LEvolution of Symmetry Principles in Physics Symmetry, 4S wide oF nartow as you may define its meaning, 1s one idea by which mon through the ages has thed t compre- hend ond create order, beauty and perfection. ( Hermann Wey ) “Symmetric” dhiects are not only aesthetically oppecking by themselves but also may combine 4» Som a regular pattern f organ zed structures. It is thus natutal to expect that symmetries* monies themselves at all levels —mictoscopic ot mackoscopic — im Cut Wola As we see it, comprehend it, and shape it. One often heats, from -parti physicists especially, & statement Sike “the prmcipal gook of physics js to understand synmetries_in Noture (ond their possible breakdowns)” Alco there is much sense as one asserts that understonding symmetries a. system is mote Important tam calculating some amplitudes oF making, ‘particular measurements. Group theory, the first abstract structure to be introduced m math matics , 16 “he proper language to be used to formulate symmetty princi ples cond dlco derive their Consequences im a systematic Way. The definition a, “group” calls fr & set d dlements, finite or quite often infinite in mum ber (as ma continuous oF Lie group), ad a certain kind of closed opeta- tions involving. ony two elements in the set. See below for the precise definition. This notion proved to be immensely Fruitful im mathematics - Te is quite remarkable that this qroup theory Cond Lie algebra, which has close association with Lie group) hos row become on indispensable tool to ayulyze all sorts of problems arising im physics cd chemistry as well. Aside from allowing ome to identify teal beauty im a physical systern ( ie. symmetries), 4toup theoty hos been/used +o a. great advantage as often related to‘stobility’ enetmywise Cespetially in auantum theory?=2 one tries tm build an elegant theory on how Nature works, ftom the theory of crystal Lattices to the Sundamental Saws of subnuclear Pry- sics. The theory is also vety Fich mathematically The concept of symmetry 6 06 anciert as human civilization. Ear men must have been impressed with the symmetrical structure seen im both the biological world (e9., human bedy, some flowers) arid the physical world (e4., snow flakes) ; as civilization developed , symmetry ae? permeated into human activities Vike sculpture, music , architecture, poetry, etc. Lefi-tight (or mirror ot bikaterh) symmetry —he, 4s one exchanges the wo sides df the object 0065 am : a symmetty plane (for an object ‘in space) or S&S : across a symmetty line (for ont object in & phone), tt Scoks exactly the same — is rea zed ot Jeast opproximotely for human beings ond, manny animals. See Fig 4-1. One may won- det whether there is any reason “pr the occ- . : v urenice, of this syrmmetiy. Obviously, there Myr"2 Cafe ight symmetry are. two preferred directions for all of these beings, namely, he direction f motion (which becomes relevorrt when Joking for foud er attacking the enemy) and the divection of gravity to which every animal is subject to. These two directions define a symmetry plore: In amtbrast, Sor plants and trees, there is only one distinguished direction, ie, that f Eath’s gravity, all horizontal. divections being ually well-suited oF absorbing oxygen , Light o humidity. Consequently , plots ond trees have onlyasymmebry axis and hence rotational symmetty. Trees with amony branches have approximately a continuous rotation symmetiy around the vertical axis of their trunk, while flowers rather have a discrete rotational symmetry. The earliest scientific investigation on the syummetry related concept probably goes back 40 the Greek, who discovered the five reqular solids — Plotonte solids — with “moximal’ symmetty? But itWOS only ee moti 4h cert ie formulation in tay eat symmetry acqui pe of the gh eoncept of th auired «proper mache 1830, showed 7 cup wos ofiginated b e group. Lt is soid C mathe: the insolubibi e power 4 this conce es Gollois (1811-1832) a ate th Ubikity problem ot i pe with his beilliant: who, Im i concept was then ext 4 $iGth-degree Pend resolution of fener ig te ss Feenil toiy lt pe cortaty Inoue ie site eink Be | ae (iho gave the ft group re Satie ~ f a. a iNIEION ih it i i i i L Schur, § «HoH, G. Fichenius Loaf tate yeaa a daw moo ~ Lie ond E. Cart " lad ; ion) satissyt probe ean ced i" inti a Vity , 1, , Especially, im ‘S808, e i group, | there pa ea fe) = (Beta), 1899) created ahe theot ie (isga. | Che e= F, § ae € such that n eory of ld =¢ ¥ = gioups, o- Lie Le corti Gon for each 4.8 i l £e4, and os become a subject p8, lahich inverse % a en on arathenatics and oh 4 fundamental i at deboke = € & Cortesi eaysics Yok importance i eee sere Ie cc ll pl broad areas of (3), oad this group clideon space def possible ri id ; ; qoup ie relevant elie ; gid rotation: conservation ond the theo im connection ay Lie group called : ith on Rati On the physical side, delet eda ae wale in the Satter half of he a twas on important a ; I y crystal closees , With crystal hee Tt wos vata eo. of inves sin sch “he seene mecheri " 5 belonging +o the s to classify intimate commection existin ie , thermal ond Uae al ame. class posse i tu) toperti matical theory of ee “ crystal classes vaifat io le SchinSlies sad was clarified oand the mathe Bt 6 md Barlow; each ciystal ‘ atourd 1840 by Fed €. pace group and there are. ex. eS y ; e ctov, actly [230 dife with a difer- 230 ar lent space groups] I pace gioups] 1 three dimensi n ions, ond hence F illustrate its $i irae 220 different c pitit in the simplified setting ne ea We may Wo dimensions bel low.Take a simple square ottice (Fig.1-2), extended in both ee ons. Tt hos many symmetries: if one displaces it by one umit to the right oF three units upwards oF one unit downwards followed by two units to the Seft, etc., the Jattice remains unchanged (or remains inva tiont). These displacements, or combinations thereof, are colled symmetry elements af the Jottice. There are ether symmetry elements : 5 rotation around one of she comets through 90 degrees ot 180 degrees, etc., all Leave the Gottice invariant (ord herce constitute Symme- tay elements). One can also teflect the Lattice with respect + any of the vertical or horizon- Figt-2. >A squate lattice tal Lines, or any Line midway between two vertical Sines, etc. All af these ste also symmetty elements. In addition, if one reflects the Vattice with respect to a 4b-degree fine passing Hnrough mony Sattice points, one also cbtoins a. symmetry element. All these together genetate A Group, a two-dimensional space group. Other ctystal patterns may be considered , for example, the one in Fig.t-3° Then an importomt question is how ‘many different patterns ate possible Te turns out that we con have only 17 different Space groups 5 there ate only I different patterns in two_ dimensions. [This statement is the netoligation of the theorem mention honour begpre the, 2D & ‘ ol earlier that there are’ 230 Space groups Figt-3: A hexagonal ottice in 2 dimensions]. The application of (ot bv ney-comb) group theoty to analyze the concept symmetty m crystallogiaphy provided physicists with the first example A sh se ond me of the distiact mathenntical concept of groups. The cases discussed above also illustiate the symmetty group of o geometric object im Euclidean space. Here a symmetry element5 ; tics oF & symmetty transformation colvesponds t a transformation on the given geometric object the effect of which is undetectable. The set of all symmetty Lransfptmtations of on object forms o. group, the Group multiplicetion being the consecutive application of teanstorma- tions. Te is importent +o notice that only certain particular types of symmetty tronsformations are allowed im the space under considetor tient’ therefore, sywrmetties of Nokure also reflect the character of out physical space. Among, mathematicians, interest im finite groups and aleo in Lie groups increased rapidly In the Rate 9th ond early 20% centuties. Sophus Lie oad Felix Klein (1849-1925) were students together in Berdin in 1869-70 when they conceived the notion of studying mathematical systems from the perspective of the tromsformation groups which Sef the systems invationt. Thus Klein, im his famous Erlanger progtay persued the tole of groups in the studies of regular geometric contig- uations and also of spaces (ot manifolds), while Lie developed his notion of continuous transformation qroups as regards their rele in the theory ob differential equations. Lie's work wae a tout de force of the Itah century mathematics , and today the theoty of continuous groups is a Sundamemtal. tool im such diverse areas as analysis, diferential geometry , number thesty, oad differential equations. Tt has also made much impact on the development of 2orh-centuty theoretical physics? It is fair to say that until the 20th century, principles of symmett played little explicit tole in developing physical theoties. While conservation Lows, especially chose of eneigy and momentum, were considered to be of fundamental importonce, these were reqarded as consequences of the dynamical Saws (or equations) , rather than AS consequences of the symmetties that underlay these Laws. Max- well’s equations for electromagnetism, formulated im 1865, had Lorentz invariance. but these evmmohiies of elertrndvnamics Weremot fully ap reciated until 40 years Yoter(ie, belore Einstein created Special Relativity in 1905). Tt was really A.Einstein who put symmetiy First, Le, regarded the symmetry plinciphe as the primaty feature 4 Noture that constrains the allowed Aynamical Yaws. To him the transforma: tion properties concerning the electromagnetic fields were tot to be deduced Srom Maxwell’ sheovy as HLA. Lorentz did, but rather were consequences A relativistic: invariance ( including Lovente invarionce) behind all basic shysics, which Largely dictates the form of Morwell ’s equations. [ This i¢ the essence of the Special Relativity principle] _ Moreover, Einstein amd especially H. Minkowski paved the way for the notion that space and time are sywnnel fical in an abstract mothenutical sense'and hence we witness Leente symmetry in basic dynamical equations of Prysics), ante that this symmetry characterrzes ‘we cur spacetime manifpld (cf. the Erkomger Program & & Klein). This Einsteinian viewpoint scored a spectacular success when he constructed General Relativity in 19155 in this case, the praighe of gereral covariance —the invariance o£ the Yows of noture under general Qocah transformations of the spacetime coordinates (the group of difeomorphism) — Nargely dickates the dynamics of gravity, or of spacetime itself. Another important development concerning symmetty wos the gradue appreciation in the first twenty years or so of the 20th centuty that conservation laws are teloted to symmetty.(Within the Lagrangian approach Noether’s theorem, provides & constructive procedure to determine conser ved quontities, sometimes called Noether charges , yeloted to giver continous symmetry ttoms{ormations).- For instance, the conservation of total dinear momentum (in an isolated system) is reloted to <7 tiem the hontogepeity of Me P ye te the displacement ot tanslation invariance f Physical hows, whifle the conservation of angular momentum, relat d si tional symmetty of vhysical Yaws. Why was it thet this’ interrelation betwee:ronservotion laws ond symmetry wos not reccanized much earlier? he answer partly Yies in ene fact that in classical shysics this ee ie though present, was nevertheless net very uschul. Consider fo oa a paiticle subject to a central force, satisfying ( here, r= Vartyee") ox 3) a , mo =-s eel pac agin, mSh= BV ow g2.--2Vin i eae These equations ave ferm-invariart under arbitiary coordinate tronts\or- mations of the form x Xe x QO: a 3x3 (real) orthogonal W) = (:) ra (7) o(y) : ( nati. saticfying id , “Restrice Q 40 those with detO=t!” 1. bomen prereedbnnn ibe noes the group SOG). et ie the system has a 3-D rotation symmetty. (The tromstormations (4,2) with the qroup multipsication taken by successive tianstot mations, bine the Lie group O(s)). One con argue that it is this rotational. symmetty that is ‘resporisible’ for the existence of the eoncerved angular smomentum ee tae ; (fende ) Gee in this system. But, to know that 2 correspond 40 constonts of motion ome does not have to rely on such symmetry argument — it follows mor directly as s ae Aen ears Enea mtes 1. Fa Pxm SE mex VV) =O | (1.4) So one might say that ‘symmetry’ is just 0 fancy word for nothing ! Ale for certain consetvation laws, it may not he easy to tecognize even what telated symmetties are. For mstance , for 0 cemttal potential f the form Vr = -% (the Coulomb-Kepher problem) , we know there exist additional constants of motion , the Runge-Lema vector MeoLBxB xb . See Box 1-2. But , : ; F symmetries responsible for their existence are not ot all evident. This is sc even though we com analyze the niction in a closed form . (Box 1-2) The (Lapace)-Rumge-Lenz vector Bounded motions im the Kepler problem being always in closed orbits, one is led to suspect that thete might be certain additional consewed quantities with the Keplerian central force,such as a vector pointing Srom the force center to the peti- center (so dhat the pericentet may not moye in Space). Such ig the Rumge-Lenz vector Me ipxD- KE, with dM = £( KP) x0 +ake eat Ko | at geet | > > | as one uses L=arx gl ad dh. 124E Then note that r+ h(t) = Now, if we introduce the amngle g by PM =e (Ml cos ($-¢) (s0 thet 7 may become parallel + HH at d= 4), the above equatien | imphies that my eno) r=] 1+ Lihleos(d-¢.) ” a Ela Kole Ti cos (6-6) | This represents conic sections of well-known Kepler (or Coulomb) orbits. The eccentricity of the conic sections is equal te LEM] = 1+ 2EE . Also note that, for bounded orbits (ie, with x >0 and E <0), ¥ takes the minimum value at b=9,, that is > when P/M . Therefore, the vector Vi as drawn ftom the force center points im the direction of the peticenter. If one considers ‘move complex systems involving many particles and even continuous Field variables (such as electromagnetic fields), the relationship between symmetry ood the conserved quantities becomes somewhat More significamt. But it was really when quantum mechanics was developed in 1925-1927 Cand Sater within the forruaism & quaartum field theory) that the importance of this relationship came to the fore.Theye are imonifold reasons ‘pr this. In quantum mechanics, the state fo physical syste ts Sabeled by quantum numbers (or eigenvalues of certain physical cbservables) some of which in fact designate the symmetry properties of the state. This has something to do with a forti- cular way of representing “quantum states" (as will be elaborated more in the next patagrarh). Together with quantum numbers thete arise select. ion _pules which gcvern the chomge of quantum numbers in transition between states (as certain perturbation is considered ). Here, in & system with certoin symmetties (not hampered by te perturbation), the quantum numbers related to the conserved cbservables!’due to the sym. metres connot change in any case ( so-called ‘good’ quantum numbers cotresportd to eigenvolues of these conserved observables) — the relation- ship between consewation laws ard symmetry has an enhanced le im quantum theoty. Thus, after 14255, symmetry and the related mathema- tical interpretation began to permeate the very longuage of atomic physics. [ Later, as physics moved into nuclear card elementary payticle pheniomena., symmebiy (and group theoty ) permeated the Yarguage of. these New areas of physics as well J. Symmetiy in quantum mechanics aesumes a greatly enSaiged role becouse of the fact that the mathematical setking. of quomtum mechanics (ie, the Hilbert space) is Sinear ; due to this Yineariby, we have the superposition principle for state vectors. Thanks +» this Qinear structure, given a physical system vith certain synmetiies, 1 is possible to study properties cf quantum states" with the help of the group representation theory, which is a very beautiful branch of mathematics in itself. See Box 3. Here a result of (undomental importance in. quantum theory is the Wigner theorem (E.P. Wigner, 1981), which states that to every symmetty group there corresponds a. representation (unitary oF omti-unitary) ap 40 0 factor of modulus t (ie, phase), im the quonttumn mechanical HilbertW+t0. space. Further, one may obtain ( [Boy 4-3) Representation f a group. anitary) representations of conti- | Tf there is a homomorphiom from a nuous symmetties by studying | group & % @ group of Simear opetaters TG the representation of the associa | on a linear vector space V, we say that ted Lie algebra (which are essen- | TG) form a representation +e eG tially structures involving cotres- e - ae C ioe oe if | if p Sm 'T fortting Nocther charges) | soup muplcation las, te, $(405¢8) = $(4.4.) ]. The dimension of the tepre- ie rotation group follows 4rom ae is the dimension of the vectol e representations of angular — “PACE V- oe nay ee Here note that, if V is Cniite-dimen dehine eee sional , ene may freely interchange use o! cee cet aad Simeat Opetaters uith matrices in view of S : WH CommU-| their well-known correspondence : viz. choosing the basis (€,-:,€,) Sor the (n-dimensional ) vecter space V, we. have the association (inca vs ( aes instonce, representations of the tation relations’ ae ene Cli tliat, as) Cigik= 1.2.3) or 0 quantum system wich Large am Tt T= (Ty) mough symmetries (4, the hydro- ee i a : ie jen aconi“one ‘may exploit the rep~ if Te; = &; Te (which implies that, Ser k= e; (EV), we have Tee (Tye; = x{e; : resentation theory & the relevent symmtetty group to cbbaim the corpl- ate solution of the problem. > Based on the new insights that these developments gave, many important vesults were obtained. Take for instance the periodic table for atomic elements , which was empitically discovered in the 194 century. Te was a teat discovery, but the periods two, eight, eighteen, etc, were empirical numbers found from studying chemical properties & various elements — there was no understanding of their origin. After he development of quantum mechanics, it became gradually clear that these numbers are not random, but Glow directly Sromhe rotational symmetry (or the group SU) of the Coulomb-Sike potential rtd dhe Pauli exclusion principle (which is reloted to the permutation proup). Also think of the Dirac equation for an electron. Like Maxwell equations, this equation is oleo more ot less dictated by relativistic invatiance (cr the theoty of Poincaré group); the difference in this case is that one has to consider zhe spinorial representation of the Lorentz group 03,1), a8 is appreptiabe for a. spin particle. Actually, even the very notions of “mass" and “spin” for a porticle atise Grom consideting the representation theory af che Poincaré group which describe re symmetry of the Minkowski space-time]. We further note that the Bloch theorem she most important result of solid state physics (which can explain the band structure of electtonic eneiay Qevels in solids), is f the group theoretical origin —it is related to che symmetry of Lattice translations. As 0 matter of fact, event various complicated relations enown Gr special functions (e4, spherical harmonics , Bessel functions) have simple uriderstanding in terms of the relevant group representa ei Fi Wigner (at , a pioneer in applying the group theoty in shysics, Saw the vole of symmetry principle in omother Light. He pointed out that progress in physics was portly based on the ability 40 separate the analysis of & physical phenomenon into two parts. First there ate the initial conditions (or boundary conditions) thet are quite arbitrary, compli- cated ad umpreditable. Then there ote the Sows & nature that summa- rize the regularities that exist independently af she specific dynanical developments. Then, Wigner went on to argue that invarionce ‘tinciples provide a structure amd coherence to the dows af nature just os the Laws of neture plovide a structute ard coherence +o a set of events. See Fig. 1-4. Indeed, without certain characteristic features or veqularities embodied in the Daws of physics (as plivided Ly symmetry btintciples), we would not be ole 40 discover the Lows themselves. WeChoice f dynamica. variables, coupling constants, etc. Synnmetry Cows of principles V nature Fig 4-4 : Wigner’s view on progress of physics x 7 phenomena. moy of course encounter regularities which are aot really exact aleo — these correspond to Opptoximate symmebties and related conservation Sours will row have approximate validity only. Group theory can be explo. ited mn 0 useful way study this case, 400, allowing the eects symn- etry breaking terms row. Inthe Utter ase, t undetstand the origin of such asymmetry becomes an important tack af physics as well. Efforts to discover symmetty and asymmetiy hod been dominant themes of elementary patticle physics since. rmid-1950¢. This includes the violation of tne Seft-right symmetty CT.D. Lee oad CN Narng., 1956 ) and, #2 a very small degree the observed time-tevetsal violation (J.H.Christensen et al, 1964) m weak interackions, Ako discussed were the approximate SUL): {avor symmetry of hadrons and the weak isospin group! Note that the Qostter synmetties ore rot defined im terms of space-time coordinate vromsformation properties . They are so-called internal symmetries, defined by appropriate actions in an abstract internal space m which flavor or weak isospin quantum numbers are amearinetul. Actually, in connection with the electric charge quantum numbers for particles, one may also imagine a. one-dimensional internal space ond the related phase syne bry, be, the group UC) (of quacntuem electiodynamics). Existence of such nternal spaces for elementary particles enlarged the demain of avmmetty consideration . ard in eorly 1910s physicists introducedanother kind of internal space , the coler space, in which oe symmetty (for quarks) is defined. Strong force has intimate connect- ion to the SU(é)-color. The point is that dy one may imagine & separate internal space for Cach distinctive quantum number (of elemertoty particles) anid for each fundamental force of Nature, oid ci) symmetries defined in the internal space Impose strong, constiaints on the trteraction patterns involving the elementary particles. Tp discuss the standard mode of electroweak and strong, interactions, me shoud snot Soil to mention tivo other symmetty-velated developments A great importance —the notion of gauge eymmietty’ ae spontaneous symmetiy breaking. First, what is gouge symnnetiy? We knew +t, thonks to the presence of the electromagnetic potential Cashich couple to charged matte fields Aarough animima coupling scheme), the Ud) internal symmetry quoartum dectrodynomics can be considered differently at each space-time point —the system has a Socal UA? symmetry (or UdD gauge synmetty). Also this Ud) symmetty in fact determines the Sorm af interaction * % lage degree . (But this does not mean that all UG) intetnal symmetties shroud be anade Socal. symmetries ; the UW) symmetry associated with, say, the baryon umber still remains ungauged ). Even with more complicated of now-Abedian Lie group as the inttenal symmetry, Yoong and Mills Cen 1954) sowed Hat it com olso be made Loca or gauge, symmetty. In Box 4 we have desctibe how the tromsformation Yows for basic field variables difer, depending on whet] ot given Abelian/non-Abelian interna symmetty is global (ie, ungauged ) ot Qocall (ie, qauged ).[ Note that the concept gauge symmetry allows one +o consider Yocally-detined internal space frames im the same way that Gremeta Relativity allows one to consider “ocad inertial froaes (whieh are subject to Loventz transformation ot each given space-time point: "] (Box -4) Global versus Local transformations Tn quantum field theory, all cemetary particles are unidet- stood as quanto. of he corresponding fields, in tie some way as photons ake quomta of the electromagnetic fields. WhillegPobal transformations ‘may be defined only if a suitable set U=14 of matter fields TYG} are given, we must have in addition Bero-mass gouge fields A(x) 40 consider Qoca or gauge | symmetries? Explicitly, in tre case f Abelian Utt) symmetry » dlobah transformation: Yoo Yor=e' 69 , et dencting on arbitrary constant phase , UG) gauge Field gauge tronslormation + YO) > win = Calg and Aye | ip hu = Ain + 360 ( eis the gauge coupling ” constomt) , for arbitraty Socal, phase Canes Dv Beli) pithy Fer non-Abelian symmetry grcuups these taneformnation Laws com be eralized os /~ representation mattix af a ¥ e7-Abelian aeup ghobah transformation: Y@)— Wien Ugh the ‘dex’ ol denoting Specific components reeled to the inteto, vector Space , SlocoQ, tronsformation + 6) > Yo=U, lg A) and ho) > Kior= Utah, Uts'+ £0,000) J, with aupropriote mattix gauge fields A(x - | Note that, by making the symmetry Roca), thete is altogether a. basic chomge. of character in the tole of symmetty considerations ’in fumdamental physics t fem aossive tole in which symmetry is the property of inter actions, to on (ackive tole im which symmetyy setves, tp determine +he symmenry im dynamics!” imteractions themselves. That ie, (qauige) symmel y dicta imeraction , oe Firat stated by Wey im 1924 vend gouge fields seve 0s etce cattiels ( petween the sources cartying montrivial quantum numbers under correspon! ding, gle all. symmetries) . The concept of gauge fields is related +0 the concept principal fiber bundlle im anathemotics , ond this relationship also clarifies the intrinsic geomettical meanring. of gauge Fields and the imternoall space. The Standard model of particle physics is & gauge theoty paced on the maternal Spmmetty group UOx SUM x SUB), and here elec- sroweak amd stiom folces ale results of gouge-field-mediatel interactionsUx While the secret of Nature is symmetry (especially Soca symme- tty) , much of the texture of she world is due to mechanisms of symmetty breaking. The ‘ spontaneous” symmetry breaking of aeball cond Local (mostly internal) symmetries has beceme a recurrent theme in modern theoretical physic This is related tm the fact that event if the Hamiltonian of the system may possess & certain symmetty, the ground state & the system can be nontrivial under the symmetry action and then we can witness very different physical effects in association with the Synmetiy the Hopilterian. As in the case of the Ising model (in tuo dimensions or higher), the phenomenon spontaneous symmetty breaking. arises usually when the degrees of freedom involved ate infinite! Especially, for a gobol symmetry based on a Lie group, thete ate two ways the Symnt etry Thay be realized. The first way, sometimes referred to as the Wigner-WeyS aede, is standard : the Lows of physics ore manifestly invariont and the ground state of the theoky,, the vacuum , is unique oad symmetric. In this case we always have appropriate conserved quantities related to the symmetries ; also, desenerate multiplet stru- ctute Lor the excited states shoul show up in accordance with me standard group representation theory. In systems with an infinite numbet of degrees of Sreedom, we com also have « second mode, sometimes called the Nombu-Goldstone mode , in which the ground state is asymm- attic and tot uniquely Sixed. Here recognizable conserved quomtities related to the symmetries do not exist in the stote space , and instead we have an appropriate number of massless rea sso dynamics which is more. or Less governed by group theoretical considerations . bora HR DERE a ce Ee SE ole i case is relevant +o explain ferromagnetism (with magnon as related Goldstone boson), ond also chiral synmetty breaking in strong inter actin vhvsirs with pions which are verw Vielt ae Capproxinate) as prescribed by ehe synimetty principle) “origin & mass”ante Goldstone bosons. If one considers the second mode with Soca gauge symmetry, the results are quite different (compared to the umngauged case — we no Songer have massiess Goldstone bosons, but ind instead that gauge fields become massive through ‘Hiags mechanism. Thus, inter action coused by exchanging, gauge-Sield quota Is chevt-ranges. This sort of phenomenon is exploited in superconductivity oad diso to des- eribe the weak interaction sector of the Standard model. Frem these examples we see haw symmetry com play a role in a world which. ppears net to have ony synmietty. Tt will be just not very easy to henit such iden Natures ere oo Current theoretical exporation for futher unification of the Sorces of Noture 7 ncluding gravity , is Sargelly based on the search for new ‘ultimate symmetries’ of Nature. Indeed, particle physicists speculate on Sorger ond Saiger Socal symmetries _and more intricate therns_of_symmety breaking. in order to have a unified understa nding for the separate interactions. They. algo tHed very hatd to combine. internal symmetries with the Poincré invariance & space-time without much success until the idea of supersymmetty came 4p in the early 191108. Supersymmetry — a new kind of symmety which could explai: some the most mysterious features of Nature —is & beautiful extentsion & the geomettic symmetries of space-time , to include syinmettic related a Ordinary symmetries, which are telated to ‘bosonic’ conserved quanities, group bosons together ond group fermions topether. Supersymmettic theories, however, have tre abidity to unify fermions and bosons (ot, ene may say, matter and fore) into a single pattern. Moreover, is possible to consider theories with Qocad Cie. cupersymmetiy, dad these thecties have general covariance (aad conttoin Einstein gravity ) automatically. Supersymmetry is such a profound iden, ond people ave eagerly awaiting the expetimertal discovery of tne signs of (suitably broken) super symmetry from particle accelerators. Finally, in recent yeats, theoretical physicists have bequn 4» setious| explore a tadically different theoretical cousttuct , that is, string thecty, as the condidate for the ‘theoty of everything” ( including consistent hy quantized gravity ). Tn this theory, a crucial role is assumed by the to-dimensional conformal algebra. and things Yike dhe Virasoro algebra ( which ate also known to be important in understonding, ctitical phe- nomena of two-dimensional stotistical systems). Also another exten- sion of the conventional Lie algebra, the so-called quantum group”, is being actively pursued. All these developments suggest wnat the symmetty principle tn ‘physics iS Not at the erd of its evolution . The notion of symmetty will occupy the center stage of physics, if one believes tat physics has a duty t provide a Siving picture of our world , to uncover relations between natural events , aad to Mer us the Sull unity, beouty and natural grandeur of the physical world.