Grammar Reference UNIT 1 Introduction to auxiliary verbs There are three classes of verbs in English 1 The auxiliary verbs do, be, and have “These are used to form tenses, and to show forms such as questions and negatives. 2. Modal auxiliary verbs Must, can, should, might, will,and would are examples of modal auxiliary verbs. They help’ other verbs, but unlike do, be, and have, they have their own meanings. For example, must expresses obligation and car expresses ability (Sce Units 4,5, 8, and 8.) 3. Fall verbs These ar all the other verbs in the language, for example, play, run, haelp think, want, go, et. Do, be, and have can also be used as full verbs with their own meanings. do {do my washing on Saturdays. She does a lot of business in Eastern Europe. What do you do? = Whats your job? (The first dois an auxiliary; the second isa full verb.) be We are in class atthe moment. ‘They were at home yesterday want to be a teacher. have He has alot of problems ‘They have three children. Annoteon haveand have got “There are two forms of the verb have: haves a fall verb with dofdoes/did for questions, negatives, and short answers and have got ‘where have isan auxiliary. D> Workbook p8 More information on hare/have got B14 Tenses and ausiliary verbs When do, be and have are used as auxiliary verbs, they make different verb forms. do In the Present Simple and the Past Simple there is no auxiliary verb, so do, does, and did are used to make questions and negatives (except with be / have go). Where do you work? She doesn’t ike her job. What did you buy? We didn't buy anything. be 1 Be verb + ~ings used to make continuous verb forms. Continuous verb forms desribe activities in progress and temporary activities. He's washing hs hair. (Present Continuous) They were going o work. (Past Continuous) ve been learning English for two years (Present Perfect Continuous) dik tobe lying on the beac right now. (Continuous infinitive) 2 _Be+ past participle is used to form the passive. Paper is made from wood. (Present Simple passive) My car was stolen yesterday. (Past Simple passive) The house has been redecorated. (Present Peefect passive) ‘This homework needs to be done tonight. (Passive infinitive) ‘There isan introduction tothe passive on p137. have Have + past participle is used to make perfect verb forms. He has worked in seven diferent countries. (Present Perfect) She was erying because she had had some bad news. (Pat Perfect) Ta like to have met Napoleon, (Perfect infinitive) Perfect means ‘before so Present Perfect means "before now: (See Units 7 and 10.) Past Perfect means ‘before atime inthe past (See Unit 3.) (12 Negatives and auxiliary verbs “To make a negative add -n't to the auxiliary verb. If there is no auxiliary verb, use don’ vidoes didn’ itive Negative He's working. He isn’t working. vas thinking. Twasn'e thinking. ‘We've seen the play We haven't seen the play She works ina bank She doesn’t work in a bank. They ike skiing. They don’t like skiing He went on holiday. He didn’t go on holiday. It is possible to contract the auxiliaries be and have and use the ‘uncontracted not. -He’s not playing today. (= He isn’t playing today.) We're not going to lal afterall (= We aren't going to Italy...) [ve mot read that book ye. (= I haven’ read the book yet) But Tm not working. NOT tamait-working(p13 Questions and ausiliary verbs 1 To make a question, invert the subject and the auxiliary verb. If there is no auxiliary verb, use do/does/did Question Whar is she wearing? Why aren't you working? Where were you born? Has Peter been to China? Have you been studying? ‘She's wearing jeans. You aren’s working. You were born in Pris Peters been to China. We have been studying Low you. Dol know you? “He wants ice-cream. What does he want? ‘They didn’t go out Why didn’t they go out? 2 There is usually no do/doe/did in subject questions. Compare: Who wants icecream? What flavour ice-cream do you want? What happened 10 your eye? What did you do to your eye? Who broke the window? How did you break the window? (14 short answers and ausiliary verbs Short answers are very common in spoken English. If you just say Yes fr Nz it ean sound rude. We use short answers ater Yes/ No questions. To make a short answer, tepeat the auxiliary verb. In the Present and ast Simple, use do/does/did Short answer Are you coming with us? Yes, Lam. Have you had breakfast? No, Ihavent ‘Kate likes walking Mary didn’t phone. Don's forget to write. No, she doesn’t. She hates i Ys, she did. You were out No, I won’ UNIT 2 Dp 21 Present simple Form Positive and negative Question Fi Hi we | work we ‘You don’t work. se you They ‘Where they | live? He he she | mors does | she a oes worl A Short answer Do you lve in Bristol? Yes we do. Doct he have a car? No. edocs Use ‘The Present Simple is used to express: 1 an action that happens again and again (a habit), 1 go to work by car. She drinks ten cups of coffe a day wash my hair twice a week. 2. a fact that is always true. Ronaldo comes from Brazil Some birds fly south in winter. ‘My daughter has brown eyes. 3. a fact that is true for along time (a state). He works ina bank. T Five ina flat near the centre of town. I prefer coffe to tea Spelling of verb + -5 1 Most verbs add -sto the base form of the verb. wants eats helps drives [Add -erto verbs that end in -, sh, -ch -x and -0 Kisses washes watches fixes goes 3 Verbs that end in consonant + -ychange the -yto ies. carries flies worries tries But verbs that end in a vowel + -yonly add -. buys says plays enjoys DP Workbook p'4 Pronunciation of atthe end of word Adverbs of frequency 1 Weoften use adverbs of frequency with the Present Simple. 0% sox ——_—_——— 100 never rarely notoften sometines often usually always 2. They go before the main verb, but after the verb be. Compare: I usually start school at 9.00. They're usually ina hurry in the morning Tr not often late for school. He's never late. We're rarely at home atthe weekends, I don’t often go to bed late ‘She never eats meat rarely se Peter these days3 Sometimes and usualy can also go atthe beginning or the end. Sometimes we play cards. We play cards sometimes, Usually 1 go shopping with friends. 1 go shopping with friends usually. Never, always, rarely, and seldom cannot move in this way. NOT Never-go-tothemovies: Always-Thave tee in-the morning, 4 very day, etc, goes at the end, He phones me every night D> 2.2 Present Continuous Form Positive and negative Tim t ‘m not Hershett | S| eating, werourtbey |e Question am [i what |i" | hehe | doing? | te_| wervouthey Short answer [te tam ‘Areyougoingby taint | XS LAm Use ‘The Present Continuous is used to express: 1 an activity that is happening now. Don't turn the TV off. 'm watching it. You can’t speak to Lisa She's having a bath 2 an activity or situation that is true nove, but is not necessarily happening at the moment of speaking Don't take that book Jane's reading it. Pm doing a French evening lass this year. 3 atemporary activity. Peter i a student, but he’s working asa waiter during the holidays, Tm living with friends until I find a place of my own, 4 a planned future arrangement. Pm having lunch with Glenda tomorrow. We're meeting at 1.00 outside the restaurant. Spelling of verb + -ing 1 Most verbs ada ~ing to the base form of the verb. ‘going wearing visiting eating 2 Verbs that end in one -e lose the -e smoking coming hoping writing ‘Verbs that end in -ee don't drop an -e, agreving seeing Oiic ying 3. Verbs of one syllable, with one vowel and one consonant, double the consonant, stopping getting running planning jogging If the final consonant is -y or -n; it s not doubled, playing showing Pp 23 state verbs 1 There are certain groups of verbs that are usually only used inthe Present Simple, Ths is because their meanings are related to states or conditions that are facts and not activities. Tis isa feature of the use ofthe Present Simple. The groups of verbs a ‘Verbs of thinking and opinions believe think understand suppose expect. agree doubt — know remember forget mean imagine realize deserve prefer believe you Do you understand? know his face, but I forget his name. Verbs of emotions and feelings like love hate care hope wish want admit ike black coffee. Do you want to go out? Idon't care, Verbs of having and being belong own have possess contain cost seem appear need depend on weigh come from resemble This book belongs to Jane, How much does it cost? He has a lot of money. ‘Verbs of the senses look hear taste smell feel The food smells good. ‘We often use can when the subject isa person. Can you smell something burning? Lean hear someone crying 2. Some of these verbs can be used in the Present Continuous, but with a change of meaning. Inthe continuous, the verb expresses an activity, nota state. Compare: Tthink you're right. We're thinking of going tothe cinema, (opinion) (mental activity) He has alot of money. She's having a bad day. (possession) (activity) Tsee what you mean, Are you seeing Nigel tomorrow? (understand) (activity) ‘The soup tastes awful. I'm tasting the soup tose fit needs sal, (state) (activity)Introduction to the passive “The passive is dealt with in Units 2,3, nd 7. Form to be+ past participle “The tense ofthe verb 1 be changes to give different tenses in the pasive. Compare: A party is being held by the Patels next week, (Present Continuous passive) [My neighbour is invited to thei party every year. (Present Simple passive) He was invited last year, I wasn't. (Present Perfect pasive) A love to be invited 1 their party. (Passive infinitive) 1 Passive sentences move the focus from the subject tothe object of ative sentences Alfed Hitchcock directed Psycho in 1960. Paycho, one ofthe classic shrlers of al im, was directed by Alfred Hitcheok “The passive isnot just another way of expressing the same sentence in the ative ‘We choose the active othe passive depending on what we are more interested in, In the first sentence, we are mor interested in Alfred Hitchcock inthe second sentence, Psycho has moved tothe beginning ofthe sentence because we are more interested inthe film. 2 Byand the agent ae often omited in passive sentences if the agent ~ isnot known. (My apartment was robbed las night = isnot important This bridge was built in 1886. ~ is obvious vas fined £100 or speeding. 43 The passive is associated with an impersonal, formal style. Is often used in notices and announcements Customers are requested to refrain fom smoking Ithas been noticed that reference books have been removed from the library. 4 Informal language, we often use you, we, and they to refer to people in general or too person in particular. In this way, we ean avoid using the passive You ean buy stamps in lots of shops, not jus he pos offices, They're building « new department store in the city centre We speak English in this shop. © be careful! Many past participles are used as adjectives. Po very interested in modern at. We were extremely worried about you Tm exhausted! I've been working hard all day 0) 24 Present simple and Present Continuous passive Form Present Simple Passive Present Continuous Passive | amtislare + past participle ‘annlislare being + past participle is being mended. arebeing | Use The uses are the same in the passive as inthe active. My caris serviced every six months. (habit) Computers are used in all areas of life and work. (fact that is always true) Sorry about the mes. The house is being redecorated at the moment, (activity happening now) UNIT 3 Introduction to past tenses ‘We use different past tenses to focus on different moments and periods of time in the past. Look at the diagram, Read the sentences. When Andrea arrived at work at 9.00 a.m: 330 (500) 9301000 suena" Her secretary opened the post a Her secrevary was opening the post. Her secretary had opened the post. > 31 Past Simple Form The form of the Past Simple is the same for all persons. Positive 1 Helshern | finished | yesterday We let B13 odock You arrived | three weeks ago. They Negative T “T She | gige | finish | yesterday they | 44 | eave | at 3 o'clock. (ec) | Question Be | sis the epor | he’ | snish the report When | did | they | get married? | (ete) Short answer 7 | ses we did Did you enjoy the meak | Xe wedi Use The Past Simple is used to express: 1a finished action inthe past. We met in 2000 went to Manchester last week. John left two minutes ago 2. actions that follow each other ina story. Mary walked into the rom and stopped, She listened careful. She heard a nose coming from behind the curaan, She threw the curtain open, and then she saw3a past situation or habit. When I was.a child, we lived in a small house by the sea. Every day 1 ‘walked for miles on the beach with my dog. ‘This use is often expressed with used to, We used to live in a small house... used to walk for miles Spelling of verb + -ed 1 Most verbs add -ed to the base form of the verb. worked wanted helped 2. When the verb ends in -e,add - liked used hated cared 3. Ifthe verb has only one sjllabe, with one vowel + one consonant, double the consonant before adding -ed stopped planned robbed But we write cooked, seated, and moaned because there are two vowels. washed 4 The consonant i not doubled if tis played — showed 5 In most two-sylable verbs, the end consonant is doubled ifthe stress ison the second syllable. preferred —ad'mitted But we write ‘entered and ‘visited because the stress ison the first, syllable, {6 Verbs that end in a consonant + -y change the -y to -ied. carried hurried — buried But we write enjoyed, because it ends in a vowel + -y ‘yor, There are many common irregular vers. D> Irregular verbs pIS7 Past Simple and time expressions Look at the time expressions that are common with the Past Simple. lastnight. two days ago. yesterday morning, in 2001, when I was young Imet her p32 Past Continuous Form Positive and negative Question fr i Jie | was she | ‘She wasn't was he working, | | What it__| doing? We = You |" Pere ou | ern ee Short answer Wire you loking forme? Yes was/No ai Were they wniting outside? Yes, they were/No, they weren't Use We often use the Past Continuous in sentences with the Past Simple. The Past Continuous refers to longer, background activities, while the Past Simple refers to shorter, completed actions. The children were playing in the arden _ when their grandparents ‘arrived. ‘The Past Continuous is used: 1 to express activities in progress before, and probably after, a particular time inthe past. At? ocock this morning I was having my breakfast walked past your house last night. There was an auf ot of noise, Wat were you doing? for descriptions Jan looked beautiful. She was wearing a green cotton dress. Her ees ‘were shining inthe light ofthe candles that were burning nearby. 3 to express an interrupted past activity When the phone rang, I was having a shower. While we were playing tennis, it started to rain 4 to express an incomplete activity inthe past in order to contrast with the Past Simple that expresses a completed activity, 1 was reading a book during the flight. (I didn't finish it.) I watched a film during the fight. (the whole film) Note The Past Simple is usually used to express @ repeated past habit oF situation. But the Past Continuous can be used if the repeated habit becomes a longer setting for something. Compare: went out with Jack for ten years. I first met Harry while 1 was going out with Jack DP Workbook p20. More information on while, during and for Dp 33 Past Simple or Past Continuous? 1 Sometimes we can use the Past Simple or the Past Continuous. The Past Simple focuses on past actions as simple facts. The Past Continuous focuses on the duration of past situations and activities. Compare: AI didn't se you atthe party lastnight B No, I stayed ar home and watched football AL dide’'t see you at the party last night, B_ No, was watching football at home. 2. Questions in the Past Simple and Past Continuous refer to different time periods the Past Continuous asks about activities befor; the Past Simple asks about what happened after. When the war broke out, Peter was studying medicine at medical school. He decided that it was safer to go home to his parents and postpone his studies. What was Peter doing when the war broke out? Whar did Peter do when the war broke out? He was studyis He went home to huis parents.Dp 34 Past Perfect Perfect means ‘before} so Past Perfect rofes to an action in the past that was completed before another action inthe past. Form ‘The form of the Past Perfect isthe same forall persons. Positive and negative T You | ‘d had) | seen him before. We | hadn't | finished work at 6 o'lock, (ete) Question ee Wherehad | $96, | been before (ete.) Short answer | Nesshe had. Had he already left | NN had Use 1 The Past Perfct is used to make clear that one action in the past happened before another action inthe past. When I got home, I four that someone had broken into my apartment and had stolen my DVD player, so I called the police. AST eX ————>x > NOW 1 I 1 My VD player wassolen Laivadhome led he poice Acton I: Someone broke into muy apartment and stole ry DvD player. Acton 2:1 got home and called the police. 1 did't want to go to he theatre with my friends bonus Pd sen the play before. ‘ast > >» > now 1 1 saw the play My fiends aw the play Action 1: saw the play ‘Action 2: My friends went tothe theatre to see the play 2 Notice the difference between the following sentences: When I got to the party, Peter went home. ( First I arrived, then Peter left.) When I got tothe party, Peter had gone home. (= First Peter left, then T arrived.) [p35 Past tenses in the passive Form Past Simple Passive Past Continuous Passive Past Perfect Passive was/were + past participle waslwere being + past participle had been + past participle Use ‘The uses are the same in the passive as inthe active. ‘The bridge was built 1876. (Gnished action in the past) ‘The bomb was being defused when it exploded, (interrupted past activity) ‘The leer didn't arrive because it had been sent to my old address. (one action before another action in the past) ‘The modal verbs are cam, could, may, might, mus, will, would, should, ought to. They are known as modal auxiliary verbs because they ‘help’ another verb, (See also Units 1,5, 8,and 9.) ean swim. Do you think I should go? 1 There is no -sin the thied person singular. She can ski. He must be tired. — It might rain. 2 There is no do/does/don'/doesn't inthe question or negative. Whar should Ido? Can I help you? You mustn't steal! Hecan'tdance. won't bea minute 3. Modal auxiliary verbs are followed by the infinitive without to. The exception is ought to You must go. Tl help you. You ought to see a doctor. 4. They have no infinitives and no -ing forms. Other expressions are used instead, id love to be able to ski. Thate having to get up on cold, winter mornings 5. They don't usually have past forms. Instead, we can use them with perfect infnitives: You should have told me that you can’t swim. You might have drowned! (or we use other expressions: Thad to work hard in schoo. Note (Could is used with a past meaning to talk about a general ability. eould swim when Twas si. (= general ability) To talk about ability on one specific occasion, we use was able ro! managed t. ‘The prisoner was able to/managed to escape by climbing om tothe roof ofthe prison, NOT eovi-eseape Use 1 Modal verbs expres our attitudes, opinions, and judgements of| ‘events. Compare “Who's thar knocking on the door?” “Ws John? (This sa fact) “Whos that knocking om the door?” 1t could/may/might/must/should/can'/'l be John’ (These all express our attitude oF pinion.) 2 Each modal verb has at last two meanings. One use of ail of them is to express possibility or probability (See Unit 9 147.) 1 mast post his letter! (= obligation) You must be tre! (= deduction, probability) Could you help me? (= request) ‘We could go o Spain fo ou holiday. (= possibly) You may go home wow: (= peemission) ‘Where's Anna?” “Tm not ure. She may beat work (= possibilty)Modal verbs of obligation and permission Dp 41 have (got) to Form Positive and negative Tow! have wo Werthey | don't have to : work hard. Ty Helshe | doesnt have to Question Do have to work hard? | Use Have tis not a modal verb 1 Have to expresses strong obligation. It expresses a {general obligation based on a law or rule, or based on. the authority of another person. Its impersonal Children have to goto school until they are 16 (a law) ‘Mum says you have to clean your room before you go ‘out. (mother’s order) 2. Have got 1s common in British English but itis more informal than have to. TPve got to go now. See you! Don't go to bed late, We've got to get up early tomorrow: “Go and tidy your room. ‘Have I got 10?" “Yes, you have!” 3 Have to expresses a general repeated obligation always have to tell my parents where I'm going. Have got to expresses an obligation on one particular ve got to getup early tomorrow to catch a train. [p> can and be allowed to Form Affirmative and negative Tow | enkeat | areallowed to ead aren't allowed to ch | canjcan’t bs Hoishe | isallowed to [ ise allowed Question Can_| Tyourwe ete am [r ] Nees hinge ee wrong a if you beem arising, Yo could Your ust DRS Woildiodk p28 iivurter peti of mus ana He! gations i vergt=porar a. samthia someone wnt Use Can isa modal verb. Can and be allowed to express permission. Can is more informal and usually spoken. You cam borrow my bike, but you cart have the car. I need it. They ean’ come in ere with those muddy’shoes! You're allowed to get married when you're 16. Are we allowed to use a dictionary for this test? He isn’t allowed to park here. > 42 should, ought to, and must Form Should, ought to, and must ate modal verbs. should/shouldn’t Wou!We/They Meant ought of ought otto] work hard Use 1 Should and ought 10 express mild obligation, suggestions, or advice. They express ‘what, inthe speaker’ opinion, i the right or best thing to do. We often use them swith T hink/don’s think You're always asking me for money. I think you should spend les. You shouldn't sit 0 close tothe television! it’s bad for your eyes. You ought to be more careful with your money. Should Ushefwe .. 7 possible. We often use Do you think Should F try to eat les? ao you think I should se a doctor? 3. Mus like have 1, expresses strong obligation. Must expresses an obligation that involves the speaker's opinion. Its personal {must get my haircut. (This is me talking to me.) You must go and vist your grandmother. (A parent talking toa child.) 4 Must is also associated with a formal, written style. All visitors must show proper ID. (Sign in the lobby of an office building) ‘Books must be returned on or before the due date. (Instructions ina library) ‘have to and must, don't have to and mustn't 1 Have toand must ate sometimes interchangeable, must be home by midnight. I have to be home by midnight. But have tos used mote often than must. If you are unsure which to use, itis probably safer to use have to ‘Must I... ?is possible, bt question forms with have to are more common, Do Fhave to do what you say, or ean I do what I want? 3 Have tohas all forms; must does not Thad to work until midnight lastnight. (Past) You'll have to study hard when you go to colege. (Future) ‘She's a millionaire. She's never had to do any work. (Present Perfect) Thate having t get up om cold, winter mornings. (~ing form) Ifyou were a nurse, you would have to wear a uniform. (Infinitive) 4 Don't have to and must't are completly different. Don't have to expresses absence of obligation — you can but it isn't necessary Some people iro their socks, but you don’t have to. think it's waste of time. When anu. an into chon. son dew' have. to by, conmothine Vos ram inst lank fl ee We umn:(43 Making requests: can, could, will and would 1 There ate many ways of making request in English can Could help me, please? ral |Y°% | pass the sal, please Would ‘Would you mind helping me, please? Gn Could Do you mind fT open the window? ‘Would you mind if opened the window? speak to you, please? askyou a question? 1 Can, could, will, and would are all modal verbs. 2. Could is alittle more formal; car isa litle more familiar. Cul TF... 2and Could you ... Pare very useful because they can be used jn many different situations. 3 Here are some ways of responding to requests: A. Excuse me! Could you help me? B Sure Of course Well 'm afraid Pm a litle busy right now. |A Would you mina if {opened the window? B No, not at alk No, that’s fine. Well, I'm a litle cold, actualy. (> 44 Making offers: will and shall/should 1 Willan shail should are uscd to expres offers. They are both modal vets 2 The contracted form of wills used to express an intention, decison or offer made atthe moment of speaking Come over afer work. 1 cok dinner for you “its lan’ birthday today? It? buy he some flowers Give him your sutcte. HN cary itor you Don't worry abou catching the bus, Dave'l give you aif Give it hack or wel call the police! Tr many languages tis ide soften expresed by a present tense, but in English this is wrong. Ti give you my number. NOT Egive-yorsmy- ember Tiler) yoursuitcae.” NOT Fewneyyoursetense Other uses of willare dealt with in Unit 3 Shall / Should ..2s used in questions wit the fist person, Fand welt expresses an oer suggestion, ora request for advice ‘Shall I carry yur bag for you?" “Thats ery kind. Thank you? ‘Shall we go out fora mel tonight” "Mom ave 0" “What shall edo? We vet got any money’ “We could ask Da We us should to make an informal sugestion, What shoul we hve for disner? Whar should we do tonight? UNIT 5 Introduction to future forms “There is no future tense in English as there is in many European languages. However, English has several forms that can refer to the future. Three of these are will, going to, and the Present Continuous. Psee you later. (will) We're going to see a film tonight. Do you want ro come? (going to) Pm seeing the doctor tomorrow evening. (Present Continuous) The difference between them is not about near or distant future, oF about certainty, The speaker chooses a future form depending on how the speaker sees the future event. Is ita plan, a decision, an intention, an offer, prediction, of an arrangement? This is the important {question to ask when choosing a future form. There is more about this in Use below. Ip 51 witl/going to and the Present Continuous Positive and negative T T 4 He They wont | help you | Pmitm not watch TV tonight. She's/She isa't going 10 Wete/We aren't Tram not HesHe isn't You'e/You aren't catching the 10 o'clock train. Question [eilyon ‘What time ° eing te anage Note We avoid saying going to come or going to go We're coming tomorrow. When are you going home? Use Plans, decisions, and intentions (will and going to) will Willis used as a modal auxiliary verb to express a decision, intention, or offer made at the moment of speaking. We saw this use in Unit 4 (See 4.4.) Remember that you can’t use the present tense for this use Pi have the steak, please. NOT Hreveshe-sten PM se you tomorrow. Bye! NOT Hreeyoutomeron: Give me a call sometime, We'l go out for coffe. “Jeff there's someone atthe door?” ‘OK, 1M ger it?going to Going 10s used to express a future plan, decision, or intention made before the moment of speaking. When I grow up, 'm going to be « doctor. Jane and Peter are going to get married after they graduate We're going to paint this room blue Facts and predictions (will and going to) will ‘The most common use of willis as an auxiliary verb to show future time It expresses a future factor prediction. Its called the pure future ‘or the Future Simple, Well be away fortwo weeks. Those flowers wort grow under the tree I’ too dark (Our love will ast forever. You'll be sick if you eat al those sweets! Will for a prediction can be based more on an opinion than fac. 1 dont think Laura will do very wel in her exam. She doesn't do any work Tam convinced that inflation wil fall ro three percent next year going to Going to can also express a prediction, especially when itis based on a present fact. There is evidence now that something is certain to happen. ‘She's going to havea baby. (We can see she’s pregnant.) ‘Our iean is going to win the match (W's four-nil, and there are only five minutes lef to play.) It is’t going to rain today: (Look at that beautiful blue sky.) Note Sometimes there is no difference between willand going to. will un the country with its stupid Arrangements (Present Continuous) Te Present Continuous can be used to express a future arrangement between people It usually refers to the near future We're going out with Jeremy tonight. Pm having my hair cut tomorrow. What are we having for lunch? Think of the things you might put in your diary to remind you of what you are doing over the next few days and weeks. These are the kinds of events that are often expressed by the Present Continuous for the future, The verbs express some kind of activity or movement. Pim meeting Peter tonigh. ‘The Taylors are coming for dinner. Tm seeing the doctor in the morning. ‘This government Remember that you can’t use the present tense for this use. We're going to a party on Saturday night NOT Wege-toe-perty-onSotutdey-night: We're catching the 1 o'lock train. NOT Weesich-the 10-e'dede train: What are you doing this evening? NOT Whotderyoudethisevening? Sometimes thee is no difference hetween an agreed arrangement (Present Continuous) and an intention (going 1) Were going to get Wer cetge married in the spring. UNIT 6 Introduction to like Like can be a verb oF a preposition. Like as a verb can be followed by ~ing orto, sometimes with a change in meaning, like going out atthe weekend, (general enjoyment) 1 ike to sit in a hot bath and read. (habits and preferences) Like as aver’ has a person asthe subject: 1 like modern art 1 don’ Tike the way he looks at me Do you like fish? Would you lke a drink? Like asa preposition hasan object ater it She's wearing a hat like mine He's nothing like his father That sounds like the postman. You're behaving like children This new girlriend of his — whats she like? p61 What... like? What isfare/was/were... like? s used to ask about the permanent nature of people and things. It asks fora description or an impression ‘ora comparison, What’ vse health service like in your country? What are the new students Hike? @ Be carefull 1 With a description or an impression, we do not use like in the What's London like? It's quite big and is very interesting NOT #5 What's Amanda like? She's tll, attractive, and very funny. NOT She'iketell 2. With a comparison, we can use like inthe answer. Here, like means simular to / the same as. What's London like? Is like Drilngs Whats Amanda's daughter like? ‘She's just like Amanda, (= She's the same as...) ew York, but without the tall Wssimilar 00.) PP Workbook p39 Likeand as [p62 How... 1 How... ?is used to ask about the present condition of something that can change. How's work these days? 1s better tha last year How was the trafic this morning? It was worse than usual. ‘To ask about the weather, we can use both questions. eR ge [nie | Whats the weather like oe — I 2 How ... Pisalso used to ask about people's health and happiness. Compare: How's Peter? He's fine. What's Peter like? He’ ice guy. He's quite tal as dark hair 3 How ... Pisalso used to ask about people's reactions and feelings How's your meal? How's your new job?2 an experience that happened at some time in one’ life, The ation isin the pastand finished, but the efets ofthe ation are stil fet When the action happened is not important. ve been tothe United States (I til remember) Shes written poetry and children’s tories. in her writing caret) Have you ever had an operation? at any time in your ite up tonow) “low many times has he been marred? in bis if) The adverbs ever, never, and before are common with this use. Have you ever been to Australia? ve never tved bungee jumping. I havens ried sushi before. Questions and answers about definite mes are expressed inthe Past Simple. When did you goto the United States? Washer poetry published while she was alive? T broke my leg once, but I didn’ have to stay in the hospital, “He met his second wife in the dry cleaners a past action that has a present result. The actin is usually inthe recent past. The taxi hasnt arrived yet. (Wee sill waiting for it) What have you done to you ip? (t's bleeding.) We ofien announce news in the Present Perfect because the speaker ‘emphasizing the event asa present fat. Haye you heard? The Prime Minister has resigned. Susan’s had her baby! {Pve ruined the meal Details about definite time willbe in the Past Simple. She resigned becuse she lst a vote of no confidence. She had a baby boy this morning. I was afi birth 1 didn’ watch ie carefully enough The adverbs yet, already, and just are common with this use 1 haven't done my homework yet. (Negative) Has the postman been yet? (Question) ve already done ny homework ‘She’ just had some good news. @ Be careful with been and gone. He's been tothe United States. (experience ~ he isn't there now) She's gone to the United States. (present result ~ she’s there now) Dem Workbook p45 Further practice of been and gone Dp 72 Present Perfect or Past Simple? 1 The Present Perfect is for unfinished actions, The Past Simple is for ‘completed actions. Compare Present Perfect Past Simple ve lived in Texas for six years. I lved in Texas for sx years. (stl live there.) (Now I live somewhere else.) Pve written several books. (Lan sil write some more.) Shakespeare wrote 30 plays. (He can't write any more.) 2. We can see that the Present Perfect refers to indefinite time and the Past Simple refers to definite time by looking at the time expressions used with the different tenses. Present Perfect—indefinite Past Simple— definite for a long time. yesterday, A since July last week. Tedoneit | before two days ago. recently. did it | at 8 o'clock. I've already done it in 1987, Thaven't done it yet. whem T was young, fora long time. Be careful with this morningafternoon, ec. Have you een Ary this morning? (It's stl morning.) Did you see Amy thismorning? (It’s the afternoon or evening) Ip 73 Present Perfect Simple passive Form hhashhave been + past participle u has been sold. They _ | have been Use TThe uses are the same in the passive as inthe active Two million cars have been produced so far this year. (unfinished past) Has she ever been made redundant? (past experience) “Have you heard? Tivo hundred homes have been washed away by a tidal wave!” (present importance) Ip 74 Phrasal verbs ‘There are four types of phrasal verbs. Types 1, 2, and 3 can be literal or idiomatic. Type 4 are nearly always idiomatic, Type Verb + particle (no object) 4 He put on kis coat ond went ont bb Ididn’t put enough wood on the fire and it went out, Ina, the verb and particle are use literally In b they are used idiomatically. Go our means stop burning. Examples with literal meaning: Sit down, She stood up and walked out, Please go away. She walked right past rhe store without noticing it Examples with idiomatic meaning: ‘The marriage didn’t work out, (= succeed) Our plans fll through. (= fail) Type2 Verb + particle + object (separable) a [put up the picture. bb Iput up my sister for the night. Ima, the verb and particle are usd literally. In b, they are used idiomatically. Put up means give someone food and a place to sleep, usualy forthe night or a few days ‘Type 2 phrasal verhs are separable, The abject (noun or pronoun) can come between the verb and the particle I put up the picture. I put up my sister, I put the picture up. put my sister up.If the object is pronoun, it aways comes between the verb and the partie Ipucit up. NOT Hpatupit Tputherup. NOT. Fputupher: Examples witha literal meaning The waiter took away the plates. Dont throw it away. They're palling that old building down Examples with a idiomatic meaning 1 put off the meeting (= postpone) Don't let me down. (= disappoint) Types ‘Ver particle + obj (inseparable) 2 She came cross the ro 1 Shecame ars an ol end while sh ws ou shopping Ina, the verb and patil ae used itera. ny they are used idomatizally, Come aos means ind by accident “ype phrasal vers are inseparable, The object (n0un or promos) always comes tere partie NOT Shecameemolt-fiend-eersn or Shecameher sero: Examples with literal meaning Im loking for fave Thyra crn ther Weare past hen Examples with an idiomatic meaning [ook afer it for you (= cre or) She takes after eater. (= esenbe in features bil character, oF disposition Heneve gt ove te dof i wife (ees fom) ‘Typed ‘Verb + particle + particle get along very well with my bos. Tt looking forward to it How can you put up with that noise? “Type 4 phrasal verbs are nesely always idiomatic, The object cannot change position. It cannot come before the partiles or between the particles NOT Emlooking forward itte: UNIT 8 Introduction to conditionals ‘There are many different ways of making sentences with if tis important to understand the difference between sentences that express real possibilities, and those that express unreal situations, Real pos If trains, we'll stay home, (if Present Simple + will) If you've finished your work, you can go home. (if Present Perfect + modal auxiliary verb) If you're feeling ill, go home and get into bed. (if Present Continuous + imperative) Unreal situations You would understand me better if you came from my country. (would + if + Past Simple) If Twere rich, I wouldn't have any problems. (if were+ would) If T stopped smoking, I could run faster (if Past Simple + modal auxiliary verb) Thete are several paticens that you need to know to understand the variations. Note that a comma is usual when the ifclause comes first. > 81 First conditional Form if Present Simple + will Positive If find your wales, Il et you know. Well come and sce you on Sunday ifthe weather's good. Negative You won't pass the test if you don’ study. I you lose your ticket, you won't be able 1 go. Question What will you do if you don’t find a job? If there isn’t a hotel, where will you stay? Note that we do not usually use willin the ifelause. NOT it you-wilhleove-now-you!lLestch the tain. TTI go mettonight Ht givesnee cel Ian be replaced by unles (= if... not) or dn case (= because of the possiblity.) Unless 1 hear from you, Fl come at 8.00. take my umbrella im ease it rains Use 1 Fiest conditional sentences express a possible condition and its probable resalt i the fate Condition (ifelause) If find a jumper in your size, Ifyou can do the homework, Ifyou cr find my purse, Tight buy you an ice-cream: Iyouve never ben 1 Whles, you should try to go there oe day. 2. We can use the first conditional to expres different functions all of ‘which express a posible condition and a probable result), Ifyou do tha again, il you! (a teat) Careful Ifyou touch tha, youl burn yousl? (a warning) Tl post he leterif you like. (an offs) Ifyou lend me £100, I'l Tove you forever. (a promise) Result (result clause) Pl buy'it for you. ‘give me acaDp 22 Time clauses Conjunctions of time (when, as soon as, before, until afer) are not usually followed by will We use a present tense even though the time reference is future T'llcall you when I get home. ‘As soon as dinner is ready, ll give you «call Can I have a word with you before Igo? Wait until I come back ‘We can use the Present Perfect fit is important to show that the action in the time clause is finished, When I've read the book, lend it to you T'l|go home after I've done the shopping. (> 83 Zero conditional Zero coniitional sentences refer ‘al tme? ot just the present or future. Tey express a situation thats abways tux Ifmeans wher or whenever Uf ou spend over £50 at tha supermarket you ge fie per cent Dp 24 Second conditional Form if + Past Simple + would Positive If won some money, I'd go around the world [My father would kill me if he could see me now. Negative give up my jb if ld’ ike it If Tsaw a ghost, I would’ talk to it Question What would you do if you saw someone shoplifting? 1f you needed help, who would you ask? [Note that was can change to were in the condition claus, if the wouldn't have to work, T wererich, | 1. Use 1 Weuse the second conditional to express an unreal situation and its probable result. The situation or condition is improbable, impossible, imaginary, or contrary to known facts. [fT were the president of my country, i increase tases. (But it's not very likly that Iwill ever be the president.) If my mother was still alive, she'd be very proud. (But she’s dead.) 1 Ted needed money, I'd lend itt him, (But he doesn't need it) 2 Other model verbs are possible inthe result clause. eould buy some new clothes if Thad some money. If Tsaved a litle every week, I might be abe 1 save up for a car 1 you wanted that job, you'd have to apply very soon. 3. If Lwere you Td... is used to give advice. If Twere you, Pa apologize to her. Ta take it easy for a while if Twere you Dp 25 First or second conditional? Both conditionals refer to the present and future, The difference is about probability, not time. It is usually clear which conditional to use. First conditional sentences are real and possible; second conditional sentences express situations that will probably never happen, If lose my job, TI... (My company is doing badly. There isa strong possibilty of being made redundant.) If Lost my job, 17d... (1 probably won't lose my job. Pm just speculating.) I there isa nuclear war, we'l all... (Said by a pessimist.) If there was a nuclear war, .. (But 1 don’ think it will happen.) would Notice the use of would in the following sentences: ‘She'd look beter with shorter har. (= If she cut her hair, she'd look better) ‘would to express preference Ta lovea cup of coffe Where would you lke to sit? Td rather have cafe, please. Ta rather not tell you, if that’s allright. What would you rather do, stay in or go out? would to express a request Would you open the coor for me? Would you mind lending me a hand?UNIT 10 Continuous forms Remember, the following ideas are expressed by all ‘continuous forms: 1 activity in progress Be quiet! I'm thinking, Twas having a shower when the phone rang. ve been working since 9 o'clock this morning. 2 temporary activity, We're staying with friends until we find a place of our We've been living with them for six weeks 3. possibly incomplete activity, Pm writing a report. Ihave to finish it by tomorrows Who's been eating my sandwich? Dem Workbook p63. Further practice of simple and continuous forms Ip 101 Present Perfect Continuous a ‘They been working, ‘She boat Question ee cae ee = Te | ; a We use the Present Perfect Continuous to express: 1am activity that began in the past and is continuing now. ve been studying English for three years, How long have you been working here? Sometimes there is no difference between the simple and the continuous. ve played Pve been playing the piano since I was a boy. If the continuous is possible, English has a preference for using it. ‘The continuous can sometimes express a temporary activity and the simple a permanent state, ve been living inthis house for the past few months. (temporary) ve lived here all my life. (permanent) Remember that state verbs rarely take the continuous form (see 23 p136) ve had this book forages. Tre always loved sunny days, 2 a past activity that has caused a present result ve been working all day (I'm tired now.) ‘Have you been crying? (Your eyes are red.) Roger's been cutting the gras, (can smell it) ‘The past activity might be finished or it might not. The context usvally makes this clear “Look out of the window! I's been snowing! (It has topped snowing now.) Pve been writing this book fortwo yeas. (It sil isnt finished.) Tm covered in paint because I've been decorating the bathroom. (It might be finished or it might not. We don't know.) > 10.2 Present Perfect Simple or Continuous? 1 The simple expresses a complete action. ve painted the kitchen, and now I'm doing the baroor ‘The continuous expresses an activity over a petiod and things that happened ding the activity {ve got paint in my hair because Pve been decorating Because the simple expresses a completed action, we us it if the sentence gives a number or quantity: Here, the continuous isn't possible ve been reading al day: ve read ten chapters. ‘She's been eating ever since she arrived. Shes eaten tn biscuits already. 2 Some verbs con't have the idea of a longtime, for example, fd star, by, dig lose, break; stop. These verbs are mare usualy found inthe simple. Somme verbs have the idea of a long time for example, wait, work play, try, learn rain. These verbs ae often found inthe continuous I've cut my finger. (One short action.) ‘Pve been cutting firewood (Perhaps over several hous.) Dp 103 Time expressions Here are some time expressions often found with certain tenses Past Simple lived in Ching forse years 1 ack two days ago They met during the war. ‘She got marred while she was at univers Present Perfect Weve been marred for ten years They've been living here since Jane She has’ been working since their baby was born. ature Were gong on vocation for afew days. The lass ends in 20 minutes Tile home ina half an hour. Prepositions with dates, months, years et. September — 7 ck 1s Monday morning the end of May in | summer on | 8 August at | Christmas tre holdas Selon Christmas Day dante | the 20th centuryUNIT II Question words Look at the questions. Notice that What, Which, and Whose can combine with a noun and How can combine with an adjective or an adverb What kind of music do you lke? What size shoe do you wear? What colour are your eyes? Which pen do you want? Which way is it 0 the station? Whose book i this? How much do you weigh? How many brothers and sisters do you have? How many times have you been om a plane? How much homework do you get every night? How tall are you? How often do you go tothe dentist? How long docs it take you to get to school? [p11 Indirect questions 1 Indirect questions have the same word order as the positive and there is no lo/doesiid, [om lives] in California Do you know where [Tom lives}? NOT Bergeseknemewhere doer Fomine! 2. Weoften make direct questions into indirect questions to make them sound ‘softer’ or more polite. Direct quest What time do the banks close? Indirect question Could you tell me Do you know ‘Do you happen to know Have you any idea Do you remember Would you mind telling me | If there is no question word, use ifor whether. don't know if Tm coming or not wonder whether it’s going to rain. what time the banks close? Here are some more expressions that introduce indirect questions Idon't know Twonder Tean't remember ve no idea Ta lke to know Tm nor sure p12 Question tags Form how long the journey takes. 1 Question tags are very common in spoken English, The most ‘common patterns ae: positive semtence ~ negative tag You're Jenny, arent you? ‘or negative sentence ~ positive tag Ie isn't avery nice day, is it? We repeat the auxiliary verb in the tag. If there is no auxiliary, use doldoes/did. You haven't been here before, have you? You can speak French, can’t you? We should take the dog out, shouldn't we? Banks close at four, don't they? She eats meat, doesn’t she? You went to bed lat, didn't you? Note For negative question tags with I'm..., use aren’ Pm late aren't NOT Emrdaterenvett But, Pm not late,am I? NOT Fnrnotiateraren't 3. Notice the meaning of Yesand No in answer to question tags. “You're coming, arent you?” ‘Yes*(= Lam coming.) ‘No?(=Pmnot coming.) Use ‘We use question tags to keep a conversation going by involving listeners and inviting them to participate. ‘The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it. ‘A question tag with rising intonation is lke areal question — it is asking for confirmation. It means‘T’m not sure, so I'm. checking? The speaker thinks he/she knows the answer, but isa't absolutely certain, Your name's Abigail, isn't it? Youre in advertising anor you? You workin the city, don't you? ‘A question tag with falling intonation isn’t really a question at all — it isa way of making conversation. It means Talk to me: The speaker expects people to agree with hiner, Beautiful day, isnt? {ts wonderful weather fr swimming ist? That was a great concert, wasn't? You haven’s been here before, have you? Note We can also use question tags with negative sentences to make a polite request for information or help. — You couldn't lend me your car this evening, could you?