Soil and rock properties

W.A.C. Bennett Dam,

BC Hydro 1

1) Basic testing methods

2) Soil properties and their estimation
3) Problem-oriented classification of soils

1
Consolidation Apparatus (oedometer)

ELE catalogue 3

Oedometers

ELE catalogue 4

2
Unconfined compression test on clay
(undrained, uniaxial)

ELE catalogue 5

Triaxial test on soil

ELE catalogue 6

3
 Direct shear
(shear box) test
on soil

ELE catalogue 7

Field test: Standard Penetration Test (STP) ASTM D1586

Drop hammers: Standard split spoon

Old U.K. Doughnut Trip
sampler (open) 18 (30.5 cm long)
ER=50 ER=45 ER=60
Test:
1) Place sampler to the
bottom
2) Drive 18, count blows
for every 6
3) Recover sample. N
value = number of
Corrections: blows for the last 12
ER
1) Energy ratio:
N 60 = N
60 Precautions:
2) Overburden depth 1) Clean hole
2) Sampler below end
1 .7 N
N1 = Effective vertical of casing
0 .7 + v ' pressure (tons/ft2) 3) Cobbles
8

4
Field test: Borehole vane (undrained shear strength)

Procedure:
1) Place vane to the bottom
2) Insert into clay
3) Rotate, measure peak torque
4) Turn several times, measure
remoulded torque
5) Calculate strength
1.0
Correction: 0.6

Bjerrums correction
PEAK
0 20% P.I. 100%

Precautions: Plasticity
REMOULDED 1) Clean hole Index

2) Sampler below end

of casing
ASTM D2573 3) No rod friction 9

Soil properties relevant to slope stability:

1) Drained shear strength:
- friction angle, true cohesion
- curved strength envelope
2) Undrained shear strength:
- apparent cohesion
3) Shear failure behaviour:
- contractive, dilative, collapsive
- pore pressure response, stress path
4) Time-dependent changes:
- softening
5) Mechanical changes:
-pre-shearing, residual strength
6) Moisture-dependency:
- loss of strength on wetting
10

5
 Basic soil strength model:
Mohr-Coulomb (drained) peak shear strength :

S = c'+ ( u) tan '

Where:
(-u) = effective stress
c = drained cohesion
= drained friction angle
Strength envelope
unstable

S
stable
c
(-u) 11

Types of cohesion:
1) Electrostatic forces (in stiff overconsolidated clays): 5-24 kPa

May be lost through weathering

c
(-u)
pre-consolidation
stress, p0

12

6
 Types of cohesion:

2) Cementing by Fe2O3, CaCO3, NaCl etc.: up to 500kPa

May be lost through

3) Root cohesion: 2-20kPa solution

May be lost Lateral (high)

through
logging or fire Basal (low)

13

3) Apparent cohesion in unsaturated soil:

As soil dries out, water menisci

form at grain contacts. These
are under negative capillary
pressure. When capillary
forces are netted over a unit
area, we refer to matric
suction stress, which creates
interparticle forcesapparent 200
cohesion

Problem: cohesion will

disappear on wetting
14
(Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993)

7
5) Apparent cohesion due to pore-pressure response during
relatively fast (undrained) loading

total stress


Direct Shear Test

normal stress

15

Apparent cohesion:

total stress
pore-pressure, u

u normal stress

16

8
 Apparent cohesion:

Increased total normal stress increased total

stress
+

+ normal stress
17

Apparent cohesion:

increased total
Undrained stress
loading=u +

increased pore-
pressure, u+u

+ normal stress
u+u
18

9
 Apparent cohesion:

Decreased total normal stress decreased total

stress
-

-
normal stress
19

Apparent cohesion:

decreased total
stress

-
Undrained
loading=u
decreased pore-
pressure, u-u

- u-u normal stress

20

10
 Apparent cohesion
(Undrained shear strength):
Clay will have a constant short-term strength
(Undrained Shear Strength, Su)
May be lost through time (delayed failure)

T
= 0
Su
condition

21

Softening:

long term
short term

S
(-u)
c

22

11
 Friction angle:

LOOSE

DENSE

23

Friction angle:

LOOSE (contractant soil)

DENSE
(dilatant soil)

24

12
 Friction angle:
Dilatancy angle
negative
' = basic +
LOOSE (contractant soil)

Dilatancy angle
positive

DENSE
(dilatant soil)

25

Dependence of friction angle on density in sands:

Relative
density from
SPT test:

N Dr
0-4 0-15
4-10 15-35
10-30 35-65
30-50 65-85
>50 >85

NAVFAC, 1971
26

13
 Dependence of friction angle on plasticity in clays:

40
sin
30

20

Plasticity Index (%)

Lambe and Whitman (1979)
27

Pore-pressure response:

LOOSE

DENSE

28

14
 Pore-pressure response:
Pore space decreased

LOOSE (contractant soil)

Pore space increased

DENSE
(dilatant soil)

29

Results of
a typical CONTRACTANT DILATANT
triaxial test
on soil

Axial strain %

Terzaghi and Peck, 1967 Axial strain %

30

15
 Soil structure collapse
Soil collapse: sudden change from
loose to dense packing, volume
change. If soil is saturated, volume
change cannot occur and pore-
pressure increases, reducing
Loose Dense
effective stress (liquefaction)
packing packing
What causes collapse:
1) loose, saturated soil (N<8)
E PSE
OP LLA 2) Static overstress (caused by
EL CO FACE
V R
EN SU added loading, or increase in
H
GT pore pressure)
REN
ST CYCLIC LOADING 3) Earthquake shaking (cyclic
STATIC OVERSTRESS loading)\

Effect more dramatic,

(Mc Roberts and Sladen, 1990) if accompanied by cohesion loss
31

Turnagain Hts. Slide, Anchorage, Alaska

1964 earthquake, Mag. 8.4

(Seed and Wilson, 1967) 32

16
 Remolding of highly-sensitive (quick) clays
Usually leached clays of marine origin, may be
overconsolidated and low plasticity

peak remoulded 33

Pre-shearing:

Shear
Stress

Displacement

peak strength

residual friction
S angle r
no cohesion
(-u) 34

17
 Pre-Shearing
The friction angle of clay decreases from peak to
residual value due to particle alignment, when
sheared.

Peak strength
Shear stress

Residual (ultimate) strength

35
Friction
angle
(degrees)
Displacement
20
15
Shear Stress

10
Peak
5
Residual

Normal stress
(Kenney, 1967)

35

Reasons for pre-shearing of clay surfaces

1) Tectonics: flexural slip 2) Glacier drag

(in sedimentary rocks) (lacustrine clays, shales)

3) Relict landslides

36

18
 Loss of soil strength, summary
a) Long-term strength loss, leading to delayed failure:

Process: Time frame Materials

Increase of pore-pressure through drainage Weeks to clay, silt
years
Softening of fissured clay, loss of cohesion Decades Stiff, fissured clay

Reduction in friction angle through shearing Variable Stiff clays

(progressive failure)

b) Sudden strength loss, leading to extremely rapid failure

Process: Materials
Sudden remoulding Extra-sensitive (quick) clay

Static or earthquake liquefaction Loose, saturated sand, silt

Loss of apparent cohesion on wetting Unsaturated silt

Loss of true cohesion due to overstress Weakly cemented sand, silt

37

A problem-oriented classification of soils.

Morgenstern, 1985
special properties
Soils

Natural Processed

Coarse Fine Compacted Fills Mine Waste

Dense Loose Structured Saturated Unsaturated Coarse Fine Coarse Fine

Contractant Dilatant Unstructured Structured

Unstructured Structured Unstructured Structured

38

19
A problem-oriented classification of soils.
Morgenstern, 1985

Soils

Natural Processed

-We have no control -Can control properties

> less reliable and placement
> more reliable

39

A problem-oriented classification of soils.

Morgenstern, 1985

Soils

Natural Processed

Coarse Fine Compacted Fills Mine Waste

sand, gravel, >50% silt and clay -select material -uncompacted

boulders -designed placement -random material
-controlled properties -poor foundations
- rapid drainage -slow drainage
-cohesive
> reliable > unreliable

40

20
A problem-oriented classification of soils.
Morgenstern, 1985
Soils
Processed

Compacted Fills Mine Waste

Coarse Fine Coarse Fine

Design Design Waste pile Tailings dyke
problems: problems: problems: problems:
-compaction -deformability -loose, possibly -loose, possibly
-stable drainage -shear strength collapsive (flow collapsive
(filters) -internal erosion slides) (liquefaction)
(filters) -poor -internal erosion
foundations -poor drainage
-complex (overtopping)
drainage

41

A problem-oriented classification of soils.

Morgenstern, 1985

Soils
Natural

Coarse

Dense Loose Structured

Rd>35% - May be collapsive

in undrained failure -Cemented
N>10-20 -Weak cement may
(liquefaction)
- Few problems if saturated sustain loose
- erodible? (submarine flow structure!
slides?) - may be collapsive
-erodible? - erodible?

42

21
A problem-oriented classification of soils.
Morgenstern, 1985
Soils
Natural

Fine

Unsaturated

Unstructured Structured

-Apparent cohesion
-Non-linear strength -May be cemented,
envelope, dependent on fissured (secondary
moisture content permeability) or collapsive.
-Stability strongly
>very low reliability
dependent on infiltration

>low reliability

43

A problem-oriented classification of soils.

Morgenstern, 1985
Soils
Natural

Fine

Saturated

Contractant Dilatant

Unstructured Structured Unstructured Structured

-Insensitive soft -Intact stiff clays

clays -Sensitive clays -Fissured stiff clays
-Collapsive (flow -Cohesive tills -Cohesion and
-Textbook -Few problems
materials: slides) friction loss due to:
-Quick clays -(rare) -Softening
-Problem: -But: Watch for
accurate -Pre-shearing
pre-sheared -Progressive failure
measurement of horizons and
undrained shear Also: secondary
progressive permeability
strength failure
-Watch for loose
sand lenses!
44

22
 A problem-oriented classification of soils.
Morgenstern, 1985
collapsive behaviour?
Soils

Natural Processed

Coarse Fine Compacted Fills Mine Waste

Dense Loose Cemented Saturated Unsaturated Coarse Fine Coarse Fine

Fissured
Contractant Dilatant Unstructured
Cemented

Insensitive Sensitive Massive Fissured

45

A problem-oriented classification of soils.

Morgenstern, 1985
long term strength loss?
Soils

Natural Processed

Coarse Fine Compacted Fills Mine Waste

Dense Loose Cemented Saturated Unsaturated Coarse Fine Coarse Fine

Fissured
Contractant Dilatant Unstructured
Cemented

Insensitive Sensitive Massive Fissured

46

23
 A problem-oriented classification of soils.
Morgenstern, 1985
dependence on moisture changes?
Soils

Natural Processed

Coarse Fine Compacted Fills Mine Waste

Dense Loose Cemented Saturated Unsaturated Coarse Fine Coarse Fine

Fissured
Contractant Dilatant Unstructured
Cemented

Insensitive Sensitive Massive Fissured

47

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