Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Topolski Poland 1986

    Uploaded by

    Alexandru Pantea
    24 views215 pages
    Poland

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document
    Poland

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    24 views215 pages

    Topolski Poland 1986

    Uploaded by

    Alexandru Pantea
    Poland

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 215
    AN SNON of Poland Jerzy Topolski A Ae of Poland by dh erny Topolske ‘On he cover: Deals of Euhase Eve's five Casiir the Jaglion Ensring Malbork, 1585 Graphic ds Stanislaw Kazimi Production editor Wielaw Pysela Genealogical tables compiled by ‘Antoni Gasiomwsls ‘Maps designed by Ladwik Pit Maps based om Hinorgy alas Poli, PEW, Wasa Graphic design of maps by Jolanta Bylicka, Kreysrof Dulkowski andl Mariusr Moeylisi Photographs by S. Arcyieki, B. J. Dorys, O. Galdyéski, Z. Gamski, 8. Gewlifsk, J. Grlowsi, J Hartowski T Hornaseryl, W. P. jbloisk, A Kacrkowski, K. Keishi S. Kelovica, E, Kealownks-Tom E. Kupcck, ) Langda, B. Lewasdowska, Z. Malek, W. Madciskiewicr, . Mica, J. Morck, K Nielenthal, P. Pierisiiski, Piowowski, W. Pratuch, T. Preypkowaki, H, Rosiak, Z, Stemascko, J. Sindecki W, Stas J, Sopyinks, J. Seandominki, 8. Turd, Fymitskh J- UEIewshi W. Wolny, T. Zagoideiisi, and T. Zélvowsk Photographs by coursesy of National Library, Central Archives of the Polish United Workers’ Party Central Commitee, Cental Photographie Agency (CAF), Amy Photographic Agency, laszue of Art of the Polish ‘headeray of Sciences, Photo-Service of the Polish Interpress Agency “This is che ewo thousand one hundred and fifryseventh publication of Interpress "This book appears also in German and Polish Copyright by Interpret, Waraw 1986 Printed in Poland ISBN 83-225-2118-« Contents ‘Chapter I. Polish ‘Terstory in Antiquity {astil the 6th century AD.) When docs the history of Poland begin? ‘The eadiee times ‘The agricultural revolution. The Neolithic pesiod ‘The Slivs in the Polish lands The Bronze and the Tron Age Chapter TL. Polish Tersitary in the Early Middle Ages “The Beginnings of Poland (from the 6th to the mid-roth century) “The breakthrough ia the Eady Middle Ages The eniegence of the Sure of Gaieano Early mediaeval Poland: sts economy, society, and culture (Chapter TIL The Piast Monatchy: from Micscko J 0 Boleslaus Weymov Formation of Mediaeval Poland (963—1 138) “The charateitc features ofthe period. The determinants of the progres of civilization Poland's struggle for penton in the world. The nature of che politcal authority and the fromtiers of the state ‘The state, the economy, and society Culture and society ‘Chapter IV. Poland in the Middle Ages. Disimtegration ino Provinces (1138—1 533) Disineegeation into provinces, The main lines of development in the Polish eriores ffors at unification of the Polish cerritores ‘The great economic reform in the rural areas. Development of towns and trade, The feudal system of sodal orgenieation Culture and. society Chapter V, Poland in the Late Middle Ages The Estates (18331501) Poland amaag European powers Poland, is temtory and policies Economic life and social structure Galware and society. Educetion and science Ars B 8 6 st 34 8 “4 a 2 ” 60. 63 nn (Chapter VI. Poland under the Rensasce aad the ‘Demo ‘of the Gentry’ (r 3011618) a Genecil fears. F Poland in ‘the Golden Age’ az seon agaiost the background of Europe Serugle for power. Evolution ofthe politcal system, The Reformation and its collapse in Poland : Economie and social conditions Economie differentiation of society Galture and science in ‘the Golden Age’ (Chapter VIL The Baroque and the Dominance of the Magnates (1618—17 33) General feaures, The principal developmental ttends in the stare and the nation Foreiga policy. The Swedish invasion and other wars, Relations with uss Economy and society Baroque culture and intellecoul ie in the epoch of wars and che Counter Reformation ‘Chapter VIIL ‘The Age of Resson and the Age of Reforms. ‘The Paritons (1733-95) ‘The camies of change = ‘The problem of reforms and the ieernational situation up to the frst parcon of Poland Between the fist and second partion, The gecat ational fom. The Third of May Constivtion Economy and society, From economic regression to economic growth, Social callie Changes in socal consciousness. Culture and society ‘The Koscisseko Insurrection, The shird partion of Poland (Chapter TK. The Begining of Foreign Rule: Napoleon I and Poland “The Duchy of Warsw (1995—1815) “The attude ofthe partitioning powers toward che Polish territories and he Polish nation Endeavours to regain independence. The Polish Legions 5. The uprising of 1808. The Duchy of Warsaw and is role in Polish history Chapter X. National Liberation Serigales of she Polish Nation, Collapse of Feudal Stuetures (181 5—64) ‘The Congress of Vieuna, The alliance of goverments venus the alliance of peoples. Evo lusion of the Posh naion Developaicat of national eure as the principal fletor of the growth of national com ‘Foeaasion of economic and social seuetures under late feudalism and growing pitas ‘The problem of agrarian reforms as Scrugale for political independence: fom the Pailomath Society so vse 1863 Uprising 68 re 1 fo 83 oa 98 105 109 18 126 ua 135 141 146 8 15 158 161 168 "3 3 4 (Chapter XI, Advances of Capitalism in Poland. Struggle for National entity, Regaining of Independence (r864—1918) “The Polish nation in che posvinsurrection period ‘The economic and social development of the Polish teriories Poli life, Resistance 1» denationalization, Visions of a future Poland “The wotkiog dass movement. The revolution of 190}—07 inthe Polish territories and its impact pon political lite Dynamism of Polish culture and science ‘The Polish issue dating World War I. The regaining of independence Chapter XE Between the World Wars: Successes and Failures (1918-39) Reconstruction of the state. The frst governments. The Constitution of 192t ‘Gradual demaveaion ofthe frontiers, The socal, echsic, and economic structure of Poland (up 1 1922) nrezal polccal confers (1922—26). The coup e'€at of May 1926 Poland under the “sanificacon’ governaients (1526—9). Growth of radical stsiudes ‘The danger of war Culture and sociey. The historical values of che period ‘Chapter XIII, Poland and the Poles During World Wer Il "The Origins of People's Poland (193945) The defence war in 1939 “The Nazi occupation of the Polish tertories The Nati terror ‘The Polish ation's struggle for sureival and freedom Liberation of the Polish territories, Formation ofthe new poliiel mode ofthe state. The end of World War Il (Chapter XIV, Development of People’s Poland. Formation of Moser Society and 2 Socialist Nation, Democratization of Cukural Life (1045—8o) intric tasks of the period. Reconstucton, The first reforms. Stabilization of people's rule i Changes in the polsial and economic system. ‘The foreign policy of People’s Poland Tndustrialaation and socal changes, Intensification of navional bonds Education, science, culture, and artistic life Genealogical Tables Bibliography Index Maps 182 183 187 192 197 208 ats 240 245 247 255 260 266 aye 276 284 287 289 a8 Chapter I Polish Territory in Antiquity (until the 6th century A.D.) 1. When does the history of Poland begin? ‘The history of Poland is usually described as having begun under the rule of Miesoko I, in other words at the time when Poland had already been formed as ‘state and information about it had been recorded by its contemporaries. But the state ruled by Micszko I did not emerge suddenly in the form as suggested by these sources. Its emergence had been preceded by processes of long duration, among which of prior importance were the coming of the Slavs and their setting of the Polish lands, and the social, economic and cultural developments necessary for the evolution of a political organization at state level ‘The origins of the Polish state, society, culture and nation are therefore con- raccted with the setding of the Slavs, for from that time (c. 1500—500 B.C.) Polish tertitory was inhabited by the same people speaking the same language (Prow-Slavonic, Slavonic, and towards the end of the first millennium, Proto- Polish). During chat millennium and during the next, 2 process took place of the history of Polish territory changing into the history of the Polish state, socicty and nation. The Polish political organization, society and culture needed some two thousand ‘years to take full shape. On the other hand, the history of the Polish lands at the time when they were inhabited by the various groups who had nothing to do with the later Polish population covers some 250,000 years uf we count it from the appearance of man on those territories. Thus the history of Poland, including that of Polish territory, could be split into three periods () the history of Polish territory before the advent of the Slavs, from ca 250,000 B.C. to ca. 15001300 B.C.; (Gi) the history of the formation of the foundation of the Polish society, culture, state and nation, from ca. 1300—1300 B.C. to «2. soo A.D. (ii) the history of the Polish sociery, state, nation and eulture, from ea. 00 A.D. until the present day. This shows a constant acceleration of development and such density of changes that the periods of time are increasingly packed. 2. The earliest times Before the advent of the Slavs, the Polish lands had been the scene of a long process of development and the coming and going of the various peoples who were thea moving about in search of good living conditions. The stages of the historical development through which the Polish lands went in these times resembled those known from other parts of the world. It is worth while noting that Burope was then not a centre of civilization, and the differences in development among the va- sous arcas were small. Civilizational influence came mainly from the more advanc ed areas in the Near East and moved northwards. But these advances took place yi on a anger scale only in the Neolithic period, which in the case of the Polish lands lasted from ca. 4400 B.C. to ca. 1700 B.C, nearly three thousand. years. But the Palacolithie period, marked by more primitive stone implements, witness- cd many changes, t00, although transition occurred at a very slow pace (the period lasted from ca, 230,000 B.C. to ca. 8000 B.C., i-t. for some 220,000 years), and also pertained to man himself as he was still in the process of evolution. ‘The oldest traces of man, discovered by archaeologists in the Polish lands, date back to some 40,000 years. His predecessors were hordes of primitive hunters who knew how to make use of fire and simple stone implements. Their mode of exist- fence did not differ from the standard ways of human life in the temtitory of present- day France {the Acheulian culture, so named after Saint-Acheul acar Amiens) ox Britain (the Clactonian culture, after Clacton-on-Sea in Essex). Probably toward the end of the Riss glacial stage that covered a large pact of the Palacolithie (from ‘@, 240,000 to ca. 120,000 B.C) the Polish lands saw the appearance of the Neanderthal man (Homo sapiens Neanderthalensis), who was a produce of the adjust: ‘ment of primitive peoples ro the persevering hard climate, At that time human beings could exist oaly on a narrow belt, some 200 kilometres wide, to the north of the Carpathians, not covered by glaciers, The climatic conditions resembled those of present-day Greenland. Neanderthal mart used more differentiated flint im- plements. He lived gregisiously and used caves as his permanent sheers and prim itive hucs made of branches as temporary shelters (for instance, when hunting, because hunting and food gathering were still the foundation of bis existence). His ode of life was similar to that typical of other parts of Europe, and came to be called the Mousterian culture (after Le Moustier in France). ‘The next 50,000 years of the so-called Riss-Wiirm interglacial stage were marked by a warmer climate, which brought some progress in the life of man of thar time “The next glaciation (Wiirm), which lasted for some 70,000 years, blocked the farther development of Neanderthal man who had to succumb, some 40,000 years ago, to the more advanced Cro-Magaon man, who alteady resembled man as we know him today (Homo sapiens) For some 30,000 years, until the Mesolithic period (the Middle Stone Age) Polish territory was inhabited by various human groups whose mode of existence is called by archaeologists the Aurignacian culture (from Aurignae in Prance), the Altmihl culture (named so. after a locality near Hamburg), and the Magdalenian culture. The flint tools were being improved. This was particularly necessary be- cause, in the form of sows, burins and drills, they had to be used for the production of objects made of hor and bone, frequently used raw materials. Hunting and food gating wl evaded, ba the importance of fishing increased. Trade in fling, mined in the Swigtokrayskie (Holy Cross) Mountains, occurred on a large scale "The Mesolithic period (Bo00 to 4400 B.C) saw a certain mixing of the pop- ulations of the Polish lands. The population characterized by the so-called Swider- jan culture (named so from the locality Swidry Wielkie near Warsaw), which lived in the norehern part of the Polish lands, migrated to Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Byelorussia (following the reindeer which were moving toward the Subarctic regions), and its place was taken by groups of people who came from the North- West and West, This was due to a considerable warming up of the climate in the Polish lands, which resulted in changes in the flora (including the appearance of ‘mixed forests) and in the fauna (the appearance of aurochs, deer and wild boa). Gerain technical progeess was observable, too. The bow was used in hunting, fishing techniques were improved, the flint axe and the dug-out canoe bacame com- ‘mon, Next to the primitive huts built of tree branches, pit dwellings became the standard abode. 3. The agricultural revolution. The Neolithic period "The essential changes, however, were brought only by the next period, which began some six thousand years ago and lasted for about three thousand years until the Bronze Age, What were the changes? First, the advent in Polish territory of the so-called Neolithic (agricultural) revolution, which consisted of a gradual popularization of plant cultvasion and animal breeding. Tt spread from the south — Mesopotamia, Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, across the Balkans — and within a few thousand years complecely modified the living conditions. Hunting, food gathering and fishing, though still important, became secondary occupations. Polish territory saw the arrival, together with the new modes of life, of various groups from the Danubian basin. ‘They were no longer the old hordes, but tribes of dans, interconnected by bonds of blood. The new setters looked for fertile lands, black soil (chermozem) and loess. They exploited them for a mumber of years and then moved oon, Later they would return to their previous tilage ground, which in the meantime had become covered with trees and shrubs. After slashing and burning these, they sowed wheat, barley, millet, some leguminous, fibrous and oleaginous plants and bred cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. The soil was broken up and softened with hoes and this is why that type of agriculture is now termed slash-and-burn hoe culti- vation, Pottery, also unknown before, appeared in the Polish lands, Weaving developed, too. The agricultural population lived on the whole a setded life and cultivated the land jointly; there was no individual propercy. ‘The division of le our among men and women was alseady noticeable. Beliefs consisted in the ‘worship of Nature, combined with the agricultural cycle. The dead were buried or bumed. There were still groups of the population occupied mainly wich hunting and food gathering: they lived in the forests and often, when defending their areas, engaged in conllicts with the ‘agriculturalists In the Middle Neolithic period (ca. 3 500 to 2500 B.C.) there was certain prog ress in agriculture, which consisted of plowing the soil with an ox-drawn fur- rowing plough, even though the hoc cultivation still prevailed. The Funnel Beaker calture, brought by a people of unknown origin, was superimposed, over vast regions of Europe, upon the old culture of Danubian origin, especially the Stroke- Oramented Pottery culture and the Lengyel culture (the latter named so after the town of Lengyel in Hungary). The Funnel-Beaker culture covered most Polish lands. Animal breeding was intensified and economic life became brisker, In the Swigtokeayskie Mountains in Central Poland there was a flint mine, at chat time the largest in Europe, with some 1,000 shafts, Barter included flint, and also cattle and amber, Imported bronze also appeared. ‘The Late Neolithic period (ca. 2500 t0 1700 B.C) saw the arrival in the Polish lands of groups bearing different cultures based more on hunting than on agriculture, because the advances of the agricultural revolution were very uneven. ‘The most important event was the coming of a population whose culture was mark- ed by pottery ornamented with cords impressed on soft clty (hence the name the Corded Ware culture). These people based their economic life on agriculture and pasturing, with a greatly increased use of horses. The Corded Ware culture cov- cred the regions from the Rhine to the Volga and beyond and from the Danube to southern Scandinavia. It is believed, although the opinions on that point are ot unanimous, that the carriers of the Corded Ware culture were the fret wave of the Indo-European population thar came to the forest-covered European terr: tories from — as it is usually supposed — the Asian steppes. Later waves of the Indo-Europeans, more differentiated linguistically, came to Europe in che Bronze ‘Age and were superimposed first upon the palaco-European population and la- tee one upon the other. Many of those new waves consisted of the now North European peoples, che Germans, the Balts and the Slavs. ‘The latter two groups at first formed an ethnic and linguistic community, to be split only later into the Balcs and the Slavs. ‘The identification where the Balto-Slavonic and later the Slavonic language ‘group became isolated from the other Indo-European peoples is still controversial Tr is assumed here that che process took place in the arca between the middle course of the Dneper and the Odra, parallel to the arrival of new groups of the Indo-European population. 4. The Slavs in the Polish lands. The Bronze and the Iron Age Ir took the Proto-Slavonic and the Slavonic population nearly one thousand years, from ca. 1y00—1300 B.G. to ca. 500 B.C. (almost the whole Bronze ‘Age and the early Tron Age), to settle in che Polish lands. These times saw the 13 transition from the cultivation of the soil with hoes to the use of ox-drawn furrow- ing ploughs. ‘The so-called Tizciniec culture (from the name of a locality in the Lablin region in Central Poland) was, as is often assumed, a product of those Proto-Slavs, who gradually superimposed themselves upon the local population, absorbed existing culture and imparted new features co it in the process. Next to the Treciniec culture there was also the Pre-Lasatian culture, associated with the palao-Buropean people called Vencti, who occupied the areas between the low- er Vistula and the upper Warra. That culture, characterized by mound graves, ‘was common to the mid-Dannbian basin and later also spread to Moravia and Germany. During some four or five hundred years in the early Bronze Age the Polish ands saw the emergence of the material (and probably also spiritual) culeure called Lusatian, which supposedly evolved from the Proto-Lusatian and the Treciniec alture. It is known to have had two varieties, the western (more advanced) and the caster, the latter with cattle breeding prevailing over agriculture and with a stronger influence of the Trzcinicc culture. The Neuri, whom Herodotus men- tions to have lived in the sth century B.C. to the east of the Bug, were, as is usually assumed, already Slavs. The range of cultivated plants increased under the Lasatian culture to include several strains of wheat and barley, miller, peas, poppy, beans, lentils, garlic, flax, hhemp and turnip. Animals bred included cattle, pigs, sleep and goats. There woie some endeavours to kecp bees. Pottery flourished as did such crafts as the process ing of wood, bone, horn, and amber, and also plaiting and tanning, Canoes ‘were dug out of tree trunks and, towards the end of the period, two-wheeled and four-whecled carts were known. Trade was gaining in impoztance, bronze being largely used as money. The technique of soil cultivation and the search for new ppastutes made people change their living places frequently. A seeslement might last for a number of ycars, Some settlements, however, were permanent in character, as evidenced by Biskupin, a fortified settlement from the period of the Lusatian culture. In the later periods of the Bronze Age and the Lasatian culture, groups of clans began to combine into tribes of varying size. The wealth and the power of the chil of wribes and senior tibesmen increased. The search for aew lands led to conflicts among tribes and also (as a reflection of the struggle for power) amon, ee airs ied a de coibivies ne cos and ae emergence of new ones. The fortified settlements mentioned above were often the centres of the defence systems of the tribes, There were also conflicrs beeween the settled population and the newly arriving reibes, ‘The Iron Age on Polish territory brought the development of a fairly homo- geneous proto-Polish culture, based on soil cultivation and animal rearing. The old crafis continued to develop bat metallurgy (which made use of bog iron cores) and blacksmithing gained in importance, especially in the metallurgical cen- 4 tre in the Swigtokreyskie Mountains. Among the grain crops the role of rye in- creased, although it was still of less importance than wheat and millet, Trade ‘continued to increase and expand but the economy was, of course, natural, The so- called amber toad, with the settlement Calissia (present-day Kalisz in Central Poland), recorded at the beginning of the Christian cra, was then of great impor tance as one of the principal trade routes. ‘The formation of the proto-Polish culture (the immediate predecessor of the culture which was to be typical of Poland in the Dark and the Middle Ages), took place following the decomposition of the Lusatian culture. The Celts had a very strong impact (especially in the southern part of Poland); and they were more advanced in social development and economically (they were the first people in the Polish lands to use money). It is likely that the fall of the Lusatian culture was at least partly caused by Scythian invasions (which devastated the regions inhabited by the Veletians and thus made them easier to penetrate for the Slavs), and by intertribal wars. A dynamic Eastem Pomeranian culture (also known as the Wejherowo-Krotoszyn culture) developed ca. 500 B.C. under the influence of the Saale culeure, The Eastern Pomeranian culture, marked by characteristic urns with imitations of human faces, spread over most Polish lands and helped to some ex: tent to revive the collapsing Lusatian culture. A variety of the Eastem Pomeranian. culture known as the Bell Grave culture spread westward, The Jastorf culrare developed in Wescern Pomerania up w the Waita aint the Noteé, ie was brought bby the Bastarnae and the Skiroi, Germanic tribes that over onc century later moved southwards along the Odra Celtic influence was strong: in two exnturies it penettated the Eastern Pome- ranian and other cultures contributing to the emergence of the more advanced Cist Grave culture, which had two varieties, the Przeworsk and the Oksywie culture (both named after che localities in which burial places from that period were discovered), ‘The Roman Age (25 to 500 AD.) marked a further step toward the cultural uniformity of the Polish lands. The Celtic influence was replaced by that of the expansive Roman Empire. The Slavs were already well known to Greek and Roman authors who have transmitted the earliest written data about them. ‘The five centuries of che Roman influence in the Polish lands, dominated by the ist Grave culture, were not a peaceful period for that area. Ethnic conditions became very complicated, The first 250 years witnessed the southward migrations, from Scandinavia to the lower Vistula basin, of the Geraa- nic Goths and Gepidians, who wanted to gain control of the amber road, At the tum of the 2nd century they moved further cast toward the Black Sea and next to the territories belonging to the Roman Bmpire that was then suffering from in- vasions by the Visigoths and Ostrogoths. In the mid-3rd century the Gepidians moved to what is now Transsylvania. They were followed by some of the Bur- gundians, while other Burguadians and the Rugians moved cither toward the Da- i nube or westwards. The places left by them were being occupied by the Slavs, who ‘were at the same time also occupying some of the arcas previously held by the Bal. In this way, once the Polish lands had been abandoned by the various Germanic ttibes and after the Slavs had expanded further wesewards, in the mid-3rd century the basins of both the Odra and the Vistula, from the Carpathians to the Baltic (except for Masovia which was stil inhabited by the Bales) ca by the Slavs. During the last century of the ancient period, the Polish lands suffered m both directly and indirectly, from the expansion of the Huns, who reached the peak of their power under the sule of the brothers Bleda and Attila (445—5 3). At this time the Slavs were moving further westwards, in the direction of the Elbe. Tt has been caleulated that in the Iron Age the population in the Polish lands grew from about half 2 million to some 7 50,000. But the events which took place in the 5th century (the invasion of the Huns and the migrations of the Slavs to the West and to the South) reduced that population to some 3 50,000—400,000. An essential in exease was to take place only in later centuries. to be occupied “The reconstructed part of the fortified settlement at Biskupia near Zain in Grest Poland (2 500 8C) ‘An early mediaeval arrow Swistowice near Wiotawel The head ofa figure of a diy, Found at Janko in Polane jiead made of ion, with barbs covered with bronze, found a Coronation insignia (regalia) of Polish monarchs: St. ‘aurce's spear, offered by the Emperar Otto Ill to Boleslaus the Brave mm A.D. 1000, and the coronation sword dating from the 12th oF the 13th century Boleslaus the Brave (reigned 998-1025), the First crowned rul Poland image obverse of a denarus) (ca 1150) resque collegiate chutch at Tum near Laceyew The Roman Chapter IT Polish Territory in the Early Middle Ages. The Beginnings of Poland (from the 6th to the mid-1oth century) “The Battle of Legnica (1241) as shown in an anonymous cil painting 1, The breakthrough in the Early Middle Ages During the several cenvuries that preceded the rule of Mieszko 1 the population ‘on Polish territory incrcased by at least 120 per cent, from ca. 400,000 in the middle of the first millennium A.D, t0 ca. 1,000,000 in the mid-roth century. This meant that in che roth century the average density of the population was about four per- sons per sq, kilometce. The most densely populated areas were those of Great Po- land and the western part of Little Poland, while less populated were Masovia and the eastern part of Little Poland. (The terms Great Poland and Little Poland ace traditional and should not be understood as suggesting any expansion from Little Poland into Great Poland. Great Poland roughly corresponds to the zegion of Poz- naf, and Little Boland, to the zegion of Cracow. The mediaeval Latin terms were, correspondingly, Polonia Mator and Polonia Minor — translator's note) ‘That growth of the population was a proof of a fairly long and relatively undisturbed period of economic growth which secured food and better conditions of tillage. The economy provided not only the means that were indispensable for the sucvival of the direct producers (tillers), but also certain surpluses which could be used by people not directly engaged in producing them. Some labour could also be spent on undertakings which served all the inhabitants, such as the construction cof fortified settlements, soads and bridges. This provided opportunities for the emergence of states as the politcal entities which organized the life of deix popu- lasions on new principles, but required their material and manual co-operation. ‘The early Middle Ages masked 2 breakthrough for just this reason. All the areas occupied by the Slavs witnessed the emergence of states that in tum contrib- uted to breaking up the Slavonic population (originally fairly homogencous

    You might also like