yy. are ASPECTS OF MYANMAR ote AND Cla NOIN3 © = x a = BS yo} x n + (e) a wd @o (@) S al (ce By) i + (ca, al 5 = ras > (@ Pa @Our Three Main National Causes Non - disintegration of the Union Cause Non - disintegration of the National Solidarity Cause Consolidation of National Sovereignty Cause People’s Desire Oppose those relying on external elements, acting as stooges, holding negative views Oppose those trying to jeopardize stability of the State and Progress of the nation * Oppose foreign nations Interfering in internal affairs of the State} Crush alt internal and external destructive elements as common enemy Four political objectives Stability of the State, community peace and tranquility prevalence of law and order * National reconsolidation * Emergence of a new enduring State Constitution * Building of a new modem developed nation in accord with the new state Constitution Four economic objectives Development of agriculture as the base and all-round development of other Sectors of the economy as well * Proper evolution of the market-oriented economic system Development of the economy inviting participation in terms of technical know-how and investments from sources inside the country and abroad The initiative to shape the national economy must be kept in the hands of the State and the national peoples Four social objectives Uplift of the morale and morality of the entire nation Uplift of national prestige and integrity and preservation and safeguarding of cultural heritage and national character Uplift of dynamism of patriotic spirit Uplift of health, fitness and education standards of the entire nationget MANUSCRIPT PERMIT NO. 4009000809 COVER PERMIT NO. 4009290809 FIRST EDITION March 2010 500 COPIES COVER DESIGN KZO PUBLISHER U Thit Lwin (Gant-gaw-Myaing Sarpay) No-I13, Shwe Myin Tha Street, Ward(6), Taketa Township, Yangon. PRINTER Min Thar Gyi PRICE 3000 KYATS DISTRIBUTION U Zaw Oo Loka Ahlinn Publishing House No.167/173, Room D4, Seikkantha yeikmon, Seikkantha Street, Kyauktada Township, Yangon. Tel : 09 5168 278 ‘Thaw Kaung, U ‘Aspects of Myanmar history and culture/ U Thaw Kaung. Yangon : Gant-gaw Myaing Sarpay, 2010. 290p.,map.,photos; 22 x 14 cm. 1. Myanmar —History 1, Myanmar Culture II, Rama, Myanmar 1+ Title 959-1RS ee Aspects of Myanmar History and Culture by U Thaw Kaung B.A. Hons., Diploma In Librarianship (London), Hon. F.L.A. D. Litt. (Honoris Causa), (Western Sydney) Academic Prize Awardee 2005 of Fukuoka Asian Culture Prizes, Japan Retd. Chief Librarian, Universities Central Library Member of Myanmar Historical Commission Loka Ahlinn Publishing House No.167/173, Room D4, Seikkantha yeikmon, Scikkantha Street, Kyauktada Township, Yangon. Tel : 09 5168 278Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture CONTEN Author's Biography Preface 1, Myanmar History (1) Ayedawbon Kyan, an Important Myanmar Literary Genre Recording Historical Events (2) Two Compilers of Myanmar History and their Chronicles (3) Letwe Nawrahta (1723-1791), Recorder of Myanmar History (4) Accounts of King Bayinnaung’s Life and Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon, a Record of his Campaigns (5) Bayinnaung in the Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon Chronicle (6) Palm-leaf Manuscript Record of a Mission Sent bythe Myanmar King to the Chinese Emperor in mid-18" Century 2. Myanmar Culture (7) The Ramayana Narratives in Myanmar (8) Ramayana in Myanmar Literature and Performing Arts (9) In Search of Rama: a Visit to Tha-khut-ta-nei (10) Myanmar Dramatic Literature-its Rise and Decline 101 127 144 190 216 246Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture AUTHOR'S BIOGRAPHY Dr. Thaw Kaung (b. 1937) studied and obtained a 1* class B.A. Hons. in English Literature from Yangon University in 1959. He later studied Librarianship at University College London and was awarded a Postgraduate Diploma in Librarianship from the University of London in 1962 and an Honorary Fellowship by the Library Association (U.K.) in 1984. The University of Western Sydney conferred an Honorary Dr. of Letters in 1999 and the Fukuoka Asian Cultural Prizes Committee selected him as the Academic Prize Laureate for 2005. In March 2008 he was honoured with a Life Time Achievement Award in Myanmar Literature by the Pakkoku U Ohn Pe Literary Prizes Committee.Fy Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture Dr. Thaw Kaung worked in various libraries of Yangon University from 1957, and was the Chief Librarian of the Universities Central Library from 1969 until his retirement in December 1997. He is also a Retd. Professor in Library and Information Studies from the University of Yangon and the University of East Yangon, From January 1998 to the present, he has been a Full-time Member of the Myanmar Historical Commission, the Vice-Chairman of the National Literary Awards Selection Committee and a Member of a number of other Literary Prize Committees. He established the Department of Library and Information Studies at Yangon University in 1971 and also the Myanmar Library Association in the early 1990s. He has travelled widely and read Papers on aspects of Myanmar Literature, Library Studies, and on Myanmar History and Culture, in U.K., USA, Australia, Japan, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore. He lives in Yangon and can be contacted through the Myanmar Book Centre, established by his son Dr. Thant Thaw Kaung. (E-mail: thawkaung@myanmarbook.com)Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture 7 PREFACE Aspects of Myanmar History and Culture is the second collection of some of my papers read at various international conferences in Yangon, Bangkok, Penang, Singapore, Osaka and in some Southeast Asian Studies Centers in Seattle and Michigan, Cornell University Southeast Asia Program at Ithaca and Northern Illinois university Burma Studies Center. Of the (10) papers collected in this volume, only two are printed for the first time, viz. “Palm-leaf Manuscript Record of a Mission sent by the Myanmar King to the Chinese Emperor in mid-18th century”, read at the Burma Studies Conference in Singapore, 2006, and “Letwe Nawrahta. Recorder of Myanmar History”, read on my behalf by Dr. Toc Hla at the Burma Studies Conference, 2008 in DeKalb.(USA). The rest of the papers have been published mainly in the Myanmar Historical Research Journal in Yangon, but not widely available in other countries. One article, “In Search of Rama”, was first published in Myanmar Perspectives and Today monthly magazine, as it is an account of a trip I made to see the Ramayana stone plaques at Payagyi, a few miles from Tha-khut-ta-nai, in Budalin Township, Sagaing Division. The Chief Editor and founder of the Today magazine, Dr. Tha Tun Oo, came along on this trip, together with some other friends. 1 am grateful to Dr. Tha Tun Oo for first publishing this article in his popular magazine. As a Librarian at the University of Yangon for about (40) years, I became interested in Myanmar History and8 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture Culture. While I was Chief Librarian of the Universities’ Central Library, from August 1909 to December 1997, we were able to collect for the library, one of the finest collections of books, periodicals and rare manuscripts on Myanmar History and Culture and it became the largest library in our country, with a comprehensive collection for Myanmar Studies. I had studied Myanmar history from my high school days to my third year at the University. Later at Yangon University Library which I joined as a Deputy Librarian in 1959 and at the Universities Central Library, I read extensively books on Myanmar History and Culture, in English and Myanmar languages; also many Myanmar manuscripts on palm- leaf and parabike paper. My mentor, the second University Librarian who chose me to succeed him, was the renowned scholar and author, U Thein Han (writer Zaw Gyi). He carefully guided my reading from 1959 to about 1980, and pointed out to me the rare books and manuscripts in Myanmar that 1 should study, It was also because of his extensive knowledge of the Myanmar Ramayana that I continued to study and write about this story from our past. U Thein Han was not only the University Librarian and one of the most famous Myanmar scholars and writers. he also headed the Burma (later Myanmar) Historical Commission (MHC) from 1965 to 1975 and had been amember of the Commission from its inception in January 1955.1 was thirty years younger than my Saya (mentor), and he treated me like a son after my father, who was his close friend, suddenly passed away on 19th February 1957, in a car accident while he was on governmental duty in Calcutta. 1 was just over 19 years old at the time. The gratitude I owe to Saya U Thein Han (1907-1990) for encouraging my love of Myanmar literature, history and culture is immeasurable. 1 also owe a lot to three other members and senior researchers of the MHC, namely, Dr. Than Tun and Dr. Yi Yi who have both passed away, and especially to Daw Kyan who at over ninety is still writing on Myanmar history and winning many literary awards.Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture 9 Both Daw Kyan and Dr. Yi Yi had been recruited by my father who established BHC and was its first Chairman, and 1 had known them since they first joined the BHC as researchers in 1956, over (50) years ago. Dr. Yi Yi, kind and gentle, spending her entire short life ridden with health problems, in researching on Myanmar history, encouraged my interest in Ayedawbon kyan, a kind of historical writing which recorded the achievements and military campaigns of famous Myanmar kings, like Bayinnaung and Alaung-paya and a Mon monach Rajadirit, Daw Kyan was for a year my tutor in English in 1955, before she became a Full-time researcher in Myanmar history, a year later. | have learnt a lot from her writings on the Konbaung Period, and we still work together on a number of literary committees. I feel sad that due to inopportune circumstances, Daw Kyan is still a member of the Myanmar Language Commission and not of MHC, though she is without any doubt one of our finest Myanmar historians who have contributed much for over five decades to make our history better known in our country and abroad. Dr. Than Tun, | first came to know as the indefatigable Honorary Editor of the Burma (Myanmar) Research Society whose headquarters were in the University Library. From him | learnt much about Myanmar manuscripts on history, and through his numerous writings using original Myanmar historical sources, I became better acquainted with our past. Later from January 1998 until his sudden demise in 2005, Dr. Than Tun became a much respected elder colleague on MHC to whom I could turn to when I was writing some of the papers collected in this book. He read through some of the papers and made useful suggestions, giving me references to stone inscriptions and manuscripts. But of course if errors remain it is entirely mine. From Dr. Than Tun I also learnt to write with integrity according to the motto which he unearthed for MHC, viz. “To recount the past with impartiality”.10 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture T had been appointed as a Part-time Member of the Myanmar Historical Commission in the early 1990s while I was still working as the Chief Librarian, so the transition I made from serving for about four decades at the University Library to Amara Hall when I became a Full-time Member of the MHC in January 1998, a month after I retired from UCL, was entirely smooth. At the time the Myanmar Historical Commission which had started her life on the main campus of Yangon University was still at Amara Hall just a few blocks away from the University Library. With no more administrative worries 1 had more time to devote to my lasting interests in literature: narratives, especially modern Myanmar novels and short stories, historical fiction, biography, early court dramas like the Ramayana, and historical texts on palm-leaf manuscripts. After all, history is also a kind of narrative, an unending inquiry into what happened in the past, as we can read from the following recent quotation. “Some histories are virtually pure narrative; others are virtually pure, almost atemporal, analyses, being essentially structural or cultural surveys. History is contiguous with many other genres and lines of inquiry, from epic and myths of origin to various social sciences, and touching also biography, drama, political and moral polemic, ethnography, novels, inquests and judicial investigations. It was, so far as we know, Herodotus who first used the term historia (inquiry) for what we call history. A histor in Homer was someone who passed judgement based on the facts as aresult of investigation, so the link between history and inquest is a very old one”. (Fr. John Burrow: A History of Histories... London: Penguin Books, 2009. p. xiii). 1 am especially interested in old Myanmar texts written mainly on palm-leaves and have been involved in a number of preservation projects. I have also been studying some rareAspects of Myanmar History & Culture 1 unpublished texts, making notes and writing about the texts and their authors to make them better known in the world. As a Buddhist | firmly believe in karma, my past and present deeds, action and behaviour in word or thought which predetermines one’s future and one’s destiny in life. I think I was fated to end my career as an historian, albeit an amateur one. Through my father, Sithu U Kaung, my mentor, U Thein Han, and the senior members of the Myanmar Historical Commission who were my friends, I was always interested in history and J read and wrote a number of | papers in English for Conferences between 1991 and 2008, some of which are now collected in this book. Thope to compile another volume of my papers written in Myanmar language later. I would like to express my gratitude again to U Than Ohn (writer and biographer Maung Zeyar), retired as a Librarian from our National Library, to U Zaw Oo (The Loka Ahlinn Publishing House), to Daw Tin Win Yee, Acting Chief Librarian, and some of her staff at the Universities Central Library, especially to Daw Cho Cho Myint for word processing most of my papers; also to Daw Khin Hnin Oo, Librarian of the Yangon University Library and Daw Hlaing Hlaing Gyi for finding many of the books I wanted to use for my papers, 14 August 2009 Thaw KaungAyedawbon Kyan 13 1. Myanmar History aol SMe y Dal ow Ayedawbon Kyan, an Important Myanmar Literary Genre Recording Historical Events* Introduction Researchers on Myanmar history of the monarchical period have found the Ayedawhon kyan, a very important Myanmar literary genre which gives records of historical events, next in importance only to the aac date ‘or the main Royal Chronicles like the Hman-nan Yazawin-daw-gyi (Glass Palace Chronicle). In an important way the six or seven Ayedawbon kyan, historical texts supplement the records which are in the main Myanmar Chronicles. The Ayedawbon Kyan texts covered in this Paper are; (1) Dhanyawadi Ayedawbon © woos 6 V1 6M 4 (2) Rajadirit Ayedawbon qo 6°» of weg: sort e, (3) Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon ux s39 0 07°23 € &, (4) Nyaungyan Mintaya Ayedawbon« ery ae te nate (5) Alaung Mintaya Gyi Ayedawbon (3 different texts er (6) Majjhimadesa Ayedawbon and 2 © 2" VR assosracqeory (7) Hsinbyushin Ayedawbon »é Ge PEO OO coy4 ¢ Of these seven Ayedawbon kyan, the first five are what is collectively known as Ayedawbon Nga Saung Dwe, which means the Five volumes of Ayedawbon as these five * Revised version ofa paper read at the Siam Society and Chulalong- korn University, Bangkok in February 2000 and 1" published in The Journal of the Siam Society, vol. 88, pts. 1&2 (2000) p.21-33; edited by Dr. Ronald Renard, editor of JSS,14 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture were first printed in one volume by the Thudhamawadi Press under this title in 1923. ‘The 6 Ayedawbon kyan, the Majjhimadesa Ayedawbon was ‘discovered’ in manuscript form in the 1950’s from the British Library in London and at the Universities Central Library in Yangon I was able to collect three copies written on palm leaves in myanmar. It was first printed and published as a separate monograph only in 1998. The 7 Ayedawbon kyan, the Hsinbyushin Ayedawbon is still in manuscript form and remains unpublished. Meaning of the word Ayedawbon Before I discuss the texts and their authors, | would first of all like to explain the meaning of the word Ayedawbon, a word whose meaning has changed somewhat from its earlier use to its modern meaning. The standard Myanmar-English Dictionary compiled and published by the Myanmar Language Commission of the Ministry of Education gives the following two English meanings to the Myanmar word Ayedawbon soeq:c0r3} noun [archaic] historical account of a royal campaign (as in qpeo8qpSseeqze025$ Rajadirit Ayedawbon) 2.social or political uprising ; revolution." The Judson Burmese-English Dictionary, compiled by Dr. Adoniram Judson, revised and enlarged by Robert C. Stevenson and Rev. F.H. Eveleth does not have an entry for Ayedawbon, but has entries for the root word Ayedaw and another for Ayebonsa a less common Myanmar word, avariant of the word Ayedawbon kyan. Judson gives the following English meanings : geeq:cor5g [Ayedawbon]. noun. a representation of affairs, account, history.? sacqzeo25 [Ayedaw], now. literary. A royal affair; a term applied to wars wagedAyedawbon Kyan 15 by the king, rebellions, etc, sxeq:or5op§:81 , wS:op§:08: saaqucorSop§isl , seaqscorS ofg8Sn sxaqe}oo [Ayebonsal, noun. a journal of military occurences? The word Ayebonsa is given in Judson’s A Dictionary of Burmese and English ... 1" ed. 1852 with the same explanatory meaning in English, but the word Ayedawbon as a separate entry or Ayedawbon kyan is not given right up to the revised edition of 1953. The most scholarly and comprehensive, though unfortunately, incomplete, Burmese- English Dictionary is the one first compiled by J.A. Stewart and C.W. Dunne, and later revised and edited by Dr. Hla Pe and HF. Searle. In vol. 5.of this dictionary, the meaning of the word Ayedawbon is given as below: “aaeqcorS6 [Ayedawbon] - written account, one of the five Ayedawbon, viz. " ea2004: history of Arakan;speSep& Usa20003 a0 Gyqé1 car28 qS:eE:orqon sascoss:wE:or¢pH1 accounts of the lives these kings’”’*. The compilers of this dictionary also explain that the root word secq: A-ye is used especially in forms A-yedaw, A-yebon, Ayedawbon and that the meaning is: “affair, cause, campaign, struggle, revolution ; fortune, prospects, position ; historical account ofa campaign or struggle for power or a cause."$ Dr. Hla Pe ina separate article also defines Ayedawbon asa "royal affair: it generally consists of the struggle to power, a savouring of Hitler’s ‘Mein kampf”.® Myanmar historian, Dr. Aye Kyaw, has compared the Myanmar terms Yazawin (rajawan), ayedawbon and mhattan with some Thai terms. He writes : “Besides the rajawan, the Burmese terms, mhattam and aretoau pum [ayedawbon] are synonymous with the Thai terms, chotnaihet or kotmaihet and they deal with account or report on particular events, In particular, the arefoau piim are concerned with the16 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture short histories of particular wars or uprisings."” The modern meaning of Ayedawbon as a “Social or. political uprising; revolution" has been discussed in some detail by Dr. Robert H.Taylor in his article "Burmese Concepts of Revolution". He also discusses the original meaning: “The root of ayei-daw-bon is ayei, meaning a business or affair, to which is appended taw (daw) the suffix denoting royalty, a deity, or (now) the state ~ - and bon (pun), a narrative or sequence of events, giving literally "story of royal or state affairs”. Judson, in a dictionary he prepared in the early nineteenth century, noted that ayei-daw, while literally meaning royal affairs, was a term applied especially to wars waged by kings, but also rebellions, etc., while ayei-bon-sa (sa meaning paper) was a journal of military occurrences. In current daily parlance the term is generally taken to mean the style or nature of a movement or matter concerning royalty or the state; it indicates a political movement in a similar but more forceful sense than the alternative but neutral term hlok-sha-hmu. An ayei-daw-bon is also a body of literature, being the five or six historical accounts of the struggle for power by Kings Danyawadi Yazadarit, Hanthawadi Hsinbyushin, Nyaungyan Min. and Alaungpaya."® The word Ayedawbon continued to be used in the titles of over a score of books, after 1885 and the end of the Myanmar monarchy, right up to recent times. For example there are books called Thakin Nu Ayedawbon [Thakin Nu’s Struggle for Power] (1949), Taungthu Laithama Ayedawbon [Peasants’ Revolution] (1965), Kyaung-tha Ayedawbon (Students’ Revolution] (1956), Sethniu-lethmu Ayedawbon hnint Myanmar zwe [Industrial Revolution and Myanmar Perserverance] and so on. Obviously my paper does not cover these latter books.Ayedawbon Kyan 17 In this paper I will be writing about Ayedawbon kyan, asa distinct Myanmar literary genre, in the form of monographs which give historical accounts of royal campaigns and accounts of the lives of four famous Myanmar kings, namely : (1) Rajadirit (or Razadarit), A.D.1385 - 1423 (2) Hanthawaddy (Hamsavati) Hsinbyumya Shin ,or King Bayinnaung, A.D.1551 - 1581 (3) Nyaungyan Mintaya, A.D.1599 -1605 ¢2>° Qu": ta OQ (4) Alaung Mintaya Gyi or Alaungpaya ,A.D.1752- gered, 1760 ent The other two Ayedawbon kyan do not focus on particular kings, but on events in certain regions, viz. : (5) Dhanyawadi Ayedawben is on the Rakhine (Arakan) region from the time of Kanrajagyi, a king who reigned, ¢. 825 B.C. to events in A.D.1784 when Rakhine was annexed by the Myanmar King Bodawpaya. Dhanyawadi is the name of one of the capital cities of the Rakhine kings , and also a classical name (Pali) of this Kingdom (Arakan). (6) Majjhimadesa is the Myanmar word for central India; Majjhima meaning "the middle" and desa "region", or “country”. Judson’s Burmese-English Dictionary gives the meaning of Majjhimadesa as being a Pali word for the middle place, the middle part of the world, including the sixteen countries of India, famous in Buddhist history’. The Majjhimadesa Ayedawbon is about events in the Rakhine (Arakan) region during the reign of King Badon, or Bodawpaya, and about a Myanmar mission to India ; it covers the period A.D.1787 to about 1822. Cra rary” roe Distinctive characteristics of Ayedawbon kyan Atypical Ayedawbon treatise will have the following characteristics: Accounts of (1) how individuals of prowess fought to become kings; especially their military campaigns to achieve power and obtain the throne.18 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture (2) how these kings kept their power by various means and endeavours. (3) how there were rebellions against their power and the throne and how they were successfully crushed and quelled. (4) How wars were waged for the expansion of their territory", Problems in connection with Ayedawbon kyan The Ayedawbon kyan treatises pose a number of problems to scholars. Among them are : (1) Authorship of some of the texts. (2) The total number of Ayedawbon kyan that were written. (3) Language problems (at least one is a translation into Myanmar). (4) Whether some are parts of larger works. _(S5) Incomplete or corrupt texts. (6) Uncertain dates of composition or compilation . Two Myanmar scholars have tried to find solutions to some of these problems but they have only been partially redressed. These two scholars were Dr. Yi Yi'', eminent Myanmar researcher and historian of the Myanmar Historical Commission and Professor of Myanmar Literature at University of ‘Yangon, U Maung Maung Gyi;” both have now passed away. I will be discussing some of the problems based mainly on their writings and some recent findings of my own. Authorship Three of the Ayedawbon kyan have authorship problems : (1) Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon Woe (2) Nyaungyan Mintaya Ayedawbon 82>" ut bong @) Alaung Mintaya Gyi Ayedawbon (three versions) m0 Ee mos reer oecon Ayedawbon Kya ep cay sow y! (1) Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon The authorship of Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon is not given in the main reference source for Myanmar classical literature, viz. the Pitakat-taw Thamaing by U Yan . This bibliography by U Yan mentions the name of this Ayedawbon and says that it was written by a Saya [achar7] whose name is not known." The printed version found in various editions does not seem to be complete and no author’s name is found in the text or manuscripts. The authorship has been attributed tb (1) Letwe Nawrahta and (2) to U Tun Nyo (Twip-thin Taik Wun Maha Sithu) by different scholars. 5 Bor In the introdugtion to the Thudhamawadi edition of Ayedawbon Nga ‘Saung Dive, the editors Saya Bi, Saya Thein and Saya Ko Ba Kyaw attributed authorship to Letwe Nawrahta" and in later modern printed collected editions of the Ayedawbon kyan like the Myanmar Min Mya Ayedawbon. Prof. U Maung Maung Gyi writing in the Introduction agrees with the Thudhamawadi editors in giving the authorship to Letwe 19 ¥ por Nawrahta.'s I do not agree with these scholars. But well known researcher of the Myanmar Historical Commission, the late scholar and historian Dr. Yi Yi attributed authorship to U Tun Nyo based on a comparison of the style of writing.'® : Dr. Yi Yi compared the style of writing in the Hsinbyu- shin Ayedawbon with the writing in one of the versions of the Alaung-paya Ayedawbon. In both, the author at the close of each episode in the narrative writes “this is the end of this particular (name mentioned) Ayedawbon, one episode”. For example in Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon : “This is the end of the Ayedawbon, one episode, on the conquest of Taungoo City.’"” In the same style one of the versions of the Alaung Mintaya Ayedawbon which Dr.Yi Yi attributed to U Tun Nyo,20 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture at the end of each episode it is stated that this is the end of such and such Ayedawbon, one episode. In this Ayedawbon even the exact date is given for each event, e.g. “On 5" waxing of Wagaung, year 1114(A.D.1752 July 5) at a place called Shwe Paung Laung, the conquest over the Talaings [Mons] Ayedawbon, one episode is hereby ended.” To make the problem more complex, the version of the Alaung-paya Ayedawbon which Dr. Yi Yi identified as being by U Tun Nyo is attributed to Letwe Nawrahta by U Hla Tin (Hla Thamain) the editor of the two versions of the Alaung- paya Ayedawbon. Dr.Yi Yi is wrong as the | st published version of the Alaung-paya Ayedawbon is by Letwe Nawrahta. Some Myanmar scholars, apart from Dr. Yi Yi, gave Letwe Nawrahta as the author of the Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu- shin Ayedawbon. This is probably because Letwe Nawrahta did write an Ayedawbon usually called Hsinbyushin Ayedawbon but it was not on Bayinnaung but on King Bodawpaya. To resolve the authorship problem, I tried, about 25 years ago, to find a more complete version on palm-leaf manuscript of the Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon. I found a rare palm-leaf manuscript of this Ayedawbon whose text is more complete than the printed one, but there is no mention of the author’s name in the manuscript either. This manuscript version used to be is in the possession of Myanmar scholar and member of the Myanmar Historical Commisson, U Maung Maung Tin, but before he passed away, he donated the manuscript to the Universities Historical Research Centre; now Historical Research Dept. Unfortunately, this manuscript version did not solve the authorship problem either, but only made it more complex, for in the colophon the date 1033 Pyathoe lasan 5 (Myanmar Era) is given'*and it i- probably the date of copying or composition. If this date is correct, this Ayedawbon was written or copiedAyedawbon Kyan 21 in 1671. As Letwe Nawratha was born only in 1085 Waso la (1723) and U Tun Nyo in 1088 (1726/27) the Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon cannot be by either of these writers. Now we know that it is by Yazataman. One Myanmar author, Maung Kyauk Taing, in a fairly comprehensive article he wrote on Letwe Nawrahta in a book published by Myanmar Nainggan Sarpay Pyant Pwa-ye Athin (Myanmar Society for the Propagation of Literature] in 1974, mentioned that he had already seen a full, complete text of this Ayedawbon, in typescript, copied from a palm-leaf: ‘manuscript. He said that the text was the same as the one printed and published, only it had 17 typed pages extra at the end which gave the colophon'’® The colophon stated that the author was a Myanmar Minister whose title was Yazataman (Rajataman) who later received the title Oke-tha-raw, and that he served under King Bayinnaung.”* This seems to be correct, and therefore this Ayedawbon is a contemporary record. In early 2000, I was able to get a mimeographed copy of the complete text of this Ayedawbon, with the help of U Thein Hlaing, Deputy Director-General of the Universities Historical Research Centre. This mimeographed copy was made from a palm-leaf mss. copied in A.D.1839. The colophon states that the author Yazataman (Rajataman), with the title Oke-tha-raw, was requested by the Crown Prince, eldest son of King Bayinnaung and by the King’s younger brothers, the Kings of Pyi (Prome), Taungoo and Innwa (Ava) and also by the Ministers to compile this Ayedawbon in the year Myanmar Era 926(A.D.1564). Actually the Ayedawhon covers events up to A.D.1579, two years before King Bayinaung died suddenly after a short illness in 1581. The author also mentions that he compiled the Ayedawhon using contemporary sources, some inscriptions and 235 records of notable events that took place during the reign,22 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture Out of these records he selected 135, of which 100 were rejected as not being worthy of being recorded in this Ayedawbon. So it seems that the author wrote about only 35 important events, mainly military campaigns, that were successfully accomplished by the King, as he thought that they are important to record for posterity. I would like to see other palm-leaf mss. versions of these last 17 pages, to decide on their authenticity and to see whether there are variant texts. I feel sure that there are more complete texts of this Ayedawbon on palm-leaf, probably waiting to be “discovered” by some enterprising librarian or scholar, still lying neglected in one of the many monastic libraries of Myanmar. (2) Nyaungyan Mintaya Ayedawbon This is not listed by U Yan. The author’s name is also not given in the text of this Ayedawbon. After careful scrutiny of the text Dr. Yi Yi states that it is a composite work with text either directly copied or adapted from U Kala’s Maha Yazawin Gyi, the Great Chronicle of Myanmar, vols. 3 to 17 and 18 and from Min Ye Dibba Egyin, written around A.D.1608 by Shin Than Kho(1598-1638). The authorship of this work has been attributed to : (1) Maha Atula Dammika Yazar, the Judge who was the Myosa of Myin - gon - daing in the introduction of the Thudhamawadi edition by the editors.* (2) Letwe Nawrahta Prof. U Pe Maung Tin in his History of Burmese Literature attributed Nyaungyan Mintaya Ayedawbon to Letwe Nawrahta.? Prof. U Maung Maung Gy is of the opinion that Letwe Nawrahta wrote three Ayedawbon kyan which are in a way consecutive in historical events covered, ie. Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon on King Bayinnaung, Nyaungyan Mintaya Ayedawbon on the dynasty founded by PrinceAyedawbon Kyan 23 Nyaungyan, one of the sons of King Bayinnaung and Alaung Mintaya Gyi Ayedawbon, on King Alaung-paya who founded the Konbaung Dynasty, the Dynasty directly after the Nyaungyan Dynasty.?> Dr. Yi Yi on the other hand does not think that any of these authors wrote this Ayedawbon and that this work is just like a notebook in which exacts from U Kala and Min Ye Dibba E-gyin (a poem on the birth of Min Ye Dibba, a son of King Anaukphetlun) had been copied by someone.” Even if that is the case Nyaungyan Mintaya Ayedawbon is still of value to historians because there are only few works on the Nyaungyan Dynasty (AD 1597-1752). (3) Alaung Mintaya Gyi Ayedawbon This Ayedawbon kyan poses some of the most complex problems of authorship because at least three different versions have been found and two do not have authorship statements. According to U Yan, the Royal Librarian of King Mindon and King Thibaw, there are two versions. One is by Letwe Nawrahta and the other by U Tun Nyc. U Yan states that the one by Letwe Nawrahta is a contemporary record written during King Alaung-paya’s reign (1752-1760). At the time Letwe Nawrahta had the rank of Thandawsint* The other version that U Yan lists is the one that he says is by Twin-thin-taik Wun, Mingyi Maha Sithu, i.e. U Tun Nyo, a native of Maung Htaung village of Alon Myo (Alon town) A-het Taik (Upper tract). Unfortunately, U Yan does not give further details. A monograph entitled Alaung-paya Ayedawbon was first printed in 1883 by Okkalapa Press and later reprinted in 1900 in Yangon by the well-known printer and publisher, the Hanthawaddy Press, which transferred many valuable Myanmar and Pali manuscripts into printed form. These first printed versions did not give the name of any author, but only24 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture mentioned that it was by a wise man from the time of King Alaung-paya. In a new issue of 1943, with a new cover, the Hanthawaddy Press printed on the cover the name of the author as Twin-thin-taik Wun, Maha Sithu; this is incorrect. In the popular Thudhamawadi edition of the Ayedawbon Nga Saung Dwe, first published in 1923, the editors in the short, one page introduction attributed the authorship wrongly to Twin-thin-taik Wun, Maha Sithu (U Tun Nyo)**. Later collected editions of this version of Alaung Mintaya Ayedawbon changed the authorship to Letwe Nawrahta, because U Pe Maung Tin in his History of Burmese Literature®’ and Prof. U Maung Maung Gyi* both give the author as Letwe Nawrahta. In fact a later edition of the collected Ayedawbon kyan reprinted U Maung Maung Gyi’s article as an Introduction. | think this is correct. In 1961 the Ministry of Culture published two versions of Alaung-paya Ayedawbon, edited by U Hla Tin (writer Hla Thamain). U Hla Tin in his introduction states that a new version of the Alaung Mintaya Gyi Ayedawbon was found in the Myanmar National Library from the collection inherited from the Bernard Free Library. U Hla Tin says that the new version first published in this edition is by Letwe Nawrahta and that the earlier published version is by U Tun Nyo” (i.e. going back to the authorship given in the Hanthawaddy and Thudhamawadi editions). Dr. Yi Yi, on the other hand, after examining both texts in this new edition says that both are by U Tun Nyo, because she had seen a third version in manuscript form in the Mandalay University Library which had Letwe Nawrahta’s name in the text. Dr. Yi Yi states that the new version from the Bernard Free Library collection is the Alaung-paya Ayedawbon by U Tun Nyo and the earlier version published by Hanthawaddy, Thudhamawadi and others is also by U Tun Nyo but that it isAyedawbon Kyan 26 not a separate Ayedawbon but only the part on Alaung-paya from the author’s Maha Yazawin Thit2° Dr. Yi Yi’s verdict is partially accepted by scholars. In popular collected editions, Letwe Nawrahta’s name still appears as the author. This has come about because there seems to be two versions by Letwe Nawrahta and they still remain in manuscript form and have not been printed in book form up to now. Maung Kyauk Taing made a careful comparison of the two Alaung-paya Ayedawbon published together in 1961, and he disagrees with Dr, Yi Yi’s verdict. He thinks that they are by two different authors and gives detailed analysis of the texts to prove his contention. He accepts that the first published version is by U Tun Nyo but not the version published in 1961. He says that we still need to do further research to find out who the author is, as he does not think Letwe Nawrahta wrote it either." These attributions are incorrect. Recent research by Daw Ohn Kyi indicates that the first published text is by Letwe Nawrahta. The other Ayedawbon kyans do not have problems of authorship. p00 (4) The Dhanyawadi Ayedawbon in the colophon mentions at it was written by the Rakhine Sayadaw (i.e. Abbot fe of Ai fakan) whose title was Kawitharabi Thiri-pawara pur 2gga-maha Dhamma-razadi-razagura. It was written in ad Myanmar Era 1149 = A.D.1787, i.e. three years after the °" Rakhine Kingd to an end. ee gdom came te (5) Rajadirit Ayedawbon is now widely accepted as being written, or rather compiled and translated into Myanmar (from some Mon historical texts whose authors are not known), by Banya Dala, a Mon Minister and General who served under King Bayinnaung (1551-1581). Banya Dala dates are roughly from about A.D.1518 to 1572. Banya Dala was undoubtedly a man of great ability, a Mon patriot, a well-known military commander, minister and author. He later fell into disgrace due26 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture toa military failure and was exiled by King Bayinnaung to central Thailand, to a malarious place called Zanet. The King of Ayutthaya took pity on him, and with the consent of King Bayinnaung transferred him to Kamphaeng Pet old town around A.D.1572, but Banya Dala is said to have fallen sick and died within a month of his arrival there. When Rajadirit Ayedawbon was first published in 1923, the Thudhamawadi editors erroneously attributed the authorship to Sithu Gamani Thingyan.” But U Yan states that Sithu Gamani Thingyan wrote only two historical works, namely the Zinme Yazawin (the Myanmar chronicle of Chiang Mai) and the Rakhine Yazawin.* U Yan and later U Pe Maung Tin stated that this Ayedawbon is by Banya Dala, and this was supported by U Maung Maung Gyi and Dr. Yi Yi. So there is no controversy in connection with the authorship of this Ayedawbon. Banya Dala’s writing has been praised as a model of good Myanmar prose of the early Taungoo period and the text was prescribed for Myanmar Literature students at one time.* In the British Library, Oriental and India Office Collections there is a palm - leaf manuscript entitled Magadu Ayedawbon. On further examination of the text this has been found to be the first portions of the Rajadirit Ayedawbon, concerning Magadu who later became Lord of Martaban under the title Wareru (AD 1287-1296). So this Ayedawbon cannot be designated as a separate one. The Rajadirit Ayedawbon being a compilation and translation into Myanmar language from Mon historical records and also because it was written in’the language of nearly 500 years ago, there are many obscure words and passages in the text. Sithu U Kaung who established the Burma (Myanmar) Historical Commission in 1955 and became its first Chairman, requested the Mon scholar, Dr. Nai Pan Hla, to make a modern Myanmar translation from the Mon version later published by the Burma Research Society.**Ayedawbon Kyan 27 (6) Majjhimadesa Ayedawbon does not have any authorship problems either as it is clearly stated in the colophon to the palm-leaf manuscripts that it was written by Nay Myo Zeya Kyaw Htin, the Governor of Dwarawadi (or Sandoway/ Than Dwe) town. He was born in Mrauk-U, the old capital of the Rakhine Kingdom; his father was a Rakhine, who was also a governor and his mother was a Myanmar, a descendant of Tnnwa(Ava) royalty.” The writing of this Ayedawbon was completed on 17th November 1823 ; we know this because the Myanmar equivalent date is given in the colophon (Myanmar Era 1185 Tazaungmon La-san 5% The main problem which concerns Majjhimadesa Ayedawbon is whether it is a real Ayedawbon . The author himself does not call it an Ayedawbon but only a Sadan or treatise**. Dr Yi Yi also rejects it from the Ayedawbon list’. Only U Hla Tun Phyu* who did a Masters thesis at Yangon University by editing and writing on this Ayedawbon tries to prove that it is a true Ayedawbon. : (7) Lastly, I would like to mention another Ayedawbon kyan which is still in manuscript form, and which I have recently found. Maung Kyauk Taing says that Letwe Nawrahta wrote another important Ayedawbon kyan, apart from the Alaung- paya Ayedawbon. It is also called Hsinbyushin Mintaya Ayedawbon Thamaing, but it is not on King Bayinnaung; it is on King Badon or Bodawpaya®,one of the sons of King Alaung- paya. On the manuscript, the title does not have the word Ayedawbon; the title is Min Khan-daw Sardan. But the author in the opening passage has the phrase Hsinbyushin Mintaya Gyi Ayedawbon Thamaing and some have called this work under this name. Mimeographed copies have been made by U Htun Yee. Hsinbyushin means “Owner / Possessor of the White28 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture Elephant” and it is often used in the title of some Myanmar kings. With King Bayinnaung the plural “mya” is suffixed to “Hsinbyu” = White Elephant(s) and he is often known as Hsinbyumyashin. The other famous Myanmar King Hsinbyushin was one of the sons of King Alaungpaya and reigned from A.D.1763-17. King Bodawpaya (1782- 1819) is usually not referred to as Hsinbyushin, although it was one of his titles. Historical Periods Covered in Each Ayedawhon Kyan (1) Dhanyawadi Ayedawbon Covers the period c. 825 B.C. from the reign of Kanrajagyi of the Dhanyawadi Period to A.D.1784 when the line of Rakhine kings came to an end. Like most histories of Rakhine after a short account of the legendary kings, the history starts with Sanda Thuriya (A.D.146-198). The text has many homilies and wise counsels given to various kings on good govenance by wise men and ministers. From the time of Sanda Thuriya, the line of Rakhine kings is given, with more detailed accounts of kings Minbyagyi, Min Phalaung and Min Rajagyi until the time of Maha Thamada Raja Min when Rakhine became part of the Myanmar kingdom in 1784. The text was written soon after and finished on 10 February 1788 as the Myanmar equivalent date was recorded in the colophon. (2) Majjhimadesa Ayedawbon This Ayedawbon is also on Rakhine and continues from A.D.1784 to about 1816, The text can be divided into three parts: Pt.1 covers the period of rebellion against Myanmar tule by followers of the last Rakhine king from about AD 1794 to 1795, and tells how it was crushed. Pt.2 is on Nga Chin Byan’s rebellion from about A.D. 1798 to 1811. Pt.3 is on Myanmar missions sent by King BodawpayaAyedawbon Kyan 29 to India to collect manuscripts, and also to carry out intelligence work on the British expansion into India, The author of this Ayedawbon, Zeya Kyaw Htin, led the official mission of 1812. Near the end of the text are some Royal Orders of the Myanmar king in connection with the mission, including records about an Indian Princess and her retinue sent to King Bodawpaya in 1814-18 and a Royal Order to repair and widen the ‘Royal Road” between Dwarawadi (Sandoway) on the sea coast across the Rakhine Yoma mountains to the Ayeyawady River (near Pyay or Prome). (3) Rajadirit Ayedawbon Unlike the other three Ayedawbon kyan which have the name of the king in the title of the work, Rajadirit Ayedawbon is not only on Rajadirit (A.D.1385-1423) but the text begins much earlier with Magadu who became king of the Mon territory of Lower Myanmar as King Wareru (A.D.1287- 1296). This Ayedawbon covers a period of about 165 years as it ends with the death of Rajadirit in 1423. The early portion of this Ayedawbon before Rajadirit has been copied in a separate palm-leaf manuscript under the title Magadu Ayedawbon. It is now in the British Library, Oriental and India Office Collections (Burmese manuscript 0.3449). Rajadirit Ayedawbon is an interesting work of literature because it has many stories, accounts of court intrigues, rebellions, diplomatic ventures and so on, and you can now read it in my friend and colleague U San Lwin’s excellent translation into English, You will meet many intriguing characters, and towering above them all is King Rajadirit, fighting against his rival, the Myanmar King Min Khaung, but magnanimously mourning him when he died. Rajadirit is portrayed as a wise,30 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture righteous king, chivalrous, admiring wise men, kind to women and to his followers, in short a good Buddhist monarch whose conduct could be held up for emulation.* (4) Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon The text is on the life, especially the military campaigns of King Bayinnaung (1551-1581). GE.Harvey writes that “His life was the greatest explosion of human energy ever seen in Burma. From his teens till his death (at 66) he was constantly in the field, leading every major campaign in person”.* This Ayedawbon is a detailed record of these military campaigns, a number of them being against the Shans, Chiang Mai; Ayutthaya and Linzin (Vientiane). The Ayedawbon does not cover King Bayinnaung’s younger days, his life as “Maung Chadet” (Cadet in Thai romantic fiction) or his alleged romances with the ladies. It begins around A.D.1549 with his rise to kingship. The printed version ends abruptly in 1576 with the arrival of a Princess from Sri Lanka together with a Buddha’s tooth. This was about five years before his death. The missing last 17 pages contain more material right up to 1579, two years before his death. Actually, there were no more military campaigns in the last five years of his life. In 1581 he was planning a campaign to conquer Rakhine, some of his advance forces had already taken Than Dwe (Sandoway), when he fell sick and died suddenly in Bago (Hanthawaddy) at the age of 66. Now that I have obtained the last 17 pages of this Ayedowbon, which had been missing in the printed versions, I can relate what is in these pages. As expected there are no records of further campaigns. More importantly and of much value to historians are the six events recorded in this last part. They include: (1) The building of the royal palace at HanthawaddyAyedawbon Kyan 31 (Hamsavati) or Bago (Pegu), giving in the detail the names of the twenty gates of the walled city and the names of the various buildings of the palace. The text states that it was modelled on the royal palaces in Taungoo and Ayutthaya with three inner enclosures. (2) Conferring on his second son, Nawrahta Minsaw, in A.D.1579, the kingship of Zinme (Chiang Mai) which the King regarded as Suvanna-bhumi, the golden land, at a royal ceremony in a specially constructed royal pavillion in front of the Maha Zedi (Chedi) at Bago(Pegu). It also tells how the great King admonished the Crown Prince and his second son, the King of Chiang Mai to live always in harmony with brotherly love. (3) The construction of A-Myawaddy (or Myawaddy) Town on the Myanmar eastern border (with Thailand), in A.D. 1576, as a frontier defence outpost with four trading centres (bazaars) in it, named respectively Hanthawaddy, Yodaya (Ayutthaya), Zinme (Chiang Mai) and Lin Zin (Vientianne). (4) The construction of Kale town near the Myanmar north-western border (with India and China) in A.D.1576. (5) An account of trading with foreign countries and the myriad kinds of goods brought by the 40 to 50 ica which annually came to Pathein (Bassein). (6) The construction of four stupas at the four corners of the royal capital city of Hanthawaddy. (5) Alaung Mintaya Gyi Ayedawbon Both of the published texts of this Ayedawbon cover the life of King Alaung-paya from birth to death, and give many details of his military campaigns. The first published version by the Hanthawaddy and Thudhamawadi presses begins with a short account tracing Alaung-paya’s purported ancestry and descent from a daughter of the Bagan King Narapati Sithu. Another version first published in 1961 by the Ministry32 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture of Culture begins with accounts of the Buddha’s legéndary visit, to various parts of central Myanmar and his prophesies. : It also gives short accounts of Pyu and Bagan kings and tells how Alaung-paya’s forebears (all allegedly decended from Pyu and Bagan royalty) travelled north to Moksobo (later renamed Shwebo). Both texts then gives Alaung-paya’s birth at Moksobo in A.D.1714, of how the Mon king sacked Innwa (Ava) and took away the Myanmar king and royal family to Hanthawaddy in 1752 and how Alaung-paya rebelled and fought against the Mons to regain Myanmar supremacy. In the military campaigns recorded in this Ayedawbon we can sce the Mon power finally crushed, some Mon towns like Dagon, for example, renamed Yangon (or End of Strife) and many details of the short reign (A.D.1752-1760) are given. Both texts end with Alaung-paya’s death from an unspecified illness on his return journey after a failed campaign against Ayutthaya in 1760. The two unpublished versions of Alaung-paya Ayedawbon both mention Letwe Nawrahta as the author; one is the most complete text not only on King Alaung-paya’s reign but also gives an account of 40 years before his rule began, i.e. from about 1711 or 1712. The history of these 40 years has been published in a mimeographed form by U Htun Yee (pen- name Shayhaung Sarpay Thutaythi Ta Oo) (40 pages, foolscap size). U Htun Yee gave the title Nyaungyan Khit Nhit 40 Yazawin [40 years of the Nyaungyan Period]. On reading through the first pages of this text the author is mentioned as Letwe Nawrahta and the author himself calls the text an Ayedawbon and the title of the whole work Alaung Mintaya Gyi Athtokepatti Ayedawbon Yazawin (Athtokepatti is the Myanmar word for Biography.)** The text of this Ayedawbon uscd to be in the Mandalay University Library, but at present the palm-leaf manuscript seems to be lost and cannot be located.Fortunately, Dr.Yi Yi made aAyedawbon Kyan 33 typescript copy before she died. The manuscript has the heading Letwe Nawrahta Yazawin, and comprises of 13 anga (i.e. 156 leaves) and eight leaves (a total of 164 leaves) with nine lines of writing per leaf. A shorter version also by Letwe Nawrahta has been found in Mandalay University Library my at request by one of my former students U Cho Min; it will be published by the Historical Research Department at a later date. It is edited by Daw Ohn Kyi, Retd. Prof. of History and present Member of MHC. (6) Hsinbyushin Ayedawbon This Ayedawbon is also by Letwe Nawrahta and it is on the early years of King Bodawpaya (reigned 1782-1819). Itremains in manuscript form. There are mimeographed copies. According to writer and researcher U Htun Yee, the palmleaf manuscript has six anga (i.e. 72 leaves) and two leaves (atotal of 74 leaves) with 12 lines to a leaf. It covers only the first four or five years of Bodawpaya’s reign to 1786. The author himself died in 1791, having risen to prominence under King Alaung-paya, he faithfully served under all three sons of Alaung-paya who became kings. As Bodawpaya died only in 1819, 28 years after the author, this Ayedawbon covers only the campaigns Bodawpaya waged to obtain the throne, especially the crushing of rebellions by Phaungasa Maung Maung and Nga Phone. It also tells how Amarapura was built as the royal capital, about the coronation ceremonies and the author gives even prices of rice, fish paste (ngapi) and so on.” This Ayedawbon is a useful source for records of the Rakhine campaign under the Crown Prince, the Prince of Shwe Daung in 1784 including detailed accounts of how the Maha Muni image was brought to Amarapura. There are also detailed accounts of royal appurtenances which were displayed according to custom both to the left and to the right of the main throne, and about the court dresses,34 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture crowns, and so on, which cannot be found in the main published source for the period, the Konbaungset Maha Yazawin-daw Gyi. It is also a contemporary account unlike some of the later histories. Although the author himself calls his work an Ayedawbon, the palm-leaf manuscript has as the main heading Min Khan Daw Sardan [Treatise on Royal Ceremonies}.“* The mimeographed copies made by U Htun Yee are under this title. Conclusion T have given a brief survey of the Ayedawbon kyan, Myanmar historical treatises written between King Bayinnaung’s reign (1551-1581) from mid-16th century to A.D.1823, i.e. early 19" century. These treatises were a popular Myanmar literary genre of historical writing that were copied on palm-leaf manuscripts from generation to generation. What historical value do they have? Many are contemporary writings written during the period they covered like Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon and Alaung Mintaya Gyi Ayedawbon and consequently could be historically more accurate. Most of the authors were exceptional Myanmar people: active military commanders, able ministers and competent writers like Banya Dala under King Bayinnaung and Letwe Nawrahta under Kings Alaung-paya and his sons right up to the reign of King Bodawpaya. The authors obviously admired the kings they wrote about. They are good historical records and a very useful adjunct to the Myanmar Chronicles like U Kala’s and Hman- nan (Glass Palace Chronicle). Some gave much more detailed accounts as they were written by men who took a leading part in the events recorded. They not only cover Myanmar history, but are also aAyedawbon Kyan 35 good source for Mon and Rakhine history. For many of us who cannot’ read the Mon language the Rajadirit Ayedawbon in Myanmar language and now in English published by Chulalongkorn University, gives an interesting account of early Mon history as recorded in the Mon historical texts entitled Okpanna Suvanna Bhumi Arranba Kahta and Thudhammawadi Thiha Rajadi-raja vumsa kyan.® For aconcise history of Rakhine under their own kings, from early times to A.D.1784, the Dhanyawadi Ayedawbon is a good historical record written a few years after the last of the Rakhine kings had been deposed. Some of the Ayedawbon kyan like the Rajadirit Ayedawbon are rare examples of good Myanmar prose of the 16th century and also an example of early translation into Myanmar from Mon. Some of the authors were high officials under the kings they served and, therefore, had access to court records kept in the king’s archives, or record offices. Unfortunately, most of these court records have been destroyed during turbulent times, and so the Ayedawbon kyan treatises preserve some of the valuable historical records in a condensed form. The subjects covered in the Ayedawbon kyan, events during the reigns of some of the great kings of Myanmar, are important not only for Myanmar history but for Thai history as well, especially Rajadirit, Hanthawaddy Hsinbyu-shin(King Bayinnaung) and Alaung-paya Ayedawbon treatises. What we still need to do is to find more mss. versions of Ayedawbon kyan, to collate different copies and bring out scholarly editions, edited by competent researchers; also to translate some of them into English so that they could be read and studied by a wider circle of scholars interested in Myanmar and Thai history. | hope that scholars both from within Myanmar and from outside will join us in these endeavours. Thope my paper, in however small a way, will contribute36 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture towards a wider knowledge and understanding of this important Myanmar literary genre recording historical events, the Ayedawbon kyan. Appendix U Yan’s list of Ayedawbon kyan in his bibliography of Myanmar, Pali and Sanskrit texts on all aspects of Myanmar literature during monarchical times (i.e. up to 1885) is given below. U Yan, known under his designatory title as Maing Khaing, Myosa (1815-1891) was the Royal Librarian at the Court of the last two Myanmar kings, King Mindon and King Thibaw. His bibliography was completed in 1888 and is entitled Pitakat Thamaing™. It lists the Ayedawbon kyan (and authors if known to him) that were probably in the Royal Library under his charge. Myanmar scholar U Tet Htoot has given this list as part of the bibliography of historical texts (listed by U Yan) with some of his (U Tet Htoot)’s own comments : [U Yan’s item no. 2033]. Yazadhirit Ayebon, Memoir on the reign of Yazadhirit by Bhinnyadala, a Mon who served under Bayinnaung as a minister. He plotted many times to assassinate Bayinnaung but the latter spared him as being a wise man. He was disgraced by Bayinnaung only when he meddled in military affairs in his campaigns in Siam during the latter part of his reign. [U Yan’s item no. 2034]. Hanthawaddy Hsinbyumyashin, Ayebon, Memoir on the reign of Bayinnaung, Anonymous. [U Yan’s item no. 2035]. Alaung Mintayagyi Ayebon, Memoir on the reign of Alaung-paya by Letwe Noratha. See Monywe Sayadaw’s account of him in U Tet Htoot’s paper. U Yan mentions that Letwe Noratha had the rank of a Thandawsint and that this Ayedawbon was written during Alaung-paya’s reign. [U Yan’s item no. 2036]. Alaung Mintayagyi Ayebon, Another memoir on the reign of Alaung-paya by Twin-thin-taik Wun, Mingyi Maha Sithu . U Yan mentions that Maha Sithu wasAyedawbon Kyan 37 born in Maung Htaung village in [Upper] Alon. (His real name was U Tun Nyo). U Tet Htoot thinks that this is the one which had been published from out of these two memoirs.5! Endnotes 'Myanmar-English Dictionary. 2" ed, 1993. p. 587. 2Judson, Adoniram. A Dictionary of the Burman Language. Unauthorized I* ed. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1826. p-28. >The Judson Bumese - English Dictionary. 2" ed. 1921. p. 100. ‘4Burmese-English Dictionary, compiled by J. A. Stewart and C. W. Dunne; revised and edited by Hla Pe, A. J. Allott and J. W. A. Okell. Pt. V. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1969. p. 319. SIbid. p.319. ‘Hla Pe, Dr. ‘’Observations on some of the indigenous sources for Burmese history down to 1886”, in the author’s Burma: Literature, historiography, scholarship, language, life and Buddhism. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1985. p.42. Taye Kyaw, Dr. “Burmese sources for Lan Na Thai history” . . . p.247. *Taylor, Dr, Robert H.‘’ Burmese concepts of revolution,” in Context meaning and power in Southeast Asia. \thaca,N.Y.: Comell University, SEAP, 1986. p. 82. °The Judson Burmese-English Dictionary ...2° ed. rev. 1921. p.741. ‘Hla Tun Phyu ,U,ed. Majjhimadesa Ayedawbon Kyan ... 1998. p. Kaw Gon). ‘yi Yi, Dr. “Ayedawbon kyan mya pyat-thana”, [The problems of Ayedawbon kyan), in Kantha Sein-Lei sardanmya. ‘Yangon : Minhla Sarpay, 1969 . p.30-62. "Maung Maung Gyi, Tetkatho. “ Ayedawbon Chauk Saung”, [The six vols. of Ayedawbon] in the author’s Sar Myet Shu. Yangon : Kyonbyaw Sarpay , distributed by Aleinma Sarpay (1964 ] p.275-283. ‘Yan ,U (Maing Khaing Myosa). Pitakat-taw thamaing ... 1959. p.266, item no . 2034. “\4yedawbon Nga Saung Dwe. Yangon: Thudhamawadi, 1923. (1) page introduction (no page no.) 'SMyanmar Min Mya Ayedawbon. Yangon: B.E. distributed by Nant Tha Taik, 1967. p.7. T. Sar-oke Taik,38 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture '6yi Yi, Dr. “Ayedawbon kyan mya pyat-thana”. . . p.50. ™Hanthawaddy Hsinbyushin Ayedawbon,” in Myanmar Min Mya Ayedawbon . . . Nant Tha edition. 1967. p.325 . '*Hsinbyumyashin Mintaya Gyi Ayedawbon. Typescript copied from palm-leaf manuscript in U Maung Maung Tin (M.A.)’s Collection. Yangon: Universities Central Library, 1985. Leaf 141, (UCLAccession no. 327461). ’Kyauk Taing, Maung. “ Thukhamain U Nay i Sarpay Gita Thutaythana”, in Min Letwe Nawrahta (1085-1335). Yangon : Myanmar Nainggan Sarpay Pyant Pwa-ye Athin, 1974. p. 111-112. [bid. p. 112-113. 21 Ayedawbon Nga Saung Dwe . . . 1923. (1) page introd. (no page no.) 22Pe Maung Tin, U. History of Burmese Literature ...4" edition ... [1955]. p. 179. Maung Maung Gyi, U, Tetkatho. “Ayedawbon Chauk Saung”. [1964] p.280-81. *Yi Yi, Dr. “Ayedawbon kyan mya pyat-thana” ...p. 53. 25Yan, U. (Maing Khaing Myosa). Pitakat-taw-thamaing ... 1959. p. 266, item nos. 2035 and 2036. © Ayedawbon Nga Saung Die . .. 1923. (1) page introd. (no page no.) 27Pe Maung Tin, U. History of Burmese Literature . . .4* edition ... [1955]. p. 177-179. Maung Maung Gyi, U Tetkatho. “Ayedawbon Chauk Saung”. . . [1964] p.280-81. ®Alaung-paya Ayedawbon, Hnit Saung Dwe [Two versions], ed. by U Hla Tin ( Hla Thamain). Yangon : Ministry of Culture, 1961, See “Introduction”, by U Hla Tin for detailed comparison of the texts, p..1-13. +°Yi Yi, Dr. “Ayedawbon kyan mya pyat-thana”, ... 1969. p. 45. *'Kyauk Taing, Maung. “Thukhamain U Nay”. .. 1974, p.116-121. “Dhanyawadi Ayedawbon in Myanmar Min 3..a Ayedawbon . . . Nant Tha ed. 1967. p. 131. » Ayedawbon Nga Saung Dwe . .. 1923. (1) page introd. (no page no.) *Yan, U. Pitakat-taw thamaing ... 1959. p. 264, item nos. 2018 and 2019. see also my article on Sithu Gamani Thingyan in. Proceedings of the 6* International Conference on Thai Studies .. .1996. Sithu Gamani Thingyan’s Zinme Yazawin has now been published in an English translation by UAyedawbon Kyan 39 Thaw Kaung and Daw Ni Ni Myint, in Yangon by the Universities Historical Research Centre, 2003. **Zaw Gyi (pen-name of famous Myanmar author U Thein Han), “Mon wungyi hnint Myanmar zagapye,” reprinted in Rajadirit Ayedawbon. 3" ed. Yangon: Zwe Sarpay Yeik Myon, 1974. P. sa (go) fo pna (6). **Rajadirit Ayedawbon. Mon version ed. by Nai Pan Hla. Yangon: Burma Research Society, 1958. (Mon text series, no. 3). See also the Introduction by Nai Pan Hla to his new translation of Rajadirit Ayedawbon. Yangon: Myawaddy Sarpay Taik, 1997. p. 11. Nai Pan Hla points out that the Mon text is actually a compilation from earlier Mon histories, and the title Rajadirit Ayedawbon was given only later. ”Majjhimadesa Ayedawbon; ed. by U Hla Tun Phyu. Yangon: Moe Kyi Sarpay, distributed by Rakhine Thagyi Sarpay, 1998. Pp. phe (6). ~*lbid. p. phaw (¢e>) for a fuller biography of the author by U Hla Tun Phyu see p.1. »*Majjhimadesa Ayedawbon ...1998. p.phe (6) and phaw (605). “Yi Yi, Dr. “Ayedawbon kyan mya pyat-thana” . . . 1969. p.60. “Hla Tun Phyu, U. “Introduction”, Majjhimadesa Ayedawbon... 1998. p.kan (3) to khe (8). “Kyauk Taing, Maung, “Thukhamain U Nay ..1974. p.136-137. “ See also Zaw Gyi’s literary appreciation of Rajadirit Ayedawbon reprinted in the introductory part of the Zaw Sarpay edition of this Ayedawbon under the title “Mon wungyi hnint Myanmar zagapye” ... 1974, p. hsa(so) to da (9) “Harvey, G. E. History of Burma... 1925.p.174. “*[Nyaungyan Khit Nhit 40 Yazawin], by Letwe Nawrahta, Presented by Shayhaung Sarpay Thutaythi Ta Oo. Yangon: Myanmar Hmu Beikman Sarpay Ban [1970s?] p.182. “Htun Yee, U (Writing under the pen-name Shay Haung Sarpay Thutaythi Ta Oo). “Letwe Nawrahta Bawa hnint Sarpay” (Life and Writings of Letwe Nawrahta] in Min Letwe Nawrahta... 1974. p. 280. © jbid. p.281. “ Kyauk Taing, Maung. “ Thukhamain U Nay Sarpay Gita Thutay- thana” ... 1974, p. 137. “ Rajadirit Ayedawbon, translated from Mon by Nai Pan Hla.. 1997.p.11,40 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture *Yan, U (Maing Khaing Myosa). Pitaka-taw thamaing . . .Yangon: Hanthawaddy, 1959 (reprint). p. 265-66. 5'Tet Htoot, U. “ The nature of the Burmese chronicles,” in Historians of South East Asia; ed.by D. G. E. Hall. London: Oxford University Press, 1963 . p. 60. Bibliography In English Aye Kyaw,Dr. “Burmese Sources for Lan NaThai History.” Harvey, G. E. Historyof Burma... London: Longmans, Green, 1925. Hila Pe,Dr. “Observations on Some of the Indigenous Sources for Burmese History Down to1886,”in the author’s Burma: Literature, Historiography, Scholarship,Language, Life and Buddhism, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1985. Judson, Adoniram. A Dictionary of the Burmese Language. Unauthorized 1“ ed. Calcutta : Baptist Mission Press, 1826. Judson, Adoniram. The Judson Burmese English Dictionary, 2°¢ ed. Yangon: American Baptist Mission Press, 1921. Myanmar Language Commission. Myanmar-English Dictionary. 2™4 ed. Yangon: The Commission, 1993. Stewart, J. A. et.al. Burmese-English Dictionary; compiled by J.A. Stewart and C, W. Dunne; revised and edited by Hla Pe, AJ. Allott and J.W.A .Okell. Pt. V.London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1969. Taylor, DrRobert H. “Burmese Concepts of Revolution”,in Context, Meaning and Power in Southeast Asia, Ithaca, N.Y: Comell University, SEAP, 1986. Tel Htoot, U “The Nature of the Burmese Chronicles”, in Historians of South East Asia; ed. by D. G. E.Hall. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. p. 50. Thaw Kaung ,U and Daw Ni Ni Myint. “Sithu Gamani Thingyan and his Zinme Chronicle,” in Proceedings of the 6” International Conference of Thai Studies. Chiang Mai: The Conference, 1996, In Myanmar Alaung-paya Ayedawbon, Hnit Saung Twe [Two versions of Alaungpaya Ayedawbon]; ed. by U Hla Tin(Hla Thamain). Yangon: Ministry of Culture, 1961.+ Ayedawbon Kyan 41 Ayedawbon Nga Saung Dwe; ed. by Saya Bi , Saya Thein and Saya Ko Ba Gyaw. Yangon: Thudhamawadi, 1923. Chit Pe, U(M.A.). Tivinthin Sarso. Yangon: U Aung Thaung for Yangon Arts and Science University, Myanmar Sar Athin, 1975, Hla Tun Phyu, U, ed. Majjhimadesa Ayedawbon Kyan; ed. by Hla Tun Phyu. Yangon: Moe Kyi Sarpay; distributed by Rakhine Thagyi Sarpay, 1998. Introduction p.1-9; Ka (co)-htar (go). Hsinbyumyashin Mintaya Gyi Ayedawbon. Typescript copied from palm-icaf manuscript in U Maung Maung Tin(M.A)’s private collection. Yangon: Universities’ Central Library, 1985.(UCL Accession no.327461) Htun Yee, U. ( Shayhaung Sarpay Thutaythi Ta Oo ). ‘ Letwe Nawrathta Bawa hnint Sarpay,” [Life and Writings of Letwe Nawrahta ] in Min Letwe Nawrahta( 1085-1335). Yangon: Myanmar Nainggan Sarpay Pyant-pwa-ye Athin , 1974, p. 179-300. Kyauk Taing, Maung ‘‘ Thukhamain U Nay i Sarpay Gita Thutaythana,” in Min Letwe Nawrahta (1085 - 1335). Yangon: Myanmar-hmu Beikman Sarpay Pyant-pwa-ye Athin, 1974.p.40-178, Letwe Nawrahta.[Nyaungyan Khit Nkit 40 Yazawin]; compiled by Shayhaung Sapay Thutaythi Ta Oo. Yangon: Myanmar-hmu Beikman Sarpay Ban [no date. 198-7] Maung Maung Gyi, Tetkatho. “Ayedawbon Chauk Saung”, [The ‘Six Volumes of Ayedawbon] in the author’s Sar Myel-shu. Yangon: Kyonbyaw Sarpay; distributed by Aleinmar Sarpay {1964].p.275-283. Myanmar Min Mya Ayedawbon. Yangon: B.E.T. Sar-oke Taik; distributed by Nant Tha Taik, 1967. Oketharaw(Rajataman). Hanthawaddy Ayedawbon. Mimeographed. Copied from palm-leaf manuscript. Yangon: [No publisher], 1967.98 leaves. Privately distributed. Copy available in Historical Research Dept. This is the compete text of the Hanthawaddy Sinbyu-shin Ayedawbon. Now published as Hanthawaddy Sinbyu-shin Ayedawbon Hmawgun U-dan; ed. by Dr. Toe Hla . Yangon: Myanmar Historical Commission, 2006. Pe Maung Tin, U. Myanmar Sarpay Thamaing ( History of Burmese Literature ).4® cd. Yangon: Thudhamawadi, 1955.42 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture Rajadirit Ayedawbon. Mon version ed. by Nai Pan Hla. Yangon: Burma Research Society, 1958, (Mon text series, no.3) Rajadirit Ayedawbon; new translation from Mon by Nai Pan Hla. 2™4 ed. Yangon: Myawaddy Sarpay Taik, 1997. Yan ,U.Maing Khaing Myosa. Pitakat-taw Thamaing ; ed .by U Khin Soe and others. New ed. Yangon: Hanthawaddy Press, 1959, : Yi Yi, Dr.‘Ayedawbon kyan mya pyat-thana,” [ The problems of Ayedawbon treatises], in Kantha Sein-lei Sardan Mya. Yangon: Minhla Sarpay, 1969. p. 30-62. Zaw Gyi(pen-name of U Thein Han). ‘Mon Wungyi hnint Myanmar Zagapyay”, reprinted in Banya Dala. Yazadarit Ayedawbon 3" ed. Yangon: Zwe Sarpay Ycik Myone, 1974. p-hsa (so) to pha @) Zeya Kyaw Htin ( Dwarawadi Myowun ). Majjhimadesa Ayedawbon Kyan ; ed. by U Hla Tun Phyu. Yangon: Moe Kyi Sarpay; distributed by Rakhine Thagyi Sarpay, 1998.Two Compilers of Myanmar History 43 Two Compilers of Myanmar History and their Chronicles* Introduction From about the second or third decade of the 18" century to mid-19" century, a profusion of historical works were compiled in Myanmar. It was the great age of Myanmar historical writing. Myint Swe' lists (9) works for the late 18" century and (12) works for the early 19% century. Victor Lieberman, in a fascinating new book?, has also written of the popularization of historical and legal texts in Myanmar from around 1711. With cultural integration in early 18" century Myanmar, there was wider literacy, and laymen, not monks, began to dominate the transmission of information scene. The first real chronicle of Myanmar was written in prose by U Kala (c. 1678-1738), the Maha Yazawin- daw- gyi (The Great Chronicle)’, probably in the third decade of the 18" century. To cite Victor Lieberman “After U Kala came a rain of [imperial] chronicles” including both private and official histories, by laymen as well as monks‘. On 3" May 1829 King Bagyidaw (1819-1837) appointed a committee of thirteen “learned monks, learned Brahmans [Punnas] and learned ministers” and other officials tocompile an official chronicle of Myanmar kings from records available at the Royal Court. This committee produced the first Hman-nan Yazawin-daw-gyi, (the Glass Palace *First published in Myanmar Historical Commission [Golden Jubilee] Conferenc proceedings. Part 1. Yangon: MHC. 2005p. 372-287. .44 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture Chronicle), which relied heavily for its early parts on U Kala, though some statements of this author were rejected by the Committee®. For the later part, there were the Court Records especially from the establishment of the Konbaung Dynasty in 1752. This Committee was the equivalent of our present Myanmar Historical Commission formed after Independence on 26" January 1955 by Prime Minister U Nu, and placed directly under the P. M. in its earlier years, though now we are under the Ministry of Culture (since 2007) with the Minister as Chairman. The Burma Research Society established in 1910 had a programme to publish, in printed book-form, important texts from Myanmar palm-leaf and parabike paper manuscripts. BRS in 1926 published vol. 1 of U Kala’s Maha Yazawin- daw-gyi, followed by vol. 2 in 1932. This text was the first standard chronicle of Myanmar covering all periods of history from the earliest times to the author’s time. The Hman-nan Yazawin-daw-gyi had also been published in book form much earlier, vol. 1 in 1883 and vol.2in 1884 by the order of King Thibaw at the Royal Palace Press and reprinted several times®. ‘ Two Lesser Known Chronicles Two important standard Myannmar chronicles remained on palm-leaf and paper manuscripts and could be used only by a few scholars who had access to rare manuscript collections of the National Library, the Universities Central Library and a few other special libraries. These two chronicles were (1) Maha Yazawin-thit (the Great New Chronicle), compiled by Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu (1726-1806) and (2) the Maha Yazawin-kyaw (the Great “Celebrated” Chronicle) of the Mon-ywe Sayadaw (1766-1835). The Burma Research Society at its Executive Committee Meeting on 1* February 1940 decided to publish the Twin-thin Taik-wun’s Maha Yazawin-thit, edited by U Hla Aung, Lecturer in the Burmese-Pali Department of University ee - eaeTwo Compilers of Myanmar History 45 College, University of Rangoon. Unfortunately, this did not materialize due to the upheaval caused by the Second World War and the edited manuscript was lost during the Japanese Occupation Period, 1943-1945, After the Second World War, historians like Dr. Than Tun again tried to publish both the Twin-thin Maha Yazawin- thit and the Mon-ywe Maha Yazawin-kyaw, through the Text Publication Programme of the Burma Research Society. As publisher of the BRS Text Publication Programme for the last fifteen years of its existence, the author of this paper also tried to get these two important texts published, but the Society did not have sufficient funds to do so up to the end of 1980 when it was dissolved by the BSPP government, at Gen. Ne Win's behest. But I continued with my efforts and was successful in obtaining funding from the Myat Mi-gin Wuntha-rakheta Foundation in 1997°to publish under the auspices of the Universities Historical Research Centre, volumes (2) and (3) of the Maha Yazawin-thit, by Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu. Volume (1) of the Maha Yazawin-thit had been published in 1968 by the Mingala Printing Press of Yangon with a useful introduction by the owner U Myint Swe, who inserted the word “Myanmar” in the title, though it is not found on the existing manuscript texts.* Volume (2) of Maha Yazawin-thit covered the Toungoo Period (1531-1609) and was edited by Professor Dr. Kyaw Win of the History Department of Yangon University, with a (65) pages introduction by the editor. There is an overlap of about 20 pages between vols. (1) and (2), because vol. 1 ended with the early years of the Taungoo Dynasty up to the death of Min-gyi Nyo in A.D.1530, while vol.2 began around A.D.1279 with the establishment of Taungoo city. This volume covered our history up to A.D.1609. Volume (3) of the Maha Yazawin-thit is on the Nyaung-yan Period (1597-1752) and was edited by the former Deputy Director-General of the Universities Historical Research Department, U Thein Hlaing.46 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture Myat Migin Foundation at one time was willing to fund a further Vol. (4) of the Maha Yazawin-thit; it could be the text of what is at present known as the Alaungpaya Ayedawbon, by Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu, though up to now no separate manuscript for the Alaungpaya Period (1 752- 1760) has been positively identified as a continuation of the Maha Yazawin-thit. The late Senior Researcher of the Myanmar Historical Commission, Dr. Yi Yi, was of the opinion that the early versions of the Alaungpaya Ayedawbon published by the Okkalapa Press and the Hanthawaddy Press? are actually the last part of the Maha Yazawin-thit.° More research needs to be carried out to disentangle the various texts and conclusively identify the authorship of the three Alaungpaya Ayedawbon kyan. As for the Mon-ywe Maha Yazawin-kyaw, the important parts of the text have been edited under the guidance of Dr. Than Tun, by Dr. Toe Hla, the Deputy Director-General of the Universities Historical Research Centre, over thirty years ago in 1970 for the Bodawpaya (Badon Min)’s reign, and by U Maung Maung Khine in 1976 for the Alaungpaya’s reign, as M.A. in History theses, but up to now none of the volumes have been published in book form. The rest of the chronicle is on palm-leaf and paper manuscripts. We are now trying to get the edited texts by Dr. Toe Hla published. Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu’s Life and Works Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu was born in M. E. 1088 (A.D.1726)" during the reign of the Myanmar King Tanin-ga-nway (1714-1733) of the Nyaung-yan Dynasty (1597- 1752). His birthplace was the village of Maung Htaung near Monywa in the present-day Sagaing Division of Upper Myanmar. He was named Tun Nyo, and when he became a novice and later at age twenty, a Buddhist monk, he received the title Shin Lingathara (Lingasara). His writing career started while he was a monk and he wrote poetry ( pyo poemsTwo Compilers of Myanmar History 47 mainly),” some dhammathat (customary law)" texts and he made a name in orthography with his Wibazza-pita text to differentiate spellings of similar words. His nephew U Aw (1736-1771), who was ten years younger, also achieved fame at the early Konbaung Court for his poetry and especially for his orthographic work Kawi-letkhana that-pon kyan, written at the young age of (15) under the guidance and teaching of Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu. Twin-thin Taik-wun had his basic education in the Buddhist monastery of his village like most men of his time, but he went on to learn the art of prosody and rhetoric and could write superb poetry and give interesting sermons. He did not, however, reside long in the monastery as a monk; he lasted only about six years. When he was about twenty-six, U Aung Zeya, the Headman of Moksobo Village, not far from Maung Htaung, started to muster men of ability, learning and military prowess to re-take the Myanmar capital of Innwa(Ava) and repulse the Mon invaders from Upper Myanmar. Soon after that time (A.D.1752-53) Shin Lingara probably left the Shwekan monastery; he had fallen in love with a beautiful young maiden who used to come to listen to his Buddhist sermons with her mother, a devout supporter of the monastery. There is an oral history account written down by Shwe Gaingtha of the young, brilliant monk falling in love with the charming girl, leaving the order, and after getting married the couple travelled together to the capital to find employment under the new Myanmar King Alaungpaya™, the title that U Aung Zeya‘assumed on becoming king. This account was later written down on a parabaik, paper notebook manuscript by Dutiya Nawade Wetmasut Myosa (U Nu), a protégé of Maha Sithu. This manuscript was found by Shwe Gaingtha in Hsadaung Inn Village, U-yin monastery among the parabaik manuscripts of U Wisara. The lovely Mudu- lakkana pyo that Shin Lingara wrote is supposed to be based on his passionate love for the young maiden.48 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture King Alaung-paya recognizing U Tun Nyo’s learning assigned him as tutor to his third son, the Badon Prince, who later became the famous King Bodawpaya (1782-1819) the longest reigning king of the Konbaung Dynasty. It was King Bodawpaya who appointed his former teacher as the Twin- thin Taik-wun with the high title of Maha Sithu, after first conferring on him the title of Maha Thinkhayar with the rank of Kyi-wun when the King first ascended the throne in 1782. At the time there were seven Taik-wun in the country, and Maha Sithu was the most powerful out of them all. He was also the most trusted advisor of the King and was like a Minister for the Interior, advising the King, his former pupil, on important matters of state as well as looking after the King’s personal matters. King Bodawpaya in M.E. 1155 (24 July 1793) passed a Royal Order to collect all stone inscriptions from monasteries and pagodas all over his realm and to make new inscriptions for those which had deteriorated." This meant moving the inscriptions to the new capital, Amarapura. Twin-thin Taik- wun, at the time aged (67), was placed in charge of this Royal Project together with the Thet-pan Atwin-wun. The duty to collect stone inscriptions, to study them, and make copies whenever necessary, sometimes making some faint or illegible words more legible and even replacing some difficult to understand obsolete and archaic words with words in current use at the time, took a number of years to carry out." Hundreds of lithic inscriptions were moved to Amarapura; they are now housed in sheds erected by the Archaeology Department on the eastern and western sides of the Maha Muni Pagoda, now a part of Mandalay, and also some in the Mandalay Palace compound. The Royal Project to collect and study the stone inscriptions was for the purpose of re-demarcating the religious lands to differentiate glebe lands from taxable lands, but for Twin-thin Taik Wun it most probably made him keenlyTwo Compilers of Myanmar History 49 interested in Myanmar history. He soon found that some of the events and dates in the chronicles like U Kala’s Maha Yazawin-daw-gyi, were at variance with contemporary records inscribed on stone, He would have reported this to the King, for the King ordered him to compile "a new chronicle of the realm which would be more in accord with the stone inscriptions”. Professor of History Dr. Kyaw Win of Yangon University gives the date for the Maha Yazawin-thit as 1780,'* but this seems to be too early ‘because the collection of the stone inscriptions started only in July 1793. Professor Victor Lieberman’s date for this history is 1798" and this would be more acceptable because the collection of the inscriptions was abandoned after a few years, and the compilation by Twin- thin of the New Chronicle probably began about that time. U Chit Pe of the Myanmar Department of Yangon University who studied the writings of Maha Sithu and wrote a Masters thesis gives the date for the compilation of the New Chronicle as sometime between 1782 and 1794.2 The Twin-thin Maha Yazawin-thit is said to be in (sy fasciculus, or parts of a palm-leaf. manuscript bundle”, bit at present only up to fascicule (13) have been found and published. Fascicule (14) is probably one of the two published texts of Alaungpaya Ayedawbon® and fascicule (15) has been seen and mentioned only by U Thudathana in his history of the Nyaungan Sasana, and can no longer be traced up to now. The Maha Yazawin-thit covered the history of yavanna ont the earliest times to probably the early years of King Bodawpaya’s reign. It is especially valuable for recording the period from about 1711 where U Kala’s Great Chronicle ended, covering the last years of the Ngaungyan Dynasty which ended in 1752 and for the early years of the Konbaung Dynasty from 1752 to about 1785, though at present the published texts of the Maha Yazawin-thit end with the execution of King Maha Dhamma Yaza Dipati in 1754.50 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu passed away in 1806 at the age of 80 while still attending on his king Bodawpaya at Mingun constructing the huge pagoda which was never completed. Significance of Twin-thin Maha Yazawin-thit Before Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu wrote his new chronicle, there was only U Kala’s chronicle and a few smaller chronicles for different regions and periods like the chronicles of Tagaung, Bagan, Taungoo and so on. U Kala felt that he had to write a kind of explanation, an “Apology” for writing the chronicle, by stating that he wanted to illustrate the Buddhist concept of impermanence, that great kings and queens and those in high positions of power cannot evade death and decay and are eventually reduced to dust. Twin-thin, on the other hand, makes no such “Apology”. He even went on to point out the mistakes of the earlier chroniclers, like U Kala, before him, which some devout Buddhists of his time would have regarded as ignoble, because it amounted to criticizing one’s elders, a notion frowned upon by the religion.” But Professor U Pe Maung Tin comments that in spite of being most critical, Twin-thin’s New Chronicle “with all its criticisms, on the whole follows the Great Chronicle of [U Kala]”.4 The late Dr. Yi Yi, a prominent researcher of the Myanmar Historical Commission, points out that though the New Chronicle was written at the request of the king, it was not recognized as an official history." She praises Maha Sithu for his bold thinking and sound reflections and for being one of the first Myanmar historians to use source materials, especially lithic inscriptions to support his statements. She, therefore, ranks the Maha Yazawin-thit as one of the best chronicles of the early Konbaung period.* Maha Sithu not only used inscriptions, but also contemporary records and the writings of other authors. He would not spare any author if he thought that the writing was incorrect, and was severe in his criticisms. Dr. Yi Yi thought that the compilers of the Hman-nan Yazawin-daw-gyi, twenty-Two Compilers of Myanmar History 51 ‘one years after Maha Sithu’s death, still frowned upon the Maha Yazawin-thit as being too harsh in its comments, and therefore, did not use it much for their compilation.” But this is not entirely true as Prof. Tun Aung Chain former Vice- Chairman to the Myanmar Historical Commission), one of the best historians in Myanmar today, has pointed out in a recent article. The Hman-nan Royal Commission in writing about the late Nyaung-yan period chose to base itself on the Maha Yazawin-thit, rather than on the Alaungpaya Ayedawbon,** though in Dr. Yi Yi’s opinion both texts were written by Maha Sithu. Professor Pe Maung Tin praises the New Chronicle of Twin-thin as a work of literary merit, stating that Twin- thin had, “the splendid opportunity of checking the chronicles by means of inscriptions. And as he was a scholar well versed in other branches of learning also, his New Chronicle is a welcome addition to the literature of the chronicles.”” Mon-ywe Sayadaw’s Life and Works Mon-ywe Sayadaw was born at the village of Mon- ywe (also called Kyay-mon village) in 1766. He was forty years younger than Twin-thin Taik-wun, and unlike Twin-thin, he spent nearly all his life, from age fifteen, in the seclusion of Buddhist monasteries, until he died in 1835 aged 69. His parents named him Maung Noe and when he became a novice his title was Ariya-wuntha (Ariya-vumsa) to which was added the title Adicca-yanthi (Adicca-ramsi) when he became a monk at age twenty. But because he became head abbot of the Ledat Maha Zetawun Monastery at Mon-ywe, he was popularly known as the Mon-ywe Sayadaw. Like Twin-thin, he was also from the same area near Monywa, and he also had his education in the local monastery, but continued to study and write many pyo poems, travelling to monasteries in Hsalin, Hsaton, Badon and Monywa to study under learned monks. By age (27) he had become one of the most learned monks himself. King Bagyidaw(1819-1837), son52 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture of Bodawpaya under whom Twin-thin served, hearing of his learning both in religious and secular affairs, invited him to the newly rebuilt capital at Innwa (Ava) where the Mingala Bon- tha brick monastery, near the Hti-hlaing Shin Pagoda, was specially built for him to reside in. The King gave him a special title “Einda-waziyabi-lingara Thiri-daza Maha Dhamma Yazadi- yaza-guru”, with the position of a royal advisor much revered by the King and the Royal Family." The Sayadaw was assigned to advise the King’s delegation sent to discuss with the British at the end of the First Anglo-Burmese War in 1826. A few years later the King appointed the Sayadaw on 3 May 1829" to head the Royal Historical Commission which was given the task of compiling the First Hman-nan Maha Yazawin-daw-gyi. He also wrote a standard chronicle himself entitled Yazeinda Yazawaya- mandani Yazawin, or Maha Yazawin-kyaw (popularly known as the Mon-ywe Yazawin) and also a few other historical texts like Maha Yazawin Than-khate, and Lakkhana-Rama Yazawin which is probably a Ramayana text in Myanmar. The Mon-ywe Sayadaw made a significant contribution to religious history because he compiled an important concise history of the Buddhist sasana, concentrating on the history of pagodas (chedis) in Myanmar, entitled Chediya kahta, or Yazawin-chote™ The Mon-ywe Sayadaw who compiled these historical texts was actually the Second Mon-ywe Sayadaw, because his mentor the First Mon-ywe Sayadaw, U Wisitta-yama, presided over the Maha Zetawun Monastery at Mon-ywe, until 1802 when he passed away. This First Sayadaw also wrote some literary works”’. Like Twin-thin, the Mon-ywe Sayadaw was over 60 (actually 63) when he was entrusted by the King to compile the first official chronicle, the Hman-nan Maha Yazawin-daw-gyi, together with twelve others. The Hman- nan has been the most widely used Myanmar Chronicle up toTwo Compilers of Myanmar History 53 tlie present by Myanmar as well as scholars from other countries. We can see how the Hman-nan was compiled with the Mon-ywe Saya acting as a kind of Chairman of the Royal Historical Commission of thirteen, in an article by the bibliophile, and a collector and lover of books, writer Zeya. According to records seen by Zeya, the Mon-ywe Sayadaw and the Thaw- ka-pin Sayadaw were given the task of scrutinizing the Maha Yazawin-thit of Twin-thin Taik-wun, and earlier histories written in verse. They “acted as consulting editors.”** The two Sayadaws were assisted by Minister Maha Dhamma Thingyan (former Maung Htaung Sayadaw) who also checked the Maha Yazawin-thit for historical sources, and weighed the statements of Twin-thin Taik-wun and decided what to accept and what to reject in the text of the Hman- nan. The Minsu Wun-gyi Minister U Yauk and Thandawsint U Chain scrutinized the twelve old eigyin poems, the nine earlier yazawin chronicles and the five ayedawbon texts to get the correct historical facts. The other officials of the Commission were recorders and those who made the drafts, like Sayei-gyi U Hpyaw who helped U Yauk and U Chain, two Ponna Brahmins who checked Nagari and Bengali sources for records of court ceremonies like royal coronations, ceremonies for building new royal palaces, together with sources from inscriptions, and so on.” The Mon-ywe Sayadaw was compiling his own Chronicle, the Maha Yazawin-kyaw at the same time. He probably completed this chronicle by about 183 1°* at about the same time as the Hman-nan; it covered the history of Myanmar from the earliest times to probably the early years of his own life. He passed away a few years later in 1835. Significance of Mon-ywe Sayadaw’s Maha Yazawin-kyaw For most parts of the Maha Yazawin-kyaw, the Mon- ywe Sayadaw did not differ much from the Hman-nan® which54 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture in turn had been based mainly on U Kala’s Maha Yazawin- daw-gyi, up to the latter part of the Nyaung-yan Period, i.e. up to about A.D. 1711. The Court Records of the Nyaungyan kings were probably lost when the Royal Palace at Innwa was torched by the invaders from Hanthawaddy in 1752. But even as early as 1810, the Sayadaw had already compiled the regnal dates of Myanmar kings up to the early Konbaung Dynasty. i The Sayadaw, being a meticulous scholar, had studied many ‘inscriptions and was well aware of the discrepancies between traditional dates from the chronicles and those found in inscriptions. He stated that the dates he compiled were the best, at least for his time, but knowing well that later scholars might be able to improve on his compilation. While serving on the Royal Commission to compile the Hman-nan, the Mon-ywe Sayadaw disagreed on some important points in recording and interpretation of certain events, assessments of the roles played by certain kings and high officials and so on. The Sayadaw must have noted these down and later in his own chronicle given his-own interpretations and assessments. He also wanted to record in more detail events which took place around Mon-ywe as he had much attachment to his birthplace, and he also put in more information about officials and other elites who were from this area. To give a few concrete examples, the Mon-ywe Sayadaw did not write disparaging remarks about King Maha - Dhamma-yaza Dipati(1733-1752), the last king of the Nyaung- yan Dynasty, who was taken captive to Hanthawaddy; in fact he defended the King’s conduct. This was in sharp contrast to the Hman-nan where much blame was heaped on the King for being unable to defend and repulse the invasion from the Mon land of Lower Myanmar." The Sayadaw has given us in his chronicle interesting details about Letwe Nawrahta who wrote an important Ayedawbon kyan on Alaung-paya. Letwe Nawrahta’s and the Mon-ywe Sayadaw’s lives overlapped byTwo.Compilers of Myanmar History 55 (33) years, and since they both served the King and the Royal court as advisors, they must have known each other. The Sayadaw also gave in his Chronicle some further details than what was included in the Hman-nan. For example Hman-nan recorded how Alaung-paya conquered and obtained suzerainty over areas to the north of the capital. In Maha Yazawin-kyaw we can find details of how Alaung-paya also obtained the loyalty of regions to the south of the capital, especially from around Maung Htaung, Badon, and Mon-ywe, the Sayadaw’s own area.” Also there are much more information in the chronicle about religious matters, about pagodas, monasteries and monks. Conclusion Out of the two compilers of standard Myanmar chronicles covered in my paper, Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu for the first time in Myanmar historical writing made “a serious attempt to check history by means of inscriptions. That the Glass Palace Chronicle quarrels with some of its decisions does not signify that they are wrong.”* He was ahead of his times; “he had such a scientific outlook that his writing would do credit to a modern historian” .“ The Mon-ywe Sayadaw also had the courage to differ on certain important points with the Royal Historical ° Commission appointed by an autocratic king to compile an official history of the realm. He then produced his own Chronicle and bravely stated his divergent views. Weas Members of the Myanmar Historical Commission, celebrating our (50) years of existence, still need to produce a standard history of our country, on modern scientific lines, based on inscriptions, on chronicles including the two lesser used chronicles mentioned in this paper, and on other writings. We should emulate the two compilers of Myanmar history from early 18" century and try to “recount the past with impartiality,” in consonance with the seal and motto of our Commission.56 Endnotes "Myint Swe. “ Kyan-u Nidan” [Introduction] to Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu. 7ivin-thin Myanmar Yazawin- thit. Yangon: Min Yazar Sar-oke Taik, 1968.p. na-nge (q) to na-gyi (@) 2Victor Lieberman. Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c 800-1830 . . . Cambridge: University Press, 2003. Vol. 1. p. 198. 3U Kala. Maha Yazawin-daw-gyi; edited by Saya Pwa. Yangon: Burma Research Society at Pyi-gyi Mandaing, Press: Vol.1, 1926. Vol. 2, 1932. ‘Victor. Lieberman. Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830. . .2003. Vol. 1. p. 198. Lieberman was translating from Myint Swe who used the term “rain of chronicles”. A well-known example is U Kala’s identification of Chiang Mai with Suvanna Bhumi; the compilers of Hman- nan rejected this and stated that Thaton in Lower Myanmar was Suvanna Bhumi. 5Zeya. “Maha Yazawin-daw-gyi”, in the author’s Hmat-tan- win Bama a-yei a-khin mya; Yangon: Gyo Pyu Sarpay [19652] p. 10. 7We owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. Myo Than Tyn, President of this Foundation for providing the necessary funding, to get these important historical texts published. *This has resulted in Victor Lieberman’s statement “the Twin- thin- taik- wun, whose 1798 chronicle may have been the first to put Burma” “(myan-ma)” in its title”.Vols.(2) and (3) edited under the guidance of Dr. Than Tun do not have “Myanmar” in the titles. In fact none of the main chronicles up to U Maung Maung Tin’s Konbaung- set Maha Yazawin-win-daw-gyi have“Myanmar” in their titles. *Alaungpaya Ayedawbon. 1“ ed. Yangon: Okkalapa Press, 1883.Also 2™ ed. Yangon: Hanthawaddy Press, 1900, and later editions. have now identified this text as being, by Letwe Nawrahta. Aspects of Myanmar History & CultureTwo Compilers of Myanmar History 57 ‘Dr. Yi Yi. “Ayedawbon kyan mya pyat-thana,” in Kantha Sein-lei sardan mya. Yangon: Min Hla Sarpay, 1969. p. 45. Recent research by Daw Ohn Kyi indicates that the author of this version is Letwe Nawrahta. "This date was given by the-author himself in the concluding part of his Maha Zanetka Pyo, For a fuller life of Twin-thin see Bohmu Ba Thaung (Maung Thuta). Sarsodaw-mya athtokepatti. . . 5" ed, rev. by U Khin Aye. Yangon: Yarpyi Sar-oke Taik (distributor); Lawka Sarpay(publisher), 2002. p. 152-154. "e.g. he wrote Nga- yant Min Pyo, Mudu-lakkhana Pyo, Mahaw Kyee-sei khan verses. "e.g. Manu Dhammathat Shwe- myin Linga, Manu Wun-nana Dhammathat Linga, and Dhammathat Linga. For criticism of Twin-thin’s writings, especially his pyo poems_see U Pe Maung Tin. History of Burmese Literature. . .5% ed. Yangon: Thudhamawadi Press, 1958. p. 214-224. Also Minthuwun. Myanmar sarpay pyin-nya-shin Twin-thin Min-gyi. Yangon: Hnin-oo Lwin Sarpay, 2004. “U Chit Pe. Twin-thin sar-hso. Yangon: Yangon Arts and Science University, Myanmar Literature Society, 1975. p. 16-20. See also Nan Nyunt Swe’s Foreword to Twin- thin Min-gyi, U Tun Nyo’s Mudu-letkhana pyo. Yangon: Hanthawaddy Press,1963. p.nga(c) and sa(o). "SMaung Maung Tin (KSM). Konbaungset Maha Yazawin- Gyi . . .4%ed. Yangon:Universities Historical Research Centre, 2004. vol. 2, p. 77. ‘Dr. Than Tun, “Manuha Inscription”, in. Missing Links in Myania Chronicles. Yangon: Mon-ywe Sarpay, 2003. p. 1-2 (English section). "Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu. 7win-thin Myanmar Yazawin-thit.-Vol.1. .. 1969. p. 2. "Dr. Kyaw Win in “Editor’s Introduction” to Twin-thin Taik- wun Maha Sithu. Maha Yazawin-thit. Vol. 2. Toungoo Period. Yangon: Universities Historical Research Center, 1998. p. gu (2).58 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture 19Lieberman probably mentioned the year 1798 as it was first given by Prof. U Tin Ohn of Yangon University see Tin Ohn, U. “ Modern historical writing in Burmese, 1724-1942,” in Historians of South East Asia; ed. by D.GE. Hall. London:Oxford University Press, 1961. p.88. 2U Chit Pe. Twin-thin sar-so. . . 1975. p. 155. 2\Jbid. p. 155. See also. Dr. Yi Yi. “ Ayedawbow Kyan mya pyat-thana” . . . 1969. p. 45. 2U Thudathana. Nyaungan Thathanawin (Sasanavumsa). Mandalay: Kyi-pwa-yei Press, 1969. p. 42. Dr. Than Tun. Myanmar Yazawin Sardan. No. 1. “Nidan” [Introduction]. Mandalay: Arts and Science University, History Department [19807] Mimeographed. p. khe @) 2U Pe Maung Tin. “Introduction”, The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma. Yangon: Burma Research Society at the Rangoon University Press, 1960 (reprint). p. xvii. 1* pub. 1923. Dr, Yi Yi. “A Bibliographical essay on the Burmese sources for the history of the Konbaung Period, 1752-1885,” Bulletin of the Burma Historical Commission, vol. III (1963) p. 152-153. 26Dr, Yi Yi. “Konbaung-khit hnint nauk khit yazawin kyan mya”, in Seinban Myaing sardan hnint sit-tan. Yangon : U Nyunt Htay, 1965. p. 247-250. A paper written by Dr. Yi Yi in 1961. Maha Sithu is supposed to have used over 1,000 inscriptions for his chronicle. "Ibid. p. 156. *8U Tun Aung Chain. “Chronicling the Late Nyaungyan”, Myanmar Historical Research Journal, no. 14 (Dec. 2004) p. 9.This paper should be consulted for insightful comments on the Maha Yazawin-thit and other contemporary Myanmar chronicles and historical texts.| Two Compilers of Myanmar History 59 2U Pe Maung Tin. “Introduction”, The Glass Palace Chronicle. . 1960 (reprint). p. xvi. >°Bohmu Ba Thaung (Maung Thuta).Sasodaw-mya athtokepatti ... 5 ed. 2002. p. 195-197. Note that the entry for the Mon-ywe Sayadaw has the date of death wrongly printed as Myanmar Era 1190; it should be 1196 as shown on p. 197. 5Ubid, p. 196. *Hman-nan . . . 1956 (reprint). Vol.1.p.23. 3Hla Thamain. Gandawin pokeko-gyaw-mya athtokepatti baung- choke. Yangon: Hanthawaddy, 1961. p. 60- 61. For criticism of the Mon-ywe Sayadaw’s writings see U Pe Maung Tin. History of Burmese Literature ... Sed. 1958. p. 265-273. 4Mon-ywe Sayadaw (Ariya-wuntha Adicca-yanthi). Chediya kahta myi-thaw Yazawin-chote. [Sagaing]: Theda- gu Buddhist University, Research and Publication Department, 2003. Privately printed for the Buddhist University. 35U Po Kyaw Myint (Myan-sar-gon). “ Pahtama Mon-ywe Maha Zetawun Sayadaw”, in the author’s Sarpay tar-wun. Yangon: Aung Mye Sarpay, 1967. p. 69-81. See also this author’s articles “ Mon-ywe Zetawun Kyaung-daw, ibid p. 156-168 and. “Mon-ywe Sayadaw hnint Kyi-gan Shin-gyi”, ibid. p. 179-188, foraccounts of the Second Mon-ywe Sayadaw. 36 Tin Ohn. “Modern Historical Writing in Burmese, 1724 - 1942” ...1961. p.88. ’Zeya.“Maha Yazawin-daw-gyi,” in_ the author’s Himat-tan- win Bama a-yei a- khin mya. Yangon: Gyo Phyu Sarpay, [19657] p. 3-4. *There is a handwritten copy made in 1960 under the supervision of Dr. Than Tun for the Burma Historical Commission Library (Accession no. R 7945) whose original copying date for the palm-leaf manuscript was 1831. The palm-leaf mss. from which it was copied used to be in the Mon-ywe Monastery.60 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture Dr. Yi Yi. “ Konbaung-khit hnint nauk khit yazawin kyan mya,” .. . p. 252. The concept of plagiarism was not well defined or observed in the writing of these chronicles. *U Tet Htoot. “ The nature of the Burmese Chronicles “ in Historians of South East Asia; ed-by D. G. E. Hall London: Oxford University Press, 1961. p. 54. “' For further details see Maung Maung Khine. “Editor’s Note” in postscript to his M.A. thesis, editing the Mon-ywe Sayadaw’s Yazeinda Yazawaya-mandani (khaw) Maha Yazawin-kyaw. Mandalay: University of Mandalay, 1977. p.431.Unpublished typescript. ® Ibid. p. 432 * Pe Maung Tin. “Introduction”, The Glass Palace Chronicle ... 1960 (reprint). p. xvii. “ A Bibliographical essay on the Burmese Sources «++ 1752-1885. . . 1963. p. 152. “Dr Yi Bibliography In English Lieberman, Victor. Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830. Vol. 1. . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Pe Maung Tin, U. “Introduction,” The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma; translated by Pe Maung Tin and G. H. Luce. Yangon: Burma Research Society, 1960 (reprint). 1* pub. 1923. p. ix-xxxiii. Tet Htoot, U. “ The nature of the Burmese chronicles,” in Historians of South East Asia; ed. by D. G. E. Hall. London: Oxford University Press, 1961. p. 50-62. Than Tun, Dr. “Historiography of Burma,” Shiroku, vol. IX (Nov. 1976) p.1-22. Tin Ohn, U. “ Modern historical writing in Burmese, 1724- 1942,” in Historians of South East Asia; ed. by D.G. E. Hall. London: Oxford University Press, 1961. p.85-93.Two Compilers of Myanmar History ‘ 61 Tun Aung Chain, U. “ Chronicling the Late Nyaungyan,” Myanmar Historical Research Journal, no. 14 (Dec. 2004) p. 1-15. Yi Yi, Dr. ‘’A Bibliographical essay on the Burmese sources for the history of the Konbaung period, 1752-1885,” Bulletin of the Burma Historical Commission, vol. TH (1963) p. 143-170. See also the author’s “Burmese historical sources, 1752-1885,” Journal of Southeast Asian history, Singapore, vol. 6. no.1 (Mar. 1965) p.48-66. In Myanmar Ba Thaung, Bohmu (Maung Thuta). Sarsodaw-mya athtokepatti ... 5" ed. rev. by U Khin Aye. Yangon: Yarpyi Sar- oke Taik (distributor); Lawka Sarpay (publisher), 2002. Chit Pe, U. Tvin-thin Sar-hso. Yangon: Arts and Science University, Myanmar Literature Society, 1975. Hla Thamain. Gandawin pokeko- gyaw- mya athtokepatti baung-choke. Yangon: Hanthawaddy, 1961. Minthuwun. Myanmar sarpay pyin-nya-shin Twin-thin Min- gyi. Yangon: Hnin-oo Lwin Sarpay; distributed by Seik- ku Cho-Cho Anu-pyin-nya, 2004. Myint Swe, U. “Kyan-u Nidan” [Introduction] to Twin-thin Taik- wun Maha Sithu. Zivin-thin Myanmar Yazawin-thit[vol-1] Yangon: Min Yazar Sar-oke Taik, 1968. na-nge (4) to ha (>) Pe Maung Tin, U. Myanmar sarpay thamaing. History of Burmese Literature .. 5" ed. Yangon: Thudhamawadi Press, 1958. 1* pub. 1938. Po Kyaw Myint, U. Sarpay tar-wun. Yangon: Aung Mye Sarpay, 1967. Sanda, Maung (Chaung- 00). Mon-ywe Yazawin, Mon-ywe Sayadaw, Mon-ywe sarpay yin-kyei-hmu, Yangon: Chaung-oo Sarpay; distributed by Pyin-nya Beikman Sar-oke Taik, 1979.' 62 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture | Thudathana, U. Nyaungan thathanawin [Sasanavumsa of Nyaungan].Mandalay: Kyi-pwa-yei Press, 1969. Yi Yi, Dr. Ayedawbon kyan mya pyat-thana,” in KanthaSein- lei sardan mya. Yangon: Min Hla Sarpay, 1969. p.30-62. | ---. “Konbaung-khit hnint nauk khit yazawin kyan mya,” in Séinban Myaing sardan hnint sit-tan. Yangon: U Nyunt Htay, 1965. p. 247-255. Written in 1961. Zeya. “Maha Yazawin-daw-gyi,” in the author’s Hmat-tan- win Bama a-yei a-khin mya. Yangon: Gyo Phyu Sarpay [19657] p. 1-12.Letwe Nawrahta (1723-1791) 63 Letwe Nawrahta (1723-1791), Recorder of Myanmar History* Introduction Myanmar historians have high respect for Letwe Nawrahta(U Nay)(b.1723-d.1791) asa recorder of contemporary historical events from the last forty years of the Nyaung-yan Dynasty(1597-1752) to the early years of the Konbaung Period (1752-1885). He lived in momentous times when great Myanmar kings like Alaung-paya(1752-60), Hsinbyu-shin(1763-76) and Bodawpaya( 1782-1819) crushed the ancient Mon and Rakhine (Arakanese) Kingdoms and incorporated them into a unified Myanmar Kingdom under Bama (Burmese) dominance. Hsinbyu-shin was also the destroyer, who annihilated the Siamese capital Ayutthaya and ended the long line of Thai kings of the Ayutthaya Period (A.D.1350-1767).! Unfortunately, Letwe Nawrahta’s life and works had been overshadowed and became mixed-up with that of his contemporary minister-writer Letwe Thondara(1727-c.1799), who was born in the same region of upper Myanmar, some say even in the same year, Letwe Nawrahta had received the title Letwe Thondara before he was given the title Letwe Nawrahta on 29 June 1757 by King Alaung-paya himself, at the end of the campaign to crush the Mon power. Many of Letwe Nawrahta’s writings have been lost and his two important Ayedawbon Kyan’, viz. the Alaung-min- taya-gyi Ayedawbon, on the founder of the Konbaung Dynasty, *Paper read on the author's behalf by Dr. Toe Hla at the Burma(Myanmar) Studies Conference, 2008 in DeKalb,64 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture and the Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon on the campaigns and achievements of King Bodawpaya (recording the first five years of this King’s long reign, explaining in detail the various coronation ceremonies with a contemporary account of the conquest of Rakhine), has remained “lost” on palm-leaf manuscripts. Only now some scholars of the Myanmar Historical Commission have been able to recover these texts and are editing them with introductions, footnotes and references to publish in book form for the first time.* Letwe Nawrahta and Letwe Thondara Both Letwe Nawrahta (from now on abbreviated as LN) and Letwe Thondara (abbreviated as LT) were born in the 1720s, in the same region (around Monywa and Shwebo, Sagaing Division), and they served as court officials and ministers under the same kings. Both were distinguished writers, and some of the earlier writings of LN had as its author LT because LN had received the title LT before he was awarded the higher title of LN. So the confusion of their two lives and their writings got more and more confounded as the years passed, so much so that even during the time of the Myanmar kings, scholars were wrongly attributing some of LN’s works to LTS LT became famous for his yadu poem “Meza Taung- che”, written in banishment in a remote jungle at the foot of Meza Hill. His writings have the full force of his strong emotions; he was a better poet than LN. LN was more of an unemotional court recorder and compiler, and therefore, much more important to historians. Confusion between LN and LT came about because of (4) main reasons:- (1) Confusion over the same title LT, which both of them received under the same king (Alaungpaya), though not simultaneously, LT receiving his title only after LN had relinquished this title on his promotion as LN. (2) Confusion over their real names; LN had a rather| i Letwe Nawrahta (1723-1791) 65 long personal name, U Myat Thar Nay which was | often shortened in references to him as U Nay, or | U Myat Thar which degenerated through mispronunciation to U Myat Sar and became confused with U Myat San, the personal name of LT. (3) They were about the same age, came from the same region and served under the same kings, rising to high positions of ministerial rank under the early kings of the Konbaung Dynasty. LN’s career had actually started earlier during the reign of the last king of the Nyaung-yan Dynasty, Maha Damma Yaza Dipati (1733-52), the King who is known as Hanthawaddy-yauk-min because he was captured by the Mons and taken to their capital Hanthawaddy. (4) Both were contemporary court writers. But we now know that LN was the better, more trusted minister who ended his career in glory, going into old age semi-retirement under King Bodawpaya. LT was the better poet whose court career practically ended when he was exiled to the Meza area, probably during the reign of Hsinbyu-shin. Though his famous yadu poem saved his life and he was recalled and reinstated at the court, he was no longer given any responsible duties again. Recovering LN’s Writings and Reconstructing his Biography Several prominent Myanmar scholars from the early 1960s rescued LN’s biographical data and recovered some of his important writings from palm-leaf manuscripts scattered in various monastic libraries and private collections. In Yangon under the auspices of the Burma Research Society,‘ the most prestigious learned society in Myanmar for seven decades (1910-1980), we were able to publish Letwe66 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture | Nawrahta’s Myanmar Than-yaw-ga Dipani, carefully collated from four palm-leaf manuscript texts, edited by UTin Hla (Senior Editor of the Myanmar Dictionary Section of the Universities Translation and Publication Department) under the meticulous guidance of Professor of Myanmar Language and Literature (Rangoon University), U Wun (prominent lexicographer and poet using the pen-name Minthuwun). ‘The text clearly stated in the colophon that this important work on Myanmar spelling of ya-pint and ya-yit was by LN.” U Tin Hla, the editor included a brief biography of LN in his informative ‘’ Introduction”, citing the (17) references he used. In Mandalay, Professor of Myanmar Language and Literature U Chan Mya (pen-name Mya Ketu)(1908-1997)°, played a leading role in rescuing biographical data of LN by carrying out research and writing an important article on differentiating the works of LN from those of LT, and also disentangling their biographies. Fortuitously LN himself, played an important role in this disentanglement because he left an important lithic stone inscription at a pagoda he built as a work of merit between A.D.1761 and 1764 at his birthplace Mon- ywe (in earlier times known as Badon). This Pagoda is called Tilawka Cedi. There is also another important inscription ona bronze bell donated by LN at the same pagoda. This is not an original inscription by LN himself, but inscribed later by the Mon-ywe Sayadaw, Ariya-wuntha Adicca-yanthi, the well- known compiler of the Maha Yazawin Kyaw, the Mon-ywe Chronicle, and head of the Committee appointed by King Bagyidaw in 1829 to compile the Hman-nan (Glass Palace) Yazawin (Chronicle). These inscriptions were found by archacologists and duly interpreted by them with the help of Myanmar language and literature scholars. U Po Kyaw Myint (1934-1973), Senior Lecturer of Yangon University went to study them at Mon-ywe and wrote three scholarly articles on these two inscriptions."Letwe Nawrahta (1723-1791) 67 Myanmar scholars in the 1960s and early 1970s were also able to glean many important facets of LN’s biographical information by painstakingly scrutinizing his writings to find his different titles at various years of his life. His work, Letwe Nawrahta’s Hlauk-htone", first published by the Hanthawaddy Press in 1925 provided a number of important data on his life; facts of his life story were extracted also from some of his still unpublished works on palm-leaf manuscripts." References to LN and this works were searched for and found in the writings of other authors of the early Konbaung Period, and these were put together to get a fairly comprehensive picture of LN’s biography and titles of his works, although some still remain lost. Shwe Gaing Tha (1912-1987), pen-name of monk- author U Thawbita (former Archaeology Dept. Officer U Tun Hlaing), also wrote an important article to extricate the life of LN from that of LT." This well-known author who later became a monk, with a background in archaeology and well versed in Myanmar literature, examined all available literary and historical evidences and proposed that Letwe Thondara (U Nay) of Mon-ywe should rightly be called Letwe Nawrahta (the title LN himself preferred) to differentiate him from Letwe Thondara (U Myat San) of Man-gyi-htone village. In 1973, Myan-sa Pyant, the Society for the Propagation of Myanmar Literature celebrated 250 years of LN’s birth by compiling and later publishing a comprehensive book about LN’s life and works." In this book U Htun Yee wrote excellent papers on LN using three pen-names: Shay- haung Sarpay Thutaythi Ta-oo, Min Mahaw and Maung Kauk- thin (p.179-324). Another author Maung Kyauk-taing (pen- namc) also contributed an important paper entitled “Thukhamein U Nay i Sarpay Gita Thutaythana”, (p. 40-78). These papers are indispensable for any scholar who wants to do research on LN’s life and works, and did much to bring LN back into prominence.68 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture From that time most Myanmar scholars have known about the important role LN played especially from the time of Alaung-paya, recording events at the Royal Court, and writing about the campaigns and achievements of some of the great Myanmar kings of that period. Only a few Myanmar readers still have problems distinguishing the life and work of LN from that of LT."S The Myanmar Encyclopaedia has two well- researched articles on LN and LT which have incorporated the findings of the 1960s and early 1970s.'* Brief Life Letwe Nawrahta was born at Mon-ywe Village, to the south-east of Monywa, (which is on the Chindwin River); his year of birth as recorded by the Mon-ywe Sayadaw"’ was in 1723, during the Myanmar month of Waso (i.e. May to July of that year), but up to now we do not know the exact day and month, or even who his parents were. He was a Saturday born, so he was named U Nay(Mr. Sun); his full-name was U Myat Thar Nay. LN grew up during a turbulent period of Myanmar history, when the Bama(Burmese) kings at first were weak and unable to control the Mon rebels from the southern coastal regions, but later fought and defeated the Mons under a new leader, Alaung-paya. This was also a time when Myanmar produced some great historians, starting with U Kala (c1678-c1738) and ending with the Mon-ywe Sayadaw(1766- 1835), having Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu U Tun Nyo(1726- 1806)"* in-between. LN like most boys and young men of the time must have studied at the local village monastery which were the schools for the male population. He had an aptitude for learning, reading and writing.”? In 1743 he went to Innwa(Ava), the capital of Myanmar, about seventy miles to the east, joining service at the Royal Court. He was only twenty at the time. The King, Maha Dhamma Yaza Dipati appointed him as A- kyi-daw, Comptroller of the Household of the Crown Prince, Thiri Maha Thudamma Yaza. He was-given the title Yanda{ | Letwe Nawrahta (1723-1791) 69 | Kyaw Swa by the Crown Prince; later after the death of the Crown Prince, he received the title Pyan-chi Kyaw Htin from the King. During the time when there was no longer a king or a Royal Court at Innwa, he went back to his village for about ayear in 1751. Except for this break of less than a year, LN’s long, distinguished career at the Myanmar Royal Court lasted altogether about (50) years; he was a court official from the last king of the Nyaung-yan Dynasty to Bodawpaya, the fifth king of the newly established Konbaung Dynasty” From the time he was taken by Min Khaung Nawrahta (Bo Ton) to King Alaung-paya in Moksobo, in 1752 and met the new King he rose rapidly in the King’s royal service, receiving his first title LT and later LN from Alaung-paya himself. The King on first meeting him asked what his name was, and he replied Nga Nay (Master Sun). The King was well pleased and remarked to all the assembled courtiers that the sun had arrived to brighten his court and dispel and darken all his enemies into submission. Alaung-paya had, a little earlier, appointed (68) Commanders(Comrades-in-Arms) and he now added LN to make the number of his inner-most trusted men (69).2" As one of the few learned officials who knew about the traditions and etiquette of the former dynasty, LN became indispensable to the new King. Alaung-paya kept LN constantly by his side on his very active life. The King liked LN’s character as a loyal, trust-worthy minister who could give him sound counsel." At the same time LN had the temperament of what we would, in modem times, call an archivist or librarian,* noting down in detail contemporary events, asking erudite questions to famous monks and compiling anthologies of yadu poems. LN probably accompanied Alaung-paya and Hsinbyu- shin on their campaigns to capture the Siamese capital Ayutthaya. He later composed a mawgun poem on the conquest of Ayutthaya in 1767, entitled Yodaya Naing Mawgun; only recently the author of this paper has been able to recover ‘this long lost important, eye-witness account. 41 70 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture © Under the reign of Alaung-paya’s eldest son, Naungdaw-gyi(1760-63), he became an A-twin-wun, organizing important court ceremonies. He also received the titles Sithu Kyaw Htin, most probably on 4" February 1761 at the U-kin-daw-phwint Mingala Thabin. The bell inscription also stated that he also received the title Nanda Thura Kyaw Htin from the same king, though this is not shown in other sources. LN continued as an A-Avin-wun under the next king Hsinbyu-shin(1763-76), receiving the title Nay-myo Thiri Zeya Kyaw Htin. He was included in a sclect, trusted band of (24) Thwe-thout, blood-brothers, inner court officials, when Innwa (Ava) was reconstructed for the third time as a capital city in 1765. The new city plans were drawn up by LN, and the King being appreciative of his loyal service conferred on him the higher titles of Nay-myo Maha Kyaw Htin and Nay-myo Maha Thinkhaya Kyaw Htin. LN did not mention in his writings about his service under King Singu(1776-82), though he continued his duties at the court, under the title Min-gyi Kyaw Htin. This grandson of King Alaung-paya might have doubted his loyalty, and therefore, did not give him responsible positions. Finally, LN again rose into prominence during the early years of Bodawpaya’s reign from 1782 to his death in 1791 at age 68. Bodawpaya, the sixth and last king that he served conferred on him the highest title he received, Min-gyi Maha Thiha Thura, and appointed him as the Mayor of the newly built capital, Amarapura. LN also wrote his second Ayedawbon Kyan, the Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon, to record the military campaigns and achievements during the first five years of Bodawpaya’s long, 37 years’ reign. LN probably lived his last years in semi-retirement, before he passed away in the 9% year of this King’s reign. LN’s outstanding service for six Myanmar kings carned him (10) or (11) high ranking titles. (See Appendix I for a list of his titles).i; | | Letwe Nawrahta (1723-1791) m1 | / / Unmasking Details of LN’s Life In studying the life of LN the inscription that he left and the inscription made by the Mon-ywe Sayadaw on the bell that LN had donated, together with some of LN’s own writings, are of course, the primary sources. There are many secondary sources. Among them the published //man-nan Muha Yazawin- daw-gyi, (The Glass Palace Chronicle), and the Konbaung- set Maha Yawawin-daw-gyi, which incorporates the Hman- nan up to the time of King Mindon, are the most easily available reference works, But readers sometimes forget that the long court career of LN, for about half a century, had resulted in the use of a number of different rank titles for him during different periods, and reigns. For example, during King Alaung- paya’s reign, only from 29 June 1757 when LN got his higher title from being LT, references to him can be found only under his earlier title LT. We can, therefore, read in Konbaung-set that LT (U Nay) and not LT (U Myat San) was appointed Tat- yei on 13 January 1755 when Alaungpaya’s attack on the Mons in Lower Myanmar was launched. Another example, also from Konbaung-set is about how Alaung-paya, on the eve of his attack on Pyay (Prome), instructed LT (U Nay) to go amongst the populace noting down tabaung, cries and sayings portending something auspicious or ominous — in Myanmar Sa-nei (oga5:), nar (40). In Konbaung-set, volume one, we should note that the title LT refers to LT (U Nay) only and not to LT (U Myat San). U Myat San never received the title LN; because his rank was not a high one, only that of a judge for most of his life, LT (U Myat San) is only mentioned once in Konboung-set amongst a list of several officials on whom the king conferred titles. The key to unlocking which LT it was during Alaung- paya’s time, that was promoted as LN in 1757, came from LN’s own inscription at Tilawka Pagoda, where he himself stated that he received first the title LT and later LN from the great King Alaung-min-taya-gyi.”* This is in conformity with the Konbaung-set account2* Once this key had been found72 all references to LT in volume (1) of Konbaung-set became part of the life-story of LN.” We were thus able to unmask many details of LN’s biography. He was the Minister whom Alaung-paya instructed to write the Royal Letter (Yaza-than) presented to the English Envoys on 8 May 1756.”* He had to arrange for the Grand Ceremonial Procession of King Alaung-paya to. receive the Royal Princess, the daughter of the King of Hanthawaddy, after the conquest of the Mon Kingdom.” Letwe Nawrahta’s Writings The main works of LN that have so far been identified are as follows: da) Historical Writings (a) Alaung-min-taya-gyi Ayedawbon (c1766) Unpublished palm-leaf manuscript in Mandalay University Library, Mss. no. 327, now being edited for publication by the Myanmar Historical Commission. (See next section for more details). (b) Hsinbyu-shin Min-taya-gyi Phaya Ayedawbon Thamaing-daw, or Min-khan-daw Sar-dan-daw-gyi. (c1786) Written around 1786 to 1790. The palm-leaf manuscript was originally found in Tha-khut-ta-nai Phaya-gyi Kyaung (Monastery of the Big Pagoda), and hand copied by U Pyin- nya of Taung Lei-lon Monastery in Amarapura who completed copying on 23" Nov. 1974, Later U Htun Yee made a few mimeographed copies in two volumes. I have now been able to get the full text and it is being edited for publication in printed book-form. (See next section for more details). Aspects of Myanmar History & CultureLetwe Nawrahta (1723-1791) 73 (2) Mawgun (a) (b) (©) (d) () o Records of notable events in the public life of Myanmar kings. Of great value to historians. Usually in verse form. Those that have been identified as being written by LN are shown below. There are probably a few others not yet found. Dhanyawaddy-naing Mawgun (1785) On the conquest of Rakhine. Only fragments seen so far. Written soon after the 1784 conquest of Rakhine, and the end of the Rakhine Kingdom. Maha Wizaya-yan-thi Sigon-daw Mawgun(1784) Not found up to now. Mingun Cedi Mawgun Not found up to now. Muddhar Beiktheik Mawgun (1784) On the two coronations, and other royal ceremonies of Bodawpaya, including the consecration of the new Royal Capital Amarapura. LN completed this record on 30 August 1784.Text on palm-leaf manuscript. Also mimeo- graphed copies made by U Htun Yee in 1985. Pyi-gyi-lar Mawgun (c 1765) On the shifting back of the capital to Innwa (Ava) in April 1765 by King Hsinbyu-shin. Not found up to now. Pyu Kan Bwé Mawgun (c 1771) On a visit made by Hsinbyu-shin on 12 February 1771 to this “Pyu Lake”. LN accompanied the King and wrote this historical record after their return from Lawka Myitzu Pagoda. Printed by Hanthawaddy Press.74 G) Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture (g) Yodaya-naing Mawgun (1767) On the conquest of Ayutthaya In 2009 the full text was recovered at last Unpublished. (See Appendix II for Synopsis.) (h) Zina Aung-cha Shwe-bon-tha Mawgun Not found up to now. A-mei-daw-phyay Kyan (a) Letwe Nawrahta Hlauk-htone 1* published by Hanthawaddy Press, Yangon, in 1925. 2" ed. by the same press, 1963. There is also an edition published in Mandalay by Pitakat-daw Pyant-pwa-yei Press, [1959].A collection of (79) questions on religious, cultural, geographical, historical, literary and other perplexing problems posed by LN and learned answers given by Taungdwin Sayadaw (Khin Gyi Phyaw) (1724- 1762). It is not really a hlauk htone, but an a-mei-daw-phyay kyan.*° Also because LN only formulated the questions, Khin Gyi Phyaw could be regarded as the author for his long erudite answers; but like the Questions of King Milinda scholars usually refer to this work by the questioner, i.e. LN. (b) A-mei-daw-phyay (Kyan) (Maung Daung Sayadaw, 1") This questions and answers text has been printed in a thick volume.” The questions were raised by different high-ranking ministers, often on behalf of King Bodawpaya (1782-1819). The answers were all made by the First Maung Daung, Thathana-baing Sayadaw, Head of the Buddhist Sasana at the time.This printed book is the most comprehensive one in the category of! Letwe Nawrahta (1723-1791) 75 questions and answers text. And there are many interesting answers about the Buddhist religion, about Myanmar Buddhist concepts,on Myanmar History and Culture, Customs and Beliefs and so on.Out of the many questions posed by different officials there were only (8) by Letwe Nawrhta. They deal mainly with the Coronation Ceremonies for the Myanmar Royal Court and as the Maung Daung Sayadaw was learned in Sanskrit and had taken the lead in translating texts procured from Bengal, he gave references to these ancient Indian texts. Strictly speaking the author of this text was the First Maung Daung Sayadaw Shin Nyana (1755-1832) who replied at length for each of the (8) questions raised by LN, and numerous other questions by other officials, but scholars know this work as being written partly in reply to LN’s insatiable quest for knowledge and information. Scholars should note that by the time of this A-mei-daw Phyay kyan, LN was known under his last and highest rank-title A-twin-wun Thet-taw shay Min-gyi-Maha Thiha Thura. The questions from LN are from 1783, the year of Bodawpaya’s Coronations. Other questions posed by various ministers are dated up to 1806, but LN had already passed away in1791. Unpublished texts on palm-leaf manuscripts: (1) Letwe Nawrahta Hlauk- hione,Paline Sayadaw phyay Answers by the Paline Sayadaw, Shin ‘Thuzata, (probably from KingA laung-paya’s reign)” to (5) questions posed by Letwe Nawrahta. Mainly on geography and cosmology and the answers were in accordance with Buddhist scriptures. Palm-leaf mss. no. 1942 in the76 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture | National Library; a myin-net mss, comprising of (3) anga and (8) leaves (total 44 leaves), (8) lines on each face of ‘palm-leaf. I had hand written and type-script copies made for the Universities Central Library in Feb. 1981, from the palm-leaf mss. in the National Library, originally copied on 31 Dec. 1838, about (47) years after LN passed away. The five questions were asked by LN all at the same time, unlike the (79) questions in Letwe Nawrahta Hlauk-htone (printed version), which were raised (supplicated) over a period of several years. These questions, posed to the Paline Sayadaw are interesting because they deal with non-religious matters mainly on traditional geography and cosmology, though the Sayadaw’s answers were all according to the Buddhist concepts. There is an interesting question and answer about the Chinthe (mythical lion) which guards the Myanmar pagoda entrances; because of this, some scholars like U Po Kyaw Myint refer to this text as the Chinthe A-phyay Kyan2? (2) Sithu Kyaw Htin Hlauk- htone (1761) Sithu Kyaw Htin was one of the titles received by LN from King Alaung-paya's eldest son King Naung-daw-gyi(1760-1763). The questions were asked by LN in 1761 and the answers were given by Ashin Nanda Mala. Some refer to this mss. on palm leaves as Kyaw Htin Nawrahta Hlauk-htone. ‘The mss. has never been printed.There is a mss. copy in Pakkoku, in the possession of UNan Hline,™ who told me that the mss.begins with ka leaf and ends in gi. It contains knowledge of both religious and worldly matters.| Letwe Nawrahta (1723-1791) 7 (3) Nay-myo Thiri Zeya Kyaw Htin Hlauk- Hione Nay-myo Thiri Zeya Kyaw Htin was. atitle LN received under King Hsinbyu-shin (1763-76). The learned monk who gave answers and discourses to LN’s nearly (50) queries was the First Nyaung-gan Sayadaw Shin Pon-nya Thei-la (1730-1810). A palm leaf mss. copy entitled Nyaung-gan Sayadaw A-phay (The answer of the Nyaung-gan Sayadaw) is in the Library of the Department of Archaeology (now combined with the Culture Institute). It is a (9) lines per leaf, palm leaf mss. comprising of 6 anga and 10 leaves (i.e. 82 leaves).LN asked the questions between 1765 and 1771; the queries consisted of (17) kinds, with three or four questions in each category. The queries are on religious as well as worldly affairs and about kings and court; the work contains many useful information, e.g. on monastic lands, on Dammathats and Hpyat htone, about the White Elephant and about how Myanmars repulsed attacks by Chinese soldiers. The Nyaung-gan Sayadaw who gave the answers was born at Kha-bo village in the old Pakhan- gyi township(near Pakkoku); he also received the title Buddha Rek-khita Maha Tharmi.°* (4) Orthographic Work Myanmar Than-yaw-ga Dipani; ed. by U Tin Hla, Yangon: Burma Research Society, 1962. 180 p. (Text Publication New Series, no. 7). With good Introduction, Life of Author, References, etc. Written in 1760.On Myanmar spelling of pint-yit.78 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture” 6) Exegesis Pyo Ni-gone-su A-phyay Kyan; ed. by Maung Khin Min (Danuphyu) [pen-name of Professor of Myanmar Language and Literature U Khin Aye]. Yangon: Hla Htay Sarpay; distributed by Hinthata Sarpay, 1995. Edited from an extremely rare palm leaf manuscript collected by the Universities Central Library.** Explanations of the concluding parts of Pyo poems. (6) ‘Yadu poems (a) LN is said to have written between 200-400 (b) Yadu poems. Only about (16) poems have so far been found. LN made an important “Anthology of Yadu” poems written from Pinya Period, beginning in 1322 to the end of Nyaung-yan Period in 1752. This compilation has been printed by the Hanthawaddy Press, from a palm-leaf manuscript collected by Ashin Warthawa (1917-1966) of A- nauk Khin-ma-kan Pali University in Mandalay. LN did invaluable service by assiduously collecting all Yadu poems by monks, royalty, ministers and lady poets (poetesses), altogether 174 poems by (60) writers. The editor U Ohn Shwe re-arranged some of the poems.” The original collection by LN can be seen on palm- leaf manuscripts, in various bundles. There are probably many other writings not yet recovered.?®Letwe Nawrahta (1723-1791) 79 (7) ——- Pyo poems LN is supposed to have written several pyo poems, but the only text found so far is the Yaza Niti Pyo; it is probably the earliest Yaza (Raja) Niti text in Myanmar pyo poetic form. UNan Hline from Pakkoku found the text on a palm-leaf mss., and had a few copies printed in 1963.” Even this printed copy is now extremely rare, because only a few copies were printed in a far-flung district town across the Ayeyawaddy River on her west bank. Of the Yaza Niti texts, ic. Code of Conduct for Rulers (Kings), the widely known text is the one written in Myanmar as Yazaw Warda kyan, by the Mon-ywe Zetawun Sayadaw in 1832. It was probably based on one of the texts procured from India at the behest of King Bodawpaya. LN’s short pyo poem is 69 years earlier as it was completed in 1763. The pecularity of this text is the comparison to special traits of (6) animals and birds, altogether (20) characteristics which kings and rulers should follow as an Ethical Code of Conduct. The text seems to be original and not based on Indian texts like later Niti texts. Perhaps LN himself observed or read about how certain animals and birds like the Lion (Chinthe), Paddy-bird, Chicken, Crows, Dogs and Mules have specific characteristics, eg a Crow has a peculiar trait of keen observation of its surroundings which kings should emulate in getting to know the social conditions of his own people; that he should share the food (and wealth) he accumulates with his fellow creatures like the Crow when it finds some food. But it is surprising that LN dares to mention certain traits of a dog (a lowly animal in Myanmar peoples’ concept) that a king should copy in his daily conduct. Quoting Pali texts he cites the bravery and courage of dogs, of their cating whatever is available, not sleeping much, and being alert all the time. Like a dog, the king should be easily satisfied and not covert riches and live in luxury.80 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture (8) Songs and Musical Compositions LN also wrote a number of songs and musical compositions; they were at first lost for many years until two classical song anthologies“ on palm-leaf mss. were found. At least (25) texts of songs written by LN are now noted down.“ Some of the musical compositions are probably from the Nyaung-yan Period which LN, with his penchant for recording old texts saved for posterity. Two Important Historical Records For the historian and scholar of Myanmar studies LN left two extremely valuable records on the campaigns and achievements of two great kings he served. In Myanmar this kind of historical record is called Ayedawbon Kyan. The two kings he chose to write about were Alaung-paya (1752-60) who raised his rank twice and first gave him important duties at the Royal Court during the early years of his long career, and Bodawpaya (1782-1819) the king he served towards the end of his life. These two important historical records are known as the Alaung-min-taya-gyi Ayedawbon and Hsin-byu-shin Ayedawbon. Both remain on manuscripts and are not yet published in printed book form. These two texts are known only to a few scholars. At the Myanmar Historical Commission, the author of this paper has been able to recover both of these rare texts and we are now editing them to publish as printed monographs and make them available to all scholars both from within Myanmar and abroad. Unfortunately, the two texts that were recovered, earlier; covered only five years each of the two kings’ reigns. But I have now received another shorter text that covers Alaung-paya's whole life, also by LN. Some scholars are of the opinion that LN wrote anew chronicle like his contemporary Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu. LN’s chronicle is often popularly known as Letwe NawrahtaLetwe Nawrahta (1723-1791) 81 Yazawin; some even giving it a confusing title Yazawin Thit, the title of Maha Sithu’s work. This has come about because both continued U Kala’s Maha Yazawin Gyi which ended around 1711, though Maha Sithu, like the Mon-ywe Sayadaw, incorporated in his work U Kala’s writings on the earlier periods. LN on the other hand began from Oct 1711 as U Kala ended his chronicle there; he covered the last (40) years of the Nyaungyan Dynasty, also known as the 2nd Innwa. (a) Alaung-min-taya-gyi Ayedawbon (1766) LN’s Alaung-min-taya-gyi Ayedawbon®, which Daw Ohn Kyi, Retired Professor of History and Member of the Myanmar Historical Commission, has edited for publication begins with the (40) years history before the reign of Alaung- paya. There are two different texts by LN. It was probably in December 1766, about six years after the great King’s death that LN started writing this important eye-witness account of Alaung-paya’s rise to power. At the time LN was in ill-health and resting from court duties for awhile. He wrote in the exordium that his intention was to write a chronicle from October 1711 where the Maha Yazawin Gyihad ended so that people can read continuously [the history of Myanmar]. He first related the forty years’ history under the last two kings of the Nyaung-yan Dynasty and only then began his record of King Alaung-paya’s campaigns. He gave emphasis to the court ceremonies like the coronation, triumphal processions, the ceremonial welcoming of envoys from foreign countries, royal funeral ceremonies, and so on. LN became an expert in organizing these court ceremonies as he was one of the few officials who was at the court of the last king of the previous dynasty Maha Dhama Yaza Dipati, (1733-1752) and knew about the old royal traditions and customs. There are also accounts of the arrival of Siamese envoys, and the return embassy from Myanmar to Ayutthaya.82 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture Also about suppression of heretic monks. Compared to the two published Alaung-paya Ayedawbon texts, this account by LN is much more comprehensive and is written in a more readable, interesting style. For example we can find in LN’s account that some besieged people of Innwa in 1751 had to cat human corpses. Unfortunately, we have not been able to recover the rest of one of the incomplete manuscripts. The text recovered so far has many interesting contemporary information, e.g. the name of the new dynasty “Konbaung” came from the high ridge of land (levee) running north to south, constructed by Alaung-sithu (1112-1167) to the east of Shwe-bo. Scholars should note that only one of the published editions of the Alaung-paya Ayedawbon, is by LN, the other text is by Twin-thin Taik-wun Maha Sithu.® (b) Hsinbyu-shin Ayedawbon (1787) In the exordium of the palm-leaf manuscript which has the text of this important historical record, LN is clearly stated as the author, together with a list of his other titles. The main title of the work is named by the author, LN, as Hsinbyu- shin Min-taya-gyi Phaya Ayedawbon Thamaing-daw. But at the very top of the first leaf of the manuscript, before the usual prayer which begins the text, there is another title, viz Min Khan Sardan-daw-gyi. \t was under this alternative title that U Htun Yee, under his pen-name Shay-haung Sarpay ‘Thutaythi Ta-oo, made a few copies of the text first available to scholars in two mimeographed volumes. I have made a copy of these texts for Dr. Kyaw Win, Retired Professor of History, Yangon University and new Secretary of the Myanmar Historical Commission, as he wanted to edit it for publication. A number of Myanmar kings have as one of their titles Hsinbyu-shin, or the Possessor of the White Elephant, though in Myanmar history it is only two kings, viz. Hanthawaddy\ 4 Letwe Nawrahta (1723-1791) 83 Hsinbyu-mya-shin, King Bayinnaung (1551-1581), and Alaung- paya’s second son, Hsinbyu-shin (1763-1776), the conquer of Ayutthaya, who are commonly known under this title. Our eminent Myanmar historian, Daw Kyan, has pointed out that though Bodawpaya, or King Badon, is not popularly known as Hsinbyu-shin, he did possess several White Elephants including the female White Elephant found in Maha Hlega Forest entitled Thiri Marlar Maha Thubattar and also Nibbarna Pyitsaya Naga Yazar, male White Elephant, together with other white and red royal full-grown elephants, altogether (120) in number.“ Because this text was written around the sixth year of this King’s reign, a contemporary writer like LN could not have referred to him as Bodawpaya, a much later appellation first used by his grand-children, and it would have been quite proper to call the current king Hsinbyu-shin Mintaya Gyi. This text can be accepted as an Ayedawbon Kyan, even if it does not cover the whole reign of the king, but only about one seventh. These first five years were important because the king had to crush the rebellions of Phaunga-sar Maung Maung (king for a week only), Nga Phone and others to consolidate his power. The text gives in some detail the following important historical records compiled by a contemporary minister of the court, namely LN: qd) Crushing of rebellions at the beginning of the King’s reign. (2) Detailed account of the first founding of the new capital, Amarapura, the “Immortal City”. @) The two Beiktheik coronation ceremonies of 1783 and 1784, which LN himself had to plan and organize according to traditional practice. (4) Details of the court costumes, head-dresses, etc. () Details of royal appurtences, displayed6) ” (8) (9%) (10) ay (12) (13) Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture according to custom on the left and right of the throne. Prices of rice, ngapi and other basic commodities during the period 1782 to 1787. Sending of Buddhist missionaries all over the country, listing their names and the towns they were sent to. Sending of scholars (including Hindu Brahmin Ponna, court astrologers) to India and other countries to search for secular texts on medicine, law, astrology, and so on. (Many were later translated into Myanmar). Crushing of rebellion by Nga Sat and Nga Pei in Yangon. Establishing Pitaka Taik religious libraries, after copying and editing Buddhist texts to keep in these repositories. Collecting data and compiling a list of various officials, artisans, merchants, etc., and their descendants. The campaign to successfully conquer Rakhine, giving the military routes, battles and so on. The conveying of the much venerated Maha Muni Buddha Image from the Rakhine capital to Amarapura, giving in detail the dates, the different stages (halting places) and the veneration ceremonies at the capital and many other informative details. There is a note at the end of the manuscript stating that it was compiled by LN, and that it covers the years Myanmar Era 1143 (1781/ 1782) to M. E. 1148 (1786/1787). .LN’s life and career is a unique one amongst MyanmarLetwe Nawrahta (1723-1791) 85 writers; he was a recorder of Myanmar history during one of the most important periods of our history when a new and powerful dynasty, the Konbaung, arose with a sudden fatal impact not only on two ancient kingdoms, the Mon and the Rakhine, but also the Ayutthaya dynasty of Thai kings. This impact resulted in the demise of all these three kingdoms. LN, as a Myanmar chronicle compiler, noted down for posterity the disintegration of the Nyaung-yan (or restored Taungoo dynasty), and the crushing by Alaung-paya and his three sons of the Mons, Rakhine and Siamese Kingdoms. For the Mons and Rakhines the end of their long lines of kings was final; with the Thais the line of kings who had Ayutthaya as their capital ended and a new Thonburi-Bangkok line of kings began under a new dynasty, the Chakri, which continues up to the present, LN is unique in serving and surviving with valour and distinction under up to six Myanmar kings, both as a literary luminary, and also as a military staff officer and a high-ranking, minister at the court and capital and never losing his position during those violent, fast changing times. Conclusion In 1938 Professor Pe Maung Tin wrote and published his History of Burmese Literature, a pioneer work which is still unsurpassed. It is the standard reference book on the subject and also a school text-book which has been reprinted many times, but up to now no revised edition has appeared and no scholar in Myanmar has been able to write a similar work. As a pioneer work the book had a few inaccuracies which in recent reprints have remained uncorrected. Within a few months of its appearance in 1938, a school-master from Mon-ywe, LN’s birth-place, who knew about the inscription that LN left, wrote an article in a little known magazine for teachers, pointing out that in Pe Maung Tin’s account of LN86 Aspects of Myanmar History & Culture and LT the biographical data and the list of their works are mixed-up.“ But very few scholars seemed to have noticed it. A few years after Myanmar regained Independence (1948), in the 1950s there was much controversy as to where LT was born; the people of Mon-ywe claimed him as a native of their village because of the stone inscription there and villagers of Ma-gyi-ton argued that LT had written in his ‘works that he was born in their village. After some time scholars realized that there were two LT, one born in Mon-ywe who became LN, and the other LT who wrote the famous Yadu poem “Meza Taung-chay”. Bohmu Thamein (pen-name of Col. Saw Myint) has neatly summed up the main points of this controversy in two articles he wrote in the popular Nwe-tar-yi monthly magazine.” Bohmu Thamein, or Hmu-thamein (his later pen-name) (b. 1922), a very influential former Minister for Information and Culture under the Revolutionary Government (took over power in 1962), has also given the text of LN’s inscription from Mon- ywe and the views of the various Myanmar scholars who have written about LN. Bohmu Thamein wrote that the controversy should now be ended. LN had been rehabilitated since then to his rightful place as a renowned writer, a recorder of his times, and also at the same time an influential minister-soldier who took part in nearly all the main military campaigns of the early Konbaung Period, probably in a high military administrative and finance managerial position as a “7at-ye”, or Deputy Commander (Adjudant General), giving him the opportunity to note down, and keep records of the combats as they took place. Scholars and librarians at the University of Yangon have searched far and wide in Myanmar for his “lost” writings and recovered some of his priccless records of Myanmar history; accounts of his turbulent times which restructured the national identities of Myanmar and Siam and ended the Mon, Rakhine and Ayutthayan Kingdoms.