]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

K

? ?? ?
K

K


K




K


K

K
K






]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W
K

W
K
K

K
K
K
K

W
K

W
K

--


Concept of Atom- Historical view :1-1

-EF(Atom)
EIndivisibleF
(Greek philosophers)
Block Building)(discrete)
Invisible
Eof Matter
K



EModern Atomic TheoryF

W
K J
J
K
J
K(Compounds)
EF
K
(J.J.Thomson)
ECoilF
K1-(Spark Coil)F
EA beam of Light F
EEvacuated Tube)
EDeflectionF(Cathode RayF
KEMagnetic FieldFEElectrical Field F

--


W
EParticlesF

K













W(1-1)
[(Ref.): Whitten , etal , General Chemistry with Qualitative
Analysis , 3rd ed., Saunders college publishing ].

ERatioF
KENobel prizeF
(Robert Milliken)
Measure
KE(2-1)F

--


KEFW(2-1)

(Chamber)
(Randomly)

(Adjustment)


-

(Combination)
KJ

--


(Ernest Rutherford)
EGold Foil ExperimentF
K
F
2+
WE 4 He F
(Alpha particles) J
K
1
J
8000
K

KEFW(3-1)

--


W


K
(Empty Spaces)
K

EProtonsFEF

K
(James Chadwick)
K(Neutrons)


K





L J { e
J { P+
J { n

--


Bohr Model for Atom W2-1

(Neils Bohr)
W
K J
J
K(Shells)(Energy Levels)(Orbits)
K J
K P, O, N, M, L, K
KKKKKKK
K
J
K

....> P > O > N > M > L > K
> > > > > >

Kk
K J
n 2n2 J
W
K==

KEF

--


Atomic and Mass NumbersW3-1

K

.( eF=EP+F=

K
K
(Henry Moselely)
KEX-RayF
Sum
n+P+=

K
W
23
11 Na
Atomic Mass UnitW4-1

EF
KEF(amu)
-
W
amuEHeF
1
- 1 4
3 12
K-

--


u (Unified Mass Unit)

K(Dalton)
(2-1)

e n P+

J J H
J J He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
p
S



--


Isotopes and Atomic WeightW 5-1

(Chemically Identical)
KEnF
F

KE

(% Natural Abundance)
W
K
22 21 20
10 NeE%KF 10 NeE%{F 10 NeE%{FW
20
10Ne
22
- 10 Ne
K%

-
W
Mg
_

%
{ { 24
Mg
12

{ { 25
Mg
12

{ {
26
Mg
12

- -


%H%H%=
K
+ + =
+ + =
. amu =

K(3-1)

EamuF %
EamuF
10
{ { 5 B
{
{ { 11
B
5
16
{ { 8 O
17
{ { 8 O
{
{ { 18
O
8
35
Cl
{ { 17
37
Cl
{ { { 17

54
{ { 26
Fe
56
{ { 26
Fe
{
{ { 57
Fe
26
{ { 58
Fe
26

- -


Oxidation Number and Valence NumberW6-1

(Attempt)
F(Complete Outer Energy Level)
KE
(Saturated)
(Sharring)(Loss)(Gain)
K

(Valence Electrons)


xzEF(Absolute Number)
H
(Oxidation Number)
K(Oxidation State)

K
(General Rules)
K
K(Free atoms) J
J
KKKKKKKK Cl2N2 S8 O3O2W
(except)WH J
ENaBH4LiAlH4WF(Hydride)
K-
- J
K(Peroxides)

- -


E H2O2 WF
OF2-
KH
K J
HHHAl3+Mg2+Li+W
J
K
2
SO 4 W
H=

EFHH=
EFHH=
K=
(Covalent Compounds) J
(Ionic Compounds)
K
Na2SO4W
HH =

EJ FHEHFHEHF=
EJ FHHH=
=
K
(Metals) J
K(Non- Metals)
NaClW
K- H

- -


WW
N2O4EF
x12z J
J =
xz J

K
=H
= N + EJ F
= 2N + J
H = 2N
LH = N = H
H =N2O4
NH3EF
H= J
NH3 J

= N H H
= N H EHF
= N H H
H = N
H = N
KHNH3

- -


(Nitrate)NO3EF
xzJ
K-
J
xz
W
J =NHEJ F
J =NHJ
HJ =N
H=N
KHNO3
N2EF
xz
K

W7-1
Classification of Elements and Chemical Reactivity



K
Metals J

- -


Non Metals J


K
Metalloids Or Semi Metals J

K
Noble Gases J


K
EF
K

Atomic Spectrum and Quantum Numbers W8-1
(Gas State)
(Excited State)
(Line Spectrum)(Prism)

K








- -


KEF(4-1)
(Visible region)
(Electromagnetic Spectrum)
(Infrared)
(2He+, 3Li++W)(Ultraviolet)
K









KEF(5-1)

- -


KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKN, M, L, K

(Mechanical QuantumTheory)
(Principle Quantum Number)
n
KKKKKKKKKKKK=n(Positive Integer)



(Zeeman Effect)(Magnetic Field)
(Sommerfeid)

KKKKKKKKh, g, f, d, p, s

L(Secondary Quantum Number)
KEJ nF
W
K=nELF
=-=LEJ nFKKKKKK=L
L
=L
EF

( L )
W

- -


KKKKKK f d p s W
KKKKKK L
(Individual)
HF(Spatial Orientation) (Orbitals)
E
ML(Magnetic Quantum Number)
WLHL
EFLJ KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEFLH=ML
=L
W
L
--0HH=ML
dMLd=L
K
(Double Line)
(Alkali Metals)(Emission Spectrum)
ESpin F

Ms(Spin Quantum Number)

K 1 J 1 H
2 2
xMS, ML, L, nz

- -


J

K(n)
J
KELF
J
KEMLF
KEMSF J
KML,L,nW (4-1)
ML
L n
1S
2S
HJ 2P
3S
H- 3P
HH-- 3d
4S
H- 4P
HH-- 4d
HHH--- 4f
W
KEnF J
K J
K J
K J

- -


Electron Configuration Of Atom W9-1

K
W
J
W
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p 8s

4sF(Numerical Order)
4s3d3d
E
En+LFEn+LF
LnnEn+LF
K
4P3sW
E=HF3pE=HF3sn+L
K3p3s
FEn+LF6s, 4d, 5pW
KE
d, p, sL
6sn+L(Respectively)
W
4d , 5p , 6s

p, s, f, ML J
E20F{{{d
- -


K
{{{ f, d, p, s

K


s

p

f

K(Maximum Capacity)J
Kf, d, p, s

K
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10,..

K
J
EFEF

K

1 1
K S
M = M
S = +
2 2
- -


K
KEPauli Exclusion PrincipleF
W


J EHund's RuleF J
KK

- -


nd10, nd7, nd5, np5, np3, np2, ns2, ns1W

W

ns1

2
ns

np2

np3

np5

nd5

nd7

nd10

- -


11Na,8O,3LiW
KEF
KEF
3Li : 1s2 2s1

8O: 1s2 2s2 2p4

11Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

- -


W
K
W
K


MS ML L n

-1/2 1s2

-1/2 3s2

+ 1 / 2 H 2p3

-1/2 4p5

+1 / 2 H 3d5

-1/2 J 3d7

+1/2 4d3

4f6
+ 1 / 2 H

5f13
- 1 / 2 H

KEFW
K

- -


WEFW
3- 3+ 2- 4+ 3- +
15P , 15P , 15P , 8O , 8O , 7N , 7N , 7N , 1H , 1H
KEFKEFW

1H: 1S1

+
1H : 1S0

7N: 1S2 2S2 2P3

3-
7N : 1S2 2S2 2P6

4+
7N 1S2 2S2 2P0

8O: 1S2 2S2 2P4

2-
8O : 1S2 2S2 2P6

15P: 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 4P3

3+
15P : 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 4P0

3-
15P : 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 4P6

- -


KEF
EFEFW
KEF
EFEF
KEF



MS ML L n
+L 7N

-L 7N
3-

-L 7N
4+

+L + 8O

-L 8O
2-

+L 15P

+L 15P
3+

-L 15P
3-

- -


W1-9-1
Electronic Configuration of the main Transition Elements

EnFnd
nd (Partially Filled)
EF

W
9 8, 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
nd , nd nd , nd , nd , nd , nd , nd , nd .
d
WSeries (d-Block Elements)
WJ K
(25Mn)(24Cr)(23V)(22Ti)(21Sc)
K(29Cu)(28Ni)(27Co) (26Fe)
x F 3dx
E
WJ K
(43Tc)(42Mo)(41Nb)(40Zr)(39Y)
(47Ag)(46Pd)(45Rh)(44Ru)
K4dx
WJ K
(76Os)(75Re)(74W)(73Ta)(72Hf)
K(79Au)(78Pt)(77Ir)
(57La)
K5dx



- -


W
ns2 K
KEJ J ZxF(n-1)dx
K23V22TiW
2 2 6 2 6 2 2
22Ti : 1s 2s 2p 3s 3P 4s 3d
2 2 6 2 6 2 3
23V : 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
ns(n-1)d K
(n-1)d
K
25Mn : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d54s2
Kns(n-1)d
(n-1)d K
(n-1)dns
K
K29Cu24CrW
2 2 6 2 6 5 1
24Cr : 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
2 2 6 2 6 10 1
29Cu : 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
24Cr(n-1)d
Kns29Cu
(n-1)d
Kns
K W
29Cu
ns K
K(n-1)d

- -


WW

2 2 6 2 6 2 1
21Sc : 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
+
21Sc : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d1
2+
21Sc : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s03d1
3+
21Sc : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d0
W

W2-9-1
Stable Octet Configuration
4
E 2He,F
Kns2 np6

ns2 np6
K
2 2 6 2 6
18Ar: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6
36Kr: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 2d 4s 4p
+ 2 2 6
11Na : 1s 2s 2p

K

W10-1
Periodic Table



K[]
(preference)
K

- -


K
(X-ray Spectra)
(Periodic Law)(HeneryMoselely)
K(Periodic Function)
K
(Horizontal Rows)
(Groups) (Periods)(Vertical Rows)
K




K
IUPAC
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)
KEFE..,IV,III,II,IFE..,3,2,1F

K
S-Block Elements s EF
S
K(Light Metals)
K(alkali metals)EF
K(alkali earth metals)EF

- -


P-Block Elements p
KP
[][]
K
d-Block Elements d
d.
EZxFndx
K
f-Block Elements f
f
(Inner Transition Metals)
W
(Lanthanide Series)EF
K4f
(Actinide Series) EF
K5f
K(Heavy Metals)fd
[]
[]
K
KEF14Si[]W
W
WEF
14Si : 1s2 2s2 2p6- 3s2 3p2
KWEF

3S2 3P2
KW3
KW2+2
- -


K14Si
_WEF
K



1 2
2 13Li
3 11Na

4
5 38Sr

W11-1

K

K
Radii of Atoms and ions W1-11-1
(Size)

K K
K (Diffuse) K
K
(Distance)
(Atomic Radius)K
K(X-Ray diffraction)
[]
Cl2J
- -


K (Covalent Radius)






















KEFW(6-1)
W

- -


[] K

K
K

K

(Repulsion Force)
K
K

K

K
KW
.4Be, 7N, 5BEF
WW
K K
K K
K K
K K
W

- -


4Be 1s2 2s2 2 2
5B 1s2 2s2 2p1 2 3
6N 1s2 2s2 2p3 2 5


2 3 4 5

2 4Be 5B 7N

K
K
7N, 5B, 4Be


6C, 9F, 14Si EF


6C 1s2 2s2 2p2 2 4
9F 1s2 2s2 2p5 2 7
14Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s23p2 3 4

- -


4 5 6 7
2 6C 9F

3 14Si


K
14Si> 6CE 6C > 9FE
14Si > 6C > F

KEF

K
W
+3

7N, 7N , 7N+4, 7N+5



KEF
K

K
W
8O=, 8O-, 8O

- -


Electronegativity W2-11-1

(Attract) (Molecule)
K

K
F{EF
(Arbitrary Scale)E
KK(Pauling Scale)














KEF(7-1)

- -


EF
KEFr=0.8F
W
]
K[

7N > 15P > 33As >51SbW


[]
K
W
9F > 8O > 7N > 6C



K13AI, 5B, 9F, 7N W
KW


5B 1s2 2s2 2p2 2 3
7N 1s2 2s2 2p3 2 5
9F 1s2 2s2 2p5 2 7
13Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 3 3

- -


3 4 5 6 7
2 5B 7N 9F

3 13Al

K
W
EF9F >7N > 5B
EF5B > 13Al

9F > 7N > 5B > 13Al

Ionization EnergyW3-11-1
EI PF(I E)

K
W

A( g ) + E 1 A(+g ) + e

A (g)
A+ (g)
A (g)E1
e-
- -


A(g)

K

KEI E3FEI E2FEI E1F

A (+g ) + E 2 A (2g+) + e
A (2g+) + E 3 A (3g+) + e
IE1<IE2<IE3<..




K
K(IE1)
KW(5-1)

L


4Be
5B
12Mg
13AI
14Si

W

- -


](Decrease)
(5-1)[


K
W
4Be, 12Mg, 20Ca, 38Sr

](Increasing)
[



[ZAl][ZMg]
[LZO][ZN]
K
W
F2s2
F2p1E
E
K

2p4
K2p3

- -


K17CI, 34Se, 16SW

KW


16S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 3 6
17CI 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 3 7
34Se 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 5p4 4 6




6 7
3 16S 17CI
4 34Se

EF
34Se< 16S

EF
16S< 17Cl



34Se
< 16S<17Cl

- -


W
J
J

J
F J
E
J
31
15 P J

J
40 32
20 Ca , 16 S J
J

(a m u)
{ { 54
Fe
{ { 56
Fe
{ { 57
Fe
{ { 58
Fe

S8, SO2-4 , SO2, H2SO4 ESF J
K12Mg11Na J
L J
K J

3p, 2p J

- -


1
J
2
3d6
J J
4f14
5S1 J
K4d, 5f, 6s J

17Cl-, 29Cu2+, 29Cu+, 20Ca2+, 14SiW J
EF
EF
EFEF
EFEFEF
J

J
W J


8O-, 8O=, 8O J
29Cu2+,29Cu+ ,29Cu J
W13Al, 5B, 7N J
KEF
KEF
KEF

- -


W J
KEF
KEF
KEF

- -

]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W

K

W
W
K
K
K
K

W
K

W
K

- -


PrefaceW-


K (Attractive Forces)
W
KEF
KEF
KEF

Ionic BondW-
K
]
] [
[
(Cation)
+
n
M M + ne
Anion
n
X + ne X

K
K(Ionic Compounds)

K

- -


W
NaF
K

11Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
9F 1s2 2s2 2p5

K
+
11 Na Na + e


+

11Na 1s2 2s2 2p6

K

EF 9 F

9 F + e

-
9F 1s2 2s2 2p6
F-Na+[]
K

W
CaO
2 2 6 2 6 2
20Ca 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
8O 1s2 2s2 2p4
2e-
K

- -


2+
Ca Ca + 2e
O + 2e O 2
2+
Ca + O 2 CaO

CaF2
K

K
2+
Ca Ca + 2e
2 F (or F2 ) + 2 e 2 F

2+
Ca + 2 F CaF 2

Mg3N2

K
K

12Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

6N 1s2 2s2 2p3



KEFEF

3Mg 3Mg 2 + + 6e
2 N + 6 e - 2 N 3
3Mg 2 + + 2 N 3 Mg 3 N 2

- -


Properties of Ionic Compounds WJ J

KEF


K
K

K
(Molecular Formula)(Formula Unit)
KNaCl
KEF


K


K
EF
KEF


K
KEFEF
(Low vapour pressures)EF
K(Room Temperature)

- -


Covalent Bond W3-2

E1.7F


K

EF
K
-K


K (Potential Energy)


1s J

K

K

K
W

H A + H B H H

- -


KEF

Polar and Non-polar Covalent Bonds W1-3-2

F
Non-Polar Covalent EKKKCl2 , Br2 , F2 , O2 , N2
EO2 , N2 FBond

J K
K

0.5
1.70.5

EUnsymmetrical)


J EPartial Negative Charge)

HEPartial Positive Charge)
KHClH2O
HCl

- -


H Cl

H + Cl

1.7
K
K

0.9 HCl
0.7 HBr
0.4 HI
H-H

Covalent Bond and Lewis dot Formulas W2-3-2

(G.LewisF
ELewis Symbols)
K

W-K
K 5BW
W
KEF
2 2 1
5B 1s 2s 2p

- -


KEF
5B 1s2 2s2 2p1

EF
K
..
B.
:
KK

K
. . . .. . .
. Li .. Be .. Al .. C . .. N . .. F. .. Ne ..
. .. . .

K


K
K

K

K
..
H x. Ox ..
.
H

- -


W
K (x)EF
K
K( : )EF
KEF

: ::
:

:
O xx C xx O

KEF( x )EF
EF
K
K

.. . H.
.
H xCl .
x
H.x C. .xH
.. x

H
HClCH4

. .. .

H xN x H
x .

H
NH3

W

H ..
H N H .. .
.

H .. l
C
H C H
H
H

: = C = :

- -


(Dash Formula)

Coordinate or Dative BondEFW--



(Donor Atom )
K(Acceptor Atom)
EF
K
W

[NH4]+EF

H+ + :NH3 [H:NH3]+

K
F3B:OEt2EF
F3B + : Et2 F3B :Et2

Double and Triple Bonds W4-3-2

K

- -


H H

H C=C H :=C:

H H
.. x x ..
x x :O: x C x :O:
. .
H . C : : C x. H
x

W
H x . C ... ... C . x H H C C - H
Sigma and Pi Bonds W--
E F
p ssEF
K
p

H H

H C C H


K
Properties of Covalent CompoundsW6-3-2
KJ
J
K
KJ
KJ
KJ
KJ
- -


Metallic BondW4-2

J EF
K
K
KK
K
K

K

Intermolecular Forces of AttractionW-

Intermolecular
E Intramolecular Forces)EForces)
KEVan der waals)
K

Dipole-Dipole Attraction W--
(Unsymmetrical DistributionF

(DipolesF
K
K(Negative PoleF(Positive PoleF
K

- -


K(Solid State)
ELF
ELF
(Directional)K

EF
K
K

Hydrogen Bond W2-5-2
EF
2-2
K3,304,4

E+F
KE-F


K

HF
F F
+
H H H H
F F

- -


H2O
H O H
+
H O H O H

H

NH3
N
+
H H N
H

H H H



K
K

EFEH2Te , H2Se , H2S , H2OF
K
EHCl , HBr, HIF
K(HF)

EHF , H2OF
K

- -


EF

(High Melting Points)( High Heat of Vaporistion)

WK
EF
K
Dispersion ForcesW3-5-2



EF

- -


(London ForcesF
(Fritz LondonF
K


K

K
EF
K
0.1

KK
SnH4, GeH4, SiH4,CH4
KK

H2S < H2Se < H2TeHCl < HBr < HI


K
F
E
H2,Br2,N2,O2,O2,CO2,SO3(Symmetrical non polar Substances)
K(Monatomic SubstancesF


K

- -


W
WW
KEFEF
W
W
W
W
K0.0EF0.6EF0.4EF2.0EF
EFW
WW
19K, 10Ne, 13Al
WW
PF5EFNH3EF
KW
NaClClW

W

EFW
KI2, HI, Ar, CO2
KHF, H2OW
K
W
KEFEFEFEF
CH3CH2OHCH4C2H6W
W
KCH3OHEFCH3-O-CH3EFCH3FEF

- -

]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W
K

W
W
K
K

W
K

W
K
W
K

- -


Names and symbols of ElementsW1-3

K


K




EoxygenF
EFEcarbonF
KE F

K

Ecapital letterF
EchlorineF(carbonF

ECIFECFEsmall letterF
K

- -


Ac Actinium Ge germanium Po Polonium
Ag silver H Hydrogen Pr Praseodymium
Al aluminum Ha hahnium pt platinum
Am americium He helium Pu Plutonium
Ar argon Hf hafnium Ra radium
As arsenic Hg mercury Rb Rubidium
At astatine Ho holmium Re rhenium
Au gold I iodine Ri rutherfordium
I Boron In Indium Rh Rhodium
Ba barium Ir iridium Rn radon
Be beryllium K Potassium Ru Ruthenium
Bi Bismuth Kr Krypton S Sulfer
Fm Fermium La Lanthanum Sb Antimony
Bk Berkelium Li Lithium Sc Scandium
Br Bromine Lu Lutetium Se Selenium
C Carbon Lr Lawrencium Si Silicon
Ca Calcium Md Mendelevium Sm Samarium
Cd Cadmium Mn Magnesium Sn Tin
Ce Cerium Mg Manganese Sr Strontium
Cf Californium Mn Molybdenum Ta Tantalum
Cl Chlorine N Nitrogen Tb Terbium
Cm Curium Na Sodium Tc Technetium

E1-3F

- -


Co Cobalt Nb Niobium Te Tellurium
Cr Chromium Nd Neodymium Th Thorium
Cs Cesium Ne Neon Ti Titanium
Cu Copper Ni Nickel TI Thallium
Dy Dysprosium No Nobelium Tm Thullium
Er Erbium Np Neptunium U Uranium
Es Einsteinium O Oxygen V Vanadium
Eu Europium Os Osmium W Tungsten
F Fluorine P Phosphorus Xe Xenon
Fe Iron Pa Protactinium Y Yttrium
Fr Francium Pb Lead Yb Ytterbium
Ga Gallium Pd Palladium Zn Zinc
Gd Gadolinium Pm Promethium Zr Zirconium

E1-3F

- -


Antimony Stibium Sb
Copper Cuprum Cu
Gold Aurum Au
Iron Ferrum Fe
Lead Plumdum Pb
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
Potassium Kalium K
Silver Argentum Ag
Sodium Natrium Na
Tin Stannum Sn

Tungsten Wolfram W
E2-3F

Chemical FormulasW2-3

K

Eempirical formulaFEsimplest formulaF
KCH2H2ONaCl

EFH2OEmolecular formulaF

- -


C2H4

KKCH2CH2

Wstructural formula

H O

H C C O H

H



??
K
W
KECH2OFEC2H4O2F
K

K

Empirical FormulaW1-2-3

K



- -


(1)
KO5.34N2.34g


W
WK

1 mol N = 14.0g N EF
1 mol O = 16.0g OEF


1 mol N
2.34 g N = 0.167 mol N
14.0 g N

1 molO
5.34 g O = 0.334 mol O

16.0 g O

N0.167 O0.334
ON
W

N 00..167
167
O 00.334
.167
= NO 2

- -


(2)
56.3%O43.7%P

K
100g
KE
FK56.3gO43.7g P


1 mol P
43.7 g P = 1.41mol P
31.0 g P

1 molO
56.3 g O = 3.52 mol O
16.0 g O


W

P 1.41 O 3.52 = P 11 .. 4141 O 3.52 = PO 2.50
1 . 41


KP2O5

- -


(3)

0.1172g H2O0.1910 g CO20.1000g

W

K
2.10
H2OCO2
(0.0001g)
(0.1000g)
H2OCO2

(0.1000g)
0.1000g
K
C18.044.0H2OCO2
WCO2
12.0 g C
44.0 g CO2

WH2O

2.01 g H

18.0 g H2O

CO2
W
12 g C
0.1910 g CO 2 ~ 0.0521 g C
44.0 g CO 2

- -


W

2.01 g H
0.1172 g H 2 O ~ 0.0131 g H
18.0 g H 2 O

W

0.0521 g C + 0.0131 g H = 0.0652 g

W

0 . 1000 g - 0.0652 g = 0.0348 g
C
1 mol C
0.0521 g C - 4.34 10-3 mol C
12.0 g C

1.31 x 10-2 mol H

W2.17 x 10-3 mol O


C 0.00434 H 0.0131 O 0.00217 = C O.OO434 H 0.0131 O0.00217
0.00217 0.00217 0.00217



C2H4O

- -


Molecular Formulas W2-2-3

CH2

E3-3F
K

(4)
92.0NO2


46.0NO2
WNO2
92.0
=2
46.0

dinitrogen tetroxideN2O4= (NO2)2
F(NO2)2N2O4
KENO2

- -


CH2 14.0 = 1 14.0
C2H4 28.0 = 2 14.0
C3H6 42.0 = 3 14.0
C4H8 56.0 = 4 14.0
CnH2n n 14.0

E3-3F


Balancing Chemical EquationsW3-2-3

K
W
K

K
K

K

ENaClFENa2CO3FEHClF
WECO2F

- -


W
K

Na2CO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2

KNa2CO3
NaC12
W

Na2CO3 + HCl 2NaCl + H2O + CO

Cl
KHCl2

Na2CO3 + 2HC1 2NaC1 + H2O + CO2
K

W
1/2Na2CO3 + HCl NaCl + 1/2 CO2 + 1/2 H2O
5 Na2CO3 +10 HCl 10 NaCl + 5 CO2 + 5 H2O


K

- -


(5)
C8H18
C8H18 + O2 CO2 + H2O
W
H2OCO2
CO28HC
H2OH189H2OFH2O9
KE2H
W

C8H18 + O2 8CO2 + 9H2O

E2 x 8 +9 =25FO25
EO2F12 1/2O
KO 25

C8H18 +12 1/2 O2 8CO2 + 9H2O
W
2C8H18 + 25O2 16CO2 + 18H2O

- -


The Naming of Chemical CompoundsW3-3

(Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics)

K

NH2H2O

K
WW1-3-3
K
FEF
EideFEFE
(3-4)

NaCl Sodium chloride
SrO Strontium oxide
Al2S3 Aluminium sulfide
Mg3P2 Magnesium phosphide
HBr Hydrogen bromide


EF

- -


KousEF-ic
W+2+3

Cr3+ chromic CrCl3 chromic chloride
Cr2+ chromous CrCl2 chromous chloride

K(3-4)

VA IVA
N3- nitride C4- carbide
P3- phosphide Si4- silicide
A3- arsenide


VIIA VI
F- fluoride O2- oxide
Cl- chloride S2- sulfide
Br- bromide Se2- selenide
I- iodide Te2- telluride

K
Fe3+EferricF W
(3-5)Fe2+EferrousF
K
(Stock system)
KE1876-1946FAlfred Stock
EIIFFe2+
WFeCl3 FeCl2iron(III)Fe3+iron

- -


FeCl2 Ferrous chloride Iron(II) Chloride
FeCl3 Ferric chloride Iron(III) Chloride


iron(III)chloride FeCl3K
ferric chloride
K (3-5)


Cobalt Iron Manganese Chromium
Co2+cobaltous Fe2+ferrous Mn2+manganous Cr2+chromous
Co3+cobaltic Fe3+ferric Mn3+manganic Cr3+chromic


Mercury Tin Copper Lead
Hg2+mercurous Sn2+stannous Cu+cuprous Pb2+plumbous
(note that there are
two Hg atoms)
Hg2+mercuric Sn4+stannic Cu2+cupric Pb4+plumbic

penta-(5), tetra-(4), tri-(3), di-(2) W
K,deca-(10),nona-(9),octa-(8),hepta-(7),hexa-(6)
W
NO2 nitrogen(IV)oxide
nitrogen dioxide
N2 O4 nitrogen (IV)oxide
dinitrogen tetroxide
N2O5 nitrogen (V)oxide
- -


dinitrogen pentoxide
PCl3phosphorus (III)chloride
phosphorus trichloride
PCl5 phosphorus(V)chloride
phosphoruspentachloride
KmonoJ EF
CO2 carbon dioxide
CO carbon monoxide
compounds containing polyatomic ionsW2-3-3

K

K
W


MnSo4 Manganese(II)sulfate manganous sulfate
Fe2(c2o4)3 Iron(III)oxalate Ferric oxalat

WW3-3-3

K

K
KH+

EH2SHCI F
Ehydro acidsF
WK(hydroic acid)

- -


HF hydrofluoric acid
HCI hydrochloric acid
HBr hydrobromic acid
HI hydriodic acid

F
Eneutralization
HCI + OH - H2O + CI-
saltFide saltshydro
KE

oxoacidsW4-3-3

sulfuric acid H2SO4K
EH2SO4 SF
K
K4+6+H2SO3H2SO4
icEF
WousEF
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
H2SO3 sulfurous acid
KhydroEF
K
-ateEFicEF
K-iteEFousEF

- -


H2SO4 sulfuric acid SO42- sulfate
H2SO3 sulfurous acid SO32- sulfite
HNO3 nitric acid NO3- nitrate
HNO2 nitrous acid NO2- nitrite
-
HClO3 chloric acid ClO3 chlorate
HClO2 chlorous acid ClO2- chlorite



K
per-EFhypo-EF
K

Hypochlorous HClO ClO- hypochlorite
chlorous HClO2 ClO2- chlorite
-
chloric HClO3 ClO3 chloate
-
perchloric HClO4 ClO4 perchlorate

Acid saltsW5-3-3
H+
K
EH2CO3H2SO4F
Kbi-EF


NaHSO4 H2SO4
NaHCO3 H2CO3
NaH2PO4 H3PO4
Na2HPO4

- -


NaHSO4 sodium bisulfate
NaHCO3 sodium bicarbonate
"hydrogen"H
NaHSO4 sodium hydrogen sulfate
NaH2PO4 sodium dihydrogen phosphate
Na2HPO4 sodium hydrogen phosphate
(disodium hydrogen phosphate)
FEFdi-
KENa

















- -


W
W
W
Al2Cl6Fe2O3( NH4 )2S2O8
C6H12O6C3H8O3C6H6
W
H H

HO-C-C-OH
H H


W
ZnS + HCl ZnCl2 + H2S
HCl + Cr CrCl3 + H2
Na2S2O3 + I2 NaI + Na2S4O6
W
K1.34g F0.423g C2.5 g Cl


W
K14.5%C , 85.5%Cl

1.4gW
K2.10g

- -


W W
1) Nitric Acid .
2) Hypochlorous Acid .
3) Potassium dihydrogern phosphate .
4) Hydrobromic Acid .
5) Ferrous Oxalate .
6) Barium phosphate.
7) Magnesium Carbonate .
8) Nitrogen Dioxide .
9) Ammonium Dicarbnate .
10) Chromic phosphate .
11) Iron ( III ) Iodide .
12) Cuprous Nitrate .
13) Calcium Acetate .
14) Mangnese ( II ) sulfate .

: :

1 HNO2 2 HCIO4
3 H2SO4 4 LiHSO4
5 MnSO4 6 AgNO3
7 - N2O4 8 Sr(OH)2
9 Al2(SO4)3 10 CaCO3
11 BaBr2 12 CuCl
13 NaClO2 14 Mg(ClO4)2
15 NH4OH

- -

]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W
K

W
W

K

W
K

W
K

W
(Overhead projector)
K

W
K

- -


W1-4

WParticles
K K
K K
K
K
K
W2-4

W
K=

=
CC=
=

W3-4
K

=



Z =


EF

EF
K

- -


W

CCC
=


CC=

W

W
1mm Hg = 1 torr
1 atm = 101.325 k Pa
W4-4

K


373 100 0
353 80 K
333 60

313 40
293 20
273 0
153 -20
W

T K = t. c + 273

- -


W
E F
K EF
W5-4

K
W K
K
T
V 1/P
PV = CONST.
P1V1 = P2V2
KEJ F
W K
K
P
VT
V/T = CONST.
V1/T1 = V2/T2
W
(V)L

KEJ F

- -


PV





PV



(Fig. 1-4) P

- -


-300 -200 -100 100 200 300



(Fig. 2-4)

- -


W K
K
VW
PT
P/T = CONST
P1/T1 = P2T2
WE3-4F
(P)L
K
W
K

{
K






P






100 200 300 400 500 600


(Fig. 3-4)
TK

- -


WGeneral Gas Law W K

W
V 1/PETF
VTEPF
V T/P
P V = KT
K
WEnFK

K n or K = nR

KR
W

PV = n RT

KEF=P W
KEF= V
K= T
K= n
= R
EKFK

WR
{
K
W
P = 1 atm. & V = 22.4 L
T = 273 K & n = 1 mole
R = PV/nT
- -


1 atm. * 22.4 L
R=
Mole *K

R = 0.082 atm. L. mole -1. K-1

W(n)
W(M)(W)


n = W/MW Z


Daltons Law of Partial PressuresW K
EF


K

Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 + . . . . . .
K= Pt
KEF= P1
KEF= P2
KEF= P3
EF
K
EF n3EF n2EF n1
K T VKKKKKKKKK
W

- -


P1 = n1 RT/V (1)
P2 = n2 RT/V .(2)
P3 = n3 RT/V..(3)
WEFEFEF
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 + . . . . . .
= RT/V (n1 + n2 + n3 . . . . . )
Pt = nt RT/V . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
W
nt = n1 + n2 + n3 + . . . . .Z
WEFEF

P1/P2 = n1/n2 P1 = n1/nt Pt

WEFEF

P2/Pt = n2/nt P2 = n2/nt Pt

WEFEF

P3/Pt = n3/nt P3 =n3/nt Pt

n1/nt=EF

n2/nt=EF

n3/nt=EF

- -


Pt = PH2 + PCO2 + PCH4 + PC2H4

= 200 + 150 + 320 + 105
= 775 mmHg
PH2 = nH2/nt Pt

?
W?

nH2/nt =\H2

= PH2/Pt
= 200/775 = 0.285
= 25.8%

Pdry gas = Pt PH2O

W

K{

- -


Grahams Diffusion law K

?
K?
C 1/ d OR C d = CONST.
= CW
K = d
dM

C1M OR C M = CONST
KMW
KW

W
K EF
K E
F
K EF
K EF

The Kinetic Theory of Gases6-4
F
E

K

- -


W
J
K
K J
J
K
KEF J
K
J
K
K J

K

PV = 1/3 mn c 2
K= P
K = V
K= m
K= n

K = c

KEF

Deviation of Real GasesW


K
K(P,T)

- -


EJ F

N2
02

H2

CO

PV/nRT

(Fig. 4-4) P

KbN

- -


F n2/V2
F = a n2/V2

K P (P+an2/V2) a = F
W

(P + an2/V2) (V nb) = nRT

T,V,Pa , b
Ka , b

- -


EFEFEF
KEF

KEFEFEF

EF
KEFEF

KKEL{FEF

{KL{CO2EF
K

EF

a = 3.6 atm. Lit2/mole2 , b = 0.0427 lit/mole

- -

]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W
K

W

K
K
K

W
K

W
K

- -


Preface W-

ECondensed States)
(Fluid States)
K(Flow)
K


K
K
K K
K K

K K

K K

K K

K K

- -


The Liquid StateW-

(Kinetic Molecular Theory)





106(qualitative)

K J
J

K
J
K
(viscosityF

WF(Intermolecular Attractive)
KEKKKKKKKKKKK

Evaporation and Condensation W-2-

EF
W
KJ J

- -


J

K
J
K

K










EF

EF
K



(CondensationF
K

- -


Phase Equilibrium and Dynamic EquilibriumW--

EA Bell JarF
(Closed System).

EF

WK

K

K

- -


K W

F(Open System)
E
K

-(Le Chatelier Principles)-

K
Liquid Vapor PressureW--
----

EF
K(Equilibrium Vapor Pressure)
W
EFEF
-
K

EF
K

- -


EF

K(Manometer)

Critical Temperature and critical pressureW--

(logic)

K

K

K

- -


Boiling and Boiling Temperature W--

E FE
F








(Bubbles)

KEF

(Boiling)

K
EF
K
W
J
F(Collapase)
KE

- -


K (Sea Level)
J



(Standard Pressure)
760 (Normal Pressure)

KE7601F

Solid Phase W-

(The Highest Degree of Order)
(Definite)
K
(Vibrant Motion)


K

- -


Solids Vapour Pressure :--

F(sublimation) EF
EFE
EF

K
Fusion and Melting Point :--
F
E

EF
EFusionF
KEF

- -


EF

(Freezing point)
K(Melting point)






EF

KEF

H EF

- -


(Exothermic)
HEF
(Endothermic)
K

- H = H


K



K

:--
Crystalline and Non - Crystalline (Amorphous) Solids
W
KJ
KJ


(Strength)

K


K(The Same or Related)
- -


W



K
K

- -


Phase Equilibrium Diagram W-

EF
K
K
G
G
G
FEF
E
K
EFEF
DA AC AB

DA AC AB
K

K
DA AC AB
ETorrF4.60.01(Triple Point)
5.2-57

K

EF
K

- -


(Positive Slope)

_
K

F(Negative Slope)
E
EF

K
K
EF
K

- -


EF









EF
EF
KEF
KEF

- -


W
WE

E
W
E
K
K
K
E
E
E

- -

]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

K

W

K
K
K
K

K

K

W
K

W
K

- -


W:-

(Industrial processesFELife processes)
(Aqueous solution)
K
(Homogeneous Mixture)

KESolvent) ESoluteF


EL/F
A
(True SolutionF
(Aggregates) (Heterogeneous Solutions)
mu

KEColloidal Solution)
K

K(Organic SolutionF

- -


W--
Saturated, unsaturated and Supersaturated Solutions
(Dissolve)


ECollisionF
(Recrystalisation)

(Opposing Processes)


K








K

K


(Without Agitation)




- -


K

W-
Concentration and Methods of Expressing Concentration

K

K

K
W
KWeight Percentage J

K MsolM2 M1
M2 + M1 = M so1


= %



M1
Solute% = 100
Msol

- -


W
WK H2O11.6 C2H5OH1.25

K
W
W

100 = EF



1.25
100 = %C2H5OH
11.6+1.25

9.73% =



11.6
100 = %H2O
11.6+1.25

95.27%=

- -


W
%580
W
0.055
0.05 80=
4=
H=
H4=80
80 - 4=
76=
W
( NaCl)E5F
% 28.5
W
E5F 28.5
M2
M2
100 = % NaCl
Mso1

M2
100 = 28.5
151

28.5
C = M2
100
43=

- -


Mole Fraction J

K
n3 n2 n1 X1 X2 X3
W X1

n1
= X1
n1+n2+n3


n1
= X1
nt

n1+n2+n3=nt
K

n3 n2 n1
+ + = X3+X2+X1
nt nt nt

1=X1+X2+X3

- -


W
1.2H2O CH3OH
16.8
W
W

=

KL18=L32=

1.2
=
L32
0.0375=
16.8
=
L18
0.933=
W

EnmeoHF EXmeoHF
=
EnH2oFHEnmeoHF


nmeoH
= XmeoH
nmeoH+nH2O

0.0375
=
0.933H0.0375

0.039 =
- -


0.933
= XH2O
0.0375+0.933
0.961 =

X H2O+XmeoH =1

XH2O = 1- XmeoH
0.039 -1 =
0.961=

KH2OK96

100
K496

W
m
= N
M

96
= nH2SO4
98
0.98 =

- -


4
= nH2SO4
18
0.22=

W
nH2O4
= XH2SO4
nH2SO4+nH2O

0.98
= nH2SO4
0.98+0.22

0.815=

XH2S04+ XH2O=

XH2SO4- XH2O =1

{=

{=

- -


Molality J

Km
Wn

n
= m
W

2m 2
1

K50C6H5OH1W

m
= nC6H5OH
M

1
=
L94

0.011=

1000W
K0.005

- -


WW

n
= m
W

0.011
=
0.005
/ 0.22 =

400 KOH
KE 0.12 m KOHF0.12

n
= m
W

N
=

0.4C0.12=n

0.048=

- -


1+16+ 39Z KOH

KOH

Z 0.048
56

0.048C56ZEF

KOH400KOH 2.688Z
K0.12

Molarity J
EFM
V n E F
W

n
= M
V

M
K

- -


W
C6H5OH
K
W
EnF
Z EMF
EVF

L
Z
L

ML{Z

W
KM{ CaBr2
W
CaBr2W

n
= M
V

VCMZnEF


{=


{=

- -


WW

m
Z EnF
EM.WF

m
Z {
L

C{=ECaBr2F=m
K{CaBr2=

W
NaCl
K
W
KNaClW

EmF
= nEF
EM.WFNaCl


=
{

{=nNaCl

- -


n
= M
V

{ {
= = M
{

K{ {=

Spontaneity of the Dissolution W-
(Soulte)

(Solvent)
K-
EF


W

NaCL(s)+ H2O(L) N a Cl(aq) + H2O(L)

Na(s) + H2O(L) NaOH(aq) + H2 (g)

K
- -


W
EExothermicFJ
K(Endothermic)
KEEntropyFJ
EF
K

K (Randomness)

W
(Heat of Solution)
.(H SolutionFE HF
(intermolecular Forces)

K
(Extent of Solubility)
W
(Solute Solute Interaction) J
(Solvent Solvent Interaction) J
(Solute Interaction Solvent) J

FEOvercomeF
E
EF
K

- -


KEExothermic)
(EndothermicF
-

KEOutweight)
K
W
EF

K
-

K

- -


K
Phases of solutionsW-

K

W













E/F

- -


Solutions of Gases LiquidW--

K

KECm3F
EKFEatmF
(Absorption Coefficient)
W

Vg
=
PVL

KVLV(g)
W
W

KEF
K

He O2 CO2 H2 HCl NH3
0.009 0.05 1.7 4.6 500 1300

KW(1-6)
W
E2-6F




K
- -


{ { { { {

KW(2-6)
W

K

EF
K
= HF
E
K

KEFH H






K
K
W
E Henrys LawF
W

- -


?
W?
M(g) = K P(g)
WK WP(g)WM(g)
K (Henrys Constant)
x z

K
(M2(g) = K P2(g) M1(g) = K P1(g
W
M1(g) KP1(g)
=
M2(g) KP2(g)

EFK
W
M1(g) P1(g)
=
M2(g) P2(g)
W
KK0.044
L O2
W
WW

W
C(g) = KP(g)
W
CO2
K =
PO2

- -


WP(g), C(g)
0.044
K =
76
-4
= 5.79 X 10 g/L. cm. Hg

16
W

CO2 = 5.79X10-4 g/L. cm. Hg X 16 cm.Hg
= 9.264x10-3 g/L

W(mol /L)L
mO2
no =
MO2
mO2 = nO2 MO2
= 9.264 x 10-3 g/L x 32 g/mol
= 2.89x10-4 mol / LELF
LO2ZMO2

WKW
C1 = KP1
C2 = KP2
C1 KP1 P1
= =
C2 KP2 P2
0.44 g/L x 16 cm. Hg
C2=
76 cm . Hg

C2 = 9.264 x 10-3 g/L ELF
L

C2 = 9.264 x 10-3 g/L x 32 g/mol

- -


ZL32

-4
= 2.89 x 10 mol / L

K



K
W

NH3g + H2OL NH +4 aq + CI-aq

HCIg + H2OL H3O+aq + CI-aq

--




K
Solutions of Liquids in Liquids--
(MicibilityF (AbilityF

W
Solutions of Completely Miscible Liquids K

W


- -


Ideal SolutionEF

ExF BA(x)
KKB A

(Raoults law)
W
A?
? AA
KBA
K
W

PA = XA . P-A
PB = XB . P-B

WBAPT
PT = PA + PB
PT = XA P-A + XB PJ
PBPAXBXA PT
KBA

- -


(Torr)791 C7H16100W
25K352 C8H18
KETorr)
K35
K

W
W

P = XC7H16 . P- C7H16 , PC8H18=XC8H18 . P-C8H18

PT = P- C7H18 + P- C8H18

W
L100=C7H16
L144=C8H18

m
n=
M

25
nC7H16 =
100
= 0.25 Mol
35
nCH16 =
114

= 0.31 mol

- -


W
XC7H16 = nC7H16
nC7H16 + nC8H18

0.25
=
0.25+0.3
= 0.446
W
XC7H18 + XC8H18 = 1
X C8H18 = 1- XC8H18
= 1- 0.446
=0.554

PC7H16 = 0.446 x791
= 352.79 torr
PC8H18 = 0.554 x 352
= 195.01 Torr
PT = 352.79 + 195.01
= 547.8 Torr

Non-Ideal SolutionEF
WK
W
K


(Association)
K

- -


K
HNO3
K

W

K

K
K

Solutions of Partially Micible Liquids K

W
WEF
K(C6H5NH2F(C6H12)
-
K

KK
K 59.6

- -


K
WEF


K

%5018.5
K
WEF

K
(glycerol)(m-Toluidine)-
15122
%50
K

Solutions of Immicible Liquids K

K
K(CS2)
K

?
K?
PT = P1 + P2

- -


E21FP2P1PT
K

K
(Steam Distillation)

W
K
K
K

(Distillate)


K
(A)
W(A)

VA nA PA
= =
VH2O nH2O PH2O

KpnV
Wdm
- -


mA dA. VA
=
mH2O dH2O. VH2O

W
mA dA . PA
=
mH2O dH2O. P H2O
M
A
AA
W

mA dA
=
MH2O dH2O

mA MA.PA
=
mH2O MH2O.PH2O

K
W
% 44 96
KK46.8% 56
K
W
W
PW nw mW \ MW
= =
PT nT mT \ MT

- -


PW mW MW
= = (1)
PT mT MT


MWmWPW
MTmTPT
K
PT
KEK76F
PT = 76 -64.8

= 11.2 cm . Hg

K100 = (1)

mT = 56mw = 44

64.8 44 MT
=
11.2 56

MT = 132.55 g mol-1EJ KF

Solutions of Solids in LiquidsW--
]

100[
W

- -


Solute and Solvent Nature

K
Temperature

(Crystal lattice)

Kxz

Colligative Properties of Solutions ---

K
W

Lowering of Vapour Pressure

K


. PAPsol.

PA- PSOL P
= x
PA PA
KP

?
K

- -


W nBnA
P nA
=
PA nA + nB

(XA) nA
nA + nB

P = XA
PA P = XA P

KPAXA
XB

W
P = XB P A

K



nA
XB =
nA + nB

- -


W

nA
XB =
nB


n=m\M

W
mB / MB mB .MA
X B = =
mA / MA mA.MB

P=XBPAXB
W
P mB . MA
=
PA mA . MB


K

K
W375C12H22O11102W
EF
KK23.76 EF
EF

- -


EFW
W
m
n =
M

-1
MC12H22O11 = 342 g. Mol
MH2O = 18 g. Mol-1

nC12 H22O11 = 102 \ 342 = 0.298 g.Mol-1

nH2O = 375 \ 18 = 20.8 g.Mol-1

nsugar
Xsugar =
nsugar + nwater

W
0.298
Xsugar =
0.298 + 20.8

= 0.0141

WWEF
P = Xsugar P H2O
= 0.0141 23.76
= 0.335 mm. Hg ()

- -


KEF
P = PH2O- PSOl
.
. . - Psol. = P H2O + P
W
... Psol. = PH2O - P

= 23.76 - 0.335

= 23.42 mm. Hg

W
114(mm.Hg)K17.450
1000C12H22O11
KK{
W
W

P =
PH2O - PSol = Xsugar
PH2O PH2O

Xsugar 0.092
= = 5.99 x10- 3
17.54



Xsugar nsugar msugar \ Msugar
= =
nsugar + nwater Mwater\ Mwater+ msugar \ Msugar


- -


Msugar
114 \ Msugar
5.99 10-3 =
1000\ 18+ 114 \ Msugar

Msugar = 340.5g / mol

MC12H22O11 = 12x12 + 22x1 + 16x11
C12H22O11 = 342 g / mol
K

The Elevation of the Boiling Point

K

E F?
K?(Nonionized)
W
Tb = Kb m

Tb = Tsol. - T*
Tsol.Tb
KT*
KKb
KK

- -


%
(J )
0.512 100
2.53 80.1
3.07 118.1
5.24 210.88
3.56 1.82
W

mB
Tb = Kb
MB mA

MB mAmB

K

(Typical Concentrations)

K(DifferentialThermometers)
W
J .- . 0.512

Kb1.25
EC M-1F

- -


W
Tb = Kbm
= 0.521 x 1.25
= 0.460 C



WEF

= 0.64 + 100
= 100.64 C
Freezing Point DepressionW
K

K
xz


K

(Nonelectrolytes)

WK
Tf = kf m.
*
T Tf
WTsol
Tp = T* - Tsol.

- -


Kp
EF


EF
EJ KF
1.86 Zero
5.12 5.48
3.90 16.6
7.00 5.7
7.40 43

Kf
K
K

mB
Tf =
MB mA

KMBmAmB

W
(C2H6O2) 50.5
K 50.0 L 1.12
((C mol-1J 1.86= Kp
WW
C2H6O2G

mC2H6O2 =dV

- -


Vd
= 1.12 50
= 56.09

WTf

mC2H6O2
Tf = Kf
MC2H6O2 mH2O

56.0
Tf = 1.86
62 50.0

.
W

Tf = T *H2O - Tsol.

33.6 = 0 - Tsol.
Tsol = -33.6 C
. 33.6

W
750 C2H5OH 15
Kkf. 702

W
Tf = Kf m

... Kf =Tf \ m

- -


W


nC2H 5OH 15.0 1
m= =
1kg Formicacid 0.75 46.0


= 0.435 mEF
Tf= Tf (formic acid) - Tp (sol.)

= 8.40 - 7.2

Tf= 1.2 C
1.2c
Kf =
0.435m

= 2.76 C mC m-1EJ KF

Osmotic Pressure
(Spontaneous Process)
(Semi Permeable Membrane)


K


E167 F
EF
- -


(Hydrostatic Pressure)
EF

K

K

K
n

= RT
v
K
KZn
KZV
( K = 273+t )kZT

.()ZT
ZR

M
n

M =
v
W

=MRT

- -


K
W
M = m
ELF
K
M = mRT

n

= RT
v
W
V = nRT

m
W
M =(n)
m
V = RT
M
KMBmB
K
EF
K22.4

K(Reverse Osmosis)

- -


Start

EF
W
E F
2.75K100
WKL.atm. mol k-1 J KK1-0.0821 = R
K EF
K E
F

WEFW

= MRT

WKK760R

- -


= 275
760

= 3.62 x 10-3 atm

W
3.62 x 10-3 = M x 0.0821 x 293

M = 1.5 x 10-4 mol L-1EJ KF

EF

L
Z Z

1
1.5 x 10-4 = 100 x 10-3


= 6.7 x 10-4 g l mol EJ KF

- -


W
-
K -
W-

K
K
K E
K E

KE

(O2)(He){

HClHCl
1-K{37.0%
C6H12O612.5%
1-K
/{23.6(HCOOH )

CH3COOH

- -


1.3810-3
1-
K


{
K

EFEF
EFC10H8
{K C6H6




E-F
K


77.06
K{C10H8
KD
N2H4CO
K
{
K{

- -

]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

K

W
K
K

K


K
K

W


W
K

- -


:1-7

K

F
KE

Some Chemical Thermodynamic Terms :2-7

ESystem)
(SurroundingF(UniverseF
KEBoundaries)


K
F
E
(Thermodynamic State of a System)

EF


(State Functions)

- -


K(Delta) K
PT
KV

T = T2 - T1

KT1T2
KEF

K(Heat of Chemical Reaction)
(Exothermic)
(Endothermic)
qq
K

W
CH4(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(L) +


{E-F
K
H2O(s) + 6.02KJ H2O (L)

KH{EqF

EF
- -


EqpF


K(Steel)
EqpF
HEHeat ContentFEEnthalpyF

KK


EState FunctionF
EHF

EF(H1)EqpF
EF(H2)
W

qp= H = H2 - H1

H1 < H2
E
F H

E FH
KH1 > H2
EEnergyF
EPotential EnergyF



E
F
F E Adiabatic Process F
E
K

- -


(Heat Capacity)
K
ESpecific HeatFEJ/CFL

K(J/g. C)KL

=

W

EF=EF

EF=
W

EFEF=EF

- -


{W
K{

W
=
K


=





=
18.5(25 29.5)

(J/g. C ) KL{ =












- -


W

L{{

W
=
K=
4.184 50 ( 25 29.8 )=
1004=
CC=
25( 29.8 90 )=1004-
1004-
=
( 29.8 90 )

KKL 0.667 =
Heat of Reaction Measurement W3-7
KEqvFEqp F


(Calorimeter)

EFENeutralizationF
KH qp
H = qp

Hqp

K

- -


W
{
KL{

{ {
K


W

EHFJ =
H = qp = - ( q sol + q cal)

W(q sol)
CC=
(50 + 50) 4.184 (24.9 22.5 ) =
2.01 103 J EF=

W(q cal)
C=
335 (24 9 22-5) =
804 J =

Wqcalqsol
qp = - ( 804 + 2.01 X 103)
= - 2.81kJ
H = q pW
H==2.81KJ

- -


(Strong steel)
(Bomb Calorimeter)

K
(T = 0)(V = 0)
EworkF (qv)(E)
KEF
E = qv

W
H=

(Water equivalent)


K

{
K{
J Z
(q v)
qv = 9598 - ( 3000 4.184 0.629)
= 9598 - 7895
= 1703 J or 1.703 K J

- -


=



=
0.629 4.184

= 647 g H2 O
K

K

C10H8 {W

KL{

EFW
WEqqwF
qw= CC
= 4.184 2000 (26 20)
= 50.21 k J.

W
=qcal=C
= 1.8 (26 20)
= 10.8 K J
W
= 50.21 + 10.8
= 61 KJ
=
qv = - 61KJEF

- -


Standard Enthalpy of ReactionW4-7

H)
(H

.( Thermochemical Equations )
H2 (g) + Br2 (L) HBr HR = - 36.4 KJ

2CO2(g) + 3H2O(L) C2H5OH(L) + 3O2(g) HR= +1367 KJ

W
FH
LJ
E
KLJ
HR

Standard F

EState

EKF
KH HR
KEF
EF



K

- -


Standard Molar Enthalpy of Formation W5-7

[H]Hf
F
E
KEHeat of FormationF
W

KEF


K

H2 (g) + O2 (g) H2O (L) + 283KJ or HR = Hf = - 283K

Hf
H2 (g) + Br2 (L) 2HBr (g) + 72.8KJ or HR = - 72.8K

HBr(g)
HfHR

HBr(g)
KHf

Hf
W

H2(g) + Br2(L) HBr(g) + 36.4KJ or Hf = 36.4KJ

- -


W


=

HR =HfEF-HfEF





K
K

HRW
2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + H2O (g) + CO2 (g)

NaHCO3(s) = - 947.7 KJ mo1 -1
Na2CO3(s) = - 1131 KJ mol -1
H2O(g) = - 242 K J mol -1
CO2(g) = - 394 KJ mol -1
W
HR = HfEF - HfEF
= Hf [Na2CO3(s)] + Hf [H2O(g)] + Hf [CO2(g)] - 2 Hf [NaHCO3(s)]

= (- 1131) + ( - 242) + ( - 394) 2 ( - 947.7)
HR = + 128.4 KJ

- -


Hess Law W6-7

}E F

EF

E
F
(A)(D)KEPathwayF
(A)(D)
W(C)(B)
H4
A D

H1
H3

B C
H2
H4
H3 , H2 , H1 (A)(D)

(A)(D)
K H3 , H2 , H3 H4

H4 = H1 + H2 + H3




K


K(CO)
EF C EF + O2 (g) CO (g) H1= 0


E
FCO2
- -


CO(g)

W
E2F CO + O2 (g) CO2 (g) H2= -283.0 KJ
E3F C EF + O2 (g) CO2 (g) H3= -393.5 KJ
KH1
H1EFEFEF
W
W
KEFEF EF
(4) CO2 (g) CO (g) + O2 (g) H2 = +283.0 KJ
EFEFEF
E3F C EF + O2 (g) CO2 (g) H3= -393.5 KJ
(4) CO2 (g) CO (g) + O2 (g) H4 = +283.0 KJ

C EF+ O2 (g) CO (g) H= -110.5 KJ


HEF
KH1

- -


KEFW
H2= -283 KJ
CO (g) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)

H3= -393.5 KJ
H1
C EF+ O2 (g)



H1 + H2 = H3


H1 = H3 - H2

H3H2
H1 = - 393.5 - (- 283.0)
= - 393.5 + 283.0
H1 = - 110.5 KJ
CO(g)
H1
{
KHf(CO(g))CO(g)
(HR)

Hf
K

- -


W
W

(1) 3H2 + O2 + 2C () C2H5OH (L) Hf = -277.7 KJ
(2) 2C () + 2H2 (g) C2H4 (g) Hf = 52.3 KJ
(3) H2 + O2 (g) H2O (L) Hf =-285.8 KJ

(HR)

C2H4 (g) + H2O (L) C2H5OH(L)

HRHf W
HR = Hf EF - HfEF

= Hf (C2H5OH(L)) - Hf (C2H4(g)) + Hf (H2O(L))

WHf
= - 277.7 [ 52.3 + (-285.8)]
= - 277.7 - [ - 233.5]
= - 277.7 + - 233.5

H R= - 44.2 KJ

- -


Energy and Enthalpy of Chemical Bond W7-7

(E)
K

KELF

H2 (g) [ or H- H(g) ] + 436 KJ 2 H(g)

KL

O2(g) [ or O = O(g) ] + 498 KJ 2O(g)

H-H(g)LL
KO = O(g)

(E)

(E)
K
E = H + P V

E(W=PV)
(PV)

(H)
K

E = H

- -


K
H2 (g) 2 H(g) HH-H = + 436 kJ

O2 (g) 2 H(g) HO=O = + 498 kJ

K
Hf [ O(g) ] = +498 2 = + 249 KJ \ mol
Hf [H(g) ] = +436 2 = + 218 KJ \ mol


Hf KJ \ mol Hf KJ \ mol
H 79.1 F
Li Na
B Si
C Cl
N Br
O I

(C2H6)(CH4) C - H

K(CH4)
(1)CH4(g) CH3(g) + H(g) H1 = 427 KJ/mol

(2)CH3(g) CH2(g) + H(g) H2 = 439 KJ/mol

(3) CH2(g) CH(g) + H(g) H3 = 452KJ/mol

(4) CH (g) C(g) + H(g) H4 = 347 KJ/mol

- -


CH4(g) C(g) + 4H(g) HR = 1665 KJ/mol

HR = H1 + H2 + H3 + H4

C H


HC-H =


= 416 KJ/mol

K

E/ F E/ F
H-C C-O
H-O C=O
H-N C-N
H-F C=N
H-Cl CN
H-Br C-C
H-I C=C
H-S CC
F-O N-O
F-F H-H
K

K
- -


HR = H reactants in the gas phase - H products in the gas phase

H = H - H

K
W
K

Br2(g) + 3F2(g) 2BrF3(g)

/=H Br-BrL=H F-F

L 196= H Br-F
W
HR= ( H Br-Br + 3 H F-F) - H0 (Br-F)
= [ 192 + 3 (159)] - (197)
= [ 192 + 477] - 1182
= - 513 KJ
W

K
W
WO = O
C3H8(g) + O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g) HR= -2.05103KJ
347 = H c-c , 741 = H c=o
KL464 = H o-H, 414 = H c-H
HR = [2 HC-C + 8 HC-H + 5 HO=O] [6HC=O + 8HO-H]
-2.05103 = [2(347) + 8(414) + 5 HO=O] [6(741) + 8(464)]
W
5 HO=O = 694 + 3.31103 4.45103 3.7103 2.05103
- -


= 2.11 103
HO=O = 2.11 103
= 422 KJ/mol () \
Entropy W8-7


K

[0 > H > 0 ]

E = HF



[= H ] [ =H]
W
K J
H, E ,W , q
K
=HF (NH4NO3) J
KE
J
KE= HF
N2O5(s) 2NO2(g) + O2(g) HR = 109 KJ
W


K W

- -


EF


N2O5

W

>>

EF
(S)

W

S (s) < S(L) < S(g)


( S)
(Sf)J (Si)J
K

-=
W
S = S(f) - S(i)

- -


= SFS(i) < S(f)S

E FE
WEZSF
H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(L) S = -
E F
K( S )

S = S (f) - S (i)
(Absloute Entropy)
KL
LK
KK

H2O2(N2H4) SW
KH2O2(N2H4)
K
N2H4(L) + 2H2O2(L) N2(g) + 4H2O(g) + Energy

S = 121.2 109.6 191.5 188.7
KKLS
W
S = [SN2(g) + 4 SH2O(g)] [SN2H4(L) + 2 SH2O(L)]

= [191.5 +4(188.7)] [121.2 + 2(109.6)]

= + 605.9 J/K

- -


Gibbs Free EnergyW97

E = S)
[= H]
E=S)
EF[ =H]

K

(J. Willard Gibbs)

KG

G = H TS??





K[ GR][ Gp]

G = Gp - GR


GGRGP

G

- -


F G
H

J

(Gibbs-Helmhotlz Equation)
K

G = H - T S

S H

W
G = H - T S


(G f)p(G f)RG f
K

G = np ( G f)p -
nR (G f)R

Kn

( Gf)


K




- -


W
K(Reasonably Unpolluated Air)

{Gf(NO)(g)G
KL

N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)



W
G = 2 G f(NO)(g) [G f(N2)(g) - G f(O2)(g)]
= [2(86.57) [0 + 0 ]
= + 173.1 K J

KG

K W

WG fW

C(S)EF + O2 (g) CO2 (g) H0f= -394 KJ/mol

{={=

KKL{=
SfSW
K
S = S f(CO2)g = [S CO2(g) (S C(s) + S O2(g))]
= 213.6 ( 5.96 + 205)
= 2.9 J / mol.k
- -


WG f
G f (CO2)g = H f(CO2)g T S(CO2)g

L

KLK
KL
K
G f (CO2)g = -394 [298 (0.0029)]
= -394.86 K J / mol

- -


W
W
W
K

H , H W

( H)EqFW

W W
PbO(S,Yellow) + CO(g) Pb(s) + CO2(g) H R =-65.7K J

K W
C(g) + 4H(g) CH4 (g)


H0f H0R W
K
[HBr(g)]
[ NO2(g)]
[ C2H4(g)]
[ CaI2(s)]

L{ W
KEqF{

- -


E {F W
KL{{{

W

{W
{K{{
KL{
( H)
KL{
Mg(s) + 2HClaq MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

K H RW
C2H5OH (L) + 3O2 (g) 3H2O (L) +2CO2 (g) H R= -1367 K J
C2H4 (G) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (L) H R= -1411

K H R
C2 H4(g) + H2 O(c) C2H2OH(L)

WEFS W
2H2(g) + O2 (g) 2H2O(g)

CaO(s) + 2NH4Cl(s) 2NH3(g) + CaCl2(s)

4NH3(g) + 3O2(g) 2N2(g) + 6H2O

Cl2(g) + F2(g) 2ClF(g)

- -


KHPO3(s)H f W
KL-P4O10(s) H f
KL-{HNO3(L) H f
KL{N2O5(g) H f

(W)W
(WO3)
114.9 KJ + WO3(S) + 3H2(g) W(s)+ 3H2O(g
WO3(s) H fKL-{ H0f
0

W
C8H18(g) C4H8(g) + C4H10(g)
( H0)
KL616 = C HLZC C
KLZC = C

WS S W
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g) EF

C2H4(g) + H2(g) C2H6(g) EF

S H2(g) = 130.6 J/mol.K , S Cl2(g) = 223.0J/mol.K S HCl(g) =186.7J/mol.K
S C2H4(g) =226 J/mol.K,S C2H6(g) =230J/mol.K






W
W
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
- -


N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

WELF
= H2(g) -1206.9 = CaCO3(s)
-45.9= NH3(g) -6351 = CaO(s)
-393.5 = CO2(g)
= N2(g)
EKLF
CaCO3(s) = 92.9 N2 (g) = 191.5
CaO(s) = 38.2 H2 (g) = 130.6
CO2 (g) = 213.7 NH3 (g) = 193

G
K

W
K

W

KW
K
KS
G SH
K

- -

]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W
K

W

K
K
K
K

K

K

W
K

W
K

- -


W-

(H,S,G)
x
z

z
x

xz

- -


Rates of Chemical Reactions :2-8

K

K







K
- - WF
KEEF

K

A(g) B(g)

- -


{A
A(g)
WEF


EAF EtF
EK/F EK/F
0.060 J 0.16
0.039 0.047 0.113
0.028 0.033 0.80
0.020 0.024 0.056
0.014 0.016 0.040

(Average Reaction Rate)
K

AJ
=

W

-[A]
R =
t

Rxz(t)
xz


t = tf - ti
- -


[A] = [A]f [A]i

K[A] , ti[A]ftf

A
K{0.16

-[A] - [ 0.113 0.16 ] [ - 0.047 ]
R = = =
t [10]

R = 0.047 mol / L. min EKLF

EF

K
K

K(Instantaneous RateF

xzx
z

E ZtF

KEInitial Rate)

- -


EF


EFIntial Rate (Ri) = -(0.10-0.16) = 0.060 mol \ L . min
1-0



EF -(0.03-0.07)
= = 0.019 mol \ L . min
Instantaneous Rate 4.1-2

K
K


C + 2D 2E + F
- -


FEDC
KFC
-[C] [F]
R = =
t t
FDED
KEC

-[A] [E] [C] [F]
R = = = -2 = 2
t t t t
W

-1 [D] 1 [E] [C] [F]
R = = = - =
t t t t

W
aA+bB= c C + d D
KD , C, B, Ad, c , b, a

-1 [ D ] -1 [E] [C] [F]
R = = = =
a t b t C t d t

W

-1 d [ D ] -1 d[E] d[C] D[F]
R = = = =
a dt b Dt C dt d dt

Kdxz/dxz

- -


K
W
W

2HI (g) H2 (g) + I2 (g) EF

C2H5Cl (g) C2H4 (g) + HCl (g)EF

EFW

-1 [ HI ] [ H2 ] [ I2 ]
R = = =
t t t


-1 d [HI ] d [ H2] d [I2]
R = = =
dt dt dt

WW

- [C2H5Cl ] [C2H4] [HCl]
R = = =
t t t

W
- d [C2H5Cl ] d[C2H4] d[HCl]
R = = =
dt dt dt

WW

- -


4NH3(g) + 3O2(g) 2N2(g) + 6H3O(g)

KKL.
H2O EF
O2 E
F
NH3 E
F
NH3, O2, N2, H2O E
F
W
N2(g)H2O(g)EF
K=D
KKLH2O(g){={=
EF
3/2{=
KKLO2(g){=

EF
NH34 { =
N22

KKLNH3{=
EF
KKLN2 {=
KKLH2O{=

KLO2{
KKLNH3-{

- -


Methods of Reaction Rates MeasurementW-

K
K

- -


O
+
H
CH CH2O C CH3 + H O CH CH 2OH + CH3COOH
3 2 3

K
W

K
N2O5
K
2N2O5(s) 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

(manometerF

K

EF

- -


NO2N2O5
O2
K

Electriacal Conductivity
Refractive Index
Spectroscopy
NMR -
UV-Visible -
Chromatography

Factors Affecting Reaction Rates W4-8
W
Nature of The Reactants
J

K
J
J
Kxz
(K2SO4)
[ Ba(NO3)2 ]
KEF

- -


W
2+
Ba (aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4 (S)
K(Chemical Identity) J


K
W
Reaction Mechanism J
Activation Energy J

(Method of Initial Rates)

(Initial Concentration)

(Slope of Tangent)(Initial Rate)

EF

- -


K
K

K
A + 2B AB2



W

[B] [A]
E/ F
1.5 10-4 0.01 0.01
1.5 10-4 0.02 0.01
6.0 10-4 0.03 0.02

Kxz
Concentration of Reactants
A
-EAF
-

FEF
E
K-

- -


EF


K(ReactionMechanism)

( Reaction Rate Law)

W
aA + bB + cC + qQ + rR +.

W

(Rate) = K [A]x [B]y[C]z

(Rate Constant)K
W
K -
k-
K

- -


EkF
K k
K>
z(B)y(A)x
-Z,Y,X-(C)
(n)Overall Reaction Order
Kz,y,x
K

K(c),(b),(a)
(1= z) (1= y) (0= x)
B-A-A
WC
(Rate) = K [A]0 [B]1[C]1
= K [B]1[C]1
(A)
K
Second Order Reaction(n)
(k)
(L s-1 )
KK/molL-1 S-1
K

K

W
x
[ A ] y[ B ] KZ(Rate)

- -


K , x , y

K
W
K{A WEF
{{B WEF
K
K WEF
(AB2)
B
K[B]0y{{B


x
[A] k=
W
{ {A WEF
K
K{{B WEF
J C{ J
C{WEF
K

A
KB
A
KA x
W

- -


x
= EF

A
= ( )
A

K

4 X
10 6 . 0 0 . 02
4
=
10 1 . 5 0 . 01

4 = 2x
W

22 = 2x

2 = X

KA


W

2
[A] k=

- -


(K)
[A](Initial Rate)
K

= ( K )
[A]


A
BAW
KB
K/4-101.5
=
E/0.01F
1-
KK1-1.5 =
KW
AB2
2
[A] 1.5Z

Temperature

K
K

- -


EF

T2(T2, T1)

K
(T2)

K(T1)

(Svante Arrhenius)
K
W(Log)
Ea
Log K = Log A
2 303RT
(In)
Ea
In K = In A
RT

- -


-In k = 2.303 Log k

(Specific Rate Constant )ZK
KT

KKZA
KA

EFZEa

KKL{ZR

K
K

K

K2.303 R T / Ea

W
k2 Ea 1 1
Log =
k1 2.303R T1 T2

k2 Ea T2 T1
Log =
k1 2.303R T1T2

- -


k2 E a T 2 T1

In k = R T T

1 1 2

KT2T1K2K1

KLW
KK


W
k2 E a T2 T1
Log =
k1 2 . 303 R T1T2
50 1000 J / mol 310k 300k
=
(2.303) ( )
8.314 J / mol.k (300k )(310k )
k2
Log = 0.281
k1
k2
= 1.91 2
k1

K

Catalysts

- -


K


W

EF
H2SO4)[ Ethyl Acetate ]
EF(H+

K

EF

K (Inhibitory Catalysts)
W

- -


(Homogeneous Catalysts) WEF

K
(SO2)(NO)
(SO3)

K
SO2(g) + O2(g) NO (g) 2SO3(g)

WFF
EEK
K(Heterogeneous catalysts) WEF



K

(Catalytic Converter)x(pt)z
(Oxidation of (Automobile Exhaust)
K(CO)(Unburned Fuel)

Pt(s)
2C8H18(g)+25O2(g) 16CO2(g)+18H2O(g)
NiO(s)
x zJ
KEWF
Pt(s)
2CO (g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)
NiO(s)

Pt(s)
2NO (g) N2(g) +O2(g)
NiO

- -


(NO)
K(HNO3)NO2
(Nitrites)NO2
K(Eye irrilants)

KK
(Haber's Process) WEF
K
Fe(s)
N2(g)+H2(g) 2NH3(g)

K
(Ostwald Process) WEF
K

Collision TheoryW-

K(Fundamental Notion)


K

- -


KEF


W(Effective Collisions)
J

K
(Proper Orientation) J

K

Transition State Theory and Activation Energy W-


K

K

K
K





K

- -


KEa(Activation Energy)


K

A + B2 AB + B

EF
A + B2
AB + B B2 , A
KEF

A, B2
BB
A(Activated Complex)

- -


KA , AB

K
E A+B2E A-B-B
K(Ea)
Ea = EABB EA+B2

K

K
[E a(r)z
AB + B A + B2

E a(r) = E ABB --- E AB+B
BAB(a)
(A, B2)

EZHF
(H)

K
H = E = Ea(r) Ea
(b)
(H)E aEa (r)
HE ar = Ea
K

- -


W
W W
K

K W
A + B AB
KB

W
K

W W
KEF WEF
KWEF

W
W
2
[B] [A] KZ WEF
[ B ] KZ WEF
[ C ] [ B ] [ A ] K Z WEF

KL W
K(k)


KW

KW
- -


KEFK EF

WEF W
K

KW

KW

KW
A + 2B C + 2D

K

[B] [A]
EK/F
4-
104 0.10 0.10
3-
101.2 0.30 0.30
4-
104.0 0.10 0.30
4-
108.0 0.20 0.40

W
2N2 O5 (g) 4NO2(g) + O2 (g)

[ N2 O5 ] KZ
K(Overall Reaction Order)



- -


WW
A + 2B C+ D
{(forward Reaction)
K{

K


WW

C2 H5 Cl (g) C2 H4(g) + H Cl(g)

237 = (Ea)1310 1.58 = A
KL
E F(K)WEF
K(K)WEF
WEF

KW
KKW
KW
F C1O2 FCIO + O

4-
(K)L
K10 6.76
WEF
K WEF

- -

]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W

K

W
W
K
K
K

W
K

W
K

W
Overhead projector

W
K

- -


W:1-9

(organic)


1828 wohler
EF
W
O

NH 4 OCN H 2 N C NH 2


K



K





K

(Functional Groups)

- -


OH
sp3

K
HydrocarbonsWW2-9

W
WJ

K-
W
Saturated
. alkanes -
Ethane CH3 - CH3
Unsaturated
Alkenes -
-alkynes EC=CF-
ECCF
K
Aromatic Hydrocarbons J
KC10H8

- -


AlkanesW:3-9

K
K
W
nCnH2n+2
KnEKKKKKKKZnF

K
W
E-aneF
E-aneFEF
KE-F
n
Methane CH4
Ethane CH3CH3
Propane CH3CH2CH3
Butane CH3CH2CH2CH3
Pentane CH3(CH2)3CH3
Hexane CH3(CH2)4CH3
Heptane CH3(CH2)5CH3
Octane CH3(CH2)6CH3
Nonane CH3(CH2)7CH3
Decane CH3(CH2)8CH3
CH2
methylene

- -


Butane C4H8W

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH-CH3

CH3
n-ButaneIsobutaneJ

Pentane C5H12W
CH3

CH3-CH-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 CH3-C-CH3

CH3 CH3
Isopentane n-Pentane Neopentane
J J
Alkyl GroupER-F
ER-F
Methyl CH3
K Ethyl (CH3CH2-)
KE-F

- -


K(-)



Methyl CH3- Methane CH4
Ethyl CH3CH2- Ethane CH3CH3
n-Propyl CH3CH2CH2- Propane CH3CH2CH3
Isopropyl CH3-CH-CH3
n-Butyl CH3CH2CH2CH2- CH3CH2CH2CH3
Sec-Butyl CH3CHCH2CH3 n-Butane

CH3 CH3
Isobutyl
CH3CHCH2- CH3-CHCH3
Tert-butyl CH3 Isobutane
CH3C-
CH3

- -


Cycloalkanes
K
CH
2

CH CH
2 2
Cyclopropane

CH CH
2 2

CH CH
2 2
Cyclobutane

CH
2
CH CH
2 2

CH2 CH
2
Cyclopentane

CH CH
2 3

Ethylcyclopropane

- -


IUPAC

IUPAC
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)
W
EF K
K
K

aneEFEJ F
yl

1 2 3 4 5 6
CH3CH2CHCH2CH2CH3

CH2CH3
3-Ethyl hexane
EF K
penta, tetra, tri, di
KKKKKK

W
CH3

CH3-CH-CH2-C-CH3
5 4 3 2 1
CH3 CH3
2, 2, 4-Trimethyl Pentane
K
W
CH2CH3
- -


CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH - CH - C - CH2 - CH3

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CH3-CH2-CH2CH3 CH2CH3
3, 3-Diethyl-4-methyl-5-n-propyloctane

.

W

7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-CH-CH2-CH3

CH3 CH2CH3
3-Ethyl-5-Methylheptane
EF K
EaneFEylF


W
CH3 CH3

CH- CH -CH3
1\ 2\
CH3-CH2-CH-CH-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CH2

CH3
3-Ethyl-4(1 , 2\, Dimethylpropyl) nonane
\

- -


EF K

WEF
-F Fluoro -NO2 Nitro
-Cl Chloro -NH2 Amino
-Br Bromo -CN Cyano
-I Iodo

W
Br

CH3-CH-CH-CH-CH3
5 4 3 2 1
CH3 Cl
3-Bromo-2-chloro-4-methylpentane

iso-
neo-
tri, disec-, tert-
K

W
(nonpolar)
C4C1
C17C5
K

F
E
K

- -


W
K

K
(Refining)
K

W :4-9
EC=CF
,CnH2n(Olefins)
C2H4CnH2n-2
H H

C=C

H H

W

-
-yleneAlkaneane
W
Alkene Alkane
Ethylene CH2=CH2 Ethane CHCH3
Propylene CH3-CH=CH2 Propane CH3CH2CH3
-Butylene CH3CH2CH=CH2 n-Butane CH3CH2CH2CH3
B-Butylene CH3CH=CHCH3
Isobutylene CH3-C=CH2 Isobutane CH3-CH-CH3

- -


CH3 CH3

CH2=CH2
WEVinyl groupF-CH=CH2

CH 2 CH CH 2 CH CH 2 CH

Cl Br

Vinyl chloride Vinyl bromide Vinyl cyclohexane

EAllyl groupFCH3CH=CH2
CH2-CH=CH2

Cl Allyl chloride

- -


IUPAC

EF(IUPAC)
W
KEF J
-ane J
K-ene
J
K
J
W
5 4 3 2 1
CH3 CH-CH=CH-CH3

CH3
4- Methyl -2- Pentene

CH2=CH2 CH3-CH=CH2 CH3CH2CH=CH2
Ethene Propene 1- Butene

CH2-CH=CH2

Cl
2- Ethyl -1-Butene 3-Chloro -1- Propene
J

- -


J

6 3
5 1 4 2
4 2 5 1
3 6
Cyclohexene 3-Methyl cyclohexene
( 1-cyclohexene ) ( 1-cyclohexene )

-.tetra, tri, di J
ene

5
5 4 3 2
CH2 CH CH2 C - CH 2CH 3
= - - 1 4
2 3
1 CH 2

2-Ethyl,1,4-Pentadiene 1,3-cyclopentadiene
2 4 6
1 5 7
3
1,3,6-Heptatriene

F J
E2-Butene,1-Butene)

W2-Butene

H CH 3 CH3 CH 3
C=C C=C

CH3 H H H

Trans-2-butene cis-2-butene

- -


EF
FE-cisF
transE
trans-2-{cis-2-butene
K{butene

W

AlkynesW:5-9
K(-C CJ F
C2H2CnH2n-2
Ksp
K

K
CaO
KCaC2
2500 c
3C + CaO CaC2 + CO
C2 H2 + Ca(OH)2
CaC2 + 2H2O

- -


W
E IUPACF


W-ene-yne
CH CH CH3C CH CH3 CH2C CH
Acetylene Methyl acetylene Ethyl acetylene
Ethyne Propyne 1-Butyne

IUPAC
CH3 CH3

CH3 C C CH3 CH3CH-CH-C C-CH2CH-CH3

Cl
2-Butyne 3-Chloro-2,7-dimethyl-4-Octyne

CH C-C CH
1,3-Butadiyne

yne
alkene
HC CH -CH2-CH = CH2
1-Penten-4-yne

-yne
HC C-CH= CH-CH3
3-Penten-1-yne

- -


W

K
C16C4C4 C2
KC17


Aromatic Compounds :6-9
W

K

K
EFEAromaticF
-COOH, -OCH3
-C6H5K. COOCH3,
-C6H5
EF
K
W
C6H6
K
sp2
{A_
E{AFC-CE{AFC=C
WKekule

- -


I II
KIIIHybridKIII




KDelocalized
W
W
F J
EFPE
K
K J
K J
EHuckels rule F J
KEn=0, 1, 2, 3, ..FE 4n+2F
EFnEF

(4*1+2) = 6 ?s
EF
W

Benzene Naphthalene Anthracene

- -


n=1 n=2 n=3

N
.. N

Phenanthrene Pyridine Pyrole
n=3 n=1 n =1
4(3)+2 = 14es 4(1)+2 = 6es 4(1)+2 = 6es

+
+ -

n=0 n =1
4(0)+2=2 es n =1
4(1)+2=6 es 4(1)+2=6 es



- +

W

{

.

- -


W

W
W
K
Br I CH 2 CH 3 NO2

Bromobenzene Iodobenzene Ethylbenzene Nitrobenzen

W
CH 3 CH CH
2 CH 3 CH CH

3

Toluene Styrene Cumene

CHO

benzaldehyde

O
NH2

OH COOH C-CH
3


Phenol benzoic acid Acetophenone Aniline

- -


SO H OCH
3 3



Benzenesulfonic acid Anisole

K phenyl
CH CHCH CH
3 2 3 CH CH OH
2 2


2-Phenylbutane 2-Phenylethanol

Benzyl
KBenzoBenzal
CH Cl CH Cl CCl

2 2 3

Benzylchloride Benzalchloride Benzotrichloride

OrthoEoFK
MetaEmF
KKPara(p)
Benzene
Cl CH CH
2 3 W
Cl

Cl
o-dichlorobenzene m-chloroethylbenzene
- -


F
CH COOH
3

I NO 2 Br

p-fluoroiodobenzene m-nitrotoluene m-bromobenzoic acid

OH
Cl

o-chlorophenol

WCH3-
CH CH
3 3
CH CH
3 3

CH 3
o-xylene m-xylene
CH3
p-xylene

Cl NO
2
Cl
2 Cl 1
3 6 2
1
6 4 5 3
5 F 4 Cl
1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 3-chloro-5-fluronitrobenzene
( 1,2,6-trichlorobenzen) EF
- -


OH CH3
Br 1 Br NO2 1 NO2
6 2 6 2

5 3 5 3
4 4
Br NO 2

2, 4, 6-tribromophenol 2, 4, 6-trinitrotoluene(TNT)
FEF
E

W

K


K
o CH3
Al2 O3 - CrO 3 / 500 C

CH (CH ) CH3 o + 4 H 2
3 5 Pt / 400 C

Toluene

CH3
Al O - Pt
2 3 + 3H 2
550C
o
Benzene




- -


Alcohols and Phenols :7-9

W
-OH
ArOHROH
ArRArR
sp3
sp2

K
W

W

Primary 30 Primary 20 Primary 10


H H
R
R C OH R C OH
R C OH

R H
R


-OH
-OH
-OH

R

- -


W
KIUPAC
K
W

CH3OH CH3CH2OH CH2 = CH-CH2OH
Methyl alcohol Ethyl alcohol Allyl alcohol

CH3

CH3-CH-CH3 CH3-C-CH3

OH OH
Isopropyl alcohol Tert -Butyl alcohol

OH CH2OH



Cyclopentyl alcohol
Benzyl alcohol


EF
-OH J
olEeF
W

CH3OH CH3CH2OH
Methanol Ethanol

OH J

- -


W

CH3CH2CH2OH CH3CH2CH2CH-CH3

OH
1-Propanol 2-Pentanol
C2 H5

OH
CH CH2CHCH2CHCH3
3
Cyclohexanol OH
4-Ethyl-2-hexanol

C H2CH2 Br

CH CH2CH2CH CH2OH
3
2-(2-Bromo ethyl)-1-Pentanol

J


K

CH2CH3

CH2 = CH-CH-CH-CH3 CH3CH-C = CH2

OH CH3 OH
4-Methyl -1-penten-3-ol 3-Ethyl-3-buten-2-ol

- -


OH
CH C-CH-CH3

OH
3-Butyn-2-ol
CH3

4-methyl-2-cyclohexenol

oltetra,tri,di J
K
CH2-CH2 CH2 -CH -CH2

OH OH OH OH OH
1, 2-Ethanediol 1, 2, 3-Propantriol
Ethylene glycol Glycerol or glycerene

W

OH

OH OH OH
W

Br
Phenol m-Bromophenol
NH2

OH p-Aminophenol
COOH OH

o-Hydroxy benzoic acid

( Salicylic acid)
OH
Hydroquinone
- -


W


K
KEF

R Ar
O O
O O
R H H Ar H H





K
Ethanol Propane
L
L J




K

R

H
O O
O
R H H H

- -


Ethers W8-9
W
R1-RR-O-R1
WK
R1R
K
W

Ether
K
CH3OCH3 CH3CH2OCH2CH3 CH3OCH2CH3
Methyl ether Ethyl ether Ethyl methyl ether

O CH3 O

Methyl phenyl ether

(Anizole) Phenyl ether

-O-R(IUPAC)
REAlkoxyF
WREAryloxyF

CH3CH2CHCH3
OCH CH Br
2 3 OCH2CH
3
OCH3
2-Methoxy butane Ethoxy cyclohexane P-Bromophenoxy ethane

- -


(oxa)
K
W

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
CH2-O-CH2-CH2-O-CH2-CH2-O-CH3

Cl
1- Chloro-2, 5, 8 trioxanonane

W

O
O

CH2 CH O O
2
O O


Oxirane
oxetane Oxlane Oxane 1,4-Dioxane
epoxide
Tetrahydro
Ethylene Trimethylene Tetrahydro
furan 1,4-Dioxacyclohexane
oxide oxide pyran
(THF)

- -


W

K

K


W
R
O H
R O R
H O
R
W

Ethanol CH3CH2OH
J Methyl ether CH3OCH3
J Propane CH3CH2CH3

W
F
E
K

EPeroxideFEF
K

- -


FeSO4
Fe+++
W

Fe (SCN )3

Peroxide + Fe + + + scn

W
F J
E
K J
K J

- -


Aldehydes and KetonesW9-9

O C

K
RR(Ar)-C-H W
R1, R
O
(Ar)
R C R
K
W
KIUPAC

J
Fic acid
K(aldehyde)E

O
Formic acid
H C H
Formaldehyde

CH 3 C
Acetic acid
H
Acetaldehyde

KEC-C-C-C=OF
CH2CH3 O W

CH3 CH CH C H
B

CH3
, - Dimethylvaleraldehyde

- -


J
F
WKetoneE

O O

CH3-C-CH3 CH3-C-CH (CH3)2

Dimethyl ketone methyl isopropyl ketone
(Acetone)
phenone
E-oic acidF-ic acidphenyl
W

O O

C CH3 C

Acetophenone Benzophenone

W
J
-al-e
KK
K
W

O CH3
O

CH3 C H CH3 C CH2 C H
Ethanol 3-Methyl butanal


- -


O O

C H
C H
CH 3
Benzaldehyde
p-tolualdehyde

-eEJ F-one
K
IUPAC
K
O O O

CH3 C CH3 CH2 CH C CH3

Propanone 3-buten-2-one
Cyclopentanone

W

+
KE C = O F

K
- -


K

O
C O H H

W

KEF(Formalin)
K

- -


Carboxylic acids and their derivatives :10-9

W
E-COOHF
EC = O FK
KE-OHF
K
W
WJ

WK

Formica Formic acid
HCOOH
K
Acetum
Acetic acid
CH3COOH
K
Butyrum Butyric acid
CH3(CH2)2COOH
K


.. ,
,

- -


CH3 CH3

CH3 CH CH COOH

2,3-Dimethylbutanoic acid

, -Dimethylbutyric acid

WIUPACJ
eoic acid
K

W
O Br

CH3 C OH CH3 CH COOH

Ethanoic acid 2-Bromopropanoic acid
(Acetic acid)

COOH

CH3

CH3 C CHCOOH
Cyclohexane
3-Methyl-2-butenoic acid Carboxylic aci

- -


WJ
WKJ
COOH OH CH3
COOH

Benzoic acid Salicylic acid COOH

P-Toluic acid

K
WJ

COOH
COOH COOH
COOH
CH2
COOH (CH2)4 COOH
CH2
CH2
COOH COOH
COOH
COOH

Oxalic acid Malonic acid Succinic acid Adipic acid Phthalic acid

- -


(Fatty acids)J
K
W

CH3 (CH2)14COOH CH3 (CH2)16COOH

Palmitic acid Stearic acid

W




WK
L= HCOOH Formic acid
L=C2H5OH Ethanol

K
W
(-OH)
-NH2, Cl-, RCOO-, -OR


W

- -


O
O
CH 3-C-Cl Acetyl chloride
R-C-X

O
O
CH 3-C-OC 2H5 Ethyl acetate
R-C-OR

O
O
C NH2
R-C-NH 2
Benzamide

O O
O O
CH3 C O C CH3 Acetanhydride
R-C-O-C-R

O
_ O
+
CH3 C O Na Sodium acetate
- +
R-C-O M

- -


W
Acid halides J
-yl halide-ic acid
W
O O

CH3-C-OH CH3-C-Cl
Acetic acid Acetyl chloride

EstersJ
-ate-ic acid
KEF
O O W

CH3 C-OH CH3-C-OC2H5

Acetic acid Ethyl acetate

amidsJ
amide-oic acid

O O

CH3CH2C-OH CH3CH2C-NH3
Propanoic acid Propanamide

- -


Acid anhydrides J
anhydrideacid
O O O

C OH C O C

Benzoic acid Benzoic anhydride

Acid salts J

OO K

CH3-C-OH CH3-C-O- NH4+

Acetic acid Ammonium acetate

- -


W



EFK
K

K

-
O O

..
R C NH 2 R C = NH 2

C
.. +
R NH2



K

- -


Amines:11-9
W
EF
KEFEF
KEF
KRR3N, R2NH, RNH2


EF
K
W
W
W
30 20 10

(C2H5)3N (CH3)2NH CH3NH2

Triethylamine Dimethylamine Methylamine

N NHCH3 NH2

Pyridine N-Methyl aniline Aniline

- -


W
J
amine
W

CH3 CH3

CH3NH2 CH3-NH CH3-N-CH3

Methyl amine (10) Dimethyl amine (20) Trimethyl amine(30)
CH3

CH3CH2CH NH3 CH3CH2-N-CH3

Sec-Butyl amine (10 ) Ethyldimethyl amine (30 )

W

NH2 NH2 NH(CH3 )
Cl Cl
NO3

Cl

O-Nitroanilhne 2,4,6-Trichloroaniline N-Methyl aniline

P-ToluidineToluidineAminotoluene

CH3 NH2 P-Toluidine

- -


N
N
N N N
H
H
H
Pyrrolidine Quinoline
Pipyridine Pyridine Pyrrole

J
IUPAC
Amino

W
CH3 CH3 CH CH2 CH CH3
CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH CH3 NH2
NH2

5-Methyl -3-aminohexane
2-Amino-4-phenylpentane

H2N CH2 CH2 CH2 COOH CH3 CH NH CH2 CH3

CH2CH2CH2CH3
4-Aminobutanoic acid
2-(N-Ethyl amino)hexane

- -


COOH

NH2

P-Aminobenzoic acid

J
EAmmoniumFEAmineF
EAniliniumFEAnilineF
W
_
+
NH 3 Br
CH 3
+ _
CH 3 N CH 3 I

CH 3

Tetramethyl ammonium iodide Anilinium bromide

(C2H5)2 NH,(CH3)3 (CH3)2 NH, CH3NH2EF

N,
J F
KE
EF
K

- -


K
EF





J Propane CH3CH2CH2
Ethyl amine CH3CH2NH2
Dimethyl amine CH3NHCH3
Ethyl alcohol CHCH2OH
Formic acid HCOOH

K9-1

KK

- -


W
W E
KEKEK E
KEKEKE
WIUPACE
CH3CH2CHCH=CH2ECH3CHCH2CHCH3E
CH3 CH3
NO3

ECH3CH2CCHE
Cl
O OH

CH3-C-HECH3CHCH3E

WE
K-EKE
KEKE
WE
K E
E

K
KE
KE

- -


- -


1. Whitten , etal , General Chemistry with Qualitative Analysis , 3rd ed.,

Saunders college publishing

K-- .

EF K

K

- -


W
:1-1
W2-1
W3-1
W4-1
W5-1
W6-1
W7-1
W8-1
W9-1
W1-9-1
W2-9-1
W10-1
W11-1
W1-11-1
W2-11-1
W3-11-1

W
W-
W-
W--
W3-2


W1-3-2
W2-3-2
EFW--
W4-3-2
W--
W6-3-2
W 4-2
W-
W--
W2-5-2
W3-5-2

W
W1-3
W2-3
W1-2-3
W2-2-3
W3-2-3
W3-3
W1-3-3
W2-3-3
W3-3-3
W4-3-3
W5-3-3

W


1-4
2-4
3-4
4-4
5-4
6-4

W
W-
W-
W-2-
W--
W--
W--
W--
W-
W1-3-5
W-3-5
W--
W-

W
W-
W--
W-
W-
W-
W--


--
W--
---

W
:1-7
:2-7
W3-7
W4-7
W5-7
W6-7
W7-7
W8-7
W7

W
W-
:2-8
W-
W4-8
W-
W-

W
:1-9
WW2-9
WJ


J
:3-9




:4-9


:5-9


:6-9






:7-9





W8-9


W9-9



:10-9






:11-9







EF

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