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Review
Recent structural studies of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) have revealed unexpected diversity
in the mechanisms of their activation by growth factor ligands. Strategies for inducing dimerization
by ligand binding are surprisingly diverse, as are mechanisms that couple this event to activa-
tion of the intracellular tyrosine kinase domains. As our understanding of these details becomes
increasingly sophisticated, it provides an important context for therapeutically countering the
effects of pathogenic RTK mutations in cancer and other diseases. Much remains to be learned,
however, about the complex signaling networks downstream from RTKs and how alterations in
these networks are translated into cellular responses.
Since the discovery of the first receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) more important to note that a subset of RTKs forms oligomers even
than a quarter of a century ago, many members of this family of in the absence of activating ligand. For example, the insulin
cell-surface receptors have emerged as key regulators of critical receptor and IGF1 receptor are expressed on the cell surface
cellular processes, such as proliferation and differentiation, cell as disulfide-linked ()2 dimers (Ward et al., 2007). Binding of
survival and metabolism, cell migration, and cell-cycle control insulin or IGF1 induces structural changes within these dimeric
(Blume-Jensen and Hunter, 2001; Ullrich and Schlessinger, 1990). receptors that stimulate tyrosine kinase activity and cell sig-
Humans have 58 known RTKs, which fall into 20 subfamilies (Fig- naling. Some studies have suggested that epidermal growth
ure 1). All RTKs have a similar molecular architecture, with ligand- factor (EGF) binds to and activates pre-existing oligomers of
binding domains in the extracellular region, a single transmem- its receptor (Clayton et al., 2005; Gadella and Jovin, 1995), but
brane helix, and a cytoplasmic region that contains the protein the precise nature and size of these oligomers are not known.
tyrosine kinase (TK) domain plus additional carboxy (C-) terminal Moreover, there is evidence that activation of certain RTKs,
and juxtamembrane regulatory regions. The overall topology of such as Tie2 (an angiopoietin receptor) and Eph receptors,
RTKs, their mechanism of activation, and key components of the may require the formation of larger oligomers (Barton et al.,
intracellular signaling pathways that they trigger are highly con- 2006; Himanen and Nikolov, 2003).
served in evolution from the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans Whether the inactive state is monomeric or oligomeric,
to humans, which is consistent with the key regulatory roles that activation of the receptor still requires the bound ligand to
they play. Furthermore, numerous diseases result from genetic stabilize a specific relationship between individual receptor
changes or abnormalities that alter the activity, abundance, cel- molecules in an active dimer or oligomer. Structural studies
lular distribution, or regulation of RTKs. Mutations in RTKs and of the extracellular regions of RTKs have provided clear views
aberrant activation of their intracellular signaling pathways have of how ligand binding can drive dimerization. In addition, the
been causally linked to cancers, diabetes, inflammation, severe single membrane-spanning helix may contribute to dimeriza-
bone disorders, arteriosclerosis and angiogenesis. These con- tion in some cases, although its precise role is not yet clear.
nections have driven the development of a new generation of In the ligand-bound receptor, self-association of the extracel-
drugs that block or attenuate RTK activity. lular region is thought to guide the intracellular domains into
In this Review, we discuss insights into the mechanism of RTK a dimeric conformation that activates their tyrosine kinase
regulation that have emerged from recent structural and func- domains through the mechanisms discussed below. One
tional studies. We examine prevailing concepts that underlie the receptor in the dimer/oligomer then phosphorylates one or
activation of intracellular signaling pathways following growth more tyrosines in a neighboring RTK, and the phosphorylated
factor binding to RTKs. We also consider recent systems biology receptor then serves as a site for assembly (and activation)
approaches for understanding the complicated circuits and net- of intracellular signaling proteins (Ullrich and Schlessinger,
works that result from the interplay among the multiple signaling 1990).
pathways activated by RTKs. Finally, we describe the impact of
these advances on the discovery and application of new thera- Ligand-Induced Dimerization of RTK Extracellular
pies for cancers and other diseases driven by activated RTKs. Regions
Early studies of RTKs and cytokine receptors suggested a
Mechanisms of Receptor Activation conceptually straightforward mechanism for ligand-induced
In general, growth factor binding activates RTKs by inducing dimerization: a bivalent ligand interacts simultaneously with
receptor dimerization (Ullrich and Schlessinger, 1990). How- two receptor molecules and effectively crosslinks them into
ever, before discussing this aspect of RTK regulation, it is a dimeric complex. This ligand-mediated mode of receptor
dimerization was further supported by crystal structures of dimer and simply crosslinks the ligand-binding fragments of
several fragments of the ligand-binding domains from RTKs two receptor molecules. Recent structures of more complete
bound to their relevant ligands. Examples include the stem cell extracellular regions of RTKs have provided important addi-
factor receptor KIT (Liu et al., 2007), the Flt1 vascular endothe- tional insight into the range of mechanisms used for ligand-
lial growth factor (VEGF) receptor (Leppnen et al., 2010; Wies- induced dimerization. Figure 2 illustrates two mechanistic
mann et al., 1997), the nerve growth factor (NGF)/neurotrophin extremes and two intermediate cases. At one extreme, receptor
receptor TrkA (Wiesmann et al., 1999), Axl (Sasaki et al., 2006), dimerization is entirely ligand mediated and the two recep-
Tie2 (Barton et al., 2006), and Eph receptors (Himanen and tors make no direct contact (Figure 2A). At the other extreme,
Nikolov, 2003). In each of these cases, the ligand is itself a dimerization is instead entirely receptor mediated (Figure
SH3 domains of p47phox and Src family kinases bind a great over, as biochemical analyses advanced, it became clear that
deal more strongly to their respective intact protein partners all pathways previously thought to be linear are in fact highly
than to PxxP-containing peptides. In doing so, they augment interconnected into a complex and dynamic signaling network
the canonical PxxP-binding modes with additional contacts (Figure 4A), with RTKs functioning as key regulatory nodes. An
that increase affinity and specificity for the intact protein (Li, important conundrum arose as different RTKs that elicit quite
2005). Although the key experiments have yet to be performed distinct cellular responses (e.g., proliferation versus differen-
for many of the other domains, these views of SH2 and SH3 tiation) were shown nonetheless to engage overlapping and
binding to their intact protein targets argue that short synthetic similar complements of receptor-proximal components in the
peptides do not represent good mimetics of the physiologi- cellular signaling network. If both the EGF and NGF receptors
cal interactions that define signaling pathways. Understanding activate similar sets of RTK-proximal downstream signaling
the full spectrum of specificity determinants will be crucial for molecules, how can activating the EGFR lead to cell prolifera-
future systems-level analysis of signaling networks. tion whereas activating the NGF receptor promotes neurite
outgrowth and differentiation in the same cell (Marshall, 1995)?
RTKs as Nodes in Complex Signaling Networks In other words, what defines the specificity of signaling?
As the first SH2 domain-containing proteins, Ras exchange Simply knowing the components of a signaling pathway or
factors, MAP kinases, and other proteins involved in RTK network is not sufficient to predict qualitative outcomes of its
signaling were being identified, the prevailing view was that activation. Neither is it sufficient to know the components of the
these components comprise linear signaling pathways. A key RTK signaling node. Instead, a quantitative understanding of
example that appeared to support this hypothesis was the how the network behaves as a whole is crucial. Experimentally,
RTK-Grb2-Sos-Ras/MAP kinase pathway. Genetic experi- this fact is underscored by very early experiments showing that
ments further supported this linear-pathway view (Noselli and activation of a given RTK by its ligand has dramatically differ-
Perrimon, 2000). However, several key emerging facts clearly ent effects depending on the RTKs expression level and the
suggested that a more complicated and intertwined signaling kinetics of its activation (Marshall, 1995). Indeed, the dynam-
network must exist for RTKs. First, RTKs such as EGFR have ics and extent of network activation are critical for determining
multiple (512) autophosphorylation sites that can each recruit outcome (Kholodenko, 2006; Murphy and Blenis, 2006), but
different SH2 and PTB domain-containing proteins; second, a they are extremely difficult to intuit in a qualitative sense. For
given adaptor or scaffold protein can interact with multiple sig- example, simply overexpressing EGFR or the insulin receptor
naling molecules (Pawson, 1995; Schlessinger, 2000). More- in PC12 cells switches the outcome of stimulation with EGF
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