TNT is no longer used in
Navy gun ammunition, some 3"/50, 40-mm, and 20-mm stocks loaded with TNT may
still be in the inventory. These stocks should be identified and checked periodically for
the presence of exudate. The exudate is soluble in acetone or alcohol. One of these
solvents (requiring adequate ventilation) or clean, hot water should be used to facilitate
removal and disposal of the exudate.
Under no circumstances should soap or other alkaline preparations be used to remove this
exudate. The addition of a small amount of hydroxide, caustic soda, or potash will
sensitize TNT and cause it to explode if heated to 160°F.
During production TNT is in the form of a liquid which is then cooled and washed with
water to form solid flakes in the form of colorless crystals, though commercial crystals
are yellow. The flakes can be remelted at low temperatures (180 degrees Fahrenheit) and
poured into munitions shells and casings. TNT was widely used by the military because
of its low melting point and its resistance to shock or friction which allows it to be
handled, stored, and used with comparative safety.
In order to detonate, TNT must be confined in a casing or shell and subjected to severe
pressures and/or temperatures (936 degrees Fahrenheit) such as from a blasting cap or
detonator. In fact, U.S. Army tests on pure TNT show that when struck by a rifle bullet
TNT failed to detonate 96% of the time and when dropped from an altitude of 4,000 feet
onto concrete, a TNT filled bomb failed to explode 92% of the time.
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) causes liver damage and aplastic anemia. Deaths from
aplastic anemia and toxic hepatitis were reported in TNT workers prior to the 1950s. With
improved industrial practices, there have been few reports of fatalities or serious health
problems related to its use.
Exposures at or below 0.5 mg/m3 have been reported to cause destruction of red blood
cells. Among some groups of workers, there is a reduction in average hemoglobin and
hematocrit values. Workers deficient in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase may be
particularly at risk of acute hemolytic disease. Three such cases occurred after a latent
period of 2 to 4 days and were characterized by weakness, vertigo, headache, nausea,
paleness, enlarged liver and spleen, dark urine, decreased hemoglobin levels, and
reticulocytosis. Although no simultaneous measurements of atmospheric levels were
available, measurement on other occasions showed exposure levels up to 3.0 mg/m3.
Cataracts are also reportedly produced with chronic exposures for more than 5 years. The
opacities did not interfere with visual acuity or visual fields. The induced cataracts may
not regress once exposure ceases, although progression is arrested.
The vapor or dust can cause irritation of mucous membranes resulting in sneezing, cough,
and sore throat. Although intense or prolonged exposure to TNT may cause some
cyanosis, it is not regarded as a strong producer of methemoglobin. Other occasional
effects include leukocytosis or leukopenia, peripheral neuritis, muscular pains, cardiac
irregularities, and renal irritation.
Trinitrotoluene is absorbed through skin fairly rapidly, and reference to airborne levels of
vapor or dust may underestimate total systemic exposure if skin exposure also occurs.
Apparent differences in dose-response relationships based only on airborne levels may be
explained by differences in skin contact. TNT causes sensitization dermatitis; the hands,
wrist, and forearms most commonly are affected, but skin at friction points such as the
collar line, belt line, and ankles also is often involved. Erythema, papules, and an itchy
eczema can be severe. The skin, hair, and nails of exposed workers may be stained
yellow.
Rats administered 50 mg/kg/day in their diets had anemia, splenic lesions, and liver and
kidney damage. Hyperplasia and carcinoma of the urinary bladder also were observed in
female rats.
Historically, control of exposure to TNT has been accomplished through general safety
and hygiene measures, yet additional, specific measures are necessary. The Hazard
Communication Program, for example, should instruct workers about the need for strict
personal and shop hygiene, and about the hazards of the particular operations that are
conducted in that plant. In addition, soap that contains 5% to 10% potassium sulfite will
not only help remove TNT dust from the skin, suds that turn red will also indicate any
remaining contamination. Furthermore, respiratory protection equipment should be
selected according to NIOSH guidance, and should be worn during operations that
release dust, vapor, or fumes.
Before WWII, research suggested that improving the nutritional status of TNT workers
might help improve their resistance to toxic effects. However, in a World War II era
cohort study, multivitamin capsules were not shown to be efficacious in preventing TNT
toxicity.
TNT interacts with certain medications - including isoniazid, phenylbutazone, phenytoin,
and methotrexate. Anyone taking these medications while working with TNT should be
closely followed by the occupational physician.
Medical Monitoring. The U.S. Army currently recommends preplacement and periodic
(semiannual) examinations of TNT workers. To identify workers with higher-than-normal
sensitivity to TNT toxicity during the first three months of exposure, monthly
hemoglobin, LDH, and AST should be done.
The ACGIH TLV Committee for Chemical Substances recommended that the 8-hour TLV
for TNT be lowered from 0.5 mg/m3 to 0.1 mg/m3 on 21 May 1997 after reviewing
scientific reports of human and animal exposure. In some studies, evidence of liver
toxicity, changes in blood cell production, and cataracts were noted when exposure levels
ranged below 0.5 mg/m3 (the old ACGIH TLV). TNT workers should never be exposed
to ambient levels of TNT above 0.1 mg/m3 for an 8-hour time weighted average (TWA)
without appropriate respiratory protection. Based on the evidence reviewed by the
ACGIH, the extra margin of safety afforded by this lowered TLV is necessary to protect
workers health. Skin absorption has also been noted to be a significant means of exposure
in several studies. Dermal exposure over an 8 hour period cannot be readily quantitated at
a worksite, however use of protective clothing to include head cover and impermeable
gloves is essential to prevent skin absorption of TNT.
DNT (Dinitrotoluene)
2,4-DNT and 2,6-DNT are pale yellow solids with a slight odor and are two of the six
forms of the chemical called dinitrotoluene (DNT). The other four forms (2,3-DNT, 2,5-
DNT, 3,4-DNT, and 3,5-DNT) only make up about 5% of the technical grade DNT. DNT
is not a natural substance but rather is usually made by reacting toluene (a solvent) with
mixed nitric and sulfuric acids, which are strong acids. DNT is used to produce flexible
polyurethane foams used in the bedding and furniture industry. DNT is also used to
produce ammunition and explosives and to make dyes. It is also used in the air bags of
automobiles.
It has been found in the soil, surface water, and groundwater of at least 122 hazardous
waste sites that contain buried ammunition wastes and wastes from manufacturing
facilities that release DNT. DNT does not usually evaporate and is found in the air only in
manufacturing plants. DNT also does not usually remain in the environment for a long
time because it is broken down by sunlight and bacteria into substances such as carbon
dioxide, water, and nitric acid.
Workers who have been exposed to 2,4-DNT showed a higher than normal death rate
from heart disease. However, these workers were exposed to other chemical as well. 2,4-
and 2,6-DNT may also affect the nervous system and the blood of exposed workers. One
study showed that male workers exposed to DNT had reduced sperm counts, but other
studies did not confirm this finding.
TNB (1,3,5-Trinitrobenzene)
The synthetic compound 1,3,5-TNB is used as a high explosive for commercial mining
and military use, as a narrow-range pH indicator and as an agent to vulcanize natural
rubber. The compound is a manufacturing by-product of the explosive, TNT, and is
released to the environment in discharged wastewater. Additionally, any TNT itself that is
present in the waste stream may be degraded to 1,3,5-TNB by photolysis under certain
conditions of pH and organic matter content. The compound has a close structural
relationship with the most widely produced military explosive, trinitrotoluene (TNT), of
which it is a manufacturing by-product and an environmental degradation product.
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Explosives - Nitramines
The nitramines are the most recently introduced class of organic nitrate explosives. The
most prominent member of this class is RDX (research department explosive; hexahydro-
1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5 triazine, which is also known as cyclonite); HMX (high melting
explosive; octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7 tetrazocine), nitroguanidine, and tetryl are
also significant nitramines.
In a class of explosives like nitramines, the higher density, bigger molecules will give
more power because more realizable energy can be packed in the same space. Bigger
molecules using the same proportion of elements are more dense because the formation
of covalent bonds makes atoms come closer together than if they were just pushed
together but from different molecules. HMX is a big ring molecule, same as RDX but
with an extra CH2NNO2 unit. It has higher density (TMD 1.902) than RDX, 1.806, its
det. vel is 9.11 km/sec vs. 8.70 for RDX. It is considered more powerful.
Pollution from manufacturing processes of the major energetic materials currently used in
the U.S., 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane (RDX), 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7
tetraazacyclooctane (HMX) was briefly evaluated. It was found that acetic acid was a
major pollutant. It appeared that the British Process could be controlled to reduce the
polluting effluents better than the Bachmann Process used in the U.S.
RDX [Cyclonite - Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine]
RDX stands for Royal Demolition eXplosive. It is also known as cyclonite or hexogen.
RDX is currently the most important military high explosive in the US.
Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, C3H6N606 (RDX), is second in strength to nitroglycerin
among common explosive substances. When compressed to a specific gravity of 1.70, it
has a confined detonation velocity of about 27,000 fps. RDX is used as an explosive,
usually in mixtures with other explosives, oils, or waxes. It has a high degree of stability
in storage and is considered the most powerful and brisant of the military high
explosives. RDX is used as a base charge in detonators and in blasting caps. RDX can be
used alone or with other explosives, including PETN.t RDX can be mixed with
plasticizers to make C-4, and the most common explosive combining RDX and PETN is
Semtex. RDX forms the base for the following common military explosives:
Composition A, Composition B, Composition C, HBX, H-6 and Cyclotol. Composition A
consists of RDX melted with wax; in Composition B, RDX is mixed with TNT; and
Composition C contains RDX blended with a non-explosive plasticizer. Pure RDX is
used in press-loaded projectiles. Cast loading is accomplished by blending RDX with a
relatively low melting point substance.
RDX has both military and civilian applications. As a military explosive, RDX can be
used alone as a base charge for detonators or mixed with another explosive such as TNT
to form cyclotols, which produce a bursting charge for aerial bombs, mines, and
torpedoes. Common military uses of RDX have been as an ingredient in plastic bonded
explosives, or plastic explosives which have been used as explosive fill in almost all
types of munition compounds. Civilian applications of RDX include use in fireworks, in
demolition blocks, as a heating fuel for food rations, and as an occasional rodenticide.
Combinations of RDX and HMX, another explosive, have been the chief ingredients in
approximately 75 products.
RDX is an explosive nitramine compound. It is in the form of a white powder with a
density of 1.806 g/cc. Nitrogen content of 37.84%. The chemical name for RDX is 1,3,5-
trinitro-1,3,5-triazine. The chemical formula for RDX is C3H6N6O6 and the molecular
weight is 222.117. Its melting point is 205°C. RDX has very low solubility in water and
has an extremely low volatility. RDX does not sorb to soil very strongly and can move
into the groundwater from soil. It can be broken down in air and water in a few hours, but
breaks down more slowly in soil.
Although RDX [Royal Demolition Explosive or Research Department Explosive] was
first prepared in 1899, its explosive properties were not appreciated until 1920. RDX was
used widely during World War II because petroleum was not needed as a raw ingredient.
During and since World War II, RDX has become the second-most-widely used high
explosive in the military, exceeded only by TNT. As with most military explosives, RDX
is rarely used alone; it is widely used as a component of plastic explosives, detonators,
high explosives in artillery rounds, Claymore mines, and demolition kits. RDX has
limited civilian use as a rat poison.
RDX can cause seizures in humans and animals when large amounts are inhaled or
ingested. Nausea and vomiting have also been observed. The effects of long-term (365
days or longer), low-level exposure on the nervous system are not known. No other
significant health effects have been reported in humans. Rats and mice that ate RDX for 3
months or more had decreased body weights and slight liver and kidney damage. It is not
known whether RDX causes birth defects in humans. It did not cause birth defects in
rabbits, but did result in smaller offspring in rats. It is not known whether RDX affects
reproduction in humans. The EPA has determined that RDX is a possible human
carcinogen (Class C). In one study, RDX caused liver tumors in mice that were exposed
to it in the diet. However, carcinogenic effects were not noted in rat studies and no human
data are available. RDX does not bioaccumulate in fish or in humans.
RDX has been produced several ways, but the most common method of manufacture
used in the United States is the continuous Bachmann process. The Bachmann process
involves reacting hexamine with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, glacial acetic acid, and
acetic anhydride. The crude product is filtered and recrystallized to form RDX. The
byproducts of RDX manufacture include nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, acid mists, and
unreacted ingredients. A second process that has been used to manufacture RDX, the
direct nitration of octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX), has not yielded
a percentage of RDX as high as the percentage produced in the Bachmann process (Army
1978; Merck 1989).
Production of RDX peaked in the 1960s when it was ranked third in explosive production
by volume in the United States. The average volume of RDX produced from 1969 to
1971 was 15 million pounds per month. However, production of RDX decreased to a
yearly total of 16 million pounds for 1984.
RDX is not produced commercially in the United States. Production in the United States
is limited to Army ammunition plants such as Holston Army ammunition plant in
Kingsport, Tennessee, which has been operating at 10-20% capacity. Several Army
ammunition plants, such as Louisiana (Shreveport, Louisiana), Lone Star (Texarkana,
Texas), Iowa (Middletown, Iowa), and Milan (Milan, Tennessee), also handle and
package RDX. Since the release of RDX is not required to be reported under SARA
Section 313, there are no data on RDX in the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI 1993).
Waste-water treatment sludges resulting from the manufacture of RDX are classified as
hazardous wastes and are subject to EPA regulations. Munitions such as RDX have been
disposed of in the past by dumping in deep sea water. By-products of military explosives
such as RDX have also been openly burned in many Army ammunition plants in the past.
There are indications that in recent years as much as 80% of waste munitions and
propellants have been disposed of by incineration. Wastes containing RDX have been
incinerated by grinding the explosive wastes with a flying knife cutter and spraying the
ground material with water to form a slurry. The types of incineration used to dispose of
waste munitions containing RDX include rotary kiln incineration, fluidized bed
incineration, and pyrolitic incineration. The primary disadvantage of open burning or
incineration is that explosive contaminants are often released into the air, water, and soils.
Soldiers and other workers have been exposed to RDX during its manufacture, in the
field, and through the contamination of the environment. The main occupational exposure
to RDX during its manufacture is through the inhalation of fine dust particles. Ingestion
may also be a possible route of exposure, but it is poorly absorbed through the dermis.
The greatest potential for occupational exposure to RDX occurs at ammunition plants
with load, assemble and pack (LAP) operations, where workers involved with melt-
pouring and maintenance operations have the greatest potential for exposures.
In 1962, five cases of convulsions or unconsciousness or both occurred at an RDX
manufacturing plant in the United States. All five employees had convulsions during their
work shifts or within a few hours after their shifts were over. These patients exhibited
little or no prodrome, and the postictal phase lasted up to 24 hours. No abnormal
laboratory or physical findings were noted.
Troops have also become intoxicated during field operations from exposure to
composition C4 plastic explosive, which contains 91% RDX. These field exposures
occurred because C4 was either chewed as an intoxicant or used as a fuel for cooking.
Thus, the route of exposure was ingestion or inhalation. At least 40 American soldiers
experienced convulsions due to RDX ingestion during the Vietnam War.
After acute exposure by inhalation or ingestion, there is a latent period of a few hours,
followed by a general sequence of intoxication that begins with a prodromal period of
irritability. Neurological symptoms predominate and include restlessness and
hyperirritability; headache; weakness; dizziness; hyperactive reflexes; nausea and
vomiting; prolonged and recurrent generalized convulsions; muscle twitching and
soreness; and stupor, delirium, and disorientation.
Clinical findings in acute exposures may also include fever, tachycardia, hematuria,
proteinuria, azotemia, mild anemia, neutrophilic leukocytosis, elevated AST, and
electroencephalogram (EEG) abnormalities. These abnormal effects, transient and
unreliable for diagnosis purposes, last at most a few days. In fact, all physical and
laboratory tests may remain normal, even in the presence of seizures. EEGs made at the
time of convulsions may show bilateral synchronous spike and wave complexes (2-3/sec)
in the frontal areas with diffuse slow wave activity; normalization occurs within 1 to 3
months.
RDX in the wastewater from manufacturing and loading operations has also
contaminated the environment. Although contamination has appeared in soil and
groundwater near some ammunition plants, RDX's low solubility in water has limited its
migration in most cases.
Although intensive research with animals has revealed some effects, few effects of
chronic human exposure to RDX have been reported. Investigations into the mutagenicity
and carcinogenicity of RDX have yielded conflicting results. RDX does not appear to be
a mutagen, based on negative results in the Ames tests, the dominant lethal test, and the
unscheduled deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis assay. RDX has not been found to be
carcinogenic in gavage studies performed on rats, but increased hepatocellular carcinoma
and adenoma were noted in females of one strain of mice. Due to this finding, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency has classified RDX as a possible human carcinogen.
Reproductive effects have been noted in rabbits and rats. A study performed on rabbits
showed teratogenic effects at 2 mg/kg/day (10% of the dose that caused maternal
toxicity). Similarly, a teratology study performed on pregnant rats exposed to RDX
resulted in offspring with lower body weights and shorter body lengths than were found
in the control group. These researchers therefore recommended that human females of
childbearing age be protected from exposure to RDX.
Despite the low toxicity of RDX, exposure should be maintained at the lowest levels
possible due to its possible carcinogenicity. General medical surveillance examinations
can be conducted (such as liver and kidney function tests), but specific testing for the
effects of low level occupational exposure does not appear to be warranted, given the
absence of abnormal results even in those patients with RDX-induced seizures.
Surveillance for both males and females should also include a screening questionnaire for
reproductive history. Pregnant women should avoid exposure to RDX.
HMX [Octogen - Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine ]
High Melting Explosive [HMX] is the highest-energy solid explosive produced on a large
scale in the United States. It is also known as Octogen and cyclotetramethylene-
tetranitramine, as well as other names. HMX explodes violently at high temperatures
(534°F and above). Because of this property, HMX is used exclusively for military
purposes to implode fissionable material in nuclear devices, as a component of plastic-
bonded explosives, as a component of rocket propellant, and as a high explosive burster
charge. The use of HMX as a propellant and in maximum-performance explosives is
increasing.
HMX was discovered as a by-product in the production of RDX. Although it is almost as
sensitive and powerful as RDX, it is seldom used alone in military applications but is
normally mixed with another compound, such as TNT. In the Navy, HMX is used as an
ingredient in plastic-bonded explosives.
HMX is produced by the nitration of hexamine with ammonium nitrate and nitric acid in
an acetic acid/acetic anhydride solvent at 44°C. The raw materials are mixed in a two-
step process and the product is purified by recrystallization. This is a modification of the
Bachmann Process used to produce RDX, another explosive. The yield of HMX is about
55-60%, with RDX as an impurity. RDX produced by the Bachmann Process usually
contains about 8-12% HMX as an acceptable byproduct.
HMX is currently produced at only one facility in the United States, the Holston Army
Ammunition Plant in Kingsport, Tennessee. The amount of HMX made and used in the
United States at present is not known, but it is believed to be greater than 30 million
pounds [15,000 tons] per year between 1969 and 1971. No estimates of current
production volume were located, but it is estimated that its use is increasing. Processing
may occur at load, assemble, and pack (LAP) facilities operated by the military. There
were 10 facilities engaged in LAP operations in the United States in 1976
No information was located regarding import or export of HMX in the United States.
Export of this chemical is regulated by the U.S. State Department.
Wastes from explosive manufacturing processes are classified as hazardous wastes by
EPA. Generators of these wastes must conform to EPA regulations for treatment, storage,
and disposal. The waste water treatment sludges from processing of explosives are listed
as hazardous wastes by EPA based only on reactivity. Waste water treatment may involve
filtering through activated charcoal, photolytic degradation, and biodegradation. Rotary
kiln or fluidized bed incineration methods are acceptable disposal methods for HMX-
containing wastes. At the Holston facility, waste waters are generated from the
manufacturing areas and piped to an industrial water treatment plant on site. Following
neutralization and nutrient addition, sludge is aerobically digested and dewatered. It was
estimated that the facility generates a maximum of 3,800 tons (7.6 million pounds) of
treated, dewatered sludge annually. Based on demonstration by Holston that this sludge is
nonhazardous, the EPA proposed granting a petition to exclude the sludge from hazardous
waste control. HMX is not listed on the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) database,
because it is not a chemical for which companies are required to report discharges to
environmental media.
HMX or octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine is an explosive polynitramine.
The chemical formula is C4H8N8O8 and molecular weight is 296.20. It is a colorless
solid with a melting point of 276 to 286°C. HMX is made by the nitration of hexamine
with ammonium nitrate and nitric acid in an acetic acid/acetic anhydride solvent. A small
amount of HMX is also formed in making cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine (RDX), another
explosive similar in structure to HMX.
It dissolves slightly in water. Only a very small amount of HMX will evaporate into the
air; however, it can occur in air attached to suspended particles or dust. The taste and
smell of HMX are not known.
HMX is a manmade chemical and does not occur naturally in the environment. It is made
from other chemicals known as hexamine, ammonium nitrate, nitric acid, and acetic acid.
A small amount of HMX is also formed in making cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine (RDX),
another explosive similar in structure to HMX.
HMX is only slightly soluble in water. It has low volatility and thus only a small amount
of HMX will evaporate into the air; however, it can occur in air attached to suspended
particles or dust. In surface water, HMX does not evaporate or bind to sediments to any
large extent. Sunlight breaks down most of the HMX in surface water into other
compounds, usually in a matter of days to weeks. HMX is likely to move from soil into
groundwater, particularly in sandy soils.
Exposure to HMX can occur during the manufacture and filling of munitions or through
the environmental contamination of groundwater and soil. HMX, like RDX, is
manufactured using the continuous Bachman process. Although its solubility in water is
very low, HMX can be present in particulate form in water effluent from manufacturing,
LAP, and demilitarization operations.
Information on the adverse health effects of HMX is limited. In one study on humans, no
adverse effects were reported in workers exposed to HMX in air. However, the
concentrations of HMX in the workplace air were not reported in this study, and only a
small number of workers and effects were investigated.
Studies in rats, mice, and rabbits indicate that HMX may be harmful to the liver and
central nervous system if it is swallowed or contacts the skin. The lowest dose producing
any effects in animals was 100 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day
(mg/kg/day) orally and 165 mg/kg/day on the skin. Limited evidence suggests that even a
single exposure to these dose levels harmed rabbits. The mechanism by which HMX
causes adverse effects on the liver and nervous system is not understood.
The reproductive and developmental effects of HMX have not been well studied in
humans or animals. At present, the information needed to determine if HMX causes
cancer is insufficient. Due to the lack of information, EPA has determined that HMX is
not classifiable as to its human carcinogenicity.
The data on the effects on human health of exposure to HMX are very limited. HMX
causes CNS effects similar to those of RDX, but at considerably higher doses. In one
study, volunteers submitted to patch testing, which produced skin irritation. Another
study of a cohort of 93 workers at an ammunition plant found no hematological, hepatic,
autoimmune, or renal diseases. However, the study did not quantify the levels of
exposure to HMX.
HMX exposure has been investigated in several studies on animals. Overall, the toxicity
appears to be quite low. HMX is poorly absorbed by ingestion. When applied to the
dermis, it induces mild skin irritation but not delayed contact sensitization. Various acute
and subchronic neurobehavioral effects have been reported in rabbits and rodents,
including ataxia, sedation, hyperkinesia, and convulsions. The chronic effects of HMX
that have been documented through animal studies include decreased hemoglobin,
increased serum alkaline phosphatase, and decreased albumin. Pathological changes were
also observed in the animals' livers and kidneys. No data are available concerning the
possible reproductive, developmental, or carcinogenic effects of HMX.
CL-20 / HNIW
CL-20 [2,4,6,8,10,12-hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane (HNIW) ] is a new nitramine
explosive that is 20 percent more powerful that HMX. CL20 was a breakthrough in
energetic materials with higher performance, minimum signature, and reduced-hazard
characteristics. CL-20 has numerous military and commercial applications. The trend
today is to explore the possibilities that HNIW can provide to munitions;from high
performance gun propellants , shaped charges etc. The only limitation is the cost of its
production. Even there had been practical methods to nitrate the special reactant (acetyl
Isowurtzitane derivatives) with mixed acid, but the effort of debenzylation of the
condensation products of glyoxal and benzylamine still requires the expensive palladium
catalyst. Therefore it will take some time before it can reach the level of comparatively
lower cost needed to make HMX.
CL-20 exists in four crystalline forms, stable at different temperatures. Only the e and the
ß form are used in ex-ploitation. CL-20 has better detonation properties than octogen,
higher den-sity and detonation rate but lower impact and friction sensitivity (of the PETN
class). The CL-20 melting point is lower than in octogen, 240°C approximately.
CL20, a high-energy explosive compound, is a polyazapolycyclic caged polynitramine.
The combustion and detonation characteristics of CL20 can be improved if it is formed
into nanoparticles of uniform size. A new, promising process for particulation of materials
utilizes environmentally benign compressed gases as either solvents or anti-solvents.
Predictive models are required to describe the solubility and phase behavior of
supercritical solutions of CL20 and supercritical carbon dioxide and for process
simulation and development. Here, the solubility of CL20 in supercritical carbon dioxide
was evaluated using the Peng-Robinson cubic equation of state. Critical properties, vapor
pressure, and other required thermodynamic properties were estimated using a variety of
available estimation techniques. A Fortran program to predict the solubility of CL20 was
developed. The program was validated using available literature data for the solubility of
naphthalene and of biphenyl in supercritical carbon dioxide. The applicability of the
estimation techniques employed for the critical properties for CL20 was established using
these same techniques to estimate the critical properties of comparable compounds,
including RDX and HMX. Solubility data for RDX in supercritical carbon dioxide
reported in the literature were also used to establish the validity of the estimation
approach. Solubility was predicted over the temperature range of 305.15 to 368.15 K and
over the pressure range of 74 to 150 atm. In general, as the temperature increases, the
solubility decreases, while as the pressure increases, the solubility increases.
Fortunately, shortly after Dr. Arnold Nielson first synthesized
Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane [hexa-nitro-hexa-aza-iso-wurtzi-tane] in 1987 it was
designated "CL-20," and talking and writing about this "most significant energetic
ingredient in 50 years" was made much easier. And there has been alot of writing and
discussion about the development of CL-20. Nielson's original discovery astonished the
scientific community because he constructed the CL-20 cage using a single chemical
reaction and, in the process, established a new type of amine glyoxal chemistry.
It was soon realized that CL-20 had greater energy output than existing (in-use) energetic
ingredients while having an acceptable level of insensitivity to shock and other external
stimuli. This fit in nicely with the Navy's 1989 decree for development of "insensitive
munitions," capable of withstanding unplanned exposure to external forces. Further, CL-
20-based formulations were clean burning, with less signature and which also met
requirements spawned by the government's then new-found emphasis of its role in
preserving the natural environment.
Seeing potential for the new molecule, early members of the team set about purifying and
characterizing new polymorphic forms and scaling up to produce usable quantities. In
1993 some 48 members of the Research, Ordnance Systems and Range departments
received a Team Award for their CL-20 efforts. Still more have been involved since then.
On June 19, 1996, NAWCWD and Thiokol Corporation of Ogden, Utah, entered into a
Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA), the ultimate goal of
which is to test a warhead containing a CL-20-based explosive that will demonstrate
performance significantly above that of existing explosives. Under the terms of the three-
year agreement NAWCWD will provide the personnel, facilities, equipment and
materials necessary to characterize CL-20; formulate, test and evaluate CL-20-based
explosives; and test and evaluate subscale warheads. Thiokol will provide the personnel,
facilities, equipment and materials necessary, and will provide 250 lbs. Of epsilon
(polymorph) CL-20 for this effort, to support preparation of subscale samples and other
tasks.
cost reduction is a major benefit expected to be gained from this CRADA. By
successfully completing this CRADA and demonstrating the potential of CL-20, demand
for the material will go up. With increased demand, and improved production processes
for high-grade product that will also come from this CRADA, availability will go up.
When that happens cost will go down. When Arnold Nielson first synthesized a few
grams of CL-20, the extrapolated cost to produce a pound by that method would have
been several thousand dollars. Thiokil has refined the production process to the point that
customers were paying around $400 a pound in the mid-1990s, which was a considerable
reduction. The hope at that time was to quarter that cost and get it down to around $100 a
pound.
As NAWCWD has been characterizing and refining the CL-20 molecule, other entities,
including Thiokol, have been working on the CL-20 molecule produced from their own
processes. Thiokol with continuous assistance and collaboration from China Lake
researchers has scaled up its process to the point that it can now produce 1,000-plus
pound batches of the ingredient. It has also been commercially marketing the basic
ingredient as well as end-product formulations for explosives, gun propellants and, to a
lesser degree, rocket propellants.
While there have been other new ingredients over the years, none of them have been
successfully scaled up to mass productionlevels. Thiokol has made the jump to mass
production of CL-20. That's why many have called CL-20 the mostsignificant energetic
ingredient in the past 50 years. It offers great potential to meet the performance,
insensitive munitions and environmental requirements for future weapons systems. CL-
20-based shaped charges are already being used in the oil well industry. Other
commercial applications he expects to see include specialty demolition, because CL-20
has good properties for use as a "cutter." And it will likely be used in high-rate detonating
cord.
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Explosives - Nitrate esters

Nitrate (NO3-) (CAS No. 014797-55-8) is an inorganic anion resulting from the
oxidation of elemental nitrogen. It is an essential nutrient for plant protein synthesis and
plays a critical role in the nitrogen cycle of soil and water. Nitrates are produced by
natural biological and physical oxidations and therefore are ubiquitous in the
environment (Ridder and Oehme 1974). Most nitrate compounds are strong oxidizing
agents and some can react violently with oxidizable substances and may explode if
exposed to heat or shock.
Nitrates are produced by natural biological and physical oxidations and therefore are
ubiquitous in the environment. Most of the excess nitrates in the environment originate
from inorganic chemicals manufactured for agriculture. Organic molecules containing
nitrate groups are manufactured primarily for explosives or for their pharmacological
effects
NC [Nitrocellulose]
for many centuries gunpowder was the world's only explosive, and was not superseded
until the discovery of guncotton. So long ago as 1832 Bracon discovered that woody fiber
could be turned into an explosive by the action of concentrated nitric acid; and a few
years later a French inventor, Dumas, tried to make cartridges of paper treated in similar
fashion. If he had succeeded these would have been the first smokeless cartridges, but he
failed; and it was not until 1845 that Schönbein, a German chemist, hit upon the proper
method of treating cotton wool with nitric and sulphuric acids, so as to turn it into
guncotton.
In 1847 an English firm, Messrs. Hall and Son of Faversham, began to manufacture
guncotton, and military experts hailed it as the new explosive which would take the place
of gunpowder. But this explosive was so terribly powerful that, when used in a gun or
rifle, it blew the barrel to pieces. Worse than that, it was most dangerous to manufacture.
Two main problems had to be solved before it could be used as a gun propellant. First,
the velocity of the explosion had to be reduced so that the charge weight required to
propel the projectile would not shatter the gun tube. second, the density had to be
increased so that a given charge weight would pack into a reasonable space. The first
problem was solved in part by igniting NC instead of firing it with a detonator. The
solution to the second problem actually solved both. In 1886, Vielle first colloided or
gelatinized NC with alcohol and ether and, thus reduced the burning rate to acceptable
levels. The procedure significantly increased the loading density of NC, establishing it as
the foundational element in gun propellants used through the present day. Further
developments resulted in materials that could be added to improve stowage qualities,
reduce or eliminate flash, reduce hygroscopicity, reduce flame temperature, and even
increase the propellant force or impetus.
Munitions manufacturing processes may generate nitrocellulose (NC) fines. Disposal of
these fines is difficult because of their reactive nature. Composting has potential to be a
safe and cost effective means of disposal. Open burning is no longer permitted in several
states and is expected to banned nationally in the future. Open detonation is also the least
acceptable form of disposal because of uncontrolled pollution by-products. In its role as
the Department of Defense Manager for conventional munitions, Army must be able to
dispose of Propellants/Explosives/Pyrotechnics production wastes. In composting, a
controlled biological process, microorganisms convert biodegradable hazardous material
to innocuous, stabilized by-products, typically at elevated temperatures between 50 - 55
°C. The increased temperatures result from heat produced by the microorganisms as they
degrade the organic material in the waste. The NC fines are mixed with bulking agents
and organic amendments, such as wood chips and animal and vegetable wastes, to
enhance the porosity of the mixture. Maintaining moisture content, pH, oxygenation,
temperature, and the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio achieves maximum degradation efficiency.
NG [Nitroglycerin ]
Nitroglycerin (NG) [Synonyms: 1,2,3-Propanetriol trinitrate; glycerol trinitrate;
nitroglycerol; NG; trinitroglycerol; NTG; trinitrin] is an oily liquid at room temperature;
colorless in pure form and pale yellow or brown in commercial form. It is used in
manufacture of dynamite, gunpowder, and rocket propellants, and as a therapeutic agent
primarily to alleviate angina pectoris. NG is used to make smokeless gun powder and
rocket propellants. Single-base powders contain only nitrocellulose, double-base powders
contain nitrocellulose and NG, and triple-base powders contain nitrocellulose, NG, and
other combustible materials.
In 1847 a new explosive came into being. This was nitroglycerine, made by treating
glycerine with nitric and sulphuric acids. But at first it was even more dangerous to
handle than guncotton, for the least shock exploded it, and its violence was terrific.
The great chemist Alfred Nobel tried to improve it by mixing it with gunpowder, but the
powder did not absorb all the nitroglycerine, and accidents of the most terrible kind
became more and more frequent. Yet the new explosive, being liquid, could be poured
into crevices in rocks, and was so useful as a blasting agent that its manufacture went on
until a large vessel carrying cases of the explosive from Hamburg to Chili blew up at sea.
The ship was blown to bits and her crew killed, and the disaster caused so great a
sensation that the manufacture of nitroglycerine was prohibited in Sweden, Belgium, and
in England. But Nobel still continued his experiments, and at last, after trying sawdust
and all other sorts of absorbents in vain, found the perfect absorbent in the shape of
keiselguhr-a sort of earth made of fossil shells. The mixture is what we know to-day as
dynamite; and in spite of the fact that modern chemistry has produced very many new
explosives, some of terrific power, dynamite remains the safest and most widely used of
all explosives.
Nitroglycerin (NG) is a vasodilator and has been associated with acute episodes of angina
pectoris, myocardial infraction, and sudden death. Workers engaged in the production or
use of dynamite are potentially exposed to mixed vapors of nitroglycerin (NG) and
ethylene glycol dinitrate (EGDN). Initial exposure to NG (or NG:EGDN mixtures)
characteristically results in an intense throbbing headache that begins in the forehead and
moves to the occipital region. Volunteers developed mild headaches when exposed to
NG:EGDN vapor at concentrations of 0.5mg/m^3 for 25 minutes. It has been suggested
that at least some workers may develop headaches at concentrations in excess of 0.1
mg/m^3. Other signs and symptoms associated with initial exposure include dizziness,
nausea, palpitations, and decreases in systolic, diastolic, and pulse pressures. These initial
signs and symptoms, including headache, are indicative of a shift in blood volume form
the central to the peripheral circulatory system, initiated by dilation of the blood vessels.
After 2 to 4 days of repeated NG exposure, tolerance to the vasodilatory activity occurs,
probably as a result of compensatory vasoconstriction. Tolerance may be lost during
periods without NG exposure, such as weekends and holidays. Chronic repeated
exposures to NG and NG mixtures also have been associated with more serious
cardiovascular effects, including angina pectoris and sudden death.
Signs and symptoms of ischemic heart disease were observed in nine munitions workers
involved in handling a nitroglycerin-cellulose mixture. Within 1 to 4 years of initial
exposure, these workers developed nonexertional chest pain, which was relieved either
by therapeutic nitroglycerin or by returning to work after the weekend. Coronary
angiography performed in five of the patients showed no obstructive lesions. In one
patient, observed while in a withdrawal state, coronary artery spasm was demonstrated
and readily reversed by sublingual nitroglycerin.
Sudden deaths in previously healthy workers have been reported among those exposed to
NG or to NG: EGDN mixtures. Like the attacks of angina pectoris, sudden deaths
occurred most frequently during brief periods away from work, in particular on Sunday
nights or Monday mornings. In most cases, there were no premonitory signs or symptoms
although some subjects had anginal episodes during brief periods away from work.
Atherosclerotic plaques, with or without thrombosis, have been found in the coronary
arteries of workers at autopsy, but their coronary arteries generally were not occluded to
the same extent as those of unexposed workers who had died suddenly.
The pathogenesis of the sudden death syndrome has been postulated to be due to
withdrawal of coronary vasodilators (e.g. NG), resulting in vasoconstriction with acute
hypertension, or with myocardial ischemia in workers adapted to and dependent on NG to
maintain a minimum level of coronary flow. A second contributing mechanism for
coronary artery toxicity due to NG may relate to so-called aging of the vessels due to
repeated dilation. Other theories suggest that sudden deaths may be related to peripheral
vasodilation consequent to reexposure of NG.
Estimates of exposure levels associated with sudden death have not been made because
workers typically absorb considerable amounts of NG through the skin in addition to
inhalation.
Employees handling NG should be given personal protective equipment to prevent the
absorption of NG through the skin. However, neither natural rubber nor synthetic rubber
gloves, including neoprene gloves, are impervious to NG. The wearing of such gloves
tends to hold the chemical in contact with the skin, thus promoting its absorption.
Preferably, cotton-lining gloves should be worn underneath nitrile gloves and both gloves
changed ever 2-1/2 hours (USAEHA Technical Guide 24).
More recent studies have suggested that the effects of long-term workplace exposure to
NG may not be completely reversed after exposure is terminated. Former workers may be
at increased risk for cardiovascular mortality for months to years after exposure has
ceased.
Individuals with preexisting ischemic heart disease should not be assigned to work where
significant exposure to NG may occur. Early identification of cardiovascular disease is
the primary goal of medical surveillance of nitroglycerin workers. A preplacement
examination must be administered to all new employees occupational histories, a physical
examination, and indicated laboratory tests, record of their pulse rates. Periodic
examinations should be conducted semiannually, with the same focus as the preplacement
examination. During the periodic examination, the physician should be aware that
headaches that occur during work shifts could indicate skin absorption of nitroglycerin,
even if air concentrations of nitroglycerin are below the PEL. Examinations with similar
content are necessary when exposure to nitroglycerin has been terminated, although
surveillance should perhaps extend beyond employment, due to the latency of the
withdrawal effects. Monitoring should include pulse, blood pressure, CBC, urinalysis,
resting EKG and lipid profile.
PETN [Pentaerythritol tetranitrate]
Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, C5H8N4012 (PETN), has a specific gravity of solids of 1.76
and a confined detonation velocity of over 25,000 fps. PETN is used as a priming
composition in detonators, a base charge in blasting caps, and a core load for detonating
fuse. PETN is very much used in Detonating Cord of which it is the explosive core
(Primacord), where it develops a velocity rate of 21,000 feet per second. Detonating cord
is insensitive to friction and ordinary shock, but may be exploded by rifle fire. It also
detonates sympathetically with the detonation of an adjacent high explosive.
PETN is one of the strongest known high explosives with a relative effectiveness factor
(R.E. factor) of 1.66. It is more sensitive to shock or friction than TNT or tetryl, and it is
never used alone as a booster. It is primarily used in booster and bursting charges of small
caliber ammunition, in upper charges of detonators in some land mines and shells, and as
the explosive core of primacord.
During World War II the M9A1 2.36" Rocket Launcher (Bazooka) charge, with 8 oz of
pentolite, could penetrate up to 5 inches of armor.
Demolition charge, M118, commonly called Flex-X or sheet explosive, consists of 4 half-
pound sheets of flexible explosive packed in a plastic envelope. Each sheet is
approximately 3 inches wide, 12 inches long, and 1/4 inch thick. Note: The exact
explosive contained in an M118 charge varies with the manufacturer. At present, some
manufacturers use PETN as the basic explosive. Others use RDX. Charges manufactured
in the future may include other explosives.
PETN does not occur naturally, so the production and use of this kind of compound can
lead to contamination of the environment. PETN is subject to biodegradation in untreated
or unpreserved urine and feces. There also have been some reports of its degradation by
bacteria, whose PETN reductase sequentially denitrates PETN into tri- and dinitrates
(French et al., 1996). The last compound shown in the pathway, pentaerythritol dinitrate,
is degraded further to unknown products.
In 1995 Haustein KO, Winkler U, Loffler A, Huller G. of the Abteilung Klinische
Pharmakologie, Medizinische Hochschule Erfurt, Germany reported on a study of
PETN's cardiovascular effects. The effects of 80 mg pentaerithrityl-tetranitrate (PETN) as
suspension or formulated as tablets were compared to placebo in a single blind,
randomized, crossover study in 18 healthy subjects (study A), and the bioequivalence of
two tablet formulations (marketed Dilcoran 80 vs a new formulation) was studied in 24
healthy subjects after administration of single oral doses of 80 mg PETN according to a
placebo controlled, randomized, double blind, two-way crossover study design (study B).
The perfusion of the right middle finger was measured by rheography (altitude A of the
changes of resistance and of the incisure D) before and 24 h post-dose, and blood
pressure and heart rate were measured in supine position at the same time. The values of
area under curve (AUC) of the ratio A/D were calculated by the trapezoidal rule. In study
A the mean A/D-values were reduced from about 2.0 to about 1.3 after intake of PETN
(solution or tablet) with a minimum 60 to 90 min postdose (solution) and 2 h postdose
(tablet). A significant reduction in this ratio was seen up to 8 (solution) or 12 h (tablet)
post dose. Changes in blood pressure were not observed while the heart rate decreased in
the subjects of all three groups 1 to 2 h postdose followed by an increase by 6 to 10 beats
per min. After subtraction of the AUC values of placebo from the PETN-derived AUC
values, mean values of 6.61 (SD 1.52, solution) and 7.25 (SD 1.48, A/D*h, tablet) were
calculated (p > 0.1, study A).
EGDN [ethylene glycol dinitrate]
Ethylene Glycol Dinitrate [SYNONYM(s): Glycol dinitrate; Nitroglycol; Dinitroglycol;
EGDN; Glycerin trinitrate] is a colorless to yellow, oily, odorless liquid. It is an explosive
ingredient (60-80%) in dynamite along with nitroglycerine (40-20%).
EGDN and NG are used with a mixture of sodium nitrate and an absorbent, often wood
pulp, to produce dynamite. EGDN is added to lower the freezing point of the EGDN/NG
mixture and is currently the major component. The EGDN/NG ratio is about 8/2 or 9/1.
This is the only commercial use for EGDN. Because EGDN is more volatile than NG,
there is usually more airborne EGDN than NG from the dynamite mixture. In 1976, about
250 million pounds of dynamite, containing 5 to 50% EGDN/NG, were produced by U.S.
manufacturers.
Headaches have developed in workers exposed to 0.4 to 0.67 mg/m3 for 25 minutes; all
workers had decreases in blood pressure [Trainor and Jones 1966]. Ethylene glycol
dinitrate and nitroglycerine are vasodilators and initial exposures result in headache,
dizziness, nausea, or decreases in blood pressure; however, workers became tolerant of
the vasodilatory activity after 2 to 4 days of exposure.
Angina pectoris has been reported among workers who were exposed to EGDN and/or
NG. In those affected, the angina usually occurred in periods away from work. Sudden
deaths without any apparent cause have also been reported among these workers. The
deaths, like the angina, occurred more frequently during periods away from work. In
most cases, the workers who died suddenly had no symptoms other than angina during
periods away from work. The deaths are thought to be related to compensatory
vasoconstriction (tolerance) induced by repeated exposure to the substances.
Vasoconstriction is thought to lead to spasms of the coronary arteries and then the related
angina pectoris and sudden deaths.
No data on acute inhalation toxicity are available on which to base the IDLH for ethylene
glycol dinitrate (EGDN) and/or nitroglycerin. The chosen IDLH, therefore, is based on
chronic toxicity data concerning the physiological response of animals to EGDN.
According to Patty [1963], rats and guinea pigs survived 6 months of exposure to 500
mg/m3 (80 ppm) EGDN with the only effect being slight drowsiness and some Heinz
body formation [Stein 1956]. Although Patty [1963] stated that EGDN is more toxic for
cats and rabbits, the chosen IDLH is still probably conservative because cats given 2hour
daily exposures to 21 ppm EGDN for 1,000 days exhibited only marked blood changes
[von Oettingen 1946]. However, because of the assigned protection factor afforded by
each device, 2,000 × the OSHA PEL of 0.1 mg/m3 (i.e., 200 mg/m3) is the concentration
above which only the "most protective" respirators are permitted.
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Explosives - Compositions
In general, high explosives are compositions and mixtures of ingredients capable of
instantaneously releasing large amounts of energy and doing work of various kinds on
objects and bodies surrounding them. In some cases the useful work that is done is
limited only by the energy content of the explosive composition, while in other cases the
transfer of energy from the explosive composition to surrounding bodies is controlled to a
large degree by the momentum or impulse released by the detonating explosive.
Amatol
Research and development during World War I yielded amatol (TNT plus ammonium
nitrate), an explosive with three times the power of gunpowder. Amatol consists of TNT
and ammonium nitrate mixed in either 20 /80 or 50 /50 ratios. When the U.S. entered the
war, Amatol was adopted for loading high explosive shells. Owing to shortages of TNT
and RDX (cyclonite) most World War II mines had had 50/50 ammonium nitrate and
TNT (amatol) warheads. This was a low quality explosive but was later improved by the
addition of about 20% aluminum to produce minol.
This explosive is a mechanical mixture of Ammonium Nitrate and TNT. It is crystalline
and yellow or brownish, moisture-absorbing, insensitive to friction, but may be detonated
by severe impact. It is readily detonated by Mercury Fulminate and other high explosives.
Amatol 50/50 has approximately the same rate of detonation and brisance as TNT.
Amatol 80/20 (used in Bangalore Torpedoes), produces white smoke on detonation, while
Amatol 50/50 produces a smoke, less black than straight TNT. Amatol is used as a
substitute for TNT and is to be mainly found in large caliber shells.
Driven by its liquid propellant engine, the V-2 had a range of approximately 200 miles.
Its warhead consisted of 2,000 pounds of amatol.
Baratol
Baratol is a composition of barium nitrate and TNT. TNT is typically 25-33% of the
mixture with 1% wax as a binder. The high density of barium nitrate gives baratol a
density of at least 2.5.
Early implosion atomic bombs, like the Gadget exploded at Trinity in 1945, the Soviet's
Joe 1 in 1949, or India in 1972, used an Composition-B [RDX-TNT mixture] as the fast
explosive, with baratol used as the slow explosive.
Composition A
Composition A is a was-coated, granular explosive consisting of RDX and plasticizing
was. Composition A is used by the military in land mines and 2.75 and 5 inch rockets.
Comp A-3 explosives are made from RDX and wax. Composition A-3 is a wax-coated,
granular explosive, consisting of 91% RDX and 9% desensitizing wax. Composition A-3
is not melted or cast. It is pressed into projectiles. It is nonhygroscopic and possesses
satisfactory stowage properties. Composition A-3 is appreciably more brisant and
powerful than TNT; its velocity of detonation is approximately 27,000 fps. It may be
white or buff, depending upon the color of the wax used to coat the powdered RDX.
Composition A-3 is used as a fillerinprojectiles that contain a small burster cavity, such as
antiaircraft projectiles. It can be used as compressed fillers for medium-caliber
projectiles.
Composition B / Comp B
Comp B explosives are made from TNT, RDX, and wax, such as 59.5 percent RDX, 39.5
percent TNT and 1 percent wax. Desensitizing agents are added. Composition B is used
by the military in land mines, rockets and projectiles. Cast Composition B has a specific
gravity of 1.65 and a detonation velocity of 'about 25,000 fps and is used as a primer and
booster for blasting agents.
Composition B is a mixture of 59% RDX, 40% TNT, and 1% wax. The TNT reduces the
sensitivity of the RDX to a safe degree and, because of its melting point, allows the
material to be cast-loaded. The blast energy of Composition B is slightly higher than that
of TNT. Composition B is nonhygroscopic and remains stable in stowage. It has an
extremely high-shaped-charge efficiency. The velocity of detonation is approximately
24,000 fps, and its color ranges from yellow to brown. Composition B has been used as a
more powerful replacement for TNT in loading some of the rifle grenades and some
rocket heads. It can be used where an explosive with more power and brisance is of
tactical advantage and there is no objection to a slight increase of sensitivity. While no
longer used in newer gun projectiles, some older stocks may be found with Composition
B main charges.
Factors for Equivalent Weight of
Composition B Explosive Equivalent
Factor
Comp B 1.00
PBXN-109 1.19
Tritonal 1.09
AFX-777 1.47
AFX-757 1.39
PAX-28 1.62
Composition B-3
During the development of a series of melt-castable explosive formulations devoid of
TNT, non-TNT formulations yielded self-heating temperatures significantly lower than
predicted. In other tests, Composition B (59.5% RDX, 39.5% TNT, 1% wax)
demonstrated an exceedingly low self-heating temperature that ultimately results in a
violent final reaction. It is often processed above its self-heating temperature, yet it is
safely processed in 300-gallon melt kettles. Researchers subjected Composition B and its
individual energetic components to one-liter cook-off testing. They expanded their
investigations to include neat TNT, neat RDX (HRDX), an insensitive RDX (IRDX)
essentially absent of microinclusions and voids, and Composition B-3 (60% RDX, 40%
TNT) made with IRDX. Following analysis of these tests, researchers also tested an
HRDX/TNT (13% HRDX, 87% TNT) mixture.
Neat TNT is thermally destabilized by the presence of RDX, either HRDX or IRDX,
indicating that RDX is the trigger in the thermal decomposition process associated with
Composition B (HRDX) and Composition B-3 (IRDX). The reaction violence of both
neat HRDX and Composition B made with HRDX were exceedingly violent, with either
partial detonation or detonation occurring. Additionally, researchers observed that the
reaction of Composition B-3 (IRDX/TNT) was more violent than either neat TNT or neat
IRDX. Once again, they hypothesized that solubilized RDX in molten TNT was the
source of the effect. They believe the high-quality, defect-free crystals of IRDX were
modified by a dynamic equilibrium in molten TNT, with IRDX solubilized and
reprecipitated as ill-defined, voided crystals similar to HRDX. They suspect these ill-
defined RDX crystallites present at cook-off temperatures were the source of the reaction
violence at cook-off.
Composition C-3
Compositior C-3 is one of the Composition C series that has now been replaced by C-4,
especially for loading shaped charges. However, quantities of Composition C-1 and
Composition C-2 may be found in the field. Composition C-1 is 88.3% RDX and 11.7%
plasticizing oil. Composition C-3 is 77% RDX, 3% tetryl, 4% TNT, 1% NC, 5% MNT
(mononitrotoluol), and 10% DNT (dinitrotoluol). The last two compounds, while they are
explosives, are oily liquids and plasticize the mixture. The essential difference between
Composition C-3 and Composition C-2 is the substitution of 3% tetryl for 3% RDX,
which improves the plastic qualities. The changes were made in an effort to obtain a
plastic, puttylike composition to meet the requirements of an ideal explosive for molded
and shaped charges that will maintain its plasticity over a wide range of temperatures and
not exude oil.
Composition C-3 is about 1.35 times as powerful as TNT. The melting point of
Composition C-3 is 68°C, and it is soluble in acetone. The velocity of detonation is
approximate y 26,000 fps. Its color is light brown. As with Composition B, Composition
C is no longer being used as a gun projectile main charge. However, some stocks may
still be in service with Composition C-3 used as a main charge.
Composition C-4 / Comp C-4 Plastic Explosive
The plasticized form of RDX, composition C-4, contains 91% RDX, 2.1%
polyisobutylene, 1.6% motor oil, and 5.3% 2-ethylhexyl sebacate.
The Demolition charge M183 is used primarily in breaching obstacles or demolition of
large structures where large charges are required (Satchel Charge). The charge assembly
M183 consists of 16 block demolition charges M112, four priming assemblies and
carrying case M85. Each Priming assembly consists of a five-foot length of detonating
cord assembled with two detonating cord clips and capped at each end with a booster.
The components of the assembly are issued in the carrying case. The demolition charge
M112 is a rectangular block of Composition C-4 approximately 2 inches by 1.5 inches
and 11 inches long, weighing 1.25 Lbs. When the charge is detonated, the explosive is
converted into compressed gas. The gas exerts pressure in the form of a shock wave,
which demolishes the target by cutting, breaching, or cratering.
Using explosives provides the easiest and fastest way to break the frozen ground.
However, the use of demolitions will be restricted when under enemy observation.
Composition C-4, tetrytol, and TNT are the best explosives for use in northern operations
because they retain their effectiveness in cold weather. Dig a hole in the ground in which
to place the explosive and tamp the charge with any material available to increase its
effectiveness. Either electric or nonelectric circuits may be used to detonate the charge.
For a foxhole, 10 pounds of explosive will usually be sufficient. Another formula is to
use 2 pounds of explosive for every 30 cm (1') of penetration in frozen ground.
DMDNB (2-3 dimethyl, 2-3 dinitrobutane) is a new, military unique compound used as a
tagant in C-4 explosive. Therefore there is no OSHA or ACGIH standard. However,
USACHPPM's Toxicology Directorate did a study to determine an Army Exposure Limit.
There is no toxicological data for DMDNB's effects on the human body, but tests were
done on laboratory animals and they showed a reversible liver hypertrophy in rats that
were exposed to DMDNB. An exposure level was determined and a one thousand fold
safety factor was used to lower the Army exposure level to 0.15 mg/m^3. (At this level
there are no warning properties, i.e. smell, taste, etc.)
Composition H6 / COMP H6
H-6 is an Australian produced explosive composition. Composition H6 is a widely used
main charge filling for underwater blast weapons such as mines, depth charges, torpedoes
and mine disposal charges. The M21 AT mine is 230 millimeters in diameter and 206
millimeters high. It weighs 7.6 kilograms and has 4.95 kilograms of Composition H6
explosive.
In weapon applications, computational models require experimental data to determine
certain specific output parameters of H6 to predict various underwater blast scenarios. To
this end, the critical diameter dc, which is the minimum diameter which will sustain a
stable detonation, and the limiting value of the velocity of detonation at infinite charge
diameter D-infinity, were determined for unconfined cylinders of H6.
Cyclotol [Composition B]
Cyclotol, which is a mixture of RDX and TNT, is an explosive used in shaped charge
bombs.
CXM-6
On 30 August 1999 Holston Army Ammunition Plant restarted production of new
explosives to fill an order for Composition CXM-3. This is the first new explosive
production by Royal Ordnance North America (RONA) as the operating contractor at
Holston. CXM-3 will be supplied to Atlantic Research Corporation to fill warheads for
the Tomahawk missile system. RONA is also planning to produce other RDX and HMX
products, including approximately 800,000 pounds of Composition C-4, by the end of
December.
Detasheet
Detasheet is a plastic explosives, manufactured by DuPont containing PETN with
nitrocellulose and a binder. It is manufactured in thin flexible sheets with a rubbery
texture, and is generally coloured either reddish/orange (commercial) or green (military).
In use, it is typically cut to shape for precision engineering charges.
Dynamite
In 1847 a new explosive came into being. This was nitroglycerine, made by treating
glycerine with nitric and sulphuric acids. But at first it was even more dangerous to
handle than guncotton, for the least shock exploded it, and its violence was terrific. The
great chemist Alfred Nobel tried to improve it by mixing it with gunpowder, but the
powder did not absorb all the nitroglycerine, and accidents of the most terrible kind
became more and more frequent. Yet the new explosive, being liquid, could be poured
into crevices in rocks, and was so useful as a blasting agent that its manufacture went on
until a large vessel carrying cases of the explosive from Hamburg to Chili blew up at sea.
The ship was blown to bits and her crew killed, and the disaster caused so great a
sensation that the manufacture of nitroglycerine was prohibited in Sweden, Belgium, and
in England. But Nobel still continued his experiments, and at last, after trying sawdust
and all other sorts of absorbents in vain, found the perfect absorbent in the shape of
keiselguhr-a sort of earth made of fossil shells. The mixture is what we know to-day as
dynamite; and in spite of the fact that modern chemistry has produced very many new
explosives, some of terrific power, dynamite remains the safest and most widely used of
all explosives.
Many attempts have been made to use dynamite in guns; and the Americans at one time
built some huge air guns for the purpose of firing large shells, or rather aerial torpedoes,
charged with dynamite. But these guns, of which one or two were used in the Spanish-
American War, were very cumbersome and slow in use. Nor could they throw a projectile
to a greater distance than a mile. So they were soon abandoned in favor of rifled cannon-
firing shells loaded with explosives such as cordite or lyddite.
Dynamite was originally a mixture of nitroglycerin and diato-mite, a porous, inert silica.
Today, straight nitroglycerin dynamite consists of nitroglycerin, with sodium nitrate,
antacid, carbonaceous fuel, and sometimes sulfur in place of the inert filler. It is most
commonly manufactured in weight strengths of 20 to 60 percent. Because of the tendency
of nitroglycerin to freeze at low working temperature, another explosive oil usually
replaces part of the nitroglycerin in a straight dynamite.
Straight dynamite has a high detonation velocity which gives a shattering action. It resists
water well in the higher grades but poorly in the lower grades. Straight dynamite
generally has poor fume qualities, and is unsuitable for use underground or in poorly
ventilated spaces. The use of straight dynamite has declined because of high cost,
sensitivity to shock and friction, and high flammability. Ammonia ("extra") dynamites
have replaced straight dynamite in most applications.
Ditching dynamite is a name given to 50 percent straight dynamite. Its high sensitivity is
advantageous in ditching where sympathetic detonation eliminates the need for caps or
detonating fuse with individual charges. Sixty percent straight dynamite is sometimes
packaged in special cartridges for uncle rwater work.
Ammonia dynamites (extra dynamite) are the most widely used cartridge explosives. An
ammonia dynamite is similar to a straight dpmite except that ammonium nitrate replaces
a portion of the nitroglycerin and sodium nitrate. High-density ammonia dynamite is
commonly manufactured in weight strengths of 20 to 60 percent. It is generally lower in
detonation velocity, less dense, better in fume qualities, and considerably less sensitive to
shock and friction than straight dynamite. Extra dynamite can be used effectively where
the rock is not extremely hard and water conditions are not severe. It is widely used in
quarrying, stripping, and in well-ventilated mines for smaller diameter holes of small
blasting operations.
Low-density ammonia dynamite has a weight strength of approximately 65 percent and a
cartridge strength from 20 to 50 percent. Like a high-density extra dynamite, it contains a
low proportion of nitro-glycerin and a high proportion of ammonium nitrate. The
different cartridge strengths are obtained by varying the density and grain size of the
ingredients. Several manufacturers produce two series of low-density ammonia dynamite,
a high- and a low-velocity series. Both series are of lower velocity and density than high-
density extra dynamite. Because of its slow, heaving action, the low-velocity series is
well suited to blasting soft material such as clay- shale or where a coarse product such as
riprap is desired. It is well suited for use in structural excavation blasting in certain rock
types.
Fume qualities and water resistance vary with the cartridge material. Wrappers sprayed
with paraffin give fair to poor water resistance and fair fume rating, whereas a paraffin-
impregnated wrapper gives very poor water resistance and a better fume rating. The
explosive has little more water resistance than that provided by the wrapper. Low-density
extra is the lowest cost cartridge explosive available. The composition of low-density
ammonia dynamites is similar to that of a 60 percent high-density extra dynamite with a
lower proportion of nitroglycerin and a higher proportion of ammonium nitrate.
Gelatin
Blasting gelatin is a rubber-textured explosive made by adding nitrocellulose (guncotton)
to nitroglycerin. An antacid is added for stability in storage. Wood meal is usually added
to improve sensitivity. Blasting gelatin attains a very high detonation velocity and has
excellent water resistance, but it emits large volumes of noxious fumes upon detonation.
It is the most powerful of all commercial explosives. Blasting gelatin is also known as
"oil well explosive."
Nobel did much more than merely invent dynamite; he also invented blasting gelatine,
gelatine dynamite, and gelignite, both of the latter being better suited for rock blasting
than pure dynamite. Blasting gelatine was used to pierce the great St. Gothard Railway
tunnel through rock so hard that without it the task could never have been accomplished.
Blasting gelatine was tried in guns, but burst them, so Nobel set himself to discover an
explosive less violent, yet equally clear and smokeless. By mixing nitroglycerine and
guncotton he found a comparatively slow-burning powder which he called ballistite, and
this, when he gave it to the world in 1888, caused a very great sensation.
Straight gelatin is a dense, plastic explosive consisting of nitroglycerin or other explosive
oil gelatinized with. nitrocellulose, an antacid, sodium nitrate, carbonaceous fuel, and
sometimes sulfur. Since the gelatin tends to coat the other ingredients, straight gelatin is
water-proof. Straight gelatin is the equivalent of straight dynamite in the dynamite
category and is manufactured in weight strengths of 20 to 90 percent with corresponding
cartridge strengths of 30 to 80 percent. The cartridge strength or the weight strength may
be referred to by the manufacturer as the "grade" of the gelatin, a term which is
confusing. Straight gelatin has been used in very hard rock or as a bottom charge in a
column of explosives. It has been replaced in most applications by a more economical
substitute such as ammonia gelatin, brit higher grades are still used in underwater blasting
and in deep well shooting.
Straight gelatin has two characteristic detonation velocities, the confined velocity and a
much lower velocity which results from insufficient confinement, insufficient initiation,
or high hydrostatic, pressure. Extremely high water pressures may cause a misfire. To
overcome this disadvantage, high-velocity gelatin has been developed. High-velocity
gelatin is very similar to straight gelatin except that it is slightly less dense, more
sensitive to detonation, and always detonates near its rated velocity regardless of water
pressure or degree of confinement. High-velocity gelatin is particularly useful as a
seismic explosive, and is also used in deep well and underwater work.
Ammonia gelatin (special gelatin or gelatin extra) has a portion of the nitroglycerin and
sodium nitrate replaced by ammonium nitrate. Ammonia gelatin is comparable to a
straight gelatin in the same way that a high-density ammonia dynamite is comparable to a
straight dynamite, and was developed as a cheaper substitute. Ammonia gelatin is
commonly manufactured in weight strengths of 30 to 80 percent with corresponding
cartridge strengths of 35 to 72 percent. Compared with straight gelatin, ammonia gelatin
has a somewhat lower detonation velocity, better fume qualities, and less water
resistance, although it will fire efficiently even after standing in water for several days. It
is suitable for underground work because of its good fume rating. The higher strengths
(70 percent or higher) are efficient as primers for blasting agents.
A semigelatin is comparable to an ammonia gelatin as a low-density ammonia dynamite
is comparable to a high-density ammonia dynamite. Like low-density extras, semigelatin
has a uniform weight strength (60 to 65 percent) with the cartridge strength varying with
the density and grain size of the ingredients. Its properties fall betieen those of high-
density ammonia dynamite and ammonia gelatin, and it has great versatility. Semigelatin
can be used to replace ammonia dynamite when more water resistance is needed. It is
cheaper for wet work than ammonia gelatin, although its water resistance is not quite as
high as that of ammonia gelatin. Semigelatin has a confined detonation velocity of 10,000
to 12,000 fps, which, b contrast to that of most explosives, is not seriously affected by
lack of confinement. Very good fume qualities permit its use underground. The
compositions are similar to ammonia gelatin with less nitroglycerin and sodium nitrate
and more ammonium nitrate.
H6
H-6 is a binary explosive that is a mixture of RDX, TNT, powered aluminum, and D-2
wax with calcium chloride added. H-6 is an Australian produced explosive composition
used by the military for general purpose bombs.
HBX [Hexahydro - 1, 3, 5 Trinitro-8-Triazine]
HBX is a form of high explosive made from TNT, RDX, aluminum, lecithin, and wax.
HBX was developed during WWII that replaced the more shock-sensitive TORPEX used
in depth bombs and torpedoes. The warhead for the 2.75-inch "Mighty Mouse" rocket
was filled with HBX (40 percent RDX, 38 percent TNT, 17 percent aluminum powder,
and 5 percent desensitizers) or composition B (59 percent RDX, 40 percent TNT, and 1
percent wax). All Navy warhead filling activities in the TNT Plant ceased in early The
major longer range improvements resulting were the Navy's development of HBX type
explosives together with asphaltic, "hot melt" liners for bombs and other munitions. The
hot melt liners were developed to coat and eliminate metal-to metal pinch points. After
the Naval Magazine, Port Chicago, CA accident of 17 July 1944 , HBX and H-6
explosives were developed that incorporated wax and other chemicals to desensitize the
explosive and hot melt liners were introduced for lining bombs and warheads to give
some thermal protection and eliminate potential pinch points from cracks or fissures in
the bomb or warhead case. Later, plastic-bonded explosives were developed for increased
thermal protection and fragment impact resistance.
LX-14
Minol
Although ANFO is not generally suitable for military use, since it's troublesome to store
without drying out, mixtures of AN and TNT known as "amatols" were used in both
WWI and WWII as a means of stretching the supply of explosives. The proportion of AN
in the mix ranged from 50% to 80%. A mix of ANFO, TNT, and powdered aluminum
enhancer named "Minol" is still in use [40% TNT, 40% ammonium nitrate, 20%
aluminum]. Owing to shortages of TNT and RDX (cyclonite) most World War II mines
had had 50/50 ammonium nitrate and TNT (amatol) warheads. This was a low quality
explosive but was later improved by the addition of about 20% aluminum to produce
minol.
Octol
The melt-cast explosive Octol is a TNT-based explosive (70% HMX:30% TNT or 75
percent HMX, 25 percent TNT). Explosives to be stored on Navy ships must not contain
TNT or Octol.
PBX
The ideal high-energy explosive must balance different requirements. HE should be easy
to form into parts but resistant to subsequent deformation through temperature, pressure,
or mechanical stress. It should be easy to detonate on demand but difficult to explode
accidentally. The explosive should also be compatible with all the materials it contacts,
and it should retain all its desirable qualities indefinitely.
No such explosive existed in 1944. While using what was available to meet wartime
demands, scientists at Los Alamos began to develop a high-energy, relatively safe,
dimensionally stable, and compositionally uniform explosive. By 1947, scientists at Los
Alamos had created the first plastic-bonded explosive (PBX), an RDX*-polystyrene
formulation later designated PBX 9205. Although other PBXs have since been
successfully formulated for a wide range of applications, only a handful have displayed
the combination of adequate energy content, mechanical properties, sensitivity, and
chemical stability required for stockpile nuclear weapons. Since the 1960s, Livermore
has been researching and developing safer HE for Livermore-designed weapons.
The plastic coating that binds the explosive granules, typically 5 to 20% of each
formulation by weight, is what gives each PBX its distinctive characteristics. Pressing a
PBX molding powder converts it into a solid mass, with the polymer binder providing
both mechanical rigidity and reduced sensitivity to accidental detonation. The choice of
binder affects hardness, safety, and stability. Too brittle a PBX can sustain damage in
normal handling and succumb to extreme temperature swings or thermal shocks, while
too soft a PBX may be susceptible to creep and may lack dimensional stability or
strength.
PBXN-5
PBXN-5 is referred to as a plastic-bonded explosive because it is an explosive coated
with plastic material. The composition is made of 95% HMX and 5% fluoroelastomers.
The Anti-Personnel Obstacle Breaching System (APOBS) Detonating Cord Assembly
consists of PBXN-8 explosive, silicone rubber, polyamide yarn type I and II, and
composition A-5 explosive. Grenade Assembly consists of PBXN-5 explosive booster
pellet, PBXN-9 explosive pellets, grenade tube, and male and female grenade shells.
Grenade Assembly consists of PBXN-5 explosive booster pellet, PBXN-9 explosive
pellets, grenade tube, unisex grenade shells, and ring clamp.
PBXN-7
China Lake designed, developed, and qualified the Tomahawk Block III WDU-36
warhead in 48 months to meet evolving Tomahawk requirements of insensitive munitions
ordnance compliance and range enhancement, while maintaining or enhancing ordnance
effectiveness. The WDU-36 uses a new warhead material based upon prior China Lake
warhead technology investigations, PBXN-107 explosive, the FMU-148 fuze (developed
and qualified for this application), and the BBU-47 fuze booster (developed and qualified
using the new PBXN-7 explosive). Block III was first used in the September 1995 Bosnia
strike (Deliberate Force) and a year later in the Iraq strike (Desert Strike).
PBXN-9
PBXN-9 Explosive is made for the HELLFIRE/Longbow Missile System. Because of its
acceptance into a number of fleet uses, additional characterization and performance tests
were conducted on PBXN-9 to support various warhead developmental efforts. Included
are the results of various explosive performance tests, such as detonation pressure,
cylinder expansion (cylex),and wedge tests, as well as additional material sensitivity
studies (large-scale gap test and small-scale gap test).
The JASSM contains the WDU-42/B (J-1000), a 1000-pound class, penetrating warhead
with 240 pounds of AFX-757. AFX-757 is an extremely insensitive explosive developed
by the Air Force Research Laboratory/High Explosives Research and Development
Facility, Eglin AFB, Fla. The fuze is the FMU-156/B employing a 150-gram PBXN-9
booster.
The Anti-Personnel Obstacle Breaching System (APOBS) Detonating Cord Assembly
consists of PBXN-8 explosive, silicone rubber, polyamide yarn type I and II, and
composition A-5 explosive. Grenade Assembly consists of PBXN-5 explosive booster
pellet, PBXN-9 explosive pellets, grenade tube, and male and female grenade shells.
Grenade Assembly consists of PBXN-5 explosive booster pellet, PBXN-9 explosive
pellets, grenade tube, unisex grenade shells, and ring clamp.
A Low-Energy Exploding Foil Initiator (LEEFI) is a low-energy input device with high-
energy output that can detonate a main charge of PBXN-9.
PBXN-10
PBXN-106
This explosive is one of the new plastic-bonded explosives. It is a cast-cured explosive
composition made from a homogeneous mixture of RDX in a plasticized polyurethane
rubber matrix. Once cured, the material cannot be easily restored to a liquid state. The
finished material is flexible and will absorb considerably more mechanical shock than
conventional cast or pressed explosives.
PBXN-107
PBXN-109
PE4
PE4 is a conventional plastic explosive, widely used for the production of improved
energetic systems for defensive and offensive use. PE4 is RDX based and is available in
cartridge and bulk form. An extrudable for DEMEX 400 is also available. Distinctive
standard colours indicate the explosive component: C4, or PE4 ( British) is white and
Semtex-H is orange.
Pentolite
Pentolite is a mixture of equal parts of TNT and PETN. When cast, it has a specific
gratity of 1.65 and a confined detonation velocity of 24,000 to 25,000 fps. Cast pentolite
is used as a primer and booster for blasting agents where its high detonation pressure
assures efficient initiation of the blasting agent.
Semtex
Semtex is an explosive containing both RDX and PETN. Semtex, a Czech-made
explosive, has been used in many terrorist bombings. Dynamite has been replaced by the
more destructive and easily concealed Semtex. SEMTEX is a plastic explosive that is
odorless. SEMTEX along with a detonating cap, can be inserted inside a 5" x 6" musical
greeting card, undetected. Three pounds of Semtex plastique packs enough punch to raze
a two-story building. Terrorists attack with no warning and no rationale. Their weapon of
choice is a pliable, odorless substance that is twice as powerful as TNT and is virtually
invisible to conventional security devices. It can be hidden in a brief case or a small
cassette recorder.
Czechoslovakia was among the world's chief arms exporters. It sold hundreds of tanks,
thousands of firearms and large quantities of Semtex to Iran, Iraq, Libya, Syria,
Cambodia and other trouble spots, a practice that stopped long ago. In 1985 and 1986, the
Irish Republican Army [IRA] took delivery of nearly 120 tons of arms and explosives
from Libya, including a ton of Semtex explosive and 12 SAM-7 surface-to-air missiles.
Some of those weapons and explosives have been used by the IRA in terrorist attacks in
the United Kingdom and in other European countries. Libyan terrorists used Semtex in
1988 to down Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing 270 persons.
The on-again, off-again export of the general-purpose plastic explosive Semtex,
manufactured in Czechoslovakia during the height of the Cold War and linked to terrorist
groups around the world, resumed in 1994. The Czech Republic recently announced that
exports were beginning to selected countries. The first Semtex shipment under the
resumed exportswent to the British Defense Ministry. Czech reporting suggested that the
British authorities intend to run experiments on the explosive that is often used by Irish
Republican Army terrorists-including the October 1993 destruction of a building in
Belfast.
According to the 1991 international convention signed in Montreal, Semtex intended for
industrial applications is to be a bright red-orange color and detectable by security-
monitoring equipment. Variants of the explosive produced for civilian purposes are also
less powerful than the nearly odorless version that became a favorite weapon of terrorists.
Despite this and the export ban that had earlier been in place, Semtex continues to be
smuggled across borders.
Substantial quantities of the explosive have been stolen from industrial enterprises in the
Czech and Slovak republics for sale on the black market. Shortly before the most recent
ban was lifted, Czech police seized 100 kilograms of industrial Semtex from a group of
Czech citizens who were planning its illegal sale abroad. In Slovakia in October 1993,
some 900 kilograms of the explosive were stolen from the warehouse of a private firm,
together with more than 2,000 detonators. Czech officials candidly admit that they have
no idea how much Semtex has been stolen or illegally diverted, and the continued black
market trade in the explosive seems certain.
Slurries
Slurries, sometimes called water gels, contain ammonium nitrate partly in aqueous
solution. Depending on the remainder of the ingredients, slurries can be classified as
either blasting agents or explosives. Slurry blasting agents contain nonexplosive
sensitizers or fuels such as carbon, sulfur, or aluminum, and are not cap sensitive;
whereas slurry explosives contain cap- sensitive ingredients such as TNT and the mixture
itself may be cap sensitive. Slurries are thickened and gelled with a gum, such as guar
gum, to give considerable water resistance.
Since most slurries are not cap sensitive, all slurries, even those containing TNT, are
often grouped under the term blasting agent. This grouping is incorrect. A blasting agent,
as defined by the National Fire Protection Association, shall contain no ingredient that is
classified as an explosive.
Slurry blasting agents require adequate priming with a high-velocity explosive to attain
proper detonation velocities, and often require boosters of high explosive spaced along
the borehole to as sure complete detonation. Slurry explosives may or may not require
priming. The detonation velocities of slurries, between i2,000 and 18,000 fps, vary with
ingredients used, charge diameter, degree of confinement, and density. The detonation
velocity of a slurry, however, is not as dependent on charge diameter as that of a dry
blasting agent. The specific gratity varies from I.i to i.6. The consistency of most slurries
ranges from fluid near iOOO F to rigid at freezing temperatures, although some slurries
maintain their fluidity even at freezing temperatures. Slurries consequently give the same
advantageous direct borehole coupling as dry blasting agents as well as a higher
detonation velocity and a higher density. Thus, more energy can be loaded into a given
volume of borehole. Saving in costs realized by drilling smaller holes or using larger
burden and spacing will often more than offset the higher cost per pound of explosive.
Adding powdered aluminum as a sensitizer to slurries greatly increases the heat of
explosion or the energy release. Aluminized slurries have been used in extremely hard
rock with excellent results.
A slurry and a dry blasting agent may be used in the same borehole in "slurry boosting,"
with the buk of the charge being dry blasting agent. Boosters placed at regular intervals
may improve fragmentation. In another application of slurry boosting, the slurry is placed
in a position where fragmentation is difficult, such as a hard toe or a zone of hard rock in
the burden. The combination will often give better overall economy than straight slurry or
dry blasting agent.
Tetrytol
Tetrytol is a mixture of ~70% tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenyl-methylnitramine) and ~30%
TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene. In 1944 the M104 auxiliary booster was first given to
Redstone Arsenal as an experimental order with instructions to develop a manufacturing
procedure for loading it with tetrytol. The booster had heretofore been loaded with tetryl
pellets. The tests that Redstone conducted showed that tetrytol-loaded M104 auxiliary
boosters had a greater brisance than the tetryl-loaded ones but that a heavier booster
charge was required for detonation. Since such a booster charge was already available,
the tetrytol-loaded auxiliary booster was considered more satisfactory than the tetryl-
loaded one.
TORPEX
TORPEX is an explosive based on trinitrotoluene (TNT) that gave a greater blast than
TNT, but was more sensitive. It was replaced by HBX or HBX-1 later in WWII. Torpex
is RDX/TNT/Aluminum/Wax desensitizer. It was used in several types of torpedoes and
mines. Due to it sensitivity to bullet impact, the first weapons loaded were ones for which
there would be the least possibility of rifle bullet and fragment attack, namely, submarine
delivered mines and torpedoes. The loading stations were advised that they must take
adequate care in mixing and loading and in the handling of the loaded items. It was
declared that the British had been able to handle it without incident for 2 years and that
the risk was worth the advantage gained in its underwater power.
Tritonal
The GBU-28 contains only six hundred pounds of Tritonal. The BLU-109/B was an
improved 2,000-pound-class penetrator bomb designed for attacking the most hardened
targets. Its skin was much harder than that of a standard iron bomb, consisting of a single-
piece, forged warhead casing of one-inch, high-grade steel. The bomb featured a 550
pound tritonal high-explosive blast warhead and was always mated with a laser guidance
kit to form a laser-guided bomb. The Tritonal filling of the BLU-109/B is similar in size
to the warhead of the Mk.48 series torpedo. Explosive (NEW) 535 lbs. Tritonal in the
BLU-109 and 945 lbs. of Tritonal on the MK 84.
The Munitions Directorate's successful completion of the Miniaturized Munition
Technology Demonstration (MMTD) Program, has provided an innovative weapon called
the Small Smart Bomb. The miniaturized munition concept includes a weapon that issix
feet long, six inches in diameter, and weighs only 250 pounds with approximately fifty
pounds of Tritonal explosive material. The weapon is effective against a majority of
hardened targets previously vulnerable only to munitions in the 2,000 pound class. The
Air Force Research Laboratory's Munitions Directorate has set the baseline for small
bomb development by successfully demonstrating the technology that will be used to
further the development of a 250-pound class munition. Small Smart Bomb's size will
allow future fighter and bomber aircraft to carry more weapons in their weapons bays.
Polynitrocubane Super Explosives are a family of new energetics. In FY96, the Army
initiated the synthesis of a more powerful polynitrocubane explosive. In FY97, the Army
scaled up the polynitrocubane explosive to pound level. In FY98, scale up the
polynitrocubane explosive to pilot plant quantity and initiate formulation study for anti-
armor warhead (Shaped Charge or explosively Formed Penetrator) loading. In FY99,
conduct static warhead test using the polynitrocubane explosive to show increase in
energy performance by up to 25 percent and with comparable sensitivity to LX-14.
The current winner in the most powerful explosives debate is heptanitrocubane (HpNC).
It has beat out the theoretically more powerful octanitrocubane (ONC) in actual tests
recently performed. ONC has only been synthesized in the last year, but it has been
calculated to have the greatest density of any explosive we could make. In reality ONC
does not achieve this theoretical density. Since it has existed for such a short time,
researchers conclude that they simply have yet to find its most dense crystalline form.
The default winner is the next best thing, HpNC. Further conjecture into nitro cubane
chemistry has hypothesized at the possibility of polynitrocubane molecules which could
achieve even greater densities.
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Explosives - ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate - Fuel Oil)

Ammonium nitrate-fuel oil (ANFO) blasting agents represent the largest industrial
explosive manufactured (in terms of quantity) in the United States. This product is used
primarily in mining and quarrying operations. The components are generally mixed at or
near the point of use for safety reasons. The mixed product is relatively safe and easily
handled and can be poured into drill holes in the mass or object to be blasted.
Melvin A. Cook's life is intimately connected with the history of explosives, he is a
scientist,, inventor, teacher, businessman, theorist, consultant, expert witness,
entrepreneur, and author. Cook, a professor of metallurgy at the University of Utah, was a
businessman and author of works on explosives. He also published works on creationism,
particularly on the relationship between science and Mormonism. Cook's personal
involvement in both the theoretical and practical aspects of the field of explosives spans
more than fifty years.
Cook's greatest commercial explosives invention was formulated in December of 1956,
when he created a new blasting agent using an unusual mixture of ammonium nitrate,
aluminum powder, and water. The safety and efficiency of this new explosive were
apparent, and the use of water was revolutionary. Tests that followed resulted in the
development of a new field of explosives: slurry explosives. This invention converted the
commercial explosives industry from "dangerous dynamite" to "safe slurry" and dry
blasting agents [ANFO]. In 1972 Cook developed the BLU-82, the largest and most
powerful chemical bomb, using aluminized slurry.
Blasting agents consist of mixtures of fuels and oxidizers, none of which are classified as
explosive. Nitrocarbonitrate is a classification given to a blasting agent under the US
Department of Transportation regulations on packaging and shipping. A blasting agent
consists of inorganic nitrates and carbonaceous fuels and may contain additional
nonexplosive substances such as powdered aluminum or ferrosilicon to increase density.
The addition of an explosive ingredient such as TNT changes the classification from a
blasting agent to an explosive. Blasting agents may be dry or in slurry forms. Because of
their insensitivity, blasting agents should be detonated by a primer of high explosive.
Ammonium nitrate- fuel oil has largely replaced dynamites and gelatins in bench
blasting. Denser slurry blasting agents are supplanting dynamite and gelatin and dry
blasting agents. The most widely used dry blasting agent is a mixture of ammonium
nitrate prills (porous grains) and fuel oil. The fuel oil is not precisely CH2, but this is
sufficiently accurate to characterize the reaction. The right side of the equation contains
only the desirable gases of detonation, although some CO and N02 are always formed.
Weight proportions of ingredients for the equation are 94.5 percent ammonium nitrate
and 5.5 percent fuel oil. In actual practice the proportions are 94 percent and 6 percent to
assure an efficient chemical reaction of the nitrate.
Uniform mixing of oil and ammonium nitrate is essential to development of full
explosive force. Some blasting agents are premixed and packaged by the manufacturer.
Where not premixed, several methods of mixing in the field can be employed to achieve
uniformity. The best method, although not always the most practical one, is by
mechanical tier. A more common and almost as effective method of mixing is by
uniformly soaking prills in opened bags with 8 to 1O percent of their weight of oil. After
draining for at least a half hour the prills will have retained about the correct amount of
fuel oil.
Fuel oil can also be poured onto the ammonium nitrate in approximately the correct
proportions as it is poured into the blasthole. For this purpose, about i gal of fuel oil for
each 100 lb of ammonium nitrate will equal approximately 6 percent by weight of oil.
The oil can be added after each bag or two of prills, and it will disperse relatively rapidly
and uniformly. Inadequate priming imparts a low initial detonation velocity to a blasting
agent, and the reaction may die out and cause a misfire. High explosive boosters are
sometimes spaced along the borehole to as sure propagation throughout the column.
As in other combustion reactions, a deficiency of oxygen favors the formation of carbon
monoxide and unburned organic compounds and produces little, if any, nitrogen oxides.
An excess of oxygen causes more nitrogen oxides and less carbon monoxide and other
unburned organics. For ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO) mixtures, a fuel oil
content of more than 5.5 percent creates a deficiency of oxygen.
Ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO) has a broad spectrum of Velocities of Detonation
according to numerous references. However, some of these references are more specific
when establishing parameters. A military catering charge lists a VOD of 10,700 feet per
second (fps). A 4" diameter steel tube confinement is at 10,000 fps, while a 16" diameter
tube is at 16,000 fps. In charge diameters of 6 in. or more, dry blasting agents attain
confined detonation velocities of more than i2,000 fps, but in a diameter of 1- 1/2 in., the
velocity is reduced to 60 percent. When ANFO is used in boreholeing, the VOD has a
positive slope as a function of depth, the VOD increases as the detonation front
progresses down the borehole. Enhanced effects of very large quantities, which is
essentially self tamping, the VOD is expected to be in the 13,000-15,000 fps range. A
ballpark approximation for very large quantities of blasting agents, which is accepted in
the commercial industry, is roughly half the VOD of C-4/plastics, which equates to
13,000 fps. The recognized VOD of urea nitrate, however, is 11,155 to 15,420 fps.
The specific gravity of ANFO varies from 0.75 to 0.95 depending on the particle density
and sizes. Confined detonation velocity and charge concentration of ANFO vary with
borehole diameter. Pneumatic loading results in high detonation velocities and higher
charge concentrations, particularly in holes smaller than 3 in. (otherwise such small holes
are not usually recommended for ANFO blasting).
_The simple removal of a tree stump might be done with a 2-step train made up of an
electric blasting cap and a stick of dynamite. The detonation wave from the blasting cap
would cause detonation of the dynamite. To make a large hole in the earth, an
inexpensive explosive such as ANFO might be used. In this case, the detonation wave
from the blasting cap is not powerful enough to cause detonation, so a booster must be
used in a 3- or 4-step train. The yield from the blasting caps and safety fuses used in these
trains are usually small compared to those from the main charge, because the yields are
roughly proportional to the weight of explosive used, and the main charge makes up most
of the total weight.
Advantages of insensitive dry blasting agents are their safety, ease of loading, and low
price. In the free-flowing form, they have a great advantage over cartridge explosives
because they completely fill the borehole. This direct coupling to the walls assures
efficient use of explosive energy. Ammonium nitrate is water soluble so that in wet holes,
some blasters pump the water from the hole, insert a plastic sleeve, and load the blasting
agent into the sleeve. Special precautions should be taken to avoid a possible building up
of static electrical charge, particularly when loading pneumatically. When properly
oxygen- balanced, the fume qualities of dry blasting agents permit their use underground.
Canned blasting agents, once widely used, have unlimited water resist-ance, but lack
advantages of loading ease and direct coupling to the borehole.
In 2001, US explosives production was 2.38 million metric tons (Mt), 7% less than that in
2000; sales of explosives were reported in all States. Coal mining, with 69% of total
consumption, continued to be the dominant use for explosives in the United States.
Kentucky, West Virginia, Indiana, Wyoming, and Virginia, in descending order, were the
largest consuming States, with a combined total of 46% of US sales.
After completing an investigation into dumping of ammonium nitrate from Ukraine that
was begun in 2000, the US International Trade Commission (ITC) issued its final
determination in August 2001. The ITC determined that imports of ammonium nitrate
from Ukraine were sold in the United States at less than fair market value and that critical
circumstances did not exist with regard to these imports. As a result of the negative
determination regarding critical circumstances, the duties were not retroactive and only
apply to ammonium nitrate that has been imported since March 5, 2001. The antidumping
duty of 156.29% ad valorem that was finalized by the International Trade Administration
in July 2001 was applied.
Sales of ammonium-nitrate-based explosives (blasting agents and oxidizers) were 2.34
Mt in 2001, which was an 8% decrease from that of 2000, and accounted for 98% of US
industrial explosives sales. Sales of permissibles and other high explosives increased
slightly. Data for 2001 are not exactly comparable to the 2000 data. One company,
Nelson Brothers LLC, did not provide data to the Institute of Makers of Explosives
(IME) in 2001, and no estimate for its sales was included in the totals.
By 2001 engineers in the Fuels and Lubricants Group of Shell Co. of Australia developed
a technique to blend waste oil with ANFO for a product that can be used in blasting.
Mines throughout the world produce thousands of liters of waste fuel oil that needs to be
disposed of in an environmentally safe manner. By using the fuel oil in a blasting
compound, transporting the waste oil is eliminated, the quantity of fuel oil needed for
blasting is reduced, and potentially toxic hydrocarbons in waste oil can be destroyed by
the high blast temperature. Shell tested the ANFO-waste oil blend at Hamersley Iron's
Marandoo mine site, and found that the ratio of waste oil to ANFO blend could be as
much as 50-50 without any detrimental effect to the final blasting performance.
Urea nitrate is also considered a type of fertilizer-based explosive, although, in this case,
the two constituents are nitric acid (one of the ten most produced chemicals in the world)
and urea. A common source of urea is the prill used for de-icing sidewalks. Urea can also
be derived from concentrated urine. This is a common variation used in South America
and the Middle East by terrorists. Often, sulfuric acid is added to assist with catalyzing
the constituents. A bucket containing the urea is used surrounded by an ice bath. The ice
serves in assisting with the chemical conversion when the nitric acid is added. The
resulting explosive can be blasting cap sensitive. Urea nitrate has a destructive power
similar to ammonium nitrate.
By one estimate, the bomb used to attack the Alfred Murrah Federal Building in
Oklahoma City on April 19, 1995 consisted of an ANFO explosive main charge of
approximately 4,000 pounds, based on an estimate of the Velocities of Detonation [VOD]
of approximately 13,000 fps. Other estimates claim that the 1995 explosion that collapsed
portions of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City contained 4,800 pounds of
ammonium nitrate and fuel oil. Later estimates suggested that the bomb had in excess of
6,200 pounds of various energetic materials, including explosives other than ANFO,
equivalent to 5,000 pounds of TNT. In the Salameh World Trade Center bombing case
resulting from the bombing of the World Trade Center (WTC) on February 26, 1993, FBI
Explosives Unit examiner David Williams opined that the main explosive used in the
bombing consisted of 1,200 pounds of urea nitrate explosive. The FBI chemists
specializing in the examination of explosive residue, however, did not find any residue
identifying the explosive at the World Trade Center.
Not all large truck bombs have used ANFO. On June 25, 1996, Saudi terrorists sponsored
by Iran attacked the Khobar Towers barracks, a high-rise building complex in a densely
populated urban environment in Saudi Arabia. T tanker truck loaded with at least 5,000
pounds of plastic explosives was driven into the parking lot in front of the Khobar Towers
residential complex in Dhahran. Nineteen American service members were killed in the
blast, and hundreds of other service members and Saudis were injured. There is no doubt
that the extent of the casualties at Khobar Towers resulted, in part, from the extraordinary
size of the terrorist bomb. Reports initially estimated that the bomb contained the
equivalent of 3,000 to 8,000 pounds of TNT, but a study by the Defense Special Weapons
Agency concluded that the power of the bomb was actually closer to 20,000 pounds of
TNT.
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Explosives - Mining Types

Most of the explosives and blasting agents sold in the US are used in mining. There are
two classifications of explosives and blasting agents. High explosives include
permissibles and other high explosives. Permissibles are explosives that the Mine Safety
and Health Administration approved. Blasting Agents and Oxidizers include ammonium
nitrate-fuel oil (ANFO) mixtures, regardless of density; slurries, water gels, or emulsions;
ANFO blends containing slurries, water gels, or emulsions; and ammonium nitrate in
prilled, grained, or liquor form. Bulk and packaged forms of these materials are contained
in this category. In 1998, about 95% of the total blasting agents and oxidizer were in bulk
form.
The principle distinction between high explosives and blasting agents is their sensitivity
to initiation. High explosives are cap sensitive, whereas blasting agents are not.
Many coal mines use explosives to loosen the rock and coal. In surface mining, holes are
drilled through the overburden, loaded with explosives, and discharged, shattering the
rock in the overburden. In one underground mining method, the coal is blasted off the bed
without any undercutting to help break it down. The drawback to this method is that a
dangerously large explosive charge is needed, and much dust and fine coal are produced.
In another underground mining method using explosives to break down the coal, shot
holes are drilled at intervals along the face of the coal bed. The explosives are inserted in
these holes or shots. When the explosion occurs, the coal wall cracks into pieces. Coal
mines use cylinders of compressed air, liquid carbon dioxide, or chemical explosives.
Approximately 1.72 million metric tons (Mt) of explosives used for coal mining in 2000.
This accounted for 67 percent of total U.S. explosives consumption. The largest coal
producing states, Wyoming, West Virginia, and Kentucky were also the largest
explosives-consuming states, accounting for 41 percent of total U.S. explosive sales.
Quarrying and nonmetal mining, the second-largest explosives-consuming industries,
accounted for 14 percent of total explosives sales and metal mining accounted for 9
percent. Kentucky, Wyoming, West Virginia, Virginia, and Indiana, in descending order,
were the largest consuming states, with a combined total of 51 percent of total US sales
of explosives.
Cast Blasts Explosive casting is the technique used by many surface coal mines to
control the displacement of overburden by means of explosive energy. The casting moves
30-80% of the overburden into the mined-out pit, while the remaining spoil is removed
by draglines or other machinery. A blasting engineer must consider bench height, pit
width, borehole diameter, and geologic formation when designing a cast blast. In most
cases, the blaster uses a complicated sequence of downhole and surface delays to
minimize the ground roll associated with the large amounts of explosives (between 0.5-8
million pounds, ie, 500 to 4,000 tons, of Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil ANFO) used in a
cast blast. The casting of the overburden into the pit creates both horizontal and vertical
spall force components that influence the generation of surface waves.
Kiloton class mine blasts are not uncommon in numerous regions worldwide such as
Wyoming, Kentucky and, at least historically, the Kuzbass mining region in Russia.
These use delay-firing and thus a considerable explosive yield is spread out over several
seconds and seismic amplitudes are reduced. It is well known that minor deviations from
the planned shot pattern are obiquitous. A small subset of these events, however, include
a significant detonation anomaly.
Fragmentation Blasts
The majority of hard rock open-pit mines design blasts that will optimize the insitu
fragmentation of the material. This is accomplished by loading the holes with two
different energy levels: higher energy explosives in the bottom and lower energy near the
top. The result is that the material is not thrown into the mined-out pit as in the cast
blasts. Instead, the material is fractured in place and removed with shovels and haul
trucks. Seismic waves generated from a fragmentation blast should be influenced only by
the explosion point and vertical component spall forces.
Quarry Blasts
A third type of explosion used in the mining industry is for quarrying materials such as
limestone, gravels, and igneous rocks. On average, quarry blasts are smaller in spatial
extent and explosives content than fragmentation and cast blasts. Since these operations
usually involve the crushing of the rock, efficient fragmentation of the rock into small
pieces is required for use in a rock crusher. For ease in extraction of the materials, the
rocks are usually blasted into the mined-out pit. Quarrry blasts seismograms will thus
have both horizontal and vertical spall forces effecting the regional seismograms.
Classification of Mining Explosions
When the eject angle is 0°, there is no horizontal spall component and the blast is
analogous to a fragmentation shot. For quarry blasts, there is some material cast into the
pit at eject angles greater than 45°, however, a additional amount of the spalled material
is cast into the air at angles between 0 and 30°. Finally, for cast blasts, the majority of the
material is ejected at angles greater than 30°. Cast blasts will have the largest deviation
from an isotropic source (i.e., a fragmentation blast) with the magnitude of the azimuthal
variations being dependent upon the eject angle. In all cases, there is a slight increase in
the amplitudes in the direction of the delay-firing. For the cast blasts to take on a more di-
polar ("peanut-shaped") radiation pattern, the mass of the horizontal spall must be
increased. By adding additional rows of explosives with different interrow and interhole
delays, the characteristics can become markedly different.
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Explosives - ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate - Fuel Oil)

Mining is the search for, extraction, and beneficiation and processing of solid minerals
from the earth. The kinds of minerals extracted from the earth vary widely. For thousands
of years, these and other minerals have provided the raw materials with which human
civilizations have been built.
The vitality of the U.S. economy depends on key mineral resources. In the course of a
lifetime, each American will use 3.5 million pounds of minerals, metals, and fuels. Every
year, 46,000 pounds of new minerals including 7,500 pounds of coal energy must be
provided for every person in the U.S. to maintain a high standard of living. Low-cost coal
is used to generate a large portion of the nation's electricity supply, helping to keep U.S.
electricity costs among the lowest in the world and thereby enhancing the
competitiveness of U.S. industry. The contribution that the mining industry has made to
the economic health, well being, and security of the U.S. throughout its history is
unquestioned.
Surface mining and underground mining are the prevailing mining methods. The method
selected depends on a variety of factors including the nature and location of the deposit as
well as the size, depth, and grade of the minerals. Both surface and underground mining
are widely used in the extraction of coal. In 2000, the total amount of coal produced was
1.07 billion tons. Of this, 373 million tons or 35 percent came from underground mines
and the remaining 699 million tons or 65 percent came from surface mines. Of the 1.3
billion crude metal ore produced in the US in 2000, 1.2 billion tons or 92 percent came
from surface mining. Most of the industrial minerals in the US are extracted by surface
mining. In 2000, the total amount of crude industrial ore mined in the US was 3.2 billion
tons. Of this, 3.1 billion or 96 percent came from surface mines.
Bingham Canyon near Salt Lake City, Utah, is probably the best-known example of a
surface mine in the U.S. It is also the largest surface mine in the US, measuring
approximately 2 miles in diameter and a little more than a half mile deep. Conical in
shape and used for near-surface ore bodies, these mines feature a series of benches
winding down into the pit. The benches are used as working areas and haul roads. The
rock is drilled, blasted and loaded into large haul trucks that take it to a processing
facility.
Underground mining is used when mineralization is deep beneath the surface and/or
when ore grade or quality is sufficient to justify more targeted mining. In order to get to
the ore body, a vertical shaft, horizontal adit, or inclined passageway must be drilled
remove ore and waste and provide ventilation. Once the ore body is exposed, several
levels of horizontal tunnels called drifts and crosscuts are created to provide access to
mining areas called stopes. The area actually being mined at any given time is called the
face. Broken rock is hauled from the face by trains, loaders, or trucks that go directly to
the surface, or to the shaft where it is hoisted to the surface and sent to a processing
facility.
There are seven general phases of the mining process. These are: 1) mine exploration; 2)
design; 3) construction, which includes mine site preparation; 4) extraction operations in
either underground or surface mines; 5) beneficiation operations consisting of crushing
and grinding, separations, solvent extraction/electrowinning; 6) processing, which
consists of smelting and/or refining depending on the mineral and the final product; and
7) reclamation (closure and post-closure). In each of these stages, there are a variety of
equipment and materials used.
Exposives and Coal Mining
Coal is extracted principally in two ways: surface mining and underground mining. The
mining method used depends primarily on the depth of the coal bed from the surface and
the surrounding terrain. Coal beds deeper than 100 to 200 feet or on hilly terrain are
usually mined by underground methods, while those at lesser depths are surface mined.
Surface mining accounts for about 60 percent of the total U.S. coal production of 1
billion tons/year. A large surface mine can be three miles long and a mile wide.
Underground mining accounted for 430 million short tons in 1998, about 40 percent of
total US coal production that year.
Coal fields in the eastern U.S. are characterized by relatively thin seams of deeply buried
coal. Eastern coal generally has a high heating value. Conversely, relatively thick seams
of shallow reserves characterize the coalfields in the western U.S. Western coal generally
has a low heating value. These deposit characteristics also greatly influence the mining
method used. Underground mining is more frequently used on the thinner seams of the
eastern coalfields. However, surface mining is most frequently used in the West. These
deposits require relatively low-volume, shallow digging to expose thick coal seams for
recovery.
In general, where favorable coal seam conditions exist, surface mining is the least
expensive and most productive method of taking coal from the ground. Used when the
coal seam is relatively close to the surface, it can result in the removal of as much as 95
percent of the total coal from a particular deposit.
Area surface mining is done on relatively flat land under which the coal is buried at
roughly uniform depth. In this method, the overburden from a 100- to 200-foot-wide cut
is used to fill the mined-out area of the preceding cut. Contour surface mining follows
coal beds lying in hillsides. Excavation begins at a location where coal and surface
elevations are the same. It proceeds towards the center of the hill or mountain until the
overburden becomes too thick to remove economically. Mountain top removal mining is
used to recover coal buried at or near the summit of a large hill or mountain by entirely
removing the elevated area.
Most surface mines follow the same basic steps to produce coal. Bulldozers clear and
level the mining area; topsoil is removed and stored for later use in the reclamation
process; holes are drilled through the overburden, loaded with explosives and discharged,
shattering the rock in the overburden; power shovels or draglines clear away the
overburden until the coal is exposed. The dragline has a large bucket suspended from the
end of a boom, which may be as long as 300 feet. The bucket, which is suspended by
cables, is able to scoop up to 250 tons of overburden as it is dragged across the
excavation area. The dragline is one of the largest land-based machines in the world.
Smaller shovels then scoop up the coal and load it onto trucks, which carry the coal to the
preparation plant.
Exposives and Iron Mining
Iron is found in every state in the United States and in almost every country in the world.
However, the ore must contain commercially recoverable amounts of iron in relatively
large deposits or ranges if it is to be mined economically. The characteristics of iron-
bearing ores vary geographically. Specifically, magnetite and hematite are the main iron-
bearing ores in the Lake Superior district and in the northeastern United States, while
hematite and hematite-magnetite mixtures tend to be found in ores in Alabama and the
Southwest.
To be competitive, iron mining must be done on a very large scale. Surface mining is the
preferred choice, although there are exceptions. Small, low-capacity mines have rapidly
disappeared.
In 2000, twelve iron ore production complexes with 12 mines, 10 concentration plants,
and 10 pelletizing plants were operating in Minnesota, Michigan, and six other States.
The mines included eleven surface and one underground operation. Virtually all ore was
concentrated before shipment. Nine mines operated by five companies accounted for 99
percent of production.
When the iron ore lies close to the surface, it often can be uncovered by stripping away a
layer of dirt, sometimes only a few feet thick. The ore is mined from large open pits by
progressive extraction along steps or benches. The benches provide access to
progressively deeper ore, as upper-level ore is removed. After the soil and overlying rock
are cleared, the ore is drilled and blasted. The portion of the ore body to be removed is
first drilled in a specific pattern, and the holes are loaded with explosive mixtures and
blasted. Following blasting, the fractured ore is loaded by huge electrical shovels,
hydraulic excavators, or front-end loaders onto large dump trucks. The wide holes in the
ground created by drilling, blasting, and ore removal are referred to as "open pits".
Exposives and Copper Mining
For nearly 5,000 years, copper was the only metal known to man. It remains one of the
most used and reused of all metals. The demand for copper is due to its good strength and
fatigue resistance, excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, outstanding resistance to
corrosion, and ease of fabrication. Copper offers moderate levels of density, elastic
modulus, and low melting temperature. It is used in electrical cables and wires, switches,
plumbing, heating, roofing and building construction, chemical and pharmaceutical
machinery. It is also used in alloys such as brass and bronze, alloy castings, and
electroplated protective coating in undercoats of nickel, chromium, and zinc.
Copper is commonly extracted from surface, underground and increasingly, from in situ
operations. In 2000, the principal mining States, in descending order, Arizona, Utah, New
Mexico, and Montana, accounted for 99 percent of domestic production. Copper was also
recovered at mines in three other States. Although copper was recovered at about 30
mines operating in the United States, 15 mines accounted for about 99 percent of
production. At 2001 year end, four primary smelters, four electrolytic and four fire
refineries, and 15 solvent extraction-electrowinning facilities were operating.
Surface mining requires extensive blasting as well as rock, soil, vegetation, and
overburden removal to reach lode deposits. Benches are cut into the walls of the mine to
provide access to progressively deeper ore as upper-level ore is depleted. Ore is removed
from the mine and transported to beneficiation plants for milling and concentrating. The
concentrate is then smelted and refined. Open-pit mining is the primary domestic source
of copper.
Exposives and Crushed RockMining
Crushed rock is one of the most accessible natural resources and a major basic raw
material. It is used in construction, agriculture, and other industries using complex
chemical and metallurgical processes. Despite the low value of its basic products, the
crushed rock industry is a major contributor to and an indicator of the economic well
being of the nation.
Most crushed and broken stone is mined from open quarries; however, in many areas,
factors favoring large-scale production by underground mining are becoming more
frequent and prominent.
Surface mining equipment varies with the kind of stone mined, the production capacity
needed, the size and shape of the deposit, estimated life of the operation, location of the
deposit with respect to urban centers, and other important factors. Typically, drilling is
done with tricone rotary drills, long-hole percussion drills, and churn drills. Blasting in
smaller operations may be done with dynamite, but in most medium-to large-size
operations, ammonium nitrate fuel oil mixture (AN-FO) is used as a low cost explosive.
The rock is then extracted using power shovels or bulldozers.
Typical blasts at quarries use a 3½ inch diameter hole approximately 40 feet deep. The
explosive most commonly used is ANFO and the top part is stemmed with sand/gravel or
drilling cuttings poured on top of the ANFO to help force the blast energy into the rock.
The amounts of ANFO and stemming vary depending on the location of the hole in the
blast pattern, site conditions, the hardness of the rock to be blasted, and of course, on
PPV limitations for surrounding structures. Generally, a minimum amount of stemming
for a 3½ inch diameter, 40 foot hole would be approximately 7 feet, which would leave
33 feet of hole for ANFO. The weight of explosives in the hole would be approximately
115 pounds.
About three-quarters of the crushed stone production is limestone and dolomite, followed
by, in descending order of tonnage: granite, traprock, sandstone and quartzite,
miscellaneous stone, marble, slate, calcareous marl, shell, volcanic cinder and scoria.
Limestone, one of the largest produced crushed rock, is a sedimentary rock composed
mostly of the mineral calcite and comprising about 15 percent of the earth's sedimentary
crust. This mineral is a basic building block of the construction industry and the chief
material from which aggregate, cement, lime, and building stone are made. For the
purposes of this report, limestone will be used as a sample for crushed rock.
One product of limestone mining is lime. A wide range of industries use lime for a
myriad of uses. It is used in many of the products and materials Americans use every day,
including paper, steel, sugar, plastics, paint, and many more. The largest single use of
lime is in steel manufacturing, for which it serves as a flux for removing impurities
(silica, phosphorus and sulfur) in refining steel.
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Liquid Explosives
Nitroglycerine is a colorless to pale-yellow, viscous liquid or solid (below 56°F). It is an
explosive ingredient in dynamite (20-40%) with ethylene glycol dinitrate (80-60%). It has
a high nitrogen content( 18.5%) and contains more than enough oxigen atoms to oxidize
the carbon and hydrogen atoms while nitrogen is beeing liberated, so it is one of the most
powerful explosives known. Its detonation generates gases that would occupy more than
1,200 times the original volume at room temperature.
Astrolite explosives, frequently and not too precisely called the world's most powerful
non-nuclear explosive, were discovered in the 1960's. Astrolite explosives are formed
when ammonium nitrate is mixed with anhydrous hydrazine. This produces a clear liquid
explosive called Astrolite G. When aluminum powder (100 mesh or finer) is added to the
Hydrazinium Nitrate slurry, it forms Astrolite A-1-5. Astrolite G is a clear liquid
explosive that produces a very high detonation velocity, almost twice as powerful as
TNT.
Explosive compositions comprising nitromethane and a sensitizer for the nitromethane
are well known in the art. These compositions are formed by combining nitromethane
with a sensitizing chemical compound. Various chemical compounds serve as effective
sensitizers for nitromethane. For example, liquid explosive compositions containing
nitromethane sensitized with amines or polyamines such as diethylamine, triethylamine,
ethanolamine, ethylenediamine and morpholine. Likewise, non-chemical, air entrapping
structures, such as resin micro balloons and polymeric foam, are effective nitromethane
sensitizers.
Nitromethane was first synthesized by Kolbe in 1872. It is so insensitive that it was not
until 1938 that its detonation property was revealed by McKittrick. Once this detonation
property was discovered, research was initiated to find sensitizers to increase its ease of
detonation. World War II research produced sensitizers, primarily amines, which made
nitromethane detonatable with a blasting cap. In 1945, Ericksen and Rowen listed over
one dozen nitromethane - amine mixtures along with their explosive ability.
Normally, liquid nitromethane based explosive compositions are converted into a semi-
solid or gelled state by the addition of a gelling agent. This conversion increases the
density and, therefore, the detonation pressure of the semi-solid or gelled compositions.
Although the semi-solid or gelled compositions have a higher detonation pressure than
liquid compositions, they are not as effective in situations requiring a fluid material
capable of conforming to any shape or structure. As a result, one must choose between
the higher detonation pressure found in a semi-solid or gelled composition and the
versatility of a liquid composition.
Nitromethane known to reduce the sensitivity of nitroglycerine. Nitromethane may be
added to compositions containing nitroglycerine. The reference further teaches that
trinitrotoluene may be added to said compositions. Pyridine is known to be a highly
effective solvent for trinitrotoluene. It is also a well-known sensitizer for nitromethane;
however, it is seldom used for its sensitizer properties because more effective sensitizers
are known and available. Trinitrotoluene was found to be soluble in nitromethane. The
US Army Ballistic Research Laboratory was not aware of this property until 1987.
In the field of explosives and explosives manufacturing, there are many types of
explosives made for various applications. A few of these applications are for mining,
construction, demolition, law enforcement and military uses. There are a multitude of
explosive products available to satisfy the requirements in these fields. For example, for
blasting rock in mining and construction work, the user can choose from cartridged
explosives such as dynamite, water-gels and emulsions which are used for small diameter
bore holes (up to 3 inches). For larger boreholes, blasting agents are used in the form of
Ammonium Nitrate/Fuel Oil mixtures (ANFO), which are poured or pumped into
position. Unlike the smaller, "cap-sensitive" cartridged explosives, these blasting agents
(by definition) require a small, high explosive booster to initiate the detonation thereof.
For commercial demolition applications, cartridged explosives are placed in small
boreholes within concrete columns and beams in the case of buildings, bridges and other
similar structures. Where steel needs to be cut, small but powerful high explosive shaped
charges are used to sever critical points in order to complete the demolition.
Military applications for explosives are many. However, they tend to fall into two main
groups. The first is for bombs, artillery shells, mortars, mines, etc. For these uses, the
explosives are generally placed into the devices by means of a melt-pour operation. The
second group are explosives used for demolition and breaching by Special Forces and
engineering groups. Although some of the explosive charges are pre-made devices
incorporating shaped charge or Explosively Formed Projectile (EFP) technology, most
are simply bulk explosives in the form of blocks (C-4, and TNT) or sheets (Deta-Sheet).
Another military related use of explosives is demining operations and unexploded
ordnance (UXO) clearing operations where explosive charges are used to sympathetically
detonate and destroy landmines as well as "dud" bombs and artillery shells. Similar type
work conducted by civilian contractors after a conflict has been termed "Humanitarian
Demining". Clearing of old military firing ranges by these contractors is called
remediation.
Although the previously mentioned applications consume the bulk of the explosives used
in the world, smaller quantities are also used for agricultural blasting such as tree stump
removal, irrigation and drainage ditch blasting and beaver dam control; Avalanche
control; Metal hardening; Forest fire fighting; Submarine (underwater) blasting; Seismic
work; Secondary blasting such as boulder breaking; Law enforcement applications such
as tactical breaching and bomb squad work.
Due to threats of terrorism and increased attention to accident prevention, regulations
concerning the transportation, storage, use and transfer relating to explosives have
steadily increased over the last few years. Along with this has come an increase in the
cost of using explosives, particularly, in the area of transportation.
Where explosives are used in volume, such as mines and quarries, the cost of transporting
a truckload of explosives is not much more than a truckload of any other material.
However, where small amounts of explosives are required, the transportation costs can
far exceed the cost of the product. For example, it costs just as much to transport one
stick of dynamite by commercial truck as it does two thousand pounds of dynamite. In
order to accommodate the user who needs smaller quantities to do a job, "binary" or
"two-part" explosives are available. One popular brand is called Kinepak. As embodied in
the commercially available product Kinepak, two individual, nonexplosive components
are combined by the user to form a cap sensitive explosive. The first component, referred
to as "the liquid" is predominantly nitromethane (NM). The other component, referred to
as "the solid" is primarily finely divided ammonium nitrate (AN). The commercial
product Kinepak is packaged in several different sizes and shapes of plastic bottles as
well as foil pouches (bags) which are intended for various applications. In each case, the
solid component container is supplied with an appropriate amount of premeasured liquid
in another individual container.
The liquid component of the Kinepak is classified as a "Flammable Liquid" for
transportation purposes. The solid component is classified as an "Oxidizer". Although
both are considered hazardous materials, neither is defined as an explosive for
transportation (U.S. Department of Transportation, DOT regulations) or storage (U.S.
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, ATF regulations).
In order to use Kinepak, the liquid component is simply poured into the solid component.
Within about five to fifteen minutes, the liquid (which is usually colored red) will soak
down to the bottom of the container, as evidenced by the pink color. At this point, it has
the consistency of moist powder and is a cap sensitive, high explosive. It can be used in
most situations where it would be suitable to use cartridged explosives such as dynamite,
water gels and small diameter emulsions.
Kinepak is used as an example here because it is, at the time of this writing, one of the
only two commercially available two-component explosives. The only other known
commercial product is marketed under the name Binex. Binex uses a two component
system of an aqueous solution of sodium perchlorate and aluminum powder. When these
two components are combined, a liquid explosive is formed that is cap sensitive. It is
believed that this composition would not be a viable product as a replacement for
cartridged explosives because of the high cost and the environmental concerns with the
sodium perchlorate solution. However, there is a current military application where this
product is used to blast fox holes in conjunction with an entrenchment kit for soldiers. It
is known that this explosive has detonation velocity that is much lower than Kinepak and
other commercial cartridged explosives. In the case of the military application, this is an
advantage as lower velocity explosives are generally better for cratering in soil.
There are many other possible candidates for use as binary explosives. However, most of
these others would not be viable for consideration as commercial products for the
following reasons: toxicity of the components and/or detonation products; stability of the
components before and after mixing; shelf life; cost; ease/difficulty of mixing; no
advantages when compared to ammonium nitrate/nitromethane systems (Kinepak).
In most binary systems, one of the components is an oxidizer (ammonium nitrate, sodium
perchlorate) and the other is a fuel (nitromethane, aluminum). As with all explosives, the
potential uses and effects are determined by several properties such as detonation
velocity, density, gas production, etc. Effects on a specific target can be influenced by
container size, shape and confinement. For example, configuring the explosive in a
shaped charge container will cause more of the available energy to be focused toward a
given target than would be possible otherwise. The type of initiation system required and
utilized will also have an effect, especially with blasting agents such as ANFO.
Ammonium nitrate and nitromethane (AN-NM) binary systems such as Kinepak work
very well for their intended purpose. They have the following advantages over
conventional explosives: The components are not explosives before mixing; The
components do not have to be transported as explosives; The components do not have to
be stored as explosives (in most places) therefore do not require expensive storage
"magazines".
These advantages are due to the fact that they are mixed on site just before using.
However, there are a few disadvantages: Mixing can be time consuming; Shelf life of the
ammonium nitrate powder can be short depending on conditions, particularly
temperature; Can cost 2 to 3 times more than conventional explosives .
Although other systems besides AN-NM exist, there has not been a commercially viable
product available as a substitute for conventional small diameter cartridge explosives.
There are other binary systems based on nitroparaffins such as nitromethane, nitroethane,
nitropropanes, etc. These nitroparaffins are very interesting materials. Under the right
circumstances, they can act as a fuel (as when combined with ammonium nitrate) an
oxidizer or a stand alone explosive, especially nitromethane. However, they are too
insensitive to be used as explosives as is.
There are ways to utilize nitroparaffins as the basis of a binary system. A stable explosive
composition can be made by adding a sensitizer, in the form of resin balloons, to
nitromethane. It is well known that amines (particularly ethylenediamine) will sensitize
nitromethane so that it will detonate with a blasting cap. These mixtures become unstable
and decompose after a few days. Most of these sensitizing agents are very toxic and
difficult to work with safely. The basis of this patent is that by entrapping air into the
nitromethane liquid, by means of micro balloons (resin, glass, etc.), it can be made cap-
sensitive. However since the balloons will float to the surface of pure nitromethane, a
thickening (gelling) agent must be added to prevent this.
A foamable nitromethane composition can be made by the addition of stabilizers,
thickeners, sensitizing and foaming agents. It also teaches the addition of metals,
including aluminum, to enhance the total energy of the system. The idea is that the foam
would be applied to a mine field and then detonated. Two problems with this method is
the very low density of the foam, thus low velocity. Another problem is the useable life of
the foam after its application. This would greatly vary depending on conditions such as
temperature, wind, sunlight, etc.
It is commonly known that the addition of aluminum to many explosive compositions
(usually water gels) not only adds energy, but also increases its sensitivity. The addition
of aluminum to typical water gel mixtures uses aluminum coated with stearic acid which
give it a hydrophobic property. This causes air bubbles to cling to the surface of the
aluminum particles. The incorporation of air bubbles into explosive mixtures increases
the sensitivity.
Mixtures of nitromethane and nitroethane are used as an oxidizing liquid and aluminum
fuel granules having an average particle size within the range of 1/64 to 1/4 inch and an
average bulk density within the range of 0.2 to 1.0 grams/cc. The resultant explosive is a
blasting agent requiring a one pound booster for initiation, not a cap sensitive, small
diameter mixture.
Pure nitromethane is actually a very powerful explosive. However, without the addition
of some additives or modifiers, it is so insensitive that it is classified as a "Flammable
Liquid" for transportation purposes. Pure nitromethane will not usually detonate unless it
is subjected to extreme shock and/or confinement at elevated temperatures. Most of the
efforts to make a usable nitromethane based explosive have centered on adding
dangerous amine compounds and/or incorporating entrapped air bubbles by some means.
These air bubbles, while having the desired result of sensitization, have the undesired
result of decreasing the density, and thereby lowering the velocity. Further, since these air
bubble means are non-energetic, the per unit volume energy is also decreased.
Although ammonium nitrate and nitromethane systems provide a good product, a binary
explosive with a higher velocity and total energy would be able to perform tasks that are
currently not possible. There are many commercial and military applications where such
an explosive would be very useful. If this new binary explosive was in liquid form after
mixing, it would be particularly attractive because of its ability to be poured into and fill
any container.
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Novel Energetic Materials
Novel Energetic Materials consists of fundamental research programs to expand and
validate physics-based models and experimental techniques to devise chemical
formulations that will enable the design of novel insensitive high-energy propellants and
explosives with tailored energy release for revolutionary Future Force lethality and
survivability. This program supports demonstration of advanced energetic materials with
ability to tune energy release for precision munition & counter-munition applications
(e.g., propellants, explosives, thermobarics, multi-purpose warhead, APS).
These energetic materials may have the potential of providing factors of 3 to 4 in
increased energy release rate compared with conventional formulations. The Army's
Novel Energetic Materials for the Objective Force effort seeks to mature advanced
energetic materials to provide a 40% increase in deliverable energy from advanced gun
propellant systems and a 20-50% increase in warhead effectiveness (munitions, active
protection).
DoD and DOE continue to have very similar requirements for energetic materials. Both
agencies desire high explosives with increased or tailored performance and decreased
sensitivity, and recent accomplishments have benefited both agencies. Like advanced
initiation, improved energetic materials are enabling technology for the next generation
of weapon systems that will be safer, smaller and more lethal. Under this program a
combination of evolutionary and novel technologies are under development.
Conventional chemistry has been used to develop more powerful, less sensitive
explosives.
Nano-structured and engineered materials are being explored to increase energy density
and energy on target by factors of three or more. Higher risk efforts are also underway to
explore the possibility of metastable High Energy Density Materials (HEDM). Using
conventional chemistry, a number of new candidate molecules have been synthesized,
characterized and formulated. The development of new materials is based on theoretical
molecular design. The structure, performance and sensitivity of new molecules are
predicted computationally, then synthesis is attempted. The focus is in two areas:
molecules with significantly increased energy over current materials and very insensitive
materials with reasonable energies.
Energetic materials consist of fuels and oxidizers which are intimately mixed. This is
done by incorporating fuels and oxidizers within one molecule or through chemical and
physical mixtures of separate fuel and oxidizer ingredients. The material may also
contain other constituents such as binders, plasticizers, stabilizers, pigments, etc.
Traditional manufacturing of energetic materials involves processing granular solids into
parts. Materials may be pressed or cast to shape. Performance properties are strongly
dependent on particle size distribution, surface area of the constituents, and void volume.
In many cases achieving fast energy release rates, as well as insensitivity to unintended
initiation, necessitates the use of small particles (.ltoreq.100 .mu.m) which are intimately
mixed. Reproducibility in performance is adversely affected by the difficulties of
synthesizing and processing materials with the same particle morphology and distribution
uniformity. Manufacturing these granular substances into complex shapes is often
difficult due to limitations in processing highly solid filled materials.
An example of an existing limitation of processing granular solids is in manufacturing
energetic materials for detonators. The state-of-the-art now requires the precise synthesis
and recrystallization of explosive powders. These powders typically have high surface
areas (e.g., >1 [Link].2/g). The powders are weighed and compacted at high pressures to
make pellets. Handling fine grain powders is very difficult.
Dimensional and mechanical tolerances may be very poor as the pellets may contain little
or no binder. Changes in the density and dimensions of the pellets affect both initiation
and detonation properties. Manufacturing rates are also low as the process is usually done
one at a time. Certification of material is typically done by expensive, end-use detonation
performance testing and not solely by chemical and physical characterization of the
explosive powder. As these detonators or initiating explosives are sensitive, machining to
shape pressed pellets is typically not done.
Another current limitation is producing precise intimate mixtures of fuels and oxidizers.
The energy release rates of energetic materials are determined by the overall chemical
reaction rate. Monomolecular energetic materials have the highest power as the energy
release rates are primarily determined by intramolecular reactions. However, energy
densities can be significantly higher in composite energetic materials. Reaction rates
(power) in these systems are typically controlled by mass transport rates of reactants.
In general, initiation and detonation properties of energetic materials are dramatically
affected by their microstructural properties. It is generally known in material science that
the mechanical, acoustic, electronic, and optical properties are significantly and favorably
altered in materials called "nanostructures," which are made from nanometer-scale
building blocks. Modern technology, through sol-gel chemistry, provides an approach to
control structures at the nanometer scale, thus enabling the formation of new energetic
materials, generally having improved, exceptional, or entirely new properties.
Since the invention of black powder the technology for making solid energetic materials
has remained either the physical mixing of solid oxidizers and fuels, referred to as
composite energetic materials (e.g., black powder); or the incorporation of oxidizing and
fuel moieties into one molecule, referred to as monomolecular energetic materials (e.g.,
trinitrotoluene, TNT).
The basic distinctions between these prior known energetic composites and energetic
materials made from monomolecular approaches are as follows. In composite systems,
desired energy properties can be attained through readily varied ratios of oxidizer and
fuels. A complete balance between the oxidizer and fuel may be reached to maximize
energy density. Current composite energetic materials can store energy as densely as >23
kJ/[Link].3. However, due to the granular nature of composite energetic materials,
reaction kinetics are typically controlled by the mass transport rates between reactants.
Hence, although composites may have extreme energy densities, the release rate of that
energy is below that which may be attained in a chemical kinetics controlled process.
In monomolecular energetic materials the rate of energy release is primarily controlled by
chemical kinetics, not by mass transport. Therefore, monomulecular materials can have
much greater power than composite energetic materials. A major limitation with these
monomolecular energetic materials is the total energy density achievable. Currently, the
highest energy density for monomolecular materials is approximately 12 kJ/[Link].3,
about half that achievable in composite systems. The reason for this is that the
requirement for a chemically stable material and the current state of the art synthetic
procedures limit both the oxidizer-fuel balance and the physical density of the material.
The overall goal is to engineer multi-dimensional nanoscale energetic materials systems
whose energy release can be controlled in terms of its type, rate, spatial distribution, and
temporal history. The goal is to manipulate individual atoms and molecules and control
their assembly into a large-scale bulk energetic material. The possibility exists to build
large-scale energetic materials with a very high degree of uniformity (few/no defects,
perfect crystalline structure, composites with molecularly engineered uniformity,
laminated composites with structures built molecularly controlled and selectable layers - -
no stirring, mixing - - all done through self-assembly). It is also possible to embed
molecular scale devices within the energetic matrix (embedded smart devices and
sensors).
The current emphasis in the nanoscale energetic materials area is on the preparation and
characterization of single nanoscale energetic particles. These particles are then utilized
in an otherwise conventional composite formulation, incorporating the nanoparticles
(typically aluminum, the fuel) in a matrix with micron-sized oxidizer particles. While
there is some performance improvement, the full extent of the anticipated performance
gains of the nanoscale materials have not been realized. In large measure this is due the
incompatibility of the length scales. What is needed is a formulation with all constituents
at the nanoscale. If this were accomplished, the reactivity of the material would be
characterized by the almost premixed gas-phase reaction rates of the nanomaterials; not
limited by the slower, diffusion dominated reactions of micron-sized constituents. It may
also be expected that the much smaller crystalline sizes of nanomaterials would be much
less susceptible to shear-induced initiation and may be less responsive to some hazards.
Macroscale formulations of energetic materials that preserve the intrinsic nanoscale
structure of the individual components are needed to realize the true potential of
nanoscale energetic materials. An optimal material may be a macroscale three-
dimensional, ordered array of nanoscale constituents, with spacing and
interstitial/bonding materials chosen to optimize both stability and reactivity. At a
minimum, these macroscale units would be on the order of millimeter size, which could
then be processed into the centimeter to meter sizes needed for practical propellants and
explosives. The advantages of this “bottom-up” approach to energetic materials are: a)
developing a fundamental understanding of the evolution of properties with the size of
the system, b) understanding the effects of the interaction of matter at different
molecular-length scale with external stimuli, and c) developing a detailed understanding
of the functionalities of matter at molecular-length scale.
The chemistry, physics and materials science of nanoscale energetic material preparation
need to be developed, focusing on those processes that lead to well ordered structures,
e.g. self-assembly, vapor deposition, etc. Computational methods are needed to assess the
reactivity of candidate structures and to predict the stability of the energetic material
structure, to both hazards (shock, spark, etc.) and to long-term degradation. These
computations should also provide guidance to and receive validation from the
experimental aspects of the program, specifically the formulation and characterization
activities.
Experimental methods of characterizing nanoenergetic structures are needed to verify
structure and performance. This includes developments of techniques capable of the
determination of the threedimensional structure of the nanoscale assembly and the
orientation and bonding of the constituents. Characterization of reaction front progress
through the nanostucture is also desirable.
This research program will enable molecularly manipulated energetic materials and
formulations with tuned chemical and physical properties, high performance, low
sensitivity, and multifunctionality (a single smart material that can function as a structural
material, embedded sensor, and have real-time selectable propellant, explosive, or non-
lethal functionality within a precision munition).
Novel Energetic Materials science and technology is recognized as a critical enabler in
support of changing force structure for advanced weapons platforms. Nanoenergetic
materials are a key area highlighted by the DDR&E/ OUSD (S&T) “National Advanced
Energetics Program”. That initiative is funding the first generation materials. The
program supports the ARL-led STO [Link].2003.01 “Novel Energetic Materials for the
Objective Force”, the DTO WE.70 “Novel Energetics” in which ARL is a partner, the
provisional SRO “Insensitive High Energy Materials” which ARL leads, the OSD Office
of Munitions efforts on “Insensitive Munitions”, and DTAP/Reliance “Advanced Gun
Propulsion” which ARL leads. This program will provide the next generation novel
energetic materials.
One new explosive under development is LLM-105. It is dense, thermally stable and very
insensitive. With 30% more energy than TNT it has possible detonator and booster
applications and is an alternative to TATB in special purpose weapons such as hard target
penetrators that have to survive high shock loading. The synthesis, scale-up, and
characterization of this material have been completed and its use as insensitive booster
material for Navy weapons applications is now being evaluated. Efforts to crystallize the
pure form of a newly synthesized energetic material with predicted energy greater than
CL-20, LLM-121 continued in FY 2001.
Two other very fast burning materials, BTATz and DHT, have been successfully
synthesized and are under evaluation as enhanced performance gun and rocket propellant
ingredients. Metastable Intermolecular Composites (MIC) developed under this program
were the first successful examples of nano-structured energetic materials with
significantly enhanced performance. They demonstrated that tailored, ultra-fine reactant
particles could dramatically increase the energy release rate of thermite-like materials and
provide twice the total energy of high explosives. The first application of this technology
is for lead-free percussion primers for small arms ammunition, and this program is now
in engineering development under SERDP funding. The current focus is on the
optimization of this material for other weapons applications via better diagnostic and
measurement methods.
A new bulk process for manufacturing nano-structured energetic materials using sol-gel
chemistry has been developed with the promise of precise control of material
homogeneity, properties, and geometry. Samples of this material were manufactured this
year for testing and evaluation in support of reactive warheads that better couple energy
to the target and applications that require very high thermal loading. Extended solid
HEDMs are also under development. This work uses intense pressure and temperature to
force elements into highly energetic bonding states that can be recovered to ambient
conditions. Current synthesis techniques have produced CO-derived solids and a family
of novel nitrogen materials, but in very small quantities. These materials are expected to
be highly energetic, but characterizing them, and particularly verifying the energy
content, has been difficult due to the microscopic quantities of material available.
In 2001 the energy content of laboratory produced high energy density material was
preliminarily measured. A special press was installed for production of milligram sample
sizes, which can then be characterized more accurately using standard and improved
techniques. The creation of the thermochemical code Cheetah represents a major
accomplishment of this program. The code predicts the performance of energetic
materials including high explosives, propellants and pyrotechnics and reduces the number
of tests necessary to develop a new material. Cheetah 3.0 was released in 2001 to DoD,
DOE and DoD contractor users. This version includes new equations of state resulting in
greatly enhanced stability and accuracy of the code. A major effort is also underway to
develop a suite of codes for use in predicting the response of energetic materials in
weapon systems subjected to thermal and mechanical insult. The objective is to reduce
the number and cost of the current go/no-go insensitive munitions test protocols required
to qualify a new system for military use and to improve our understanding of the physical
mechanisms and safety margins.
A collaborative effort with the Navy was initiated to experimentally assess and validate
codes for use in predicting the response of weapon systems including the violence of
reaction in cookoff accidents. Quantitative data on cookoff violence have been generated
by both the Navy in small-scale experiments and by DOE in the scaled thermal explosion
experiments. Data on both HMX based explosives and PBX-109 have been obtained for
use in establishing the accuracy and range of validity of the predictive models. The
measured properties were used this year to successfully predict the time to explosion in
cookoff tests performed by the Navy. In order to preserve and transition the energetic
materials technology generated under this program, two explosives databases have been
distributed to government laboratories and contractors. One database, HEAT1, contains
over 3,000 chemical structures, and is a compilation of measured heats of formation for a
wide range of organic molecules of interest to researchers in the weapons community. A
second database is APEX, A Pure Explosives Database. This database contains over 500
energetic materials of different molecular structure to guide the synthesis of new
materials and ensure the retention of important characterization data.
Work in energetic materials was aligned with the recommendations from the DoD 2000
Weapons Technology Area Review and Assessment (TARA) and, in particular, was
coordinated with the national initiative in advanced energetic materials. Concern from the
DoD 2000 Weapons TARA regarding the need to maintain weapon lethality as weapon
and platform size decrease continued to be addressed in efforts to synthesize, characterize
and scale-up new energetic materials with increased or tailored performance and
decreased sensitivity. The development and characterization of new insensitive and new
high-energy, high power materials continued with synthesis based on theoretical
molecular design.
Efforts to crystallize the new high energy molecule, LLM-121, in its pure form
continued. Efforts sponsored under this program continued to exploit opportunities in
nano-energetics by developing nano-structured and engineered energetic materials,
including sol-gel derived materials, and evaluating their effectiveness and utility for
warhead applications. With the completion of the LLM-105 synthesis and scale-up work,
efforts will focused on formulation for evaluation and eventual qualification as a Navy
booster material. The creation of new HEDMs continued, along with the development
and implementation of accurate techniques for determining crystal structure and energy
content of the newly synthesized materials.
With the installation of a special press in FY 2001 designed to produce sample sizes of
100mm3, the feasibility of bulk synthesis on CO-derived and nitrogen HEDMs was
demonstrated and initial measurements of their energy content with larger sample sizes
was completed. The synthesis of additional extended solid HEDMs was explored.
With the release of Cheetah 3.0, the emphasis in Cheetah development will turn towards
implementing more sophisticated kinetic models into the code that account for
differences in explosive microstructure including explosive particle morphology and
towards generating more accurate equations of state for detonation products. To support
this work, a new impulsive stimulated light scattering spectrometer was used to conduct
measurements in a diamond anvil cell to monitor the onset of chemical reactivity at
extreme conditions with great accuracy. Efforts to develop and validate computational
tools for predicting munition system response to operational threat and accident
environments will continue. The first generation of simulation tools for munitions
response to accident environments will be exercised against test data to validate the codes
and expand their ability to predict weapon system performance and response in accident
situations. The joint experimental program with Navy to measure the violence of reaction
in cookoff accidents will be expanded to testing and analyses of a full weapon systems.
Experiments to determine mechanical property of both fielded high explosives and their
constituents continued for development and validation of high explosive mechanical
response models.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Insensitive High Explosives [IHE]

In an effort to improve munitions survivability and safety, the Department of Defense
(through the Joint Requirements Oversight Council) several years ago established a
policy requiring all new munitions be capable of withstanding accidents, fires, or enemy
attack. One method of addressing this requirement, the use of "Insensitive Munitions"
(IM), including propellants and explosives, was mandated. Thus a new class of IM
explosives has been developed over the past decade. Because these IM formulations
differ somewhat from each other in a variety of ways (physical properties, explosive
output, manufacturing process and cost, sensitivity and toxicity, etc.,) the explosive
selection process for a given munition has become more complex. They must meet MIL-
STD-2105, Hazard Assessment Tests, Non-Nuclear Munitions.
The US Air Force is developing an insensitive explosive fill for its general use bombs
using a mixture of trinitrotoluene (TNT) and aluminum. Since the insensitive fill is not
ready to be used in tactical bombs, and there is no available TNT in the stockpile, Joint
Munitions Command (JMC) Bombs/Energetics Division awarded an indefinite
delivery/indefinite quantity (IDIQ) contract for supply of TNT over a 5-year period to
Alliant Ammunition and Powder Co. (AAPC). Virgin TNT will be supplied from a
National Technology Industrial Base source, reclaimed and OCONUS TNT. The facility
that produces the virgin TNT can be easily modified to produce other energetic materials,
notably insensitive explosives. The IDIQ is delivering sufficient quantities of TNT to
meet increased requirements. Partnering with major contractors has proved beneficial for
current program execution. New partnerships are now being established with AAPC for
TNT and General Dynamics Tactical and Ordnance Systems for bombs. Through these
partnerships, communications will be improved, expectations will be better understood,
common goals can be set, delivery times improved and problems identified so they can
be resolved early on.
AFX-757
The Joint Air-to-Surface Stand-off Missile (JASSM) may become the first munition item
to obtain insensitive munition (IM) certification and a 1.2.3 hazard classification.
Currently, almost all munition items are hazard classified 1.1. This certification and
classification reflect improvements in the munition that greatly reduce both the threat for
accidental initiation of the item and the severity in case of an inadvertent initiation. The
safety implications and reduced costs associated withstorage of such IM-compliant
munitions are of significant benefit to boththe US Air Force and Navy customers.
With full support of the Air Force Research Laboratory Munitions Directorate's
EnergeticMaterials Branch, the JASSM warhead and All-Up-Round passed some of the
most difficult tests for obtaining IM certification and a reducedexplosive hazard
classification (1.2.3). After a disappointing failure of the first JASSM warhead during
sympathetic detonation testing, engineers from Lockheed Martin asked the Energetic
Materials Branch to analyze the failure. Drawing on previous experiencein the
development of IM-compliant Mk-82 bombs filled with the newly developed AFX-645
explosive, the directorate recommended a non-standard pallet stacking arrangement. This
new stacking arrangement mitigates the energy transferred during sympathetic detonation
from onemunition to the next. Lockheed Martin engineers tested this configuration in a
hydrocode studyand confirmed that the directorate's suggestions did provide a significant
improvement for survival. Lockheed Martin further improved this conceptby positioning
the JASSM warheads side by side in a nose-to-tailconfiguration. The engineers placed the
warhead casings as close aspossible, preventing a sympathetic detonation from occuring.
Lockheed Martin engineers performed a new test using this storage configurationand
successfully passed the sympathetic detonation criterion. The directorate and Lockheed
Martin have accomplished all required IM classification testing. This is a major milestone
since it is the first time amajor Air Force weapon system has passed all required IM
testing. The Energetic Materials Branch developed AFX-757, the explosive fill used in
JASSM, as a replacement for tritonal in the Miniature MunitionTechnology program.
Lockheed Martin, the JASSM contractor, chose AFX-757 for their warhead because of its
increased blast energy andpotential insensitivity.
DNI Dinitroimidazoles
Dinitroimidazoles, such as DNI (2,4-dinitroimidazole), are a group of very insensitive
explosives.
4,5-dinitroimidazole (45DNI) crystallizes with two crystallographically unique molecules
in the monoclinic space group P21/n (#14) with unit-cell parameters a = 11.5360(8) Å, b
= 9.071(1) Å, c = 11.822(1) Å, ß = 107.640(6)°, Z = 8, and has a density of 1.781 g/cm3.
The molecular packing consists of infinite one-dimensional chains of 45DNI molecules
approximately oriented in the ac direction which are linked by two different hydrogen
bonds, {\rm [N(1)-\hbox{-}H(1)\cdots N(31)} and {\rm N(11)-H(11)\cdots N(3)]}. In the
lateral directions the chains are held together by molecular forces.
LX-17
Only the TATB-based formulations of Livermore's LX-17 and Los Alamos's PBX 9502
are considered "insensitive" high explosives (IHE) for nuclear weapons; others are
termed "conventional."
MNX-194
MNX-194 in a melt castable, wax binder explosive fill to replace TNT in Army
M107/M795 155 mm artillery rounds. Munitions Directorate researchers, funded by the
US Army Tank-Automotive and Armaments Command/Armament Research,
Development and Engineering Center, developed MNX-194, a qualified replacement for
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in both the M107 and M795 155 mm artillery rounds. Directorate
researchers from the High Explosives Research and Development Facility developed
three compositionally equivalent versions of MNX-194 in which
Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX) is the sole energetic component.
The primary difference between the three versions is the source and/or pretreatment of
the RDX component. Directorate researchers characterized all of these novel wax binder
explosive formulations for both small-scale safety and shock sensitivity, and
performance. Their research also shows RDX is more powerful than TNT in similar test
configurations. Additional characterization and optimization work is currently under way.
Beyond MNX-194 applications for artillery hardware, the Air Force is considering this
formulation as a fill for other Air Force applications. In particular, the directorate is
developing an aluminized version of the MNX-194 binder matrix as a potential candidate
replacement for the TNT-based fill in Mk-series bombs.
The current usage rates and depletion of the Department of Defense stockpile of TNT is
causing many program managers to revisit formulation options such as the directorate's
bomb fill replacement effort. With a melting temperature similar to that of TNT (~80°C)
and the ease of processing this wax binder system, the Air Force considers MNX-194, or
modifications thereof, an ideal contender for any TNT replacement program.
PAX
Since the mid 1980s, Picatinny has developed over 24 Picatinny Arsenal Explosive
(PAX) formulations. New combinations of energetic "fill" binders and, in some cases,
plasticizers continue to be evaluated in search of the Army's next generation more
powerful explosive.
One of the most significant challenges to Picatinny was the development of a new main
charge melt-pour energetic, PAX-21. This new explosive is designed to be low cost and
requires little or no refacilitization for production or projectile filling. It contains no TNT
and is slightly less toxic than the Composition-B it replaces. Not only is it safe for use in
production, PAX-21 also exhibits good IM and thermal stress characteristics and low
shock sensitivity.
PAX-2A was the Army's first high performing IM (insensitive munition) explosive. It is
less sensitive to initiation by outside stimuli, but retains all the requisite performance
capabilities of the high explosive that was used in the past. It has matured through
extensive loading, performance testing and hazard threat analysis testing in various
current and future warhead configuration of the Army, Navy, and Air Force munitions
systems. This IM explosive is now considered to be a viable alternative to current HMX
formulations and has been successfully demonstrated in Hellfire, Javelin, M830A1, HE-
WAM, SADARM, and XM915 Dual Purpose Improved Conventional Munitions
(DPICM) XM80 grenade submunitions.
The vast majority of cannon lunched unitary warheads use melt pour explosives for cost
and surge capability. Traditional melt pour explosives have focused on fragmentation
capability. A new family of low cost reduced sensitivity melt pour explosives based on
2,4-dinitroanisole, RDX or HMX and AP has been developed in response to Insensitive
Munition [IM] requirements.
Development of Insensitive Munition [IM] melt pour explosives has been next to none.
Picatinny Arsenal and Thiokol Propulsion developed the first melt pour explosive (PAX-
21) to exhibit IM properties (currently in production). The PAX-21 success led to
increased interest in all areas of IM melt pour explosives I.e., cost, producibility,
facilitization, etc.
Family of PAX
• PAX-21- Comp B replacement: RDX, DNAN, AP and trace amounts of MNA
(for processability) currently in production
• PAX-24 - TNT replacement: DNAN, AP and MNA
• PAX-25 - Comp B replacement: RDX, DNAN, AP and MNA (different
proportions for RDX, DNAN, and AP) better performance than PAX-21
• PAX-26 - Tritonal replacement: DNAN, Al, AP, MNA
• PAX-28 - Unitary warheads: RDX, DNAN, Al, AP, MNA. An equivalency factor
of 1.62 was determined between Composition B and PAX-28
• PAX-40 - Octol replacement: HMX, DNAN, MNA
• PAX-41 - Cyclotol replacement: RDX, DNAN, MNA
One advantage is the ease of loading of melt pour explosives into various munition items.
Typically less expensive than pressed explosives to manufacture, load and facilitization.
Increased IM characteristics without decreasing performance. Performance and shock
sensitivity can be tailored for a given system based on particle size and the percentage of
ingredients. PAX-40 & 41 exceed COMP B's detonation velocity. PAX-40 & 41 are less
shock sensitive than COMP B.
PBXIH-135
The navy's insensitive munitions advanced development program for high explosives
(IMAD/HE) has developed a new insensitive, cast-cured pbx called PBXIH-135. PBXIH-
135 has enhanced internal blast performance and improved vulnerability and penetration
survivability characteristics compared to PBXN-109. PBXIH-135 was subjected to
insensitive detonating substance (EIDS) testing to include cap, gap, external Fire, slow
cookoff, and friability.
The Navy began developing thermobaric explosives in the late 1980's and resumed
research and development in the mid 1990's, responding to the need for internal blast
explosives to defeat hard and deeply buried structures as evidenced during Operation
Desert Storm. NSWC Indian Head scientists developed the PBXIH-135 thermobaric
explosive, which not only offers effective blast and thermal effects, but also is extremely
insensitive to factors that may cause accidental detonation during transit or storage. The
secret to PBXIH-135 is the addition of a precise mixture of aluminum powder, which
burns in the hot gases. Long after the initial shock wave, the burning aluminum sends
heat and pressure bounding through corridors.
In response to the Sept. 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, the Defense Threat
Reduction Agency (DTRA) organized a 60-day joint project with NSWC Indian Head,
the Air Force and Department of Energy to identify, test and integrate a solution to
deliver a new capability for tunnel defeat. NSWC Indian Head was responsible for the
payload and booster design, as well as loading of the new bombs.
After static and flight tests at full-scale tunnel facilities at the Department of Energy's
Nevada test site, the program culminated in December with a successful flight test of a
laser-guided weapon, containing Indian Head's PBXIH-135 thermobaric explosive,
launched from an F-15E Strike Eagle. NSWC Indian Head, along with DTRA and the Air
Force, are engaged in a three-year advanced Concept Technical Demonstration of another
thermobaric weapon. Indian Head is developing the new payload, which will have
superior performance to that of PBXIH-135.
PBXN-109
Two different energetic composite formulations can be used in hard target penetrator
warheads: PBXN-109 and AFX-757. Four explosive formulations have been evaluated
for the Mk-83 warhead. The four candidate formulations: AFX-777, AFX-757, PBXN-
111 and PBXW-129 were tested against the Mk-83 baseline fill, PBXN-109.
Two test series involving the static detonation of a new design Hellfire missile warhead,
now designated as a type N thermobaric warhead, were conducted in 2002 to determine
fragment spatial, mass, and velocity distributions. The data from the type N tests are
compared with the performance of a hellfire type M blast-frag warhead (BFWH) loaded
with the conventional explosive PBXN-109. Of particular interest in the tests was the
assessment of thermobaric phenomena with regard to warhead effectiveness.
The cookoff of energetic materials involves the combined effects of several physical and
chemical processes. These processes include heat transfer, chemical decomposition, and
mechanical response. The interaction and coupling between these processes influence
both the time-to-event and the violence of reaction. The prediction of the behavior of
explosives during cookoff, particularly with respect to reaction violence, is a challenging
task. To this end, a joint DoD/DOE program has been initiated to develop models for
cookoff, and to perform experiments to validate those models. In this paper, a series of
cookoff analyses are presented and compared with data from a number of experiments for
the aluminized, RDX-based, Navy explosive PBXN-109.
Computational tools are being developed to predict the response of Navy ordnance to
abnormal thermal (cookoff) events. The Naval Air Warfare Center 1 (NAWC) and Naval
Surface Warfare Center (NSWC) are performing cookoff experiments to help validate
DOE computer codes and associated thermal, chemical, and mechanical models. Initial
work at the NAWC is focused on the cookoff of an aluminized, RDX-based explosive,
PBXN-109 that is initially confined in a tube with sealed ends. The tube is slowly heated
until ignition occurs. The response is characterized using thermocouples, strain gauges,
and high-speed cameras. A modified version of this system is being developed at the
NSWC. The designs of these cookoff systems are relatively simple to facilitate initial
model development. An effort is being made to achieve a wide range of results for
reaction violence.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories (LLNL) and Sandia National Laboratories
(SNL) are developing computer codes and materials models to simulate cookoff for
ordnance safety evaluations. The computer program ALE3D from LLNL is being used to
simulate the coupled thermal transport, chemical reactions, and mechanical response
during heating and explosion 2 . SNL is employing multiple computer codes in a parallel
effort 3,4,5 . For the analysis of PBXN-109 cookoff, Schmitt et al.6 performed an initial
survey of measured materials properties and provided estimates for several others.
RS-RDX Reduced Sensitivity RDX
In the late 1990s SNPE (SME now Eurenco) marketed an "insensitive" form of RDX
(IRDX®) produced by the Woolwich synthesis. It employed proprietary recrystallization
process. This produced RDX that displayed reduced sensitivity to shock initiation as
measured by Large Scale Gap Test. In 2001 Army pursued an FCT program to evaluate
IRDX® in 155 mm projectile with the goal to determine whether IRDX® would improve
the IM characteristics of the projectile and to determine whether the SNPE crystallization
process could be implemented at Holston (Bachmann synthesis) to produce reduced
sensitivity RDX. SNPE recrystallized HSAAP RDX into IRDX®. The US Army, Navy
and AF evaluated 2 formulations using both IRDX® and HSAAP IRDX®: Wax-based
melt castable explosive (Air Force); and Cast curable PBX explosive (Navy). They
conducted performance and IM testing. Upon aging, the HSAAP RDX recrystallized by
SNPE did not retain the original "insensitive" characteristics.
Subsequently, other manufacturers claimed to produce forms of RDX that exhibit
reduced sensitivity to shock relative to conventional RDX as produced by the Bachman
process. In 2003, Army published a sources sought solicitation. The following
manufacturers are now claiming to make Reduced Sensitivity RDX (RS-RDX):
EUROENCO (aka SNPE): IRDX®; Australian Defence Industries (ADI): Grade A RDX;
Royal Ordnance Defence (RO): Type I RDX; and Dyno Nobel: RS-RDX. Of these, only
Dyno employs the Bachman process.
What makes RDX insensitive? No definitive explanation has been offered for the
insensitivity of the RDX from these manufacturers. Crystal quality of some sort appears
to be involved. No parameter that can be measured on the crystalline material has been
identified that will enable one to distinguish between relatively more sensitive and
relatively less sensitive forms.
TATB (triamino-trinitrobenzene)
One of the most important accomplishments made by nuclear weapons laboratories'
chemists in the past two decades has been the formulation of powerful conventional high
explosives that are remarkably insensitive to high temperatures, shock, and impact. These
insensitive high explosives (IHEs) significantly improve the safety and survivability of
munitions, weapons, and personnel.
The Department of Energy's most important IHE for use in modern nuclear warheads is
TATB (triamino-trinitrobenzene) because its resistance to heat and physical shock is
greater than that of any other known material of comparable energy. The Department of
Energy currently maintains an estimated five-year supply of TATB for its Stockpile
Stewardship and Management Program, which is designed to ensure the safety, security,
and reliability of the U.S. nuclear stockpile. The Department of Defense is also studying
the possible use of TATB as an insensitive booster material, because even with its safety
characteristics, a given amount of that explosive has more power than an equivalent
volume of TNT.
The compound 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene (TATB) is a reasonably powerful
high explosive (HE) whose thermal and shock stability is considerably greater than that
of any other known material of comparable energy. The high stability of TATB favors its
use in military2 and civilian applications3 when insensitive high explosives are required.
In addition to its applications as a HE, TATB is used to produce the important
intermediate benzenehexamine. Benzenehexamine has been used in the preparation of
ferromagnetic organic salts and in the synthesis of new heteropolycyclic molecules such
as 1,4,5,8,9,12-hexaazatriphenylene (HAT) that serve as strong electron acceptor ligands
for low-valence transition metals.
In addition to its military uses, TATB has been proposed for use as a reagent in the
manufacturing of components for liquid crystal computer displays. The use of TATB to
prepare components of lyotropic liquid-crystal phases for use in display devices is the
subject of a German patent. There is also interest in employing the explosive in the
civilian sector for deep oil well explorations where heat-insensitive explosives are
required. Despite its broad potential, the high cost of manufacturing TATB has limited its
use. Several years ago, TATB produced on an industrial scale in the U.S. was priced at
$90 to $250 per kilogram. Today it is available to customers outside DOE for about $200
per kilogram. In response to a need for a more economical product, chemists at Lawrence
Livermore have developed a flexible and convenient means of synthesizing TATB as
well as DATB (diamino-trinitrobenzene), a closely related but less well known IHE
developed by the U.S. Navy. The initial phase of this work was funded by the
Department of Defense (U.S. Navy) to explore the chemical conversion of surplus
energetic materials to higher value products as an alternative to detonation.
The Lawrence Livermore process--also called the VNS (vicarious nucleophilic
substitution) process--should be able to produce TATB for less than $90 a kilogram on an
industrial scale in about 40% less manufacturing time. The process also offers significant
advantages over the current method of synthesis in environmental friendliness, for
example, by avoiding chlorinated starting materials.
TNAZ
1,1,3 Trinitroazetidine (TNAZ) is a material that is more powerful, but less-sensitive than
HMX. The advent of the new high-energy explosive CL-20 and TNAZ present the
possibility of increased performance high explosives with reduced sensitivity. A
nitrogen-rich compound, TNAZ can itself be melted and moulded. But money was an
issue. It costs just a few tens of dollars to produce a kilogram of HMX or RDX, but about
$200 to create the same amount of TNAZ.
Most of the effort for producing the next generation of energetic materials is currently
centered around the production of 1,3,3-trinitroazetidine (TNAZ). Researchers have
evaluated five synthetic routes for producing TNAZ. The two most likely methods to
manufacture TNAZ in a sustainable green manufacturing process are those due to
Axenrod, and Coburn and Hiskey.
work funded by ARDEC led to the synthesis and process for the commercial scale-up of
3,3,1-trinitroazetidine (TNAZ), a strained ring Heterocyclic nitramine. TNAZ is one of
the few new energetic materials found to be thermally stable above its melting point.
However, in formulations studies, it has been found that TNAZ has high volatility that
will severely inhibit its utility in military explosive and propellant applications. Further
limitations to its use include the processing, polymorph, and material costs.
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Insensitive Munitions (IM)

Under their normal conditions of use, modern munitions are both effective—they provide
an essential military capability— and relatively safe—they are very unlikely to explode
or burn spontaneously-despite the fact that they are composed primarily of very
hazardous material. Under very severe conditions, however, their dangerous nature
comes to light. The energetic materials—high explosives, gun propellants, rocket
propellants—that are found in munitions of all types are sensitive to heat and to
mechanical shock, so they may be triggered by fire or by impact with bullets or
fragments. Such secondary effects are significant: in the Gulf War, for example, most of
the disabling damage to fighting vehicles was found to be caused by their own munition
payloads, inadvertently triggered by unwanted stimuli.
A range of energetic materials can be used in low-risk munitions: explosives and
propellants less vulnerable than their predecessors to both slow and rapid heating ("cook
off") and to impact by bullets or fragments of exploding shells. For warheads, efforts
concentrate on the replacement of explosives such as TNT, which is very sensitive to heat
and shock, by more stable plastic-bonded explosives, which are better able to withstand
adverse condi-tions. For gun propellants, the single, double and triple-base formulations
now in service can be replaced by others based on components that are more energetic,
but less sensitive. These new explosives and gun propellants are made primarily with
energetic crystals such as RDX and HMX, contained in new energetic binders and
plasticizers. Some of these formulations not only match the performance of the munitions
they replace, they improve on it.
An insensitive munition is one that will not detonate under any conditions other than its
intended mission to destroy a target. If it is struck by fragments from an explosion or hit
by a bullet, it will not detonate. It also will not detonate if it is in close proximity to a
target that is hit. In extreme temperatures, the missile will only burn (no detonation or
explosion). This increased safety allows greater numbers of missiles to be packaged,
handled, stored, and transported in smaller containers. Passing these requirements
addresses higher levels of safety performance and means the system is safer to operate in
any environment while maintaining its highly lethal performance. It also allows for cost
saving opportunities for the government.
To reduce the chance of accidental explosions and fires, the Navy, Air Force, and Army
are replacing existing main charge explosives with new, more insensitive explosives such
as PBXN-103 and PBXN-109. For safety, the Navy, Air Force, and Army are replacing
present main charge explosives with insensitive main charge explosives having critical
diameters greater than 1 inch. The critical diameter for an explosive is the minimum
diameter mass of that explosive that can be detonated without being heavily confined.
Future underwater and bombfill explosives will have critical diameters greater than one
inch.
Two examples of these insensitive main charge explosives are PBXW-124 (27% NTO,
20% RDX, 20% aluminum, 20% ammonium perchlorate, and 13% binder by weight)
which has a critical diameter of between 3 and 4 inches, and PBXW-122 (47% NTO, 5%
RDX, 15% aluminum, 20% ammonium perchlorate, and 13% binder by weight) which
has a critical diameter of 7 inches.
Existing booster explosives and fuses have insufficient energy output to reliably initiate
the new insensitive main charge explosives. Increasing the amount of booster explosive
will increase the weapon's sensitivity and the chance of an accidental detonation.
Moreover, the existing Department of Defense (DOD) inventory of fuses and booster
explosives is very large and cannot be replaced without considerable cost. What is needed
is an inexpensive method of reliably initiating the new, more insensitive main charge
explosive while at the same time reducing the chance of the accidental initiation of a fuse
booster system.
There is a desire to move away from trinitrotoluene (TNT) based fills since there is no
longer a CONUS producer of TNT in existence. Therefore, it is desirable to develop
General Purpose (GP) bombs (500 and 2000 pound class), which contain a non-TNT
based high explosive fill that also meets all of the IM criteria as specified in MIL-STD-
2105B.
Reaching a 1.2.3J hazard classification allows for significantly higher storage densities
than the previous highest classification, which means that it saves in facility storage,
handling, and transportation expenditures.
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Dense Inert Metal Explosive (DIME)
In mid-October 2006 a team of investigative journalists at RAI Italian television reported
that Israel had been using a new weapon in the Gaza Strip, similar to DIME – dense inert
metal explosive. The report was produced by the same journalists who claimed without
foundation that the US used White Phosphorus (WP) against civilians during attacks on
Fallujah. According to the Israeli daily Haaretz, the weapon was launched from drones in
the summer of 2006, most of them in July, and led to "abnormally serious" physical
injuries. Physicians in the Gaza Strip noted the pattern of wounds they were treating were
unusual, with severed legs that showed signs of severe heat at the point of amputation but
no metal shrapnel. The American version is still in a testing stage and had not been used
on the battlefield at that time. It has not been "declared an illegal weapon", though the
weapon was claimed [without described basis] to be "highly carcinogenic and harmful to
the environment".
Dense Inert Metal Explosive (DIME) is uniquely suited for Low Collateral Damage. It
produces lower pressure but increased impulse in the near field. Far Field damage is
reduced (no frags/ impulse rolloff). The lethal footprint can be tuned to precision
footprint. Strike Weapon Scaling Tests were completed in August of 2004), and full-scale
Mk-82 tests were in the planning stage as of early 2005. DARPA funded RPG defense
system feasibility tests in January 2005, which were successful.
Additional Small Diameter Bomb funding would allow the facilities to continue
development of a Focused Lethality Munition (FLM) using the Dense Inert Metal
Explosive technology integrated into SDB I. With lawmakers' approval, the dollars would
allow AFRL to "continue to mature FLM technology. The armament center would
integrate the technology with the SDB I baseline model within the advanced technology
demonstration construct and demonstrates utility through a flight test program.
AFRL is currently utilizing high-fidelity physics-based simulations to aid in the design
and testing of low-collateral-damage (LCD) munitions. LCD munitions will benefit the
warfighter during urban conflicts where standard munitions would inflict unacceptable
collateral damage levels. AFRL partnered with Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
to employ a physics-based code in the design and evaluation of the munitions, which are
based on a dense inert metal explosive (DIME) technology. The code requires a DIME-
specific multiphase flow capability to accurately simulate the DIME-type munitions. The
laboratory is continually validating this new capability as the program progresses.
AFRL is utilizing this new capability to assist in the design and validation of LCD
weapon concepts. The unique simulations provide the testing community with valuable
insight in the areas of weapon detonation physics and blast wave interaction with the
test's structural targets. The physical fidelity of the code provides valuable data that
allows the researchers to accurately quantify the differences between standard and LCD
munitions. This capability allows the team to make timely, informed concept decisions
and is more cost effective than trial-and-error testing.
Increased attention to the employment of precision weapons has decreased the occurrence
of unintentional collateral damage. Until now, the development of new munitions to do
the same has fallen behind. The AFRL's Munitions Directorate dense inert metal
explosive (DIME) concept team successfully demonstrated an effective mechanism to
reduce collateral damage, helping the warfighter to prevent the loss of public support and
more importantly, the loss of innocent life.
AFRL encountered survivability problems of conventional air-blast transducers while
measuring the close-in blast environment from DIME charges. In 2002, a specially
designed Hopkinson bar gauge was utilized to obtain near-field blast measurements from
a DIME charge. However, the 2002 tests produced data at only one distance at normal
incidence.
AFRL's 20-charge test series in 2004 corrected that problem and produced reflected
pressure and impulse data from various distances and angles of incidence, facilitating a
lethality analysis of the DIME concept. Scientists used this data to create pressure and
impulse maps that detail the near- and far-field magnitudes versus distance and angle of
incidence, effectively validating the DIME charge as a low-collateral-damage munition.
The Air Force is demonstrating a low collateral damage warhead, allowing a "behind-the-
wall" threat prosecution with a highly localized lethal footprint. The warhead case
consists of a low-density, wrapped carbon-fiber/epoxy matrix integrated with a steel nose
and base. The low-density composite case can survive penetration into a one-foot
hardened concrete wall. Upon detonation, the carbon-fiber warhead case disintegrates
into small non-lethal fibers with little or no metallic fragments, thus significantly
reducing collateral damage to people and structures. The warhead explosive fill is a dense
inert metal explosive containing fine tungsten particles to provide a ballasted payload
with sufficient penetration mass. The tungsten displaces energetic material so as to
reduce the total energetic used. The net results are higher dynamic energy impulse all
within a small lethal footprint.
Previous scaled tests show that the carbon composite casing breaks up into small
harmless fibers during the detonation event, effectively removing fragmentation as a
lethal mechanism to nearby collateral assets. Thus, near-field airblast with entrained
high-velocity inert metal particles are the damage mechanisms for carbon composite
cased munitions with DIME fills. Characterization of blast loads from this class of
concept munition is essential to verify effectiveness against targets of interest while
minimizing collateral damage. Unfortunately, the high-velocity, high temperature inert
metal particles found in DIME fills have proved to be extremely damaging to traditional
pressure measurement instruments. Hence, new measurement diagnostics had to be
developed to investigate DIME formulations.
Previous experiments have demonstrated that specially-designed pressure bar gages
outfitted with strain gages were capable of measuring applied blast loads from DIME
charges. In 2005, this measurement technology was applied to a series of nine
experiments involving full-scale charges with carbon composite casings. Explosive mass
and explosive type (two DIME formulations and one conventional high explosive) were
varied in the test series. Three pressure bar gages were fielded on each test to characterize
the airblast environment produced by each carbon composite cased explosive charge.
This paper describes the pressure bar implementation during these experiments, presents
results, and comments on the performance of the pressure bars as a measurement
diagnostic for this novel class of explosives.
_____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Triacetone Triperoxide (TATP)

A new terrorist explosive, triacetone triperoxide (TATP), has recently appeared as a
weapon in the Middle East. TATP has been used by suicide bombers in Israel, and was
chosen as a detonator in 2001 by the thwarted "shoe bomber" Richard Reid. It can be as
or more powerful than military analogs. TATP is one of the most sensitive explosives
known, being extremely sensitive to impact, temperature change and friction. Another
peroxide-type explosive is hexamethylene triperoxide diamine (HMTD), which is less
sensitive than TATP but still dangerous. HMTD is somewhat more sensitive to impact
than TCPT, but both are very sensitive explosives.
The explosion of TATP is not a thermochemically highly favored event. In conventional
high explosives such as TNT, each molecule contains both a fuel component and an
oxidising component. When the explosive detonates, the fuel part is oxidised and as this
combustion reaction spreads it releases large amounts of heat. The explosion of TATP
involves entropy burst, which is the result of formation of one ozone and three acetone
molecules from every molecule of TATP in the solid state. Just a few hundred grams of
the material produce hundreds of litres of gas in a fraction of a second.
The explosion of TATP is similar to the decomposition of azide, for example, which
produces nitrogen gas but little heat, is used to fill airbags for cars. TATP is the most
extreme example currently known, but it may be possible to design molecules that behave
as an even more powerful explosive.
TATP can be easily prepared in a basement lab using commercially available starting
materials obtained from, e.g., hardware stores, pharmacies, and stores selling cosmetics.
TATP is a fairly easy explosive to make, as far as explosives manufacturing goes. All it
takes is acetone, hydrogen peroxide (3% medicinal peroxide is not concentrated enough),
and a strong acid like hydrochloric or sulfuric acid. I don't recommended mixing up a
batch for Independence Day celebrations because it's easy to blow yourself up when you
make it.
On Dec. 22, 2001, American Airlines Flight 63, carrying a crew of 14 and a passenger
complement of 184, including "shoe bomber" Richard Reid, departed Charles de Gaulle
Airport in Paris, France, bound for Miami, Florida. Approximately one and a half hours
into the flight, a flight attendant smelled what she thought was a burnt match. After the
flight attendant determined that it was coming from where Reid was seated, she
confronted Reid, at which time he put a match into his mouth. The flight attendant alerted
the captain over the intercom system. Reid went on to light another match in an apparent
attempt to set fire to his shoe. The flight attendant then noticed a wire protruding from the
shoe. A struggle ensued among several of the flight attendants, passengers and Reid.
Ultimately Reid was subdued and restrained for the remainder of the flight. The flight
was diverted for landing to Boston's Logan International Airport, where Reid was taken
into federal custody. Later analysis by the FBI laboratory in Washington determined that
there were two functional improvised explosive devices hidden in Reid's shoes made of
the explosive material triacetone triperoxide, known as "TATP," and other components.
Richard Reid's shoe had 8 or 10 ounces of triacetone triperoxide and PETN.
Because of the wide range of energetic materials and the many differences in their
physical properties, several detection devices detect only certain types of explosives and
fail to detect others. For example, many detection devices readily detect conventional
explosives made of organic nitro and nitrate compounds, but fail to detect explosives
made of inorganic nitrates or non-nitrogeneous compounds. In particular, many nitrogen-
based detection devices fail to detect explosives such as ANFO (ammonium nitrate in
fuel oil), Black Powder ("gun powder" formed from potassium nitrate, sulfur, and
charcoal), and triacetone triperoxide (TATP). As a result, such explosives are sometimes
referred to as "transparent."
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_______________________________________________________________

Explosives - Injuries
Bombs and explosions can cause unique patterns of injury seldom seen outside combat.
The predominant post explosion injuries among survivors involve standard penetrating
and blunt trauma. Blast lung is the most common fatal injury among initial survivors.
Explosions in confined spaces (mines, buildings, or large vehicles) and/or structural
collapse are associated with greater morbidity and mortality. Half of all initial casualties
will seek medical care over a one-hour period. This can be useful to predict demand for
care and resource needs. Care providers expect an “upside-down” triage - the most
severely injured arrive after the less injured, who bypass EMS triage and go directly to
the closest hospitals.
Background
Explosions can produce unique patterns of injury seldom seen outside combat. When
they do occur, they have the potential to inflict multi-system life-threatening injuries on
many persons simultaneously. The injury patterns following such events are a product of
the composition and amount of the materials involved, the surrounding environment,
delivery method (if a bomb), the distance between the victim and the blast, and any
intervening protective barriers or environmental hazards. Because explosions are
relatively infrequent, blast-related injuries can present unique triage, diagnostic, and
management challenges to providers of emergency care.
Few U.S. health professionals have experience with explosive-related injuries. Vietnam
era physicians are retiring, other armed conflicts have been short-lived, and until this past
decade, the U.S. was largely spared of the scourge of mega-terrorist attacks. This primer
introduces information relevant to the care of casualties from explosives and blast
injuries.
Classification of Explosives
Explosives are categorized as high-order explosives (HE) or low-order explosives (LE).
HE produce a defining supersonic over-pressurization shock wave. Examples of HE
include TNT, C-4, Semtex, nitroglycerin, dynamite, and ammonium nitrate fuel oil
(ANFO). LE create a subsonic explosion and lack HE’s over-pressurization wave.
Examples of LE include pipe bombs, gunpowder, and most pure petroleum-based bombs
such as Molotov cocktails or aircraft improvised as guided missiles. HE and LE cause
different injury patterns.

Explosive and incendiary (fire) bombs are further characterized based on their source.
“Manufactured” implies standard military-issued, mass produced, and quality-tested
weapons. “Improvised” describes weapons produced in small quantities, or use of a
device outside its intended purpose, such as converting a commercial aircraft into a
guided missile. Manufactured (military) explosive weapons are exclusively HE-based.
Terrorists will use whatever is available – illegally obtained manufactured weapons or
improvised explosive devices (also known as “IEDs”) that may be composed of HE, LE,
or both. Manufactured and improvised bombs cause markedly different injuries.
Blast Injuries
The four basic mechanisms of blast injury are termed as primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary (Table 1). “Blast Wave” (primary) refers to the intense over-pressurization
impulse created by a detonated HE. Blast injuries are characterized by anatomical and
physiological changes from the direct or reflective over-pressurization force impacting
the body’s surface. The HE “blast wave” (over-pressure component) should be
distinguished from “blast wind” (forced super-heated air flow). The latter may be
encountered with both HE and LE.
Table 1: Mechanisms of Blast Injury

C
at
e
g Characteristics Body Part Affected Types of Injuries
o
r
y

P Unique to HE, results from the Gas filled structures Blast lung (pulmonary
ri impact of the over- are most susceptible - barotrauma)
m pressurization wave with body lungs, GI tract, and TM rupture and middle ear
a surfaces. middle ear. damage
r Abdominal hemorrhage and
y perforation - Globe (eye)
rupture- Concussion (TBI
without physical signs of head
injury)
S Results from flying debris and Any body part may
e bomb fragments. be affected.
c
o Penetrating ballistic
n (fragmentation) or blunt injuries
d Eye penetration (can be occult)
a
r
y
T Results from individuals being Any body part may
e thrown by the blast wind. be affected.
rt
ia Fracture and traumatic
r amputation
y Closed and open brain injury

Q All explosion-related injuries, Any body part may

u illnesses, or diseases not due to be affected. Burns (flash, partial, and full
at primary, secondary, or tertiary thickness)
e mechanisms. Crush injuries
r Includes exacerbation or Closed and open brain injury
n complications of existing Asthma, COPD, or other
a conditions. breathing problems from dust,
r smoke, or toxic fumes
y Angina
Hyperglycemia, hypertension

LE are classified differently because they lack the self-defining HE over-pressurization

wave. LE’s mechanisms of injuries are characterized as due from ballistics
(fragmentation), blast wind (not blast wave), and thermal. There is some overlap between
LE descriptive mechanisms and HE’s Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary mechanisms.
Table 2: Overview of Explosive-Related Injuries

Syst
Injury or Condition
em
Aud TM rupture, ossicular disruption, cochlear damage, foreign body
itor
y
Eye Perforated globe, foreign body, air embolism, fractures
,
Orb
it,
Fac
e

Res Blast lung, hemothorax, pneumothorax, pulmonary contusion and hemorrhage, A-V fistulas (source
pira of air embolism), airway epithelial damage, aspiration pneumonitis, sepsis
tory
Dig Bowel perforation, hemorrhage, ruptured liver or spleen, sepsis, mesenteric ischemia from air
esti embolism
ve
Circ Cardiac contusion, myocardial infarction from air embolism, shock, vasovagal hypotension,
ulat peripheral vascular injury, air embolism-induced injury
ory
CN Concussion, closed and open brain injury, stroke, spinal cord injury, air embolism-induced injury
S
Inju
ry
Ren Renal contusion, laceration, acute renal failure due to rhabdomyolysis, hypotension, and
al hypovolemia
Inju
ry
Extr Traumatic amputation, fractures, crush injuries, compartment syndrome, burns, cuts, lacerations,
emi acute arterial occlusion, air embolism-induced injury
ty
Inju
ry

Note: Up to 10% of all blast survivors have significant eye injuries. These injuries
involve perforations from high-velocity projectiles, can occur with minimal initial
discomfort, and present for care days, weeks, or months after the event. Symptoms
include eye pain or irritation, foreign body sensation, altered vision, periorbital swelling
or contusions. Findings can include decreased visual acuity, hyphema, globe perforation,
subconjunctival hemorrhage, foreign body, or lid lacerations. Liberal referral for
ophthalmologic screening is encouraged.
Selected Blast Injuries
• Lung Injury
“Blast lung” is a direct consequence of the HE over-pressurization wave. It is the
most common fatal primary blast injury among initial survivors. Signs of blast
lung are usually present at the time of initial evaluation, but they have been
reported as late as 48 hours after the explosion. Blast lung is characterized by the
clinical triad of apnea, bradycardia, and hypotension. Pulmonary injuries vary
from scattered petechae to confluent hemorrhages. Blast lung should be suspected
for anyone with dyspnea, cough, hemoptysis, or chest pain following blast
exposure. Blast lung produces a characteristic “butterfly” pattern on chest X-ray.
A chest X-ray is recommended for all exposed persons and a prophylactic chest
tube (thoracostomy) is recommended before general anesthesia or air transport is
indicated if blast lung is suspected.
• Ear Injury
Primary blast injuries of the auditory system cause significant morbidity, but are
 easily overlooked. Injury is dependent on the orientation of the ear to the blast.
TM perforation is the most common injury to the middle ear. Signs of ear injury
are usually present at time of initial evaluation and should be suspected for
anyone presenting with hearing loss, tinnitus, otalgia, vertigo, bleeding from the
external canal, TM rupture, or mucopurulent otorhea. All patients exposed to blast
should have an otologic assessment and audiometry.
• Abdominal Injury
Gas-containing sections of the GI tract are most vulnerable to primary blast effect.
This can cause immediate bowel perforation, hemorrhage (ranging from small
petechiae to large hematomas), mesenteric shear injuries, solid organ lacerations,
and testicular rupture. Blast abdominal injury should be suspected in anyone
exposed to an explosion with abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, hematemesis,
rectal pain, tenesmus, testicular pain, unexplained hypovolemia, or any findings
suggestive of an acute abdomen. Clinical findings may be absent until the onset of
complications.
• Brain Injury
Primary blast waves can cause concussions or mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI)
without a direct blow to the head. Consider the proximity of the victim to the blast
particularly when given complaints of headache, fatigue, poor concentration,
lethargy, depression, anxiety, insomnia, or other constitutional symptoms. The
symptoms of concussion and post traumatic stress disorder can be similar.
Emergency Management Options
• Follow your hospital’s and regional disaster system’s plan.
• Expect an “upside-down” triage - the most severely injured arrive after the less
injured, who by-pass EMS triage and go directly to the closest hospitals.
• Double the first hour’s casualties for a rough prediction of total “first wave” of
casualties.
• Obtain and record details about the nature of the explosion, potential toxic
exposures and environmental hazards, and casualty location from police, fire,
EMS, ICS Commander, regional EMA, health department, and reliable news
sources.
• If structural collapse occurs, expect increased severity and delayed arrival of
casualties.
Medical Management Options;
• Blast injuries are not confined to the battlefield. They should be considered for
any victim exposed to an explosive force.
• Clinical signs of blast-related abdominal injuries can be initially silent until signs
of acute abdomen or sepsis are advanced.
• Standard penetrating and blunt trauma to any body surface is the most common
injury seen among survivors. Primary blast lung and blast abdomen are associated
with a high mortality rate. “Blast Lung” is the most common fatal injury among
initial survivors.
• Blast lung presents soon after exposure. It can be confirmed by finding a
“butterfly” pattern on chest X-ray. Prophylactic chest tubes (thoracostomy) are
recommended prior to general anesthesia and/or air transport.
 • Auditory system injuries and concussions are easily overlooked. The symptoms of
mild TBI and post traumatic stress disorder can be identical.
• Isolated TM rupture is not a marker of morbidity; however, traumatic amputation
of any limb is a marker for multi-system injuries.
• Air embolism is common, and can present as stroke, MI, acute abdomen,
blindness, deafness, spinal cord injury, or claudication. Hyperbaric oxygen
therapy may be effective in some cases.
• Compartment syndrome, rhabdomyolysis, and acute renal failure are associated
with structural collapse, prolonged extrication, severe burns, and some
poisonings.
• Consider the possibility of exposure to inhaled toxins and poisonings (e.g., CO,
CN, MetHgb) in both industrial and criminal explosions.
• Wounds can be grossly contaminated. Consider delayed primary closure and
assess tetanus status. Ensure close follow-up of wounds, head injuries, eye, ear,
and stress-related complaints.
• Communications and instructions may need to be written because of tinnitus and
sudden temporary or permanent deafness.
Selected Readings
Auf der Heide E. Disaster Response: Principles of Preparation and Coordination Disaster
Response: Principles of Preparation and Coordination.

Quenemoen LE, Davis, YM, Malilay J, Sinks T, Noji EK, and Klitzman S. The World
Trade Center bombing: injury prevention strategies for high-rise building fires. Disasters
1996;20:125–32.

Wightman JM and Gladish SL. Explosions and blast injuries. Annals of Emergency
Medicine; June 2001; 37(6): 664-p678.

Stein M and Hirshberg A. Trauma Care in the New Millinium: Medical Consequences of
Terrorism, the Conventional Weapon Threat. Surgical Clinics of North America. Dec
1999; Vol 79 (6).

Phillips YY. Primary Blast Injuries. Annals of Emergency Medicine; 1986, Dec; 106
(15); 1446-50.

Hogan D, et al. Emergency Department Impact of the Oklahoma City Terrorist Bombing.
Annals of Emergency Medicine; August 1999; 34 (2), pp

Mallonee S, et al. Physical Injuries and Fatalities Resulting From the Oklahoma City
Bombing. Journal of the American Medical Association; August 7, 1996; 276 (5); 382-
387.

Leibovici D, et al. Blast injuries: bus versus open-air bombings—a comparative study of
injuries in survivors of open-air versus confined-space explosions. J Trauma; 1996, Dec;
41 (6): 1030-5.
Katz E, et al. Primary blast injury after a bomb explosion in a civilian bus. Ann Surg;
1989 Apr; 209 (4): 484-8.

Hill JF. Blast injury with particular reference to recent terrorists bombing incidents.
Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 1979;61:411.

Landesman LY, Malilay J, Bissell RA, Becker SM, Roberts L, Ascher MS. Roles and
responsibilities of public health in disaster preparedness and response. In: Novick LF,
Mays GP, editors. Public Health Administration: Principles for Population-based
Management. Gaithersburg (MD): Aspen Publishers; 2001.

Hazard Classification Code

The UN hazard classification system for classifying explosive materials and explosive
components is recognized internationally and is used universally by the Department of
Defense (DoD), other Department of Energy (DOE) contractors, and the Department of
Transportation (DOT). The UN system consists of nine classes of dangerous materials,
with explosives designated as Class 1. The explosives hazard class is further subdivided
into six divisions, which are used for segregating ammunition and explosives on the basis
of similarity of characteristics, properties, and accident effects potential.

Hazard Hazard description

class/division
1.1 Mass explosion
1.2 Nonmass explosion, fragment-producing
1.3 Mass fire, minor blast or fragment
1.4 Moderate fire, no blast or fragment
1.5 Explosive substance, very insensitive (with a
mass explosion hazard)
1.6 Explosive article, extremely insensitive

Unit Article Hazar

ed d
Nati Classi
ons ficati
Seri on
al Code
Num
ber
354 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.1 L
355 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.2 L
356 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.3 L
350 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.4 B
351 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.4 C
352 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.4 D
353 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.4 G
349 ARTICLES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.4 S
224 BARIUM AZIDE, dry or wetted with less than 50 1.1 A
per cent water, by weight.
28 BLACK POWDER (GUNPOWDER) 1.1 D
COMPRESSED, or BLACK POWDER
(GUNPOWDER) IN PELLETS.
27 BLACK POWDER (GUNPOWDER) granular or as 1.1 D
a meal.
268 BOOSTERS WITH DETONATOR. 1.2 B
225 BOOSTERS WITH DETONATOR. 1.1 B
42 BOOSTERS without detonator. 1.1D
283 BOOSTERS without detonator. 1.2 D
48 CHARGES, DEMOLITION. 1.1D
444 CHARGES, EXPLOSIVE, COMMERCIAL without 1.4 D
detonator.
445 CHARGES, EXPLOSIVE, COMMERCIAL without 1.4 S
detonator.
443 CHARGES, EXPLOSIVE, COMMERCIAL without 1.2 D
detonator.
442 CHARGES, EXPLOSIVE, COMMERCIAL without 1.1 D
detonator.
59 CHARGES, SHAPED, COMMERCIAL without 1.1D
detonator.
441 CHARGES, SHAPED, COMMERCIAL without 1.4 S
detonator.
439 CHARGES, SHAPED, COMMERCIAL without 1.2 D
detonator.
440 CHARGES, SHAPED, COMMERCIAL without 1.4 D
detonator.
288 CHARGES, SHAPED, FLEXIBLE, LINEAR metal 1.1D
clad.
237 CHARGES, SHAPED, FLEXIBLE, LINEAR metal 1.4 D
clad.
60 CHARGES, SUPPLEMENTARY, EXPLOSIVE. 1.1D
383 COMPONENTS, EXPLOSIVE TRAIN, N.O.S. 1.4 B
382 COMPONENTS, EXPLOSIVE TRAIN, N.O.S. 1.2 B
384 COMPONENTS, EXPLOSIVE TRAIN, N.O.S. 1.4 S
249 CONTRIVANCES, WATER-ACTIVATED with 1.3 L
burster, expelling charge or propelling charge.
248 CONTRIVANCES, WATER-ACTIVATED with 1.2 L
burster, expelling charge or propelling charge.
102 CORD (FUSE), DETONATING, metal clad. 1.2 D
290 CORD (FUSE), DETONATING, metal clad. 1.1D
104 CORD (FUSE), DETONATING, mild effect, metal 1.4 D
clad.
65 CORD, DETONATING, flexible. 1.1D
289 CORD, DETONATING, flexible. 1.4 D
66 CORD, IGNITER. 1.4 G
226 CYCLOTETRAMETHYLENETETRANITRAMIN 1.1 D
E (HMX; OCTOGEN), WETTED with not less than
15 per cent water, by weight, or
CYCLOTETRAMETHYLENETETRANITRAMIN
E (HMX; OCTOGEN), DESENSITIZED with not
less than 10 per cent phlegmatiser, by weight.
391 CYCLOTRIMETHYLENETRINITRAMINE 1.1 D
(CYCLONITE; HEXOGEN; RDX) AND
CYCLOTETRAMETHYLENETETRANITRAMIN
E (HMX; OCTOGEN) MIXTURES, WETTED with
not less than 15 percent water by weight, or
CYCLOTRIMETHYLENETRINITRAMINE
(CYCLONITE; HEXOGEN; RDX) AND
CYCLOTETRAMETHYLENETETRANITRAMIN
E (HMX; OCTOGEN) MIXTURES,
DESENSITIZED with not less than 10 per cent
phlegmatiser, by weight.
72 CYCLOTRIMETHYLENETRINITRAMINE 1.1 D
(CYCLONITE; HEXOGEN; RDX), WETTED with
not less than 15 per cent water, by weight, or
CYCLOTRIMETHYLENETRINITRAMINE
(CYCLONITE; HEXOGEN; RDX),
DESENSITIZED with not less than 10 per cent
phlegmatiser, by weight.
630 DETONATOR, ASSEMBLIES, NON-ELECTRIC 1.1 B
for blasting.
361 DETONATOR, ASSEMBLIES, NON-ELECTRIC 1.4 B
for blasting.
255 DETONATORS, ELECTRIC for blasting. 1.4 B
30 DETONATORS, ELECTRIC for blasting. 1.1 B
267 DETONATORS, NON-ELECTRIC for blasting. 1.4 B
29 DETONATORS, NON-ELECTRIC for blasting. 1.1 B
74 DIAZODINITROPHENOL, WETTED with not less 1.1 A
than 40 per cent water, by weight (or mixture of
alcohol and water).
81 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING, TYPE A. 1.1 D
331 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING, TYPE B. 1.5 D
82 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING, TYPE B. 1.1 D
84 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING, TYPE D. 1.1 D
332 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING, TYPE E. 1.5 D
241 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING, TYPE E. 1.1 D
83 EXPLOSIVE, BLASTING,TYPE C. 1.1 D
99 FRACTURING DEVICES, EXPLOSIVE, for oil 1.1 D
wells, without detonator.
103 FUSE, IGNITER, tubular, metal clad. 1.4 G
101 FUSE, INSTANTANEOUS, NON-DETONATING. 1.3 G
105 FUSE, SAFETY. 1.4 S
408 FUZES, DETONATING with protective features. 1.1 D
410 FUZES, DETONATING with protective features. 1.4 D
409 FUZES, DETONATING with protective features. 1.2 D
107 FUZES, DETONATING. 1.2 B
257 FUZES, DETONATING. 1.4 B
106 FUZES, DETONATING. 1.1 B
367 FUZES, DETONATING. 1.4 S
113 GUANYL NITROSAMINOGUANYLIDENE 1.1 A
HYDRAZINE, WETTED with not less than 30 per
cent water, by weight
114 GUANYL NITROSAMINOGUANYLTETRAZENE 1.1 A
(TETRAZENE), WETTED with not less than 30 per
cent water, by weight (or mixture of alcohol and
water)
79 HEXANITRODIPHENYLAMINE 1.1 D
(DIPICRYLAMINE; HEXYL).
392 HEXANITROSTILBENE. 1.1 D
393 HEXATONAL, CAST. 1.1 D
118 HEXOLITE, dry or wetted with less than 15 per cent 1.1 D
water, by weight.
325 IGNITERS. 1.4 G
315 IGNITERS. 1.3 G
314 IGNITERS. 1.2 G
121 IGNITERS. 1.1 G
124 JET PERFORATING GUNS, CHARGED, oil well, 1.1D
without detonator.
129 LEAD AZIDE, WETTED with not less than 20 per 1.1 A
cent water, by weight (or mixture of alcohol and
water).
130 LEAD STYPHNATE (LEAD 1.1 A
TRINITRORESORCINATE), WETTED with not
less than 20 per cent water, by weight (or mixture of
alcohol and water).
133 MANNITOL HEXANITRATE 1.1 D
(NITROMANNAITE), WETTED with not less than
40 per cent water, by weight (or mixture of alcohol
and water).
135 MERCURY FULMINATE, WETTED with not less 1.1 A
than 20 per cent water, by weight (or mixture of
alcohol and water).
147 NITRO UREA. 1.1 D
340 NITROCELLULOSE, dry or wetted with less than 1.1 D
25 per cent water (or alcohol), by weight.
343 NITROCELLULOSE, PLASTICIZED with not less 1.3 C
than 18 per cent plasticizing substance by weight.
341 NITROCELLULOSE, unmodified or plasticized 1.1 D
with less than 18 per cent plasticizing substance by
weight.
342 NITROCELLULOSE, WETTED with not less than 1.3C
25 per cent alcohol, by weight.
143 NITROGLYCERIN, DESENSITIZED, with not less 1.1 D
than 40 per cent non-volatile water-insoluble
phlegmatiser, by weight.
144 NITROGLYCERIN, SPIRIT OF, with more than 1 1.1D
per cent but not more than 10 per cent nitroglycerin
in solution in alcohol.
282 NITROGUANIDINE, (PICRITE), dry or wetted 1.1 D
with less than 20 per cent water, by weight.
146 NITROSTARCH, dry or wetted with less than 20 per 1.1 D
cent water, by weight.
266 OCTOLITE, (OCTOL), dry or wetted with less than 1.1 D
15 per cent water, by weight.
150 PENTAERYTHRITE TETRANITRATE 1.1D
(PENTAERYTHRITOL TETRANITRATE; PETN),
WETTED with not less than 25 per cent water, by
weight, or PENTAERYTHRITE TETRANITRATE
(PENTAERYTHRITOL TETRANITRATE; PETN),
DESENSITIZED with not less than 15 per cent
phlegmatiser, by weight.
411 PENTAERYTHRITE TETRANITRATE (PETN) 1.1 D
with not less than 7 per cent wax, by weight.
151 PENTOLITE, dry or wetted with less than 15 per 1.1D
cent water, by weight.
159 POWDER CAKE (POWDER PASTE), WETTED 1.3 C
with not less than 35 per cent water, by weight.
433 POWDER CAKE, WETTED with not less than 17 1.1 C
per cent alcohol, by weight.
161 POWDER, SMOKELESS. 1.3 C
160 POWDER, SMOKELESS. 1.1 C
173 RELEASE DEVICES, EXPLOSIVE. 1.4 S
190 SAMPLES, EXPLOSIVE, other than initiating As
explosive. appro
priate
374 SOUNDING DEVICES, EXPLOSIVE. 1.1 E
204 SOUNDING DEVICES, EXPLOSIVE. 1.2F
375 SOUNDING DEVICES, EXPLOSIVE. 1.2 E
296 SOUNDING DEVICES, EXPLOSIVE. 1.1F
357 SUBSTANCES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.1 L
358 SUBSTANCES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.3 L
359 SUBSTANCES, EXPLOSIVE, N.O.S. 1.3 L
208 TRINITROPHENYLMETHYLNITRAMINE 1.1 D
(TETRYL).
388 TRINITROTOLUENE (TNT) AND 1.1 D
TRINITROTOLUENE MIXTURES OR
TRINITROTOLUENE (TNT) AND
HEXANITROSTILBENE MIXTURES.
389 TRINITROTOLUENE (TNT) MIXTURES 1.1 D
CONTAINING TRINITROBENZENE AND
HEXANITROSTILBENE
209 TRINITROTOULENE (TNT), dry or wetted with 1.1D
less than 30 per cent water, by weight.
390 TRITONAL. 1.1 D
220 UREA NITRATE, dry or wetted with less than 20 1.1 D
per cent water, by weight.

DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms
COMMERCE IN EXPLOSIVES
Commerce in Explosives; List of Explosive Materials
Updated: 4/26/02
Pursuant to the provisions of section 841(d) of title 18, United States Code (U.S.C.), and
27 CFR 55.23, the Director, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, must publish and
revise at least annually in the Federal Register a list of explosives determined to be within
the coverage of 18 U.S.C. chapter 40, Importation, Manufacture, Distribution, and
Storage of Explosive Materials. This chapter covers not only explosives, but also blasting
agents and detonators, all of which are defined as explosive materials in section 841(c) of
title 18, U.S.C. Accordingly, the following is the 2002 List of Explosive Materials subject
to regulation under 18 U.S.C. chapter 40. It includes both the list of explosives (including
detonators) required to be published in the Federal Register and blasting agents.
The list is intended to include any and all mixtures containing any of the materials on the
list. Materials constituting blasting agents are marked by an asterisk. While the list is
comprehensive, it is not all inclusive. The fact that an explosive material may not be on
the list does not mean that it is not within the coverage of the law if it otherwise meets the
statutory definitions in section 841 of title 18, U.S.C. Explosive materials are listed
alphabetically by their common names followed, where applicable, by chemical names
and synonyms in brackets.
In the 2002 List of Explosive Materials, ATF has added five terms to the list of
explosives, has further defined two explosive materials, and has made amendments to
two explosive materials to more accurately reference these materials.

The five additions to the list are as follows:

1. Azide explosives
2. HMTD [hexamethylenetriperoxidediamine]
3. Nitrate explosive mixtures
4. Picrate explosives
5. TATP [triacetonetriperoxide]
We have added these explosive materials to the List because their primary or common
purpose is to function by explosion. ATF has encountered the criminal use of some of
these materials in improvised devices. ``Nitrate explosive mixtures'' is intended to be an
all-encompassing term, including all forms of sodium, potassium, barium, calcium, and
strontium nitrate explosive mixtures.
The two explosive materials that we have further defined by including their chemical
names are listed as follows:
1. DIPAM [dipicramide; diaminohexanitrobiphenyl]
2. EDNA [ethylenedinitramine]
The two amendments to previously listed explosive materials are as follows:

1. ``Nitrates of soda explosive mixtures'' has been deleted and replaced with ``Sodium
nitrate explosive mixtures'' to reflect current terminology.
2. PBX was previously defined as ``RDX and plasticizer.'' We are changing the definition
to reflect that PBX is an acronym for ``plastic bonded explosive.''
This revised list supersedes the List of Explosive Materials dated September 14, 1999
(Notice No. 880, 64 FR 49840; correction notice of September 28, 1999, 64 FR 52378)
and will be effective on April 26, 2002.
List of Explosive Materials
A
Acetylides of heavy metals.
Aluminum containing polymeric propellant.
Aluminum ophorite explosive.
Amatex.
Amatol.
Ammonal.
Ammonium nitrate explosive mixtures (cap sensitive).
*Ammonium nitrate explosive mixtures (non-cap sensitive).
Ammonium perchlorate composite propellant.
Ammonium perchlorate explosive mixtures.
Ammonium picrate [picrate of ammonia, Explosive D].
Ammonium salt lattice with isomorphously substituted inorganic salts.
*ANFO [ammonium nitrate-fuel oil].
Aromatic nitro-compound explosive mixtures.
Azide explosives.
B
Baranol.
Baratol.
BEAF [1, 2-bis (2, 2-difluoro-2-nitroacetoxyethane)].
Black powder.
Black powder based explosive mixtures.
*Blasting agents, nitro-carbo-nitrates, including non-cap sensitive slurry and water gel
explosives.
Blasting caps.
Blasting gelatin.
Blasting powder.
BTNEC [bis (trinitroethyl) carbonate].
BTNEN [bis (trinitroethyl) nitramine].
BTTN [1,2,4 butanetriol trinitrate].
Bulk salutes.
Butyl tetryl.
C
Calcium nitrate explosive mixture.
Cellulose hexanitrate explosive mixture.
Chlorate explosive mixtures.
Composition A and variations.
Composition B and variations.
Composition C and variations.
Copper acetylide.
Cyanuric triazide.
Cyclonite [RDX].
Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine [HMX].
Cyclotol.
Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine [RDX].
D
DATB [diaminotrinitrobenzene].
DDNP [diazodinitrophenol].
DEGDN [diethyleneglycol dinitrate].
Detonating cord.
Detonators.
Dimethylol dimethyl methane dinitrate composition.
Dinitroethyleneurea.
Dinitroglycerine [glycerol dinitrate].
Dinitrophenol.
Dinitrophenolates.
Dinitrophenyl hydrazine.
Dinitroresorcinol.
Dinitrotoluene-sodium nitrate explosive mixtures.
DIPAM [dipicramide; diaminohexanitrobiphenyl].
Dipicryl sulfone.
Dipicrylamine.
Display fireworks.
DNPA [2,2-dinitropropyl acrylate].
DNPD [dinitropentano nitrile].
Dynamite.
E
EDDN [ethylene diamine dinitrate].
EDNA [ethylenedinitramine].
Ednatol.
EDNP [ethyl 4,4-dinitropentanoate].
EGDN [ethylene glycol dinitrate].
Erythritol tetranitrate explosives.
Esters of nitro-substituted alcohols.
Ethyl-tetryl.
Explosive conitrates.
Explosive gelatins.
Explosive liquids.
Explosive mixtures containing oxygen-releasing inorganic salts and hydrocarbons.
Explosive mixtures containing oxygen-releasing inorganic salts and nitro bodies.
Explosive mixtures containing oxygen-releasing inorganic salts and water insoluble fuels.
Explosive mixtures containing oxygen-releasing inorganic salts and water soluble fuels.
Explosive mixtures containing sensitized nitromethane.
Explosive mixtures containing tetranitromethane (nitroform).
Explosive nitro compounds of aromatic hydrocarbons.
Explosive organic nitrate mixtures.
Explosive powders.
F
Flash powder.
Fulminate of mercury.
Fulminate of silver.
Fulminating gold.
Fulminating mercury.
Fulminating platinum.
Fulminating silver.
G
Gelatinized nitrocellulose.
Gem-dinitro aliphatic explosive mixtures.
Guanyl nitrosamino guanyl tetrazene.
Guanyl nitrosamino guanylidene hydrazine.
Guncotton.
H
Heavy metal azides.
Hexanite.
Hexanitrodiphenylamine.
Hexanitrostilbene.
Hexogen [RDX].
Hexogene or octogene and a nitrated N-methylaniline.
Hexolites.
HMTD [hexamethylenetriperoxidediamine].
HMX [cyclo-1,3,5,7-tetramethylene 2,4,6,8-tetranitramine; Octogen].
Hydrazinium nitrate/hydrazine/aluminum explosive system.
Hydrazoic acid.
I
Igniter cord.
Igniters.
Initiating tube systems.
K
KDNBF [potassium dinitrobenzo-furoxane].
[[Page 20866]]
L
Lead azide.
Lead mannite.
Lead mononitroresorcinate.
Lead picrate.
Lead salts, explosive.
Lead styphnate [styphnate of lead, lead trinitroresorcinate].
Liquid nitrated polyol and trimethylolethane.
Liquid oxygen explosives.
M
Magnesium ophorite explosives.
Mannitol hexanitrate.
MDNP [methyl 4,4-dinitropentanoate].
MEAN [monoethanolamine nitrate].
Mercuric fulminate.
Mercury oxalate.
Mercury tartrate.
Metriol trinitrate.
Minol-2 [40% TNT, 40% ammonium nitrate, 20% aluminum].
MMAN [monomethylamine nitrate]; methylamine nitrate.
Mononitrotoluene-nitroglycerin mixture.
Monopropellants.
N
NIBTN [nitroisobutametriol trinitrate].
Nitrate explosive mixtures.
Nitrate sensitized with gelled nitroparaffin.
Nitrated carbohydrate explosive.
Nitrated glucoside explosive.
Nitrated polyhydric alcohol explosives.
Nitric acid and a nitro aromatic compound explosive.
Nitric acid and carboxylic fuel explosive.
Nitric acid explosive mixtures.
Nitro aromatic explosive mixtures.
Nitro compounds of furane explosive mixtures.
Nitrocellulose explosive.
Nitroderivative of urea explosive mixture.
Nitrogelatin explosive.
Nitrogen trichloride.
Nitrogen tri-iodide.
Nitroglycerine [NG, RNG, nitro, glyceryl trinitrate,
trinitroglycerine].
Nitroglycide.
Nitroglycol [ethylene glycol dinitrate, EGDN].
Nitroguanidine explosives.
Nitronium perchlorate propellant mixtures.
Nitroparaffins Explosive Grade and ammonium nitrate mixtures.
Nitrostarch.
Nitro-substituted carboxylic acids.
Nitrourea.
O
Octogen [HMX].
Octol [75 percent HMX, 25 percent TNT].
Organic amine nitrates.
Organic nitramines.
P
PBX [plastic bonded explosives].
Pellet powder.
Penthrinite composition.
Pentolite.
Perchlorate explosive mixtures.
Peroxide based explosive mixtures.
PETN [nitropentaerythrite, pentaerythrite tetranitrate, pentaerythritol
tetranitrate].
Picramic acid and its salts.
Picramide.
Picrate explosives.
Picrate of potassium explosive mixtures.
Picratol.
Picric acid (manufactured as an explosive).
Picryl chloride.
Picryl fluoride.
PLX [95% nitromethane, 5% ethylenediamine].
Polynitro aliphatic compounds.
Polyolpolynitrate-nitrocellulose explosive gels.
Potassium chlorate and lead sulfocyanate explosive.
Potassium nitrate explosive mixtures.
Potassium nitroaminotetrazole.
Pyrotechnic compositions.
PYX [2,6-bis(picrylamino)]-3,5-dinitropyridine.
R
RDX [cyclonite, hexogen, T4, cyclo-1,3,5,-trimethylene-2,4,6,-trinitramine; hexahydro-
1,3,5-trinitro-S-triazine].
S
Safety fuse.
Salts of organic amino sulfonic acid explosive mixture.
Salutes (bulk).
Silver acetylide.
Silver azide.
Silver fulminate.
Silver oxalate explosive mixtures.
Silver styphnate.
Silver tartrate explosive mixtures.
Silver tetrazene.
Slurried explosive mixtures of water, inorganic oxidizing salt, gelling
agent, fuel, and sensitizer (cap sensitive).
Smokeless powder.
Sodatol.
Sodium amatol.
Sodium azide explosive mixture.
Sodium dinitro-ortho-cresolate.
Sodium nitrate explosive mixtures.
Sodium nitrate-potassium nitrate explosive mixture.
Sodium picramate.
Special fireworks.
Squibs.
Styphnic acid explosives.
T
Tacot [tetranitro-2,3,5,6-dibenzo- 1,3a,4,6a tetrazapentalene].
TATB [triaminotrinitrobenzene].
TATP [triacetonetriperoxide].
TEGDN [triethylene glycol dinitrate].
Tetranitrocarbazole.
Tetrazene [tetracene, tetrazine, 1(5-tetrazolyl)-4-guanyl tetrazene
hydrate].
Tetryl [2,4,6 tetranitro-N-methylaniline].
Tetrytol.
Thickened inorganic oxidizer salt slurried explosive mixture.
TMETN [trimethylolethane trinitrate].
TNEF [trinitroethyl formal].
TNEOC [trinitroethylorthocarbonate].
TNEOF [trinitroethylorthoformate].
TNT [trinitrotoluene, trotyl, trilite, triton].
Torpex.
Tridite.
Trimethylol ethyl methane trinitrate composition.
Trimethylolthane trinitrate-nitrocellulose.
Trimonite.
Trinitroanisole.
Trinitrobenzene.
Trinitrobenzoic acid.
Trinitrocresol.
Trinitro-meta-cresol.
Trinitronaphthalene.
Trinitrophenetol.
Trinitrophloroglucinol.
Trinitroresorcinol.
Tritonal.
U
Urea nitrate.
W
Water-bearing explosives having salts of oxidizing acids and nitrogen bases, sulfates, or
sulfamates (cap sensitive).
Water-in-oil emulsion explosive compositions.
X
Xanthamonas hydrophilic colloid explosive mixture.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Chad Yoder, ATF Specialist, Arson and
Explosives Programs Division, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, 650
Massachusetts Avenue, NW., Washington, DC 20226 (202-927-7930).
Signed: April 19, 2002.
Bradley A. Buckles,
Director.
[FR Doc. 02-10324 Filed 4-25-02; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4810-31-P
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UN Storage Compatibility Groupings

Under the UNO system, there are 13 storage compatibility groupings, which further
categorize Class 1 explosives by their form or composition, ease of ignition, and
sensitivity to detonation.
• SCG A--Bulk-initiating explosives that have the necessary sensitivity to friction,
heat, or percussion (shock) to make them suitable for use as initiating elements in
an explosive train. A distinction is made between primary initiating explosives
and nonprimary initiating explosives. Examples of primary initiating explosives
are lead azide, lead styphnate, mercury fulminate, and tetracene. Examples of
nonprimary initiating explosives are dry forms of cyclotetramethylene
tetranitramine (HMX), cyclotrimethylene trinitramine (RDX), and pentaerythritol
tetranitrate (PETN).

• SCG B--Detonators and similar initiating devices that do not contain two or more
independent safety features. This group also consists of items that contain
initiating explosives designed to initiate or continue the functioning of an
explosives train. Examples are blasting caps, small arms primers, fuzes, and
detonators of all types.
• SCG C--Bulk propellants, propelling charges, and devices containing propellant
with or without their own means of initiation. Upon initiation, these items will
deflagrate, explode, or detonate. Examples are single-, double-, and triple-base
propellants; composite propellants; rocket motors (solid propellant); and
ammunition with inert projectiles.
• SCG D--High explosives (HE) and devices containing HE without their own
means of initiation and without a propelling charge. This group includes
explosives and ammunition that can be expected to explode or detonate when any
given item or component thereof is initiated. This group does not include devices
containing initiating explosives with independent safety features. Examples are
wet HMX, plastic-bonded explosives (explosives formulated with a desensitizing
plastic binder), trinitrotoluene (TNT), and black powder.

• SCG E--Explosives devices that lack their own means of initiation but contain or
have a propelling charge (other than one containing a flammable or hypergolic
liquid). Examples are artillery ammunition, rockets, and guided missiles.

• SCG F--Explosives devices that have their own means of initiation and with or
without propelling charge. Examples are grenades, sounding devices, and similar
items with an in-line explosive train in the initiator.

• SCG G--Pyrotechnic materials and devices containing pyrotechnic materials.

Examples are devices that, when functioning, result in illumination, smoke, or an
incendiary, lachrymatory, or sound effect.

• SCG H--Ammunition containing both explosives and white phosphorus (WP) or

other pyrophoric material. Ammunition in this group contains fillers that are
spontaneously flammable when exposed to the atmosphere. Examples are WP,
plasticized white phosphorus (PWP), or other ammunition containing pyrophoric
material.

• SCG J--Ammunition containing both explosives and flammable liquids or gels.

Ammunition in this group contains flammable liquids or gels other than those that
are spontaneously flammable when exposed to water or the atmosphere.
Examples are liquid- or gel-filled incendiary ammunition, fuel-air explosive
(FAE) devices, flammable liquid-fueled missiles, and torpedoes.

• SCG K--Ammunition containing both explosives and toxic chemical agents.

Ammunition in this group contains chemicals specifically designed for
incapacitating effects more severe than lachrymation. Examples are artillery or
mortar ammunition (fuzed or unfuzed), grenades, and rockets or bombs filled with
a lethal or incapacitating chemical agent.

• SCG L--Explosives or ammunition not included in other SC/HC groups. This

group includes explosives or ammunition with characteristics that do not permit
storage with other similar or dissimilar materials. Examples are damaged or
suspect explosives devices or containers, explosives that have undergone severe
testing, fuel-air explosive devices, and water-activated devices. Also included are
experimental explosives, explosives of temporary interest, newly synthesized
compounds, new mixtures, and salvaged explosives, unless established asbeing
compatible with the original materials. Types of explosives in this group
 presenting similar hazards may be stored together.

• SCG N--Hazard Division 1.6 ammunition containing only extremely insensitive

detonating substances (IEDS). Examples are bombs and warheads. If dissimilar
Group N munitions, such as MK 82 and MK 84 bombs, are mixed together and
have not been tested to assure nonpropagation, the mixed munitions are
considered to be Hazard Division 1.2, Storage and Compatibility Group D, for
purposes of transportation and storage.

• SCG S--Explosives, explosives devices, or ammunition presenting no significant

hazard. Explosives ammunition, so designated or packed that, when in storage, all
hazardous explosives effects are confined and self-contained within the item or
package. Materials in this group are such that an incident that destroys all items in
a single pack will not be communicated to other packs. Examples are thermal
batteries, cable cutters, explosive actuators, and other ammunition items packaged
to meet the criteria of this group.
Group A--Initiating explosives (* indicates primary initiating explosives)
CL-20 (Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane; dry)
CP (5-Cyanotetrazolpentaamine Cobalt III perchlorate)
HMX (Cyclotetramethylene tetranitramine; dry)
*Lead azide
*Lead styphnate
*Mercury fulminate
*Nitrocellulose (dry)
PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate; dry)
RDX (Cyclotrimethylene trinitramine; dry)
*TATNB (Triazidotrinitrobenzene)
*Tetracene
Group B--Detonators and similar initiating devices
Blasting caps
Detonators (excluding EBW and slapper)
Explosive bolts
Fragmenting actuators
Ignitors
Low-energy initiators (LEIs)
MDF (mild detonating fuze) detonator assemblies
Pressure cartridges
Primers
Squibs
Group C--Bulk propellant, propellant charges, and devices containing propellants with or
without their own means of initiation
Smokeless powder
Pistol and rifle powder
Rocket-motor solid propellants
Group D--High explosives and devices containing explosives without their own means of
initiation
(* indicates that classification may change depending on nitrogen and moisture content.
Contact Hazards Control Department explosives safety personnel for additional guidance.)
Ammonium picrate
Baratol
Black Powder
Boracitol
Chemical lenses
CL-20 (Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane; wet)
Compositions A, B, and C (all types)
Cyclotols (< 85% RDX)
DATB (Diaminotrinitrobenzene)
Detasheet
Detonating cord (primacord or mild detonating fuze)
bis-Dinitropropyl adipate
bis-Dinitropropyl glutarate
bis-Dinitropropyl maleate
Dinitropropane
Dinitropropanol
Dinitropropyl acrylate monomer (DNPA)
Dinitroproply acrylate polymer (PDNPA)
EBW and slapper detonators
Elastomeric plastic bonded explosives
Explosive D
GAP (Glyceryl azide polymer)
HMX (Cyclotetramethylene tetranitramine; wet)
HMX/wax (formulated with at least 1% wax)
HNS (Hexanitrostilbene; wet or dry)
Linear-shaped charge
Methyl dinitropentanoate
Mild detonating fuze (MDF)
NG/TA (Nitroglycerine-triacetine)
*Nitrocellulose (wet)
Nitroguanidine (NQ)
Octol (< 75% HMX)
Pentolite
PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate; wet)
PETN/extrudable binder
PGN (Polyglycidyl nitrate)
Plane wave lenses (composed of SC/HC Group D explosives)
Plastic-bonded explosive, PBX (a SC/HC Group D formulated with a desensitizing binder)
Potassium picrate
Primacord
RDX (Cyclotrimethylene trinitramine; wet)
Shaped charges (composed of SC/HC Group D explosives)
TATB (Triamino trinitrobenzene)
TATB/DATB mixtures
TEGDN (Triethylene glycol dinitrate)
Tetryl
TMETN (Trimethylolethane trinitrate)
TNAZ (Trinitoazetidine)
TNT (Trinitrotoluene)
Group E--Explosives devices without their own means of initiation and with propelling
charge
Artillery ammunition
Rockets (e.g., M66 LAW)
Group F--Explosives devices with detonators and detonating trains assembled to the
devices and with propelling charge
Grenades
Sounding devices
Group G--Pyrotechnic material and devices that produce an incendiary, illumination,
lachrymatory, smoke, or sound effect
Smoke pots/grenades
Flares
Incendiary ammunition
Group H--Ammunition containing both explosives and white phosphorus (WP) or other
pyrophoric material
White phosphorus
Plasticized white phosphorus
Group J--Ammunition containing both explosives and flammable liquids or gels.
Liquid- or gel-filled incendiary ammunition
Fuel-air explosive (FAE) devices
Flammable liquid-fueled missiles
Torpedoes
Group K--Ammunition containing both explosives and toxic chemicals
Artillery or mortar ammunition (fuzed or unfuzed), grenades, rockets, or bombs filled with
a lethal or incapacitating agent
Group L--Explosives or other ammunition not included in other storage compatibility
groups
Damaged or suspect explosives devices or containers
Explosives that have undergone severe testing
Experimental explosives, explosives of temporary interest, newly synthesized compounds,
new mixtures, and some salvaged explosives
Group N--Hazard Class/Division 1.6 ammunition containing only extremely insensitive
detonating substances (EIDS)
Bombs
Warheads
Group S--Explosives, explosives devices, or ammunition presenting no significant hazard
Propellant cartridge-actuated devices (which yield a nonfragmenting, nonflame-producing
controlled reaction). Examples include cable cutters, cartridge-actuated valves, and linear
actuators (e.g., dimple, piston, or bellows motors)
Safety fuse
Most small arms ammunition below 50 caliber
Thermal batteries

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Explosives & the Environment

Secondary explosives (TNT, HMX, and RDX) have historically been discussed within the
realm of safety related issues versus an HTRW waste classification perspective.
Explosives-contaminated process waste waters can be subdivided into two categories: red
water from the manufacture of TNT and pink water which includes any washwater
associated with load, assemble, and pack operations or with the demilitarization of
munitions involving contact with finished explosive. Despite their names, red and pink
water cannot be identified by color. Both are clear when they emerge from their
respective processes and subsequently turn pink, light red, dark red, or black when
exposed to light. The chemical composition of pink water varies depending on the
process and explosive operation from which it is derived; red water has a more defined
chemical composition.
Pinkwater is a wastewater generated in the production and handling of high explosive
munitions. The principal contaminants in pinkwater are trinitrotoluene (TNT) and cyclo
trimethylene trinitramine (RDX); they are transferred to water in washdown operations,
and washout and steamout of old munitions. TNT and RDX are persistent contaminants
that are regulated in discharges from Army Ammunition Plants. Chemical compounds
such as TNT and RDX are resistant to aerobic attack because the nitro compounds act as
electron-withdrawing substituents. Other substituents that cause the same effect are
halogens, such as chlorine, which is often found in synthetic organic compounds
persistent in the natural environment.
Under ambient environmental conditions, explosives are highly persistent in soils and
groundwater, exhibiting a resistance to naturally occurring volatilization, bio-degradation,
and hydrolysis. Where biodegradation of TNT occurs, 2-AmDNT and 4-AmDNT are the
most commonly identified transformation products. Photochemical decomposition of
TNT to TNB occurs in the presence of sunlight and water, with TNB being generally
resistant to further photodegradation. TNB is subject to biotransformation to 3,5-
dinitroaniline, which has been recommended as an additional target analyte in EPA
Method 8330. Picrate is a hydrolysis transformation product of tetryl, and is expected in
environmental samples contaminated with tetryl. Site investigations indicate that TNT is
the least mobile of the explosives and most frequently occurring soil contamination
problem. RDX and HMX are the most mobile explosives and present the largest
groundwater contamination problem. TNB, DNTs, and tetryl are of intermediate mobility
and frequently occur as co-contaminants in soil and groundwater. Metals are co-
contaminants at facilities where munitions compounds were handled, particularly at
OB/OD sites.