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-T UV 4803WR47A/:IX5J92ZY\[]<OY1^@<O_`2a> = {a, b, c} b


c`de WR4423JfY\[]<OE>AWR;C<?>g2;h/14/:;=<OYIE=Y1<O4ij<?iR2 I-<O47 H W?>gJA2JAB3^`WR47A2OG
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d .<03Y1O>AEJA203WR;C;E><?>A/ H 2I2 L IWR44B526^-<OJ


L
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com(L) = {w | v L, : |w| = |v| }


257)>923Y1Y:2E4yYu<O4iR<OiR2JAB3iREY:/125J E79>A/:l-23J b
vUV 4803WR47A/:IX5J92Y\[]<OY1^@-<O_23> = {a, b, c} 23>#Y12Y1<O4ij<?iR2J9B5iREY:/123J7AEJ WRJA;hB
I257=;CWO>A7=4205WR4j>g234-<O4j>^-<?7Y12n<O03>A25EJ aagb 2Y1<O4ij<OiO282379>y<O030523^>gB^-<?J
Y\[]<OE>AWR;=<>g2l-4/&IB3>g23JA;h/14/:79>A2 A = ({1, 2, 3}, WRYu<ZWR40a>g/1WO4I2
>gJA<O47A/~>g/:WR4 : {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 3} 257)>#IWR44B32Z^-<OJ
1, {1, 2}, , )

a b c
1 2 1 1
2 3 1 1
3 3 3 3.
c`de RW 4425J#E42ZJA23Yu<?>A/1WR4I2ZJ9B505EJAJA2340526Y1/:4B<?/1JA2^`WOEJYu<7AE/:>g2
03WR;h^><O4j>Y:24WR;_J92I2Z;CW?>g7mI2ZY1WO4iRE23EJ n I-<O47 L b
s d <OJE42Z;CBa>g@W|I26<OEy0@WR/`G-254nIB5IE/1JA2ZE42ZWOJA;EY:2o05Y:WR7A2^WREJ (n) b
n
(n) = #(L )
L

vU cd{ WR4j>gJ925JoDFE2Y12Y1<O4ij<?iR2{I257oJ925^J9B57A234j><?>A/1WR47_/14-<O/:JA237I237o4WR;_JA237o254
L

>g/:25JA7mI/ H /179/1_Y:257^-<?J 4 2379>#JAB3iREY:/125J3G2348IWO44-<O4j>#E4262a^J9257A79/1WR4nJAB3iREY:/1X5J92 b


s dm WR4j>AJA25JDFE2#Y12Yu<O4ij<OiR2mI237J925^J9B579254j><?>A/1WR47_/:4-<O/:JA257,I257f4WR;_J9257254j>g/:25J97
I/ H /:7A/1_Y1257^-<OJ 3 257)>6JAB5iOEY1/:25J5G
234WREJA4/17A7A<O4j>6E4%<?E>gWR;C<?>A2l-4/,IBa>g23JA;h/14/:79>g2
<O050325^>g<O4j>#0526Yu<O4iR<OiR2 k WREy7AWR4n;C/:JAWR/:J5G<OEy0@WR/-q b
dye B3IE/:JA2I257=I25E^JA23;C/:25J97C^WR/14j>A7CDFE2Y:28Y1<O4ij<?iR2yI257J925^J9B579254j><?>A/1WR47
_/14<O/1J9257mI2374WR;_JA237234F>A/123JA7#I/ H /179/1_Y:257m^-<?J 12 2379>JAB3iREY1/:25J E79>A/:l-23J H WO>gJ92
JAB3^`WR47A2 b
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L = {ai bj cj d2i | i, j N}.
s d WREJ94/1J
E42iRJg<O;h;C<O/1J92@WRJ9705WR4j>g2|>g2fiOB54B3Jg<O4j>Y12,Y1<O4ij<OiO2$WRJA;hB,I257;hWO>g7
7AEJ b, c} DFE/F05WO;C;h25403254j>^-<OJ a GO7A2>g23JA;h/14234j>^<OJ bac 23>DFE/|05WR;h^JA2344234F>
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WR;_J92^-<O/:JmI2 c b

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