Wt REVERED a , WALLS PAGE 1 OF Engineer's Computation Pad No. 5505 a CURRENT USES . Le C/ re 3m) of relatively short hagha ° Limited backfill zone (Space) available, or hergs ay, ase tyshag Sor $- ° Grbon, ust Where, apotoramce aud Mira bilify Yts0ny jacreased Cosh. Berni WHLL TERM/MOLOG ¥ Front Face — Back All Back face Bathr Key behucen Concrete pours Srem Base or rooting Tien. (Tentrariveé Desten DimEentss0ns ° B= Base = 0.4 0.74 ° Joe = BS + Shm = Hijz fo H/io (at base) ° Sxm Crp) 02m (min) 0.3m (preterable) » Batter G8 Verbal! 1 torizatal (a2) 2 Embedment depth, D, below frost or Stasonai volume changeCANT(LEVERED = wits | Page 2 OF 7 Engineer's Computation Pad No. 5505 SAL WALL STABILITY, CALCULATIONS 2) over turning 3) sheing of base DS) wall Alt he 50 70 70mm Ka Comune) Commonly used 2 Sus commonly ser Mea 49 1) shear and Sending yn stem f° base 4) rotatetong/ stability Colbal srebility) SWEAR AV] BENDING (STEM ANDO BASE aaauaoae—eEErE———eeee Eee a char cover / 2 z¢A'K, =f, cos § 70 mm char coyer- 0 B= B-2e (see bearing Capacity page 3) oak eh ef heng th OY sHip rooting )CANTILEVER ED at WALLS PAGE 3 OF 7 No. $505 »~ aD 0 Engineer's Computation Pad QUERTURNING AHO FLIQING STHEILITY (QEFIUITION SY , 4 Note: Py = resuttant free fom phe active earth preesure acting on wall Dona? Ry = vertical componeut of RP (for shding ) Cale ix Phese Ayre Aerizontal component of B Awe upT = vtrheal shear resistance on virtyal back that clevelps as fhe wal/ Zries fo overturn, L | “Upheal” back " ws | | Ry = By tan h Wa i P= ka VH xe WN Nw Rie A sinh | Xai | + ah = Py cos 3’ ri | > rote, /LV \ & ee oO] _ TAT bh x é A= B tan J +0 B (shang only R acts wd + pont 0 fn Ss > oveethening)CANTILEVER FD i om WHLLS PAGE 6 OF 7 Moheé SLIQIMG STHELITY Use KX Csmall Movement) fo Por (pb, B Bike a Ap (large moremty Pecomnnened a R F 3. = & (atdng ) Aha) > las h2o Frecommendh asing 2 ert, instead of Teh te! Dr. khawtont + Rtn $+ 6 & ahemph neghecle Pay R= Wye wales Soules does rot. p, 6g6 where We = weight Concrele (stem ¢ 4o%ag & = wergkt of soil (backfill Beha Mee wall ¢ on Pay = vertical compared of P. "Conetine afgtcled (2 caluledng FS.) Pah = eo YH ka where: H’= herght of urtual back Coe Wakes! « Cy = adtesion = f(caheston) AE 6 DEKE ‘a for Soil on conerefe © Sg = vatenel argh forthon for suil on conerche Be incr é bireslon <0o)/ = Sb BE Last)CANTILEVERED ml WALES PAGE 5 oF 7 SLOW G STHELLITY Ceonr ) Moke te Zs eg, for Bags caleulefions whee Ae base of Phe so: De chse contach uth fhe face of he roe eee, “é wate or scour at Arde ing fd joss: ble, af one Cannop. Leckey Md 2ecive Piaistiade wif bE eee es ’ Conservative fo 1G, PE Sod tts alee, yo Zero in rhe OL,» } Cee caleule fon, For 8 one may use tf the backs lyse +3 at 14s aqglt of régose; ofherwist Lise Because = Yhen Fe, aa i ole 2, th = ee asin Be a offen Ln caheulatiag to, we'use Ky rnsheaf of 4o because Fhe amount of stag, y % ally pobrlize Ko 7s (arpee t (00 Sarge 4or most oa ag wall pl Zeatans)CANTILEVERED as ME WHLLES | PAGE 6 OF 7 QUVER TUMMING STHEILITY KF = ee eee £ re | * FS. : =| les b “ Cover turning ) Zwiki+bhe+By pepo X78 the hor zontal destance from point O you mus? Cafeulite. phe rneesure fhe ayprepriate| ‘Xi for tach of We Z (We,) (ey) + (We, ( ke) a - Py = vertical shear resistence on the virtual back as the back starts Jo overfurn. Fay = Fan tan SP, fon 9 B= footing width Bh = RB cos/S' aR cos pf Ga = vertical oistance fam bast of +4 ro tah .CAMTLLVEKED, sald WALLS | PAGE J oF BEARIMG PRESSURE (0h GEARING CAPACITY CALC. a toting RU & — center of footing X= Mr-Mo _ Ewin +R B Rag is R abe 2 B= B- CB’ fr bearing Capa erty Ca/e’s) ie bearing pressure on Pooting Ai Ro whre P= Wet, B’ checks thet oa tbwable 12 grate than 9 where Fatbueble = Bull fxs bear tne Cape es hwo ble 22 fult sys Y fr 4). je X= Pay = in Vp Bowles ——__, Wet Vlg + Py Pp 687REINFORCEDCONCRETECANTILEVERED RETAININGWALLDESIGN EXAMPLEPROBLEM Allsoilisfinesandwith y=110pef, =34° ,ando=0. a UL Sucharge=a= 00 pt TOE a tt Page lofty= 10 pot 150 pet $= 94 degrees 2 f c= 0 psf 2 ft q= 300 pat 1 ft (Width at top of stem) He 2 f 25 ft (Toe width along footing) De 4 ft 1B Of (Width at bottom of stem) a of (Hee! width along footing) Solution: 1, Calculate earth pressures using Rankine's method. K, =iae( 2s $f \-wtks -4f)- 0.2827 Ph =K,-q= 84.81 pst Ph=phH= 1.006 Wt Py = Ky H= 622.0 pst PR =—piH = 6220 wt 1 2 Lateral earth pressure on toe side generally varies from Pa to P,, However, full passive resistance (Pp) requires significant movement to mobilize, 80 generally design for somewhere between P, and Pp. Calculate both values to give range of expected resistance. ‘Assume sand is normally consolidated (NC) although in realty, the compaction cof the backiill sand will produce some overconsolidation. In addition, some of the toe overburden may be lost over time owing to a variety of possible phenomena. Thus, sometimes the lateral resisting pressure at the toe is ignored. kt Page 2of42. Calculate lateral forces and moments about toe of footing 3. Check sliding stability For conerete footing poured directly by a backhoe or similar equipment, use 6 = ¢ and c, = c. &= 34 degrees a= 0 E(max)= Rtand, +¢,B= 17.38 kt F.(max)+P, FSosting =p =O was PHP | ‘Moment — Force ‘Arm | Moment Part (eft) | erent _| Toe sol - left 2.5°2°0.110 = 0,650 7.25 | 0.688 Too soil right | 0.5%0.0556"2"0.110 = 0.006 252 | 0.015 Stem - left (0.5°18"0.5*0.150 = 0.675 283 | 1.919 Stem - right 18°1°0.150 = 2.700 350 | 9.450 Heel soil 8°18°0.110 = 15.840 8,00 | 126.720 Footing 6.00 | 21.600 Surcharge 8.00_| 19.200 179.585 Po 193 | 0517 M,= _ 180.103] Pat 1.696 10.00 | 16.963 Pal 6.220 6.67_| 41.465 Mo= 58.428 jainst the ground thal has been excavated pst Generally want a factor of safety against sliding greater than 1.25 to 2.0. This is acceptable even using a conservative value of P. on the toe side, 80 itis not necessary to use P,. It will be checked anyway to show the difference in calculated FS.4, Check overturning stability ,, is only used for overtuming calculations because it would not exist unless overtuming occurs. P,, =(PU+PZ)tand+c,H= saa wm M,+PyB FS, ates 418 overumin M, Generally, want a factor of safety against overtuming of greater than 2.0 10 3.0, so this wall is safe against overtuming. If P, were used instead of Po, a higher factor of safety would be obtained. 5. Determine bearing pressure and effective width of footing B=B-2e= 944 ft 2.729 kst 6, Estimate settlement of retaining wall Estimate sottloment using q, and B'. Settlement is generally not of major concer in a retaining wall uniass the settlement is very large. However, this is not true forall situations. 7. Calculate factor of safaty against utimate bearing capacity failure Calculate factor of safety against ultimate bearing capacity fallure using , F,, qo and B’. Note that some assumptions must be made about distribution of horizontal load to determine F,. [F, not F{max), is used in inclination factors.) 8, Perform structural design of retaining wail and footing a. Design footing for shear and bending (toe and heel sides) b. Design stem for shear and moment © |. Check global (slope) stability using an appropriate slope stability program (UTEXAS3, PCSTABLS, etc.) 410. Repeat analysis and design until retaining wall design is achieved that meets all requirements (structural, geotechnical, others) and is the most economical design overall. ‘This wall is too conservative from a geotechnical standpoint and probably would need to be re-designed to achieve the most economical design. Page 4oft# S00 70mm cles | a U[Pee= Peso r rem Patan Te a bitK, = Pecans Ket Fran Pook ' | be 0 mm clew a ‘ DK, = hy x” Ce ean +6 (o) Wal pressure owe for shear and (©) Wal pres for ove stabil agaist onerursing and beng owen sto ip. Siding. = weet of al oer em and base = ‘lo shown searing capacity resus eight fsa one ade Find moment ars any Way dlagarn bed on Fig wing practcal~ only wig puts of krown geomet Bb eand L=U'= ut {es tural premore for Das design an ring capac [Figure 12:12 General wall stability. is common to we the Rankine K, and 8 = fin (a). Fr Bin you may use B or Since the slp" along ab is soll-o-o. In any eae compute Py ~ Pay tan a being most nearly correc. ‘Walls are designed for wide-beam shear with crtial locations as indicated in ACI 318- “The author suggests, however, taking the wide-beam shear at the stem face (front and back) for the base slab as being more conservative and as requiring a negligible amount of extra concrete, For the stem one should take the critical wide-beam location at the top of the base slab, The reason is thatthe base is usually poured first with the stem reinforcement se, Later the stem forms are set and poured, producing a discontinuity at this location Formerly, wood strip was placed into the base slab nd then removed before the stem was placed. This slot or key provided additional shear resistance for the stem, but this is seldom one at present, Without the Key at this discontinuity, the only shear resistance is the bonding that develops between the two pours + any friction from the stem weight + reliance on the stem reinforcement for shear. ACL Art 117.5 with the reduction given in Art. A.7.6 gives @ procedure for checking shear friction a see if shear reinforcement is required at this location. ‘The required ACI equation seems to give adequate resistance unless the wal is quite high. 12-6 WALL STABILITY Figure 12-12 illustrates the general considerations of wal stability. ‘The wall must be struc turally stable against the following: 1. Stem shear and bending due to lateral earth pressure onthe stem. This using the stem height. separate analysis{686 rOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ; 2, Base shear and bending moments at the stem caused by the wall loads producing bearing pressure beneath the wall footing (or base). The critical section for shear should be at the stem faces for both toe and heel. Toe bending is seldom a concern but for heel bending the critical section should be taken at the approximate center of the stem reinforcement and not at the stem backface. ‘The author suggests that for base bending and shear one use the rectangular bearing pressure (block abde) given on Fig. 12-12a in order to be consistent with bearing-capacity ‘computations (see Fig. 4-4) for ga. A trapezoidal diagram (acf) is also used but the com pulations for shear and moment are somewhat more complicated, 12.6.1 Sliding and Overturning Wall Stability ‘The wall must be safe against sliding. That is, sufficient friction F, must be developed be- ‘tween the base slab and the base soil that a safety factor SF or stability number N, (see Fig. 12-126) is SF = Ny = Fe *Pe = 1.251020 (12.4) Pa {All terms are illustrated in Fig. 12-12b, Note that for this computation the total vertical force Ris R= Wet Wet Poy ‘These several vertical forces are shown on Fig. 12-12b. The heel force P., is sometimes not included for a more conservative stability number. The friction angle 6 between base slab and soil can be taken as where the concrete is poured directly onto the compacted base soil. The base-to-soil adhesion is usually a fraction of the cohesion—values of 0.6 to 0.8 are commonly used. Use a passive force P> if the base soil isin close contact with the face ofthe toe. One may choose not to use the full depth of D in computing the toe Pp if itis possible 1 portion may erode. For example, if a sidewalk or roadway is in front of the wall, use the full depth (but not the surcharge from the sidewalk or roadway, as that may be removed for replacement); for other cases one must make a site assessment. ‘The wall must be safe against overturning about the toe. If we define these terms: location of on the base slab from the toe or point O. Itis usual to require this distance be within the middle } of distance Ob—that is, £ > B/3 from the toe. Pay = horizontal component of the Rankine or Coulomb lateral earth pressure against the vertical line ab of Fig. 12-12b (the “virtual” back), 5 = distance above the base Ob to Pay. Pay = vertical shear resistance on virtual back that develops as the wall tends to turn over. This is the only computation that should use Pap. The angle used for Pay should be on the order of the residual angle ¢ since the Rankine wedge soil is inthe state of Fig. [1-Ie and “follows” the wall as it tends to rotate. We can compute a stability number N against overturning as MS Wit+ PaB Me Pans In both Eqs. (12-4) and (12-5) the stability number in the given range should reflect the importance factor and ste location. That is, if wall failure can result in danger to human life N 21,5020 2-5)MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTIFAND CONCKETE RETAINING WALLS. 687 or extensive damage to a major structure, values closer to 2.0 should be used, Equation (12-5) isa substantial simplification used to estimate overturning resistance. On-site overturning is accompanied by passive resistances at (1) the top region of the base slab at the toe, (2) a zone along the hee! at cb that tends to lift a soil column along the virtual back face line ab, and (3) the slip of the Rankine wedge on both sides of ab. Few walls have ever overturned—fuilure is usually by sliding or by shearoff ofthe stem. ‘The 3:(W, + W,) and location # are best determined by dividing the wall and soil over the heel into rectangles and triangles so the areas (and masses) can be easily computed and the centroidal locations identified. Then it becomes a simple matter to obtain (We + We + Pig)® = PurS ~ PrSp Mo Ppp WW, +P Ifthere is no passive toe resistance (and/or P., is ignored) the preceding equations are some- what simplified. 12-6.2 Rotational Stability {In Fig. 12-13 we see that in certain cases a wall can rotate as shown—usually when there are lower strata that are of poorer quality than the base sol. This failure is similar toa slope stability analysis using trial circles. These computations can be done by hand. Where several circles (but all passing through the hee! point) are tried for a minimum stability number NV, though, the busywork becomes prohibitive; and a computer program (see author's B-22) for slope stability analy sis—adjusted for this type of problem as an option—should be used. This procedure is illustrated later in Example 12-4. 12-63 General Comments on Wall Stability tis common—particularly for low walls—to use the Rankine earth-pressure coefficients Ky and K;, (or Table 11-5), because these are somewhat conservative. Ifthe wall angle a of Fig. {1-4 is greater than 90°, consider using the Coulomb equations with 8 = 0. Figure 12-13. Wall-woil shear failure may be analyze by the Swedish-ircle method. A “shallow” allure occurs ‘when base soil fails. A “deep” failure occur if he poor soil stratum fs underlying a beter sol 2s in the figure.688 FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN For stem analysis the friction angle 8 of Fig. 12-12a is taken as the slope angle B in the Rankine analysis, The friction angle is taken as some fraction of @ in a Coulomb analysis, with 0.67d commonly estimated fora concrete wall formed using plywood or metal forms so the back face is fairly smooth. For the overall wal stability of Fig. 12-12b the angle may be taken as B for the Rank- ine method, but for the Coulomb analysis take B' = q. This value then is used to obtain the horizontal component of , as shown. For the vertical friction component Pyy resisting overturning take Pay = Pantano, (12-6) since the 8 angle shown on Fig. 12-12b is always soil-to-soil, but the soil is more in a ‘resid- ual” than a natural stat, ‘The Rankine value for K, (or see Table 11-5) is usually used if passive pressure is included If there is uncertainty thatthe full base depth D is effective in resisting via passive pressure, itis permissible to use a reduced value of D’ as D' = D— potential loss of depth ‘The potential loss of depth may be to the top of the base or perhaps the top 0.3* m, de- pending on designer assessment of how much soil will remain in place over the toe. Note that some of this soil is backfill, which must be carefully compacted when it is being replaced. Otherwise full passive pressure resistance may not develop until the wall has slipped so far forward that it has “failed.” 12-64 Base Key ‘Where sufficient sliding stability is not possible—usually for walls with large H/—a base key, as illustrated in Fig. 12-14, has been used. There are different opinions on the best location for a key and on its value. It was common practice to put the key beneath the stem as in Fig, 12-14a, until it was noted that the conditions of Fig. 12-L4b were possible. This approach ‘was convenient from the view of simply extending the stem reinforcement through the base and into the key. Later it became apparent that the key was more effective located as in Fig, 12-14c and, if one must use a key, this location is recommended. The increase in H by the key depth may null its effect. 12-65 Wall Tilt Concrete retaining walls have a tendency to tlt forward because ofthe lateral earth pressure (Fig. 12-15a), but they can also tilt from base slab rotation caused by differential settlement. Occasionally the base soil is of poor quality and with placement of sufficient backfil (typi- cally, the approach fill at a bridge abutment) the backfill pressure produces a heel settlement that is greater than at the toe. This difference causes the wall to tlt into the backfill as shown in Fig. 12-15b. If the Rankine active earth pressure isto form, it is necessary that the wall tlt forward as, noted in Sec. 11-2. A wall with a forward tilt does not give an observer much confidence in its safety, regardless of stability numbers. Unless the wall has a front batter, however, it is difficult for it to tilt forward—even a small amount—without the tilt being noticeable. It may bbe possible to reduce the tilt by overdesigning the stem—say, use K,, instead of K, pressures and raise the location of the resultant. When one makes this choice, use a finite-element program such as your B-S to check the wall movements. Although this type of analysis may not be completely accurate, there is currently no better way of estimating wallVertical stem steel Run some of the stem steel through base into key when key is located here ir, fee = — aL 7t. ae P= Hip Friction snd poem lip seine (0) Base key near stem so that stem steel _(b) Potential sliding surface using the key location of a may ecxteneainothe key wiboat There ay be i rear in sig resiance addtional splicing or using anchor bends. from tis key, ithe slip surface develop as shown, Possible passive “Cemeat ‘his inclined plane (© Possibie siding modes when using a hel key Figure 12-18 Subilty agains sliding by using a base ke. Undestyng strata of comprestle ——T material auch as clay or peat (b) Bxcessive beelzove seulement (from back fl) Figure 12-18 Causes of excessive wall tilting. 689(690 FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN t 12.6.6 Other Considerations in Retaining Wall Design ‘When there is a limited space in which to place the wall base slab and the sliding stability ‘number Nis too small, what can be done? There are several possible solutions: 1. Look to see if you are using a slab-soil friction angle 6 that is too small—for concrete poured on a compacted soil it can be & = ¢. Are you using any P, contribution? Can you? 2. Consider placing the base slab deeper into the ground. At the least, you gain some addi- tional passive resistance. 3. Consider using short piles, on the order of 2 to 2.5 m in length, spaced about 1.5 to 2.0m along the wall length. These would be for shear, ie., laterally loaded. 4. Consider improving the base soil by adding lime or cement to a depth of 0.3* m just beneath the base 5. Consider sloping the base, but keep in mind that this is not much different from using a heel key. Considerable hand work may be needed to obtain the soil slope, and then there is a question of whether to maintain the top of the base horizontal or slope both the top and bottom. You may get about the same effect by increasing the base-to-soil 5 angle | or 2°, 6. Sloping the heel as shown in Fig. 12-16 has been suggested. This solution looks elegant until one studies it in depth. What this configuration hopes to accomplish is a reduction in lateral pressure—the percentage being Note that because of the natural minimum energy law a soil wedge will form either as A'C'D! or as BCDA. A'C’D’ is the Rankine wedge, so if this forms the heel slope BA is an unnecessary expense. If the wedge BCDA forms, the net gain (or loss) is trivial. We can obtain the value from plotting two force diagrams—one for wedge AC'D, which is in combination with the force diagram from block BCC’A as done in the inset of Fig, 12-16. Keep in mind that if this slope is deemed necessary, the reason is that the base slab is narrow to begin with. By being narrow, the overturning moment from P,y may tend to lift the heel away from the underlying soil, 0 the value of Ry may be close to zero. Ifthe heel slope compresses the soil. friction may be so large that wedge A’C'D' is certain to form, Walls built using this procedure may be standing but likely have a lower than intended SF. Their current safety status may also be due to some initial overdesign, 7 Ithhas been suggested that for high walls Fig. 12-17 is a possible solution—that is, use “relief shelves.” This solution has some hidden traps. For example, the soil must be well compacted up to the relief shelf, the shelf constructed, soil placed and compacted, etc. In theory the vertical pressure on the shelf and the lateral pressure on the wall are as shown. We can see that the horizontal active pressure resultant Pay is much less than for a top- down pressure profile—at least forthe stem. ‘What is difficult to anticipate is the amount of consolidation that will occur beneath the shelves—and it will—regardless ofthe state of the compaction. This tends to cantilever the shelves down, shown as dashed lines in the pressure profile diagram. When this occurs, either the shelf breaks off or the wall above tends to move into the backfill and develop