CHAPTER 5 DIRECT EFFECTS PROTECTION 5.1 Introduction Successful protection of an aircraft against the direct effects of lightning depends upon protection of each ofits various systems or components that may be susceptible either to direct lightning attachment or to eurrent flow between lightning attachment (entry and exit) points. Components located in different sections of the aircraft are likely to experience different degrees of susceptibility fo lightning, and they may be vulnerable to different components of the lightning flush. In this chapter we present the basic steps which should be followed in establishing lightning protection by discussing the varieties of lightning susceptibility and the designing of suitable protective measures against are entty and current flow-through damage. We explain how the lightning-strike zones and lightning current environments are established, since environmental conditions in the zones are those under which specific protective measures must perform, We then call attention to those airworthiness regulations which apply to lightning protection. In subsequent chapters we present specific protection techniques for aircraft fuel and structural systems exposed to the direct effects of lightning strikes. 2 Basic Steps in Protection Design $.2.1 Establishment of the Lightning Susceptibility Design of successful protection usually involves taking the Following basic steps. As described in Chapter I, lightning strikes commonly attach to an aircraft nose, wing tips, vertical fin tip, horizontal stabilizer tips, and 10 other appendages, such as propellers, pitot booms, antennas, or pylon-mounted external stores. These are the places where the hot lightning arc athaches deectly to the aircraft and thus the places of initial concern as far as direct effects are concerned. However, lightning currents must flow through the aircraft skin and structural members between these arc entry and exit points, and itis possible for ‘these currents to damage components along the way if safe conduction paths are not provided. Thus, the lightning protection designer's job is not completed when he has adequately treated only the attachment! points. Instead, he must also look throughout the aircraft at other components that might be vulnerable in one way or another to direct effects from current flow through the aircralt. ‘The susceptibility (degree of exposure to lightning effects) of components depends greatly on their location on or within the aircraft. Thus it ishelpful to utilize the lightningstrike zone definitions of Chapter 2 to establish the lightning environment which each particular component experiences. Once this has been established, the vulnerability (if any) of the component to its own environment toscan be determined, and protective measures designed if necessary. ‘The lightning attachment zone definitions proposed by SAE Special Task F (Refecence 5.1) are repeated below: Zone 1A: An initial attachment point with a low probability of Mash hhang-on, such as a leading edge Zone 1B: An initial attachment point with a high probability of fash hhang-on, such as a trailing edge Zone 2A: A sweptstroke zone with a low probability of flash hangon, such as a wing mid-span Zone 2B: A swept-stroke zone with high probability of flash hangon, such as a wing inboard trailing edge Locations of these zones can be determined either from comparison with actual lightning attachment points on existing aircraft or by laboratory tests in which a scale model of the aircraft is subjected to simulated lightning strikes. Perry (Reference 5.2) has shown the locations of actual lightning attachment points on several types of propeller and turbojet aircraft in use in the United Kingdom and Europe. His strike patterns for three aircraft are shown on Figures 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 (Reference 5.3), From these figures itis evident that initial attachment points (Zone 1A and IB) are at or very near the extremities, such as hose, wing tips, or empennage tips. If an initial attachment point is ata trailing ‘edge, the are must hang on there until the flash dies naturally; thus more damage may occut. On the other hand, if the initial attachment point is @ forward extremity, such as the nose, the aircraft can fly through the flash channel, allowing the arc to reattach at subsequent points along the line of flight, as evident from the lines of successive burn marks along the fuselage in the three figures. Thus, forward initial attachment points are commonly in Zone 1A and the subsequent burn marks in Zone 2A, Once in a while, the flash may remain attached to a forward-smost extremity or to a small protrusion, such as an antenna or even a rivet head along the fuselage. In such cases the attachment point becomes a BZone point with high probability of hangon. Since most lightning flashes persist for one-fourth of a second or more (up to about 1 second), the aircraft may move forward its entire length, or more, in this period ‘of time, and its entire length may be exposed to sweptlightning flashes. Its entire length must therefore be considered to be in Zone 2. Ifa new aircraft design is of the same general configuration (that is, relative position and size of fuselage, wings, empennage, etc.) the general location of its lightning attachment zones can be determined by comparison with Known attachment points on similar aiteraft. Knowledge of the exact Doundaries between one zone and another is important, however, and these boundaries must often be determined by a laboratory test in which a fullsize replica of the aircraft assembly in question (such as 8 wing tip or nose radome) is subjected to simulated lightning flashes from various directions. Knowledge of these zone boundaries is particularly important in designing protection for wing fuel tanks, for example. Recognizing that laboratory tests may not be practical, the Federal Aviation Administration in its advisory circular on protection of aircraft fuel systems against lightning defined Zone | as including “[a]Il surfaces, 106aC | ‘+ INDICATES PENETRATION OF METAL SKIN INDICATES BURN MARKS. * WITHOUT PENETRATION Figure 5.1. Position of lightning strikes on Viscount aircraft ~ March 1959 to Tune 1964, of the wing tips located within 18 inches of the tip measured parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft, and surfaces within 18 inches of the leading edge on wings having leading edge sweep angles of more than 45 degrees.” Also included are “[p] rojections such as engine nacelles, external fuel tanks, propeller disc, and fuselage nose”; in the tal group all surfaces “within 18 inches of the tips of horizontal and vertical stabilizer, trailing edge of horizontal stabilizer, tail cone, and any other protuberances,” as well as “[a] ny other projecting part which mighe constitute a point of direct stroke attachment.” FAA defines Zone 2 as including “[s]urfaces for which there is @ probability of strokes being swept rearward froma Zone ! point of direct stroke attachment, This zone includes surfaces which extend 18 inches laterally to each side of fore-and.aft lines passing through the Zone I forward projection points ff stroke attachment, All fuselage and nacelle surfaces, including 18 inches of adjacent surfaces, not defined as Zone 1 are included in Zone 2” (Reference 5), (FAA does not subdivide Zone 1 or Zone 2 into A and B zones as recommended by SAE Task F.) ‘Thus, the establishment of the lightning attachment zones for aircraft of conventional configuration is relatively straightforward and can be done with reasonable accuracy. Prediction of the lightning attachment zones for new aircraft of unconventional design is not as easily accomplished by reference to inflight data or to the FAA 18.inch criteria. Such an aicraft might look like the one in Figure 5.4 (Reference 5.5). The gradual blending of fuselage and wing lines makes identification of the regions of maximum electric field stress (and lightning attachment) less easy to distinguish. With the exception of the pointed 107SIDE ELEVATION ‘+ INDICATES PENETRATION (OF METAL SKIN © INDICATES BURN MARKS, WITHOUT PENETRATION Figure 5.2. Position of lightning strikes on Boeing 707 aircraft ~ January 1962 to December 1967. nose and vertical wing tips, the regions of highest electric field stress are Tess evident on this aircraft than on the conventional aircraft of Figures 5.1 through 5.3, Thus, in this case strike attachment tests on a scale model in a laboratory. are desirable. The SAE Task F report (Reference §.1) describes how this test should be performed. 5.2.2 Protection of Exposed Systems or Components in Zones 1 and 2 Against Arc Entry Damage ‘The most obvious protection task is to protect systems or components located in Zone 1 or Zone 2 from damage that results from direct arc attachment, In some cases, complete protection against burning and erosion is impractical, since the consequences of permitting some of this damage to occur are of a maintenance nature only. In other cases, such as those involving integral fuel tank skins, it is very important that complete protection be designed and applied. 108+ INDICATES PENETRATION (OF METAL SKIN INDICATES BURN MARKS 2 WITHOUT PENETRATION Figure 5.3 Position of lightning strikes on Trident aircraft ~ May 1964 to June 1968, Figure 5.4. Possible atcraft configuration of the future 2.3. Prov n of a Safe, Controlled Path for Lightning Currents Since the aircraft is part of the lightning current path between two extemal charge centers, lightning currents must flow through the airframe between attachment points. In most cases aluminum skins and structural elements provide an excellent conductive path without the need of additional provisions for lightning currents. Nonmetallic materials, however, such as fiber-reinforced plastics are finding increased use in newer aircraft. At present, 109use of these materials has been limited to outer wing tips or radomes, for example; therefore, in these cases additional conductive paths need only be added across or through the nonmetallic section. However, an aircraft made entirely of fiberglass has been fabricated. In this case positive steps must be taken to provide the necessary condueting path(s) for lightning currents to low through the entire aircraft. 5,3. The Lightning Environment as Related to Attachment Zones For guidance in the lightning protection design and qualification testing of aerospace vehicles and hardware, the Society of Automotive Engineers Com: mittee AE4, Special Task F, has formulated an idealized representation of the ccurtent components of a severe lightning flash. This representation incorporates the important aspects of both positive and negative flashes. Four current components, A, B, C, and D, represent the four current characteristics found in ‘most lightning flashes. These ate shown together on Figure 5.5 (Reference 5.6). ‘This model represents a very severe flash wherein intensities are exceeded less than 1% of the time, It may be used to define the environment that aircraft systems and components must withstand or against which they must be protected. At the present time, this model is not included in any government specification or standard dealing with lightning protection; however, the model Is expected to be incorporated into forthcoming revisions of most of these requitements. The lightning environment described in Figure 5.5 is equal in severity to the lightning currents which are described in present specifications, or greater than such currents. The model is also in general agreement with new Component A (itil Stroke) Pook amplitude "200 KA + 10% [Action integral 2x 10°A*- seconds 20% Time ration © 500 us Component D (retrke) Pook amplitude = 100KA ‘Sion TOA" “seconds 220% 0.25% Component € (Continving Corrent) Charge Tons = 200 Covlombs, 220% Amplitude = 200: 6004 Fsmormpasteststerd patton Figure 5.5 Current test waveform components for evaluation of direct effects lightning protection requirements being formulated in the United Kingdom and Furope (Reference 5.7) In order to design protection for a particular system or piece of hardware, its susceptibility to the various lightning current characteristics must be known, no.For this purpose SAE Task F has also defined the lightning current com: ponent(s) likely to strike the aircraft in each of the four lightning attachment zones. The resulls are shown on Table 5.1. Further references will be made to these Task F criteria during discussion of protection techaiques in succeeding chapters of this book. Table $.1_ LIGHTNING CURRENT COMPONENTS EXPERIENCED IN EACH ZONE A B c D Current Component First Return Intermediate Continuing Zone Stroke Stroke Current —_Restrike 1A: initial attachment x x point with low probability of fash hang-on 1B: initial attachment x x x x point with high probability of flash hang-on 2A: sweptstroke x xt x zone with low probability of flash hang-on. 2B: sweptstroke x x x zone with high probability of fash hang-on 3: low probability x x of direct attach: ment *Only if flash hangon time is greater than § ms 5.4 Applicable Airworthiness Regulations ‘There are 2 number of government alrworthiness regulations that apply specifically to aircraft lightning protection. These are applicable in the United States and other countries and generally must be complied with as part of the aircraft certification requirements. Table 5.2 lists the regulations presently in effect, These are concerned primarily with fuel system protection, since this system has presented the most serious hazard in the past. Other areas such as nonmetallic structures and aircraft electronics systems are of increasing concern, hhowever, and are beginning to appear in updated requirements. Applicable Portions of the regulations in Table 5.2 will be referred to and discussed in succeeding chapters. m1aniog tv sn. so10g VS. Axon "2ou0g sv S00 spiuay a0edg wosuyoy (¥SWN) wor aoedg pue sorneuoroy [e opus (vv4) uonenstunupy uoneiay erpeq s/n way jo adoq (vva) vonenstumpy uonetay [eiapog sn fousBy ~ Anunoy Ww prer'lse ero ‘reo vee Ww nd “18s'st sydesieseg “Runuayary sers2uy suouofivods 40g uorsoipiveds yun pins ‘dep -uounsyfoads ha swatsAs 2ondsoua¥ 40,f ‘uonse104g Sunaysr7 pur Suyusyar] swaisAs jane afeuoaly fo wo1v0s04g sounday &uoi9in9 wodsurss, “spappunis ssouryuomay pu. 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